UNIT-5 LIGHT

Q.1) Explain with diagram the Propagation of light, State the laws of reflection. Explain shadows,
eclipses, reflection of light at plane and curved surfaces.
Solution 1.)
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
When light falls on the surface of an object, it may be
(a) absorbed,
(b) transmitted, and
(c) reflected.
Based on their ability to transmit light, substances can be broadly classified into:
(a) Transparent substances which allow light to pass through, e.g. glass, water, colourless
substances, etc.
(b) Translucent substances which, allow a part of the light to pass through, e.g.ground glass, oiled
paper, etc.
(c) Opaque substances which do not allow light to pass through them, e.g. metals, wood, brick, etc.
Rectilinear Propagation of Light
A ray or a beam of light travels along straight lines. In our everyday life, several instances can be
quoted to highlight this. Light from car headlights, torches, search lights, etc., are examples.
Formation of shadows when a beam of light is intercepted by an opaque body is another example.
On a bigger scale, formation of eclipses — both solar and lunar - also illustrate this principle. It must
be remembered that rectilinear propagation is only an approximation, although on extremely good
approximation. Later, you would learn that light actually travels in the form of waves, as evident in
the phenomenon of diffraction.
Shadows
Let us consider a point source of light and an opaque obstacle in the shape of a circle. If the obstacle
is held between the source and a screen, a shadow is formed on the screen. Size of the shadow
obviously varies with distance between the source and the obstacle and also that between the
obstacle and the screen. In the case of an extended source smaller than the object, the shadow
consists of a totally dark region called "umbra" and a partially dark region called "penumbra". In the
case of an extended source, larger than the object (e.g. sun), the size of umbra and penumbra
change when the distances vary.
The sun (S) is a luminous body. Earth (E) and moon (M) are non-luminous bodies. What we see as
moonlight is the reflection of light from the sun by the moon. Solar eclipse is caused when the moon
comes in between the sun and the earth and lunar eclipse is caused when the earth comes between
the sun and the moon.
Lunar Eclipse
In the below figure(c), the geometrical shadow formed by the earth is shown. AB represents the
umbral cone and CD the penumbral cone. When the moon orbits round the earth, it enters the
shadow region. When it is in the penum bral region it is partially eclipsed and when it enters to
umbralcone it is totally eclipsed. Total eclipse occurs when the sun, earth and moon are in a line.

Solar Eclipse
In the below figure(a), the geometrical shadow formed by the moon is shown. Places A and C are in
the penumbral cone and so the persons located in this area will experience partial solar eclipse.
However, place B is in the umbral zone and so any person at B will obviously experience total eclipse.
One important factor to be remembered is that the earth is very much larger than the moon. The
distance between the earth and the moon varies with time. Thus, if the position of the earth is such
that it is beyond the umbral cone as shown in the Figure (b), observers on the earth will see either
partial or annular eclipse.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection is the phenomenon in which a ray of light meeting a surface of separation between two
media returns to the same medium and in this process obeys certain laws known as "Laws of
Reflection". A ray of light falling on a smooth and highly polished surface, say a mirror, gets reflected
from the surface of separation.
By regular reflection, we mean that the reflected light goes in one particular direction (and not in all
directions), corresponding to one particular direction of incidence.
In below Figure (d), M1, M2 is a plane mirror. A ray of light falls on the mirror along AB at angle
ABD = i, where BD is normal to the mirror at B. it is reflected along BC at angle DBC = r.

AB is the incident ray, BC the reflected ray and BD the normal at the point of incidence. Angle i is
the angle of incidence and angle r the angle of reflection.

Laws of Reflection
Following are the two laws of reflection:
(a) The incident ray, normal at the point of incidence and reflected ray all lie in the same plane. (b)
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection : angle i= angle r. Since angle i = angle r,
even if we take CB as the incident ray, BA will be the reflected ray. This is known as the principle of
reversibility of light.
Images
An optical image is a point where rays of light either intersect or appear to come from. Thus, image
of an object is the assemblage of the image points corresponding to a large number of points, which
behave like objects. Images are of two kinds. They are real and virtual. Thus, if rays of light, actually
converge at a point, a real image is formed. However, if the rays of light appear to diverge from a
point after reflection, the image is known as virtual image. The image which we see in a plane mirror
incidentally is virtual in nature.
Reflection of Light at a Plane Surface
Let us consider a small object 0 (say, a point source of light) placed in front of a plane mirror MM'
as shown in Figure (e).
For obtaining a point image of 0, we have to consider minimum two incident rays at different angles
of incidence say angle i1 and angle i2. They get reflected at angles r1 and r2, respectively. These
reflected rays diverge and so appear to come from O1, which we call the image of O. The image so
formed has the following characteristics: (a) It is virtual and erect. (b) It is laterally inverted. (c)
Size of the object and size of the image are the same. (d) The image is as far behind the mirror as
the object is in front of it.
An extended object is just an assemblage of point objects and so the image formed is also
assemblage of the point images formed.

