Contents

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 2
• Laboratory equipment .................................................................................................................. 2
• Waveforms................................................................................................................................... 3
Experimental Work ............................................................................................................................... 7
List of Equipment and Components ................................................................................................. 7
Experimental Procedure.................................................................................................................... 7
Part I: Sinusoidal waveform................................................................................................................. 7
Part II: Square waveform ..................................................................................................................... 8
Part III: triangular waveform ............................................................................................................... 8
Results.................................................................................................................................................... 9
o Sinusoidal waveform.................................................................................................................... 9
o Square waveform ....................................................................................................................... 10
o Triangular waveform.................................................................................................................. 11
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Reference ............................................................................................................................................. 13

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Introduction
Theory
• Laboratory equipment
The two most essential pieces of electronic test equipment are the oscilloscope and function
generator (figure 1). Depending on the settings the operator enters, the function generator can
produce a variety of waveforms. Additionally, the oscilloscope can measure, compare, and display
many signal properties.
The most helpful instruments for testing an electrical circuit or constructing a prototype circuit and
the most crucial pieces of test equipment needed to build, debug, or examine an electronic circuit
are oscilloscopes and function generators. Oscilloscopes are used to examine the output signal
after function generators have produced the input signal.
o Function generator
Based on the input parameters, a function generator is a piece of electrical test equipment that can
produce any kind of waveform. Contemporary function generators are capable of generating
PWM, sine, square, triangle, and sawtooth waves. It is possible to manually adjust the wave's many
properties, including frequency, duty cycle, and peak-to-peak voltage. Multiple output channels
on a function generator allow for the simultaneous generation of various waveforms with various
characteristics.
o The Oscilloscope
A type of electrical test equipment called an oscilloscope plots electronic signal waveforms
visually in two dimensions. In addition, oscilloscopes are capable of measuring a signal's duty
cycle, peak-to-peak voltage, and frequency. Multiple waveforms can be shown concurrently on
different input channels of an oscilloscope. This makes it easier to compare various waveforms
and examine a circuit's input and output properties.

Figure 1: function generator and oscilloscope

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 • Waveforms
o Sinusoidal waveform
The basic form of alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage is known as a sinusoidal
waveform, or sine wave. Another name for it is a sinusoidal wave, or just a sinusoid. A sine wave
alternates between positive and negative values at zero, changing its polarity. As seen in figure 2,
the current changes direction in proportion to the polarity shift in the voltage.

Figure 2:Graph of one cycle of a sine wave

o Period of a sinusoidal waveform

The period (𝑻) is the amount of time needed for a sine wave to complete one full cycle (figure 3).

Figure 3: Period and measurements of a sinusoidal waveform

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 o Frequency of a sinusoidal waveform
The frequency increases with the number of cycles that are finished in a second as seen in
figure 4. The unit of measurement for frequency (𝑓) is hertz. One cycle per second is equal to
one hertz (Hz), where 𝑓 = 1/T.

Figure 4: frequency of a sinusoidal waveform

o Non-sinusoidal waveform
A pulse waveform with a 50% duty cycle is called a square waveform. As a result, the pulse width
is equivalent to half the period. Ramps with identical slopes on both the positive and negative axes
make up a triangle waveform. This waveform's period is calculated by going from one peak to the
subsequent peak that corresponds. These non-sinusoidal waveforms can be seen in figure 5.

Figure 5: square & ramp waveform

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 • Peak value
The voltage (or current) at either the positive or negative maximum (peak) with respect to zero is
the peak value of a sine wave. A sine wave has a single peak value because the magnitudes of the
positive and negative peak values are identical. The peak value (figure 6) of a particular sine wave
is always the same and is denoted by either 𝑉𝑝 or 𝐼𝑝. Amplitude is another name for the highest
value.

Figure 6: peak value

• Peak-to-Peak value
The voltage or current flowing from the positive peak to the negative peak of a sine wave is its
peak-to-peak value as seen in figure 7. Every time, it doubles the highest value. Values of voltage
or current from peak to peak are denoted by 𝑉𝑝𝑝 or 𝐼𝑝𝑝.

