Endocrine System

Physiology

Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University

Faculty of Medicine
2023 Spring Semester
Lecture outline

Chapter 11 Endocrine Glands (Secretion and Action of

Hormones)
11.1. Endocrine Glands and Hormones
Chemical Classification of Hormones
Prohormones and Prehormones
Common Aspects of Neural and Endocrine Regulation
Hormone Interactions
Effects of Hormone Concentrations on Tissue Response
Endocrine Glands and Hormones
Introduction
Endocrine Glands and Hormones
Introduction

Two types of endocrine organs exist:

1. Primary endocrine organs, whose 2. Secondary endocrine organs, for which

primary function is the secretion of the secretion of hormones occurs
hormones secondary to some other function
 hypothalamus,  heart,
 pituitary gland,  liver,
 pineal gland.  stomach,
 thyroid gland,  small intestine,
 parathyroid glands,  kidney, and
 thymus,  skin.
 adrenal glands,
 pancreas, and
 gonads (testes in the male and ovaries in the
female).
The placenta also functions as an endocrine gland in pregnant
females.
Endocrine Glands and Hormones
Introduction

Hormones are chemical messengers (biologically active

molecules) that are secreted into the blood.

Hormones affect the metabolism of their target organs and,

by this means, help regulate total body metabolism,
growth, and reproduction.
Chemical Classification of Hormones

Hormones secreted by different endocrine glands vary

widely in chemical structure.

Chemical categories of hormones include:

 amines;
 Polypeptides (or proteins);
 Glycoproteins;
 Steroids;
Chemical Classification of Hormones

1. Amines - hormones derived from the amino acids tyrosine and

tryptophan. They include the hormones of the adrenal medulla, thyroid,
and pineal glands.
2. Polypeptides and proteins – polypeptide hormones larger than
100 amino acids are proteins. Polypeptide include hormones ADH,
oxytocin, TRH and so on. Proteins include the hormones: growth
hormone, prolactine, insuline, glucagon an so on.
3. Glycoproteins - consist of a protein bound to one or more
carbohydrate groups. Examples are folliclestimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
4. Steroids - are derived from cholesterol and include
testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, cortisol and aldosteron.
Chemical Classification of Hormones

In terms of their actions in target cells, hormone molecules

can be divided into
 the hormones that are polar, and therefore water-soluble,
and
 the hormones that are nonpolar, and thus insoluble in
water. Because the nonpolar hormones are soluble in
lipids, they are often referred to as lipophilic hormones.

Unlike the polar hormones, which cannot pass through

plasma membranes, lipophilic hormones can gain entry
into their target cells.
Chemical Classification of Hormones
Prohormones and Prehormones

Hormone molecules that affect the metabolism of target

cells are often derived from less active “parent,” or
precursor, molecules.
The precursor - prohormone
For example, insulin is produced from proinsulin within the
beta cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas.
In some cases, the prohormone itself is derived from an
even larger precursor molecule;
In the case of insulin, this molecule is called preproinsulin.
Prohormones and Prehormones
 Common Aspects of Neural and
Endocrine Regulation

Regardless of whether a particular chemical is acting as a

neurotransmitter or as a hormone, there are some general
requirements in order for it to function in physiological
regulation:
1) target cells must have specific receptor proteins that
combine with the regulatory molecule;
2) the combination of the regulatory molecule with its
receptor proteins must cause a specific sequence of
changes in the target cells;
3) there must be a mechanism to turn off the action of the
regulator.
 Common Aspects of Neural and
Endocrine Regulation

This mechanism, which involves rapid removal and/or

chemical inactivation of the regulator molecules, is
essential because without an “off-switch” physiological
control would be impossible.
 Hormone Interactions

A given target tissue is usually responsive to a number of

different hormones.

The responsiveness of a target tissue to a particular

hormone is affected by the concentration of that
hormone, and also by the effects of other hormones on
that tissue.
 Hormone Interactions

Terms used to describe hormone interactions include:

 Synergistic (When two or more hormones work together
to produce a particular result),
 Permissive (when one hormone increases the activity
of the second hormone) and
 antagonistic.
Hormone Interactions:

Synergistic Effect

When two or more hormones work together to produce a

particular result, their effects are said to be synergistic.
These synergistic effects may be additive or
complementary.

