Design Rules

Boiler Design Consideration Hints:

📌Boilers should be designed in compliance with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code - Section I Power
Boilers.

1- For Water Tube Boiler Safety Relief Valves:

◾At least two safety valves located on the steam drum are necessary for almost all boilers. These valves should be
capable of relieving all the steam the boiler can produce without increasing the pressure by more than 6% above the
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP).
◾The pressure setting of the first valve should be at or below the MAWP, while the maximum set point of additional
valves is 3% above the MAWP.

◾At least one safety valve is required downstream the superheater and before the boiler main steam stop valve, and to
be set to open before the steam drum safety valves to ensure a continuous steam flow through the superheater to
prevent it from overheating and damage.
◾Also, according to the code, no valves should be installed between the safety valve and the boiler, or between the
safety valve and its discharge to the atmosphere.

📌2-For Boiler Steam drum:

◾Steam drum is mainly provided to separate steam from water. Boiler water in the steam will cause scaling of the
superheater and steam turbines.
◾Steam drum size is determined by the volume required to produce dry saturated steam containing no more than 0.1
ppm TDS and no more than 0.02 ppm silica.
◾Steam drum internals such as cyclone separators, baffles, and demister pads are used to minimize boiler water
carryover.

◾The feed water inlet must be baffled so that changes in BFW rate do not set up waves that affect level measurement.
◾Steam drum level shall be measured by 3 independent differential pressure type transmitters. Each transmitter
having a separate tap points. In addition, two externally mounted level switches directly connected to the drum for
high-high and ◾low-low drum level shutdown functions.
A low-low drum level will result in inadequate water supply to some tubes, which can result in tube overheating and
possible rupture. Low-low water level is specified at a minimum of 50 mm above the top of the highest downcomer
tubes to provide a minimum liquid holdup capacity sufficient for operating the boiler at its maximum continuous rate.

Design Rules 1
 📌3-For Boiler Mud drum:
◾Mud drum is also known as the lower drum or the water drum.
◾The size of the mud drum is determined by the residence time required for separation of sediment and impurities
from the water at the boiler maximum continuous rate (MCR) and circulation rate so that they do not deposit in the riser
tubes and to be removed by intermittent blowdown.
◾The mud drum is smaller than the steam drum.
◾Downcomer and riser tubes are rolled into the upper plate of the mud drum and so this plate must be thicker than the
rest shell of the drum.
◾Water drum act as a lower header for connection of the water tubes.

Design Rules 2
 📌4-For Boiler Burners:
◼The main functions of burners are:
◾To provide and mix the proper quantities of fuel and air so that a proper combustion is achieved.
◾To provide a stable flame.
◾To release heat in the desired pattern.
Failure of burners to perform any of these functions can lead to inefficient combustion and/or poor flame patterns. This
can lead to localized overheating and damage to furnace or boiler components. This damage can also cause a
premature shutdown due to failure of critical components such as tubes, tube supports, or the refractory lining.

◼It is necessary to be able to turn down steam production on a boiler from 110% of the boiler maximum continuous
rating (MCR) to 30% or even lower at times. This can be achieved by using specially designed high turndown (ratio
from maximum to minimum firing) burners or by shutting off some burners on a multiple burner boiler.
◼Burners can use a single fuel such as gas only, or oil only, or they can be dual-fuel and burn gas or oil or both
simultaneously.
◼Fuel gas flow through a burner tip is equivalent to flow through an orifice. The flow rate (and the corresponding firing
rate) is proportional to the square root of the fuel gas pressure. Thus, for a 5:1 burner turndown capability, the ratio of
maximum to minimum fuel gas pressure will be 25:1.
◼Burners are available in two general types:
1.Natural-draft burners are used in process furnaces.

Design Rules 3
 2.Forced-draft burners are used in all boilers and some furnaces. They rely on fans to supply the combustion air under
pressure. The kinetic energy of the airstream is used to achieve much more efficient mixing of the fuel and air than is
possible with natural-draft burners. As a result of this improved mixing, smaller flame volumes are obtained. Higher
burner capacities and lower excess air rates are possible. Thus, fewer forced-draft burners are required for the same
total heat release than would be required with natural-draft burners.
◼Burners consist of the following main components:
Air register: To reduce noise and control overall air flow to the furnace or boiler.