Figure 7:Peak-to-Peak value

• RMS (root-Mean-Square) value

The square root of the mean (or average) of the square of the periodic signal is known as the root-
mean-square, or rms value for short. RMS voltage is displayed by most AC voltmeters. The wall
outlet with 240 volts is a rms value. Another name for the rms value is the effective value.
The rms value for any periodic function 𝑥(𝑡) is provided by,

1 𝑇
𝑥𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

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The rms value for a sinusoidal waveform is.
𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = =
√2 2√2
The rms value for a square waveform is.
𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑝 =
2
The rms value for a ramp waveform is.
𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = =
√3 2√3
• Analysis of AC resistive Circuits
A sinusoidal current result from applying a sinusoidal voltage across a resistor. When the voltage
is zero, the current is zero, and when the voltage is greatest, the current is maximum. The current
reverses course when the voltage polarity shifts. The voltage and current are therefore said to be
in phase with one another. When applying Ohm's law to alternating current circuits, keep in mind
that the voltage and current must be stated in a consistent manner, i.e., as peak values, rms values,
and so on. Both DC and AC circuits are subject to Kirchhoff's voltage and current rules (figure 7).
As in a DC circuit, the source voltage is the total of all the voltage drops across the resistors.

Figure 8:KVL of a resistive circuit with sinusoidal source

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Experimental Work
List of Equipment and Components
The equipment and materials listed below were utilized to carry out the experiment:

• Function generator (FG)

• Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)
• Digital multimeter (DMM)
• Breadboard
• Discrete resistors
o 1x 1kΩ
o 1x 2kΩ
o 2x 10 kΩ

Experimental Procedure
There were 3 sections to the experiment. The first part covers the sinusoidal waveform, the
second part covers the square wave form and the final part covers the triangular waveform. The
same circuit is used for all parts.
First Connect the circuit shown in Figure 9 on the breadboard after choosing four resistors as per
the prelab instructions.

Figure 9: circuit diagram

Part I: Sinusoidal waveform

2. Assign the necessary voltage level to a 2 kHz sinusoidal waveform produced by the
Function Generator (FG).
3. Switch on the oscilloscope and load the preset configuration.
4. Attach the oscilloscope's channel 1 and channel 2 probes to the "𝐴" and "B" nodes,
respectively. Employ auto-scale.
5. As appropriate, adjust the vertical scale (voltage per division), vertical position,
horizontal scale (time per division), and horizontal scale.

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 6. Calculate the waveform's period (𝑇) and the node voltages 𝑉𝐴 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑉𝐵 𝑃𝑃

7. Measure 𝑉𝐵 𝑃𝑃 and show 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 using the Math function.

8. Measure𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑟𝑚𝑠 using the digital multimeter (DMM)'s ac voltmeter function.
9. To measure 𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝑟𝑚𝑠 , use the digital multimeter (DMM)'s ac ammeter function.
Part II: Square waveform
10. To create a square waveform with the same frequency and voltage level, modify the
source waveform from the Function Generator.
11. Go back to steps 6 through 9.
Part III: triangular waveform
12. Modify the Function Generator's source waveform such that it has the same frequency
and voltage level as a triangle.
13. Go back to steps 6 through 9.

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Results
This section provides a summary of the experiment's findings from both the simulation and the
real world. The OrCAD simulation and the waveform for every part is observed below.
o Sinusoidal waveform

Sinusoidal T(ms) 𝑉𝐴 𝑃𝑃 (V) 𝑉𝐵 𝑃𝑃 (V) 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝑃 (V) 𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑚𝑠 (V) 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (mA)
Simulated 0.5 7.5 1.25 6.25 2.209 0.276
Measured 0.5 7.52 1.26 6.32 2.64 0.33

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 o Square waveform

Sinusoidal T(ms) 𝑉𝐴 𝑃𝑃 (V) 𝑉𝐵 𝑃𝑃 (V) 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝑃 (V) 𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑚𝑠 (V) 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (mA)
Simulated 0.5 7.5 1.25 6.25 3.125 0.3906
Measured 0.5 7.52 1.30 6.32 3.70 0.4625

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 o Triangular waveform

Sinusoidal T(ms) 𝑉𝐴 𝑃𝑃 (V) 𝑉𝐵 𝑃𝑃 (V) 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝑃 (V) 𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑚𝑠 (V) 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (mA)
Simulated 0.5 7.5 1.25 6.25 1.804 0.2255
Measured 0.5 7.44 1.26 6.24 2.14 0.2675

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Conclusion
The three different waveforms in this report were generated with three different accuracies, the
lowest error was found to be in the sinusoidal waveform, the peak to peak value was almost equal
in all the wave forms generated. The RMS value of both the voltage and current was different due
to the difference in the formula used to generate it. The period per cycle was equal in all
waveforms.

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Reference
Riedel, N. &. (n.d.). electric circuits. pearson.
Fundamentels of electrical circuits lab manual

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