The action of epinephrine and norepinephrine on the heart

is a good example of an additive effect.
Hormone Interactions:

Synergistic Effect

The ability of the mammary glands to produce and secrete

milk (in lactation) requires the synergistic action of many
hormones - estrogen, cortisol, prolactin, and oxytocin -
which have complementary actions.

That is, each of these hormones promotes a different

aspect of mammary gland function, so that their
cooperative effects are required for lactation.
Hormone Interactions:

Permissive Effect

A hormone is said to have a permissive effect on the action

of a second hormone when it enhances the
responsiveness of a target organ to the second hormone
, or when it increases the activity of the second
hormone.
Hormone Interactions:

Permissive Effect

For example,

 Prior exposure of the uterus to estradiol (the major

estrogen), induces the formation of receptor proteins for
progesterone, which improves the response of the uterus
when it is subsequently exposed to progesterone. Thus,
estradiol has a permissive effect on the responsiveness
of the uterus to progesterone.
Hormone Interactions:

Antagonistic Effects

In some situations, the actions of one hormone antagonize

the effects of another.
For example,
 the action of insulin and glucagon (two hormones from
the pancreatic islets) on adipose tissue; the formation of
fat is promoted by insulin, whereas glucagon promotes
fat breakdown.
 the high concentration of estrogen in the blood inhibits
the secretion and action of prolactin, so lactation during
pregnancy is inhibited.
 Effects of Hormone Concentrations on

Tissue Response
The concentration of hormones in the blood primarily
reflects the rate of secretion by the endocrine glands.
Hormones do not generally accumulate in the blood
because they are rapidly removed by target organs and
by the liver.
The half-life of a hormone - the time required for the
plasma concentration of a given amount of the hormone
to be reduced by half – ranges from minutes to hours for
most hormones (thyroid hormone, however, has a half-
life of several days).
 Effects of Hormone Concentrations on

Tissue Response
Each of the different hormones has its own
characteristic onset and duration of action.

Some hormones, like norepinephrine and epinephrine, are

secreted within seconds after the gland is stimulated
and may develop full action within another few seconds
to minutes.
On the other hand, the actions of other hormones, such as
thyroxine or growth hormone, may require months for full
effect.
 Effects of Hormone Concentrations on

Tissue Response

The effects of hormones are very dependent on

concentration.
Normal tissue responses are produced only when the
hormones are present within their normal, or
physiological, range of concentrations.
When some hormones are taken in abnormally high, or
pharmacological, concentrations (as when they are
taken as drugs), their effects may be different from those
produced by lower, more physiological, concentrations.
Effects of Hormone Concentrations

Priming Effects

Variations in hormone concentration within the normal,

physiological range can affect the responsiveness of
target cells.
This is due to the effects of polypeptide and glycoprotein
hormones on the number of their receptor proteins in
target cells.
Small amounts of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
secreted by the hypothalamus, for example, increase the
sensitivity of anterior pituitary cells to further GnRH
stimulation.
This is a priming effect, caused in large part by the
upregulation of receptors.
Effects of Hormone Concentrations

Desensitization and Downregulation

Prolonged exposure to high concentrations of polypeptide

hormones has been found to desensitize the target cells.

Subsequent exposure to the same concentration of the same

hormone thus produces less of a target tissue response.

This desensitization is partly due to the fact that high

concentrations of these hormones cause a decrease in
the number of receptor proteins in their target cells - a
phenomenon called downregulation.
 Effects of Hormone Concentrations

Desensitization and Downregulation

In order to prevent desensitization from occurring under

normal conditions, many polypeptide and glycoprotein
hormones are secreted in spurts rather than continuously.

This is called pulsatile secretion.

Reading material:

Stuart Ira Fox (2016). Human

Physiology, 14th edition

Chapter 11, pp. 317 - 322