Fuel system: To deliver the fuel to the burner tips. The fuel passes through one or more openings in the tips, which
act as restriction orifices. The fuel is injected into, and mixes with, the airstream. Various types of burner tips are
used, depending upon the type of fuel and the flame pattern desired.

• Refractory burner tile: To stabilize combustion and shape the flame.

• Pilot burner: used for ignition of the main burner flame. In some burners, it also acts as a stabilizer for the main flame.
The pilot flame itself is usually ignited by an electric igniter. Pilots in furnace burners usually operate continuously,
while pilots in boilers are usually shut down after the main flame is ignited.

Design Rules 4
Design Rules 5
 📌5-For Boiler Blowdown Facilities:
🔻 The attached file is very informative in addition to the following notes:
◼All dissolved and suspended solids entering a boiler with the feedwater remain in the drums and tubes as steam is
generated. The continual addition of feedwater produces a higher concentration of solids in the boiler water. A point
can be reached beyond which operation is completely unsatisfactory. This situation may be caused by dissolved solids,
silica content, or alkalinity. Every boiler has a limit above which foaming and carryover occur. To keep boiler water
concentrations below this limit, remove some of the concentrated boiler water from the unit as blowdown.

◼ Flashing in the sewer should be avoided because of the personnel hazard. The intermittent blowdown drum may be
piped so that it can spare a continuous blowdown drum for maintenance.
◼Blowdown from high-pressure boilers may be flashed at several levels. For example, 600-psig blowdown may be
flashed at 125 psig, at 15 psig, and at atmospheric pressure. Drums are used as the flash vessels. Flashed steam is
recovered except for that steam flashed at atmospheric pressure.
◼The blowdown rate depends on the boiler feedwater quality, boiler pressure, and end user quality requirements. With
demineralized water, blowdown may be about 1% while with zeolite softened water, blowdown may be 5 to 10% of the
makeup water.
◼Because of the ease and reliability of measuring conductivity, conductivity is the primary parameter for controlling
continuous blowdown .
◼In ASME guidelines, the limits on which BD is controlled are total dissolved solids, silica, and alkalinity, all are related
to the amount of these materials coming in with the makeup water.
◼Silica, in addition to forming boiler deposits, can vaporize from the boiler and be carried with the saturated steam as
silicic acid. When the steam containing vaporous silica performs work and has
some of the superheat content reduced such as going through a turbine, the silica precipitates on the metal surfaces
causing deposits. This deposit will reduce the efficiency of the turbine and can result in an imbalance of the turbine
wheels. Additionally, unlike sodium based deposits that can be removed with water washing, the silica deposits are
very difficult to remove. Selective silica carryover is not a serious problem below 600 psig (4.1 MPag); however, it can
become a very serious problem as the pressure increases, particularly above a pressure of 1000 psig (6.9 MPag). Silica

Design Rules 6
 must be maintained less than 20 PPb in the steam (the typical maximum concentration allowed in the steam supplying
steam turbines).

Blowdown.pdf

📌6-For Boiler Downcomers and Risers:

🔸Natural circulation is caused by density differences in the fluid in the downcomer and riser tubes. A downcomer is a
tube in less heated area of the firebox. A riser is a tube in hotter section of the firebox. Evaporation takes place in the
risers and the steam/water mixture weighs less than the water in the downcomers. Proper baffle plates would be
necessary to avoid mix up of steam water mixture from risers section to downcomer section. To avoid flow induced
swirl at the downcomer inlet, Vortex breakers are used.
🔹Natural circulation also partially compensates for normal imbalances in the heat input to the boiler tubes. If one tube
receives more heat than adjacent tubes, it will generate more cooling flow.
🔸Circulation ratio is the ratio of the mass flow rate of circulating water to the rate of the steam generation. It
represents the number of times water flows around the evaporator section to be fully converted into steam. The ratio
varies from 4 to 30 for industrial boilers.
🔹Hot spots can develop in boiler riser tubes, if there is insufficient circulation (flow) to remove the heat flux in the
boiler. In some boilers at low loads, circulation is forced by pumping. However, forced circulation has a heat transfer
advantage of higher circulation rates, which avoids any hot spots that could be caused by inadequate circulation.

🔸The flue gas flow is typically pass through the riser tubes first, then the superheat tubes, the downcomer tubes and
finally through the economizer tubes.
🔹In addition to risers and downcomers, most water tube boilers have wall, floor, and roof tubes surrounding the
firebox. In addition to absorbing heat, these tubes cool the boiler enclosure and reduce the amount of refractory or
insulation required.
🔹The tubes and headers are sized to give a desired minimal pressure drop at MCR. A temporary overload of up to
(10%) is allowed for up to one hour per day. Exceeding the capacity limit can result in metal temperature higher than
design. These high metal temperatures may be the result of a high heat flux and/or flame impingement because the
burner design capacity was exceeded. Metal temperatures greater than design can result in sagging tubes and
possible tube rupture due to film boiling formation. When film boiling occurs. the entire surface of the metal is covered
with vapor. This vapor effectively insulates the metal from the water that is cooling the tube.
🔸All boiler pressure and heat transfer parts shall have a minimum of 1.5 mm corrosion allowance.

Design Rules 7
 📌7-For Boiler Economizer:
🔸Economizers are shell and tube HE installed in boilers to recover heat from hot flue gases and to raise the
temperature of the BFW to increase the overall boiler thermal efficiency.
🔹In addition to reducing fuel usage and emissions, an economizer, by pre-heating BFW, allows the boiler to more
rapidly respond to load changes.
🔸Economizers are designed to avoid steam production. Generating steam in economizer will promote scaling of the
water sides of the economizer and potential damage from water hammer as flow change.
🔹Economizers must be sized for the volume of flue gas, its temperature, the maximum pressure drop allowed through
the stack, what kind of fuel is used in the boiler, and how much energy needs to be recovered.
🔸The opposite direction of water and gas flows is the most suitable arrangement for the efficiency of heat transfer.
Moreover, arranging the water flow from the bottom up helps to reduce the dead spots created by possible steam
pockets. Economizer consist of straight tubes or finned tubes. It is the gas side that mainly determines the overall heat
transfer coefficient. In order to reduce this high thermal resistance on the gas side, fins are used. Finned tubes provide
great advantages especially in clean fuels. The thermal surface can be increased up to ten times for the same tube
length. The fins are produced in various structures and the most commonly used types are rectangular helical and
segmented blades. Segmented fins provide better heat transfer due to their high turbulence, but have a higher pressure
drops.
🔹When fuel is burned, water and carbon dioxide are the major products. When the fuel contains sulfur, SO2 and SO3
are formed. If the flue gases encounter metal, cool the flue gas to its dew point, SO2 and SO3 will combine with water
to form sulfurous and sulfuric acids. 5% of the sulfur in the fuel should be calculated as SO3 in the flue gas. Avoiding
metal temperatures below 300ºF is fairly safe. Minimum metal temperatures are experienced in the economizer and in
the stack. Economizers are designed to avoid the minimum metal temperature problem. The coolest economizer tube
metal temperature may be monitored.
🔸The corrosion resulting from condensation of sulfuric acid on metal surfaces is termed "cold-end corrosion"
because it generally affects the cooler regions of the combustion system. To eliminate the presence of corrosive
quantities of sulfur trioxide in flue gas it is necessary to operate the boiler at or below 5% excess air to the burners, to
minimize air infiltration, and to specify fuels with low sulfur content.

Design Rules 8
 📌8-For Boiler Stack:
🔹 Stack has two functions; to dissipate the flue gases gas to a safe location, and to provide draft to the boiler. The
stack contains low density high temperature flue gas, which results in a negative pressure called draft at the base of
the stack. A taller stack and/or hotter flue gas results in greater draft. A large draft in the stack minimizes the energy
required for the combustion air supply fan.
🔸 Stack temperatures can be as high as 390 to 500°F when high sulfur fuels are burned. For fuels low in sulfur, stack
temperatures can be considerably lower (300°F or less). Common stacks are often used for two and even more boilers.
Isolation is provided so that individual boilers can be removed from service for maintenance.
🔹 Stack effect is the difference in densities between the hot gases inside the furnace and the colder outside air.
🔸 When considering the design and selection of a boiler stack, factors should be taken into account including:
1) Regulatory Compliance: Understand and comply with local, regional, and national regulations regarding emissions,
stack height, noise limits, and other relevant factors.
2) Emissions Characteristics: Evaluate the emissions from the boiler, including pollutants like particulate matter, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide.
3) Stack Height Calculation: Conduct dispersion modeling to determine the required stack height for effective
pollutant dispersion and compliance with air quality standards.

4) Stack Diameter and Cross-sectional Area: based on the flow rate, exit velocity, and pressure losses.
5) Material Selection: Select materials for the stack construction that are resistant to flue gas corrosion and suitable
for the operating temperature. Common materials include stainless steel or corrosion-resistant alloys, depending on the
specific characteristics of the flue gas.
6) Structural Integrity: Design the stack structure to withstand wind loads, seismic activity, and thermal expansion.
7) Heat Recovery Opportunities: consider incorporating heat exchangers or economizers to recover heat for
preheating feedwater or other applications.
8) Access and Maintenance: Design the stack with appropriate access points, platforms, and ladders to facilitate safe
and convenient maintenance and inspections.
9) Noise Control: consider noise-reducing measures such as acoustic insulation, silencers, or baffles to minimize
noise impact.
10) Monitoring and Control Systems: Install monitoring equipment such as gas analyzers, flow meters, temperature
sensors, and pressure gauges to measure and record emissions and operational parameters. Implement a control
system for efficient operation and compliance monitoring.

Design Rules 9
 Why Boilers Fail?:
📌 Referencing chapter 11 in “Boiler Operator’s Handbook” book, Boiler failures are primarily attributed to incidents
rather than wear and tear. Most boilers can last for decades with proper maintenance, but incidents like low water
levels, thermal shock, and corrosion can cause significant damage.
🔹 Boiler failures may leading to property damage, injuries, and even fatalities. While modern control systems aim to
mitigate risks, understanding the root causes is crucial for prevention. Here's a breakdown of key factors contributing
to boiler failures:
1. Operating boiler with Low Water Level:
Cause: Water level drops below the safe operating level.
Consequences: Overheating, potential for explosion.
Prevention: Regular water level checks, functional low water cutoffs, and proper water treatment.
2. Thermal Shock:
Cause: Rapid temperature changes, especially when metal components are exposed to extreme heat followed by
sudden cold shock.
Consequences: Stress and cracking in metal, leading to failure.

Prevention: Gradual heating and cooling, proper purging procedures, and avoiding sudden changes in water flow.
3. Corrosion and Wear:
Cause: Improper water treatment, physical stresses of operation, and inaccessible areas prone to deterioration.
Consequences: Weakening of components, eventual failure.
Prevention: Regular inspections, maintenance, and appropriate water treatment to minimize corrosion.
4. Operator Error and Poor Maintenance:
Cause: Human negligence, lack of training, and inadequate maintenance practices.
Consequences: Malfunctioning equipment, unsafe operating conditions, and potential for catastrophic events.
Prevention: Proper training and licensing for operators, regular maintenance schedules, and a safety-first mindset.
🔸 Boiler failures are often a result of a combination of these factors. While some causes, like corrosion, may take time
to manifest, others, like low water or thermal shock, can lead to immediate and severe consequences. A proactive
approach to boiler operation, including regular inspections, proper maintenance, and competent operators, is essential
for preventing failures and ensuring safe and efficient operation.

Design Rules 10
 Mahmoud Badr, M.Sc, PMP® on LinkedIn: #boiler #utilityboiler #steamboiler #powerboiler #steamgeneration…
Why Boilers Fail?:📌 Referencing chapter 11 in “Boiler Operator’s Handbook” book, Boiler failures are primarily attributed to
incidents rather than wear and…
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Design Rules 11