Reflection at a Curved Surface

Curved reflecting surfaces or spherical mirrors are of two types. They are (f) concave mirror, and
(g) convex mirror. Before we move on to the study of reflection at these surfaces, certain basic
definitions associated with these must be understood.

Pole of the Mirror (P)

Centre of the reflecting surface is called the pole of the mirror.
Centre of Curvature (C)
It is the centre of the sphere of which this mirror is a part.
Radius of Curvature (R)
It is radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
Principal Axis (PC)
It is the line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature.
Focus (F)
It is the point at which a beam of light parallel to the principal axis either actually converges or
appears to diverge from after reflection from the spherical surface.
Focal Length (f)
It is the distance between the pole and the focus.
Aperture
It is the angle subtended by the principal section of the mirror at the centre of curvature. XCY is the
aperture.
Sign Conventions
In dealing with reflection at spherical mirrors, we shall adopt the following system of signs — called
the "New Cartesian Convention" based on the conventions of Co-ordinate geometry. They are: a)
Light is assumed to come from the left. b) Distances are measured from the pole (P) of the mirror.
c) Distances measured in the direction of the incident ray are + ve and in the opposite direction -
ve.
d) Heights measured upwards and perpendicular are + ve and those measured downwards and
perpendicular are — ve.

According to this convention f and Rare — ve for concave mirror and + ve for convex mirror.
Magnification is negative for real and + ve for virtual image.

Mirror Formula for Concave Mirror

Mirror formula is a relation between focal length of the mirror and distance of object and image from
the mirror
Let P be the pole, F, the principal focus and C, the centre of curvature of a concave mirror of small
aperture. Let PF = f, be focal length and PC = R be the radius of curvature of the mirror.
Depending on the position of the object, the image formed may be real or virtual.
Real Image When the object is held in front of the concave mirror beyond the principal focus F of
the mirror, image formed is real.

Let us consider a ray of light OM in the above figure, parallel to the principal axis from an object
001. After reflection, it will pass through E. Similarly, a ray of light from O passing through C, after
reflection will retrace its path. The two reflected rays meet at I. Thus, I is the image of O. In the
case of the extended object 00 1, l1 will be the image of O1 and so ll1 is the image of 001. A ray OP is
also reflected to I. We have

 OCO1 =  ICI1 (opposite angles)

In ∆s 001, C and II1 C

OO1 CO1 PO1 − PC −u − (−R) R − u u − R

 = = = = = ...................(5.1)
II1 CI1 PC − PI1 −R − (−) −R R−

In As OO1 P and I I1 P are also similar because these are right-angled triangles and angles OPF and
IPF are equal. Thus,
OO1 PO1 −u u
= = = ...................(5.2)
II1 PI1  

From Equations. (5.1) and (5.2)

u u − R u − 2f
= =
 R− 2f − 

u(2f − ) = (u − 2f )

or, 2uf − u = u − 2f 
or, 2uf + 2f  = 2u...................(5.3)
Dividing throughout by u, and f we get;

1 1 1
+ =
 u f
This is often referred to as the “mirror formula”
 Virtual Image
When the object is held in front of the concave mirror between the pole P and principal focus F of
the mirror, the image formed is virtual, erect and magnified as shown in below figure.

 COO1 and  CII1 are similar, we can write

OO1 CO1 CP − PO1 −R − (−u) u − R

= = = = .....................(5.4)
II1 CI1 CP + PI1 −R +  −R

 OO1P and  II1P are similar, we can write

OO1 PO1 −u
= = ........................(5.5)
II1 PI1 

Thus by equating the above equations (5.4) and (5.5) we get;

u−R u
=−
−R 
 u − R = −u + R
 Ru + R = 2u
Dividing both sides by u v R, we get

1 1 2 1
+ = =
 u R f
which is the required mirror formula.

Mirror Formula for Convex Mirror

The image formed in a convex mirror is always virtual and erect, whatever be the position of the
object. Let P be the pole, F the principal focus, and C, the centre of curvature of a convex mirror of
small aperture, as shown in the below figure.

Now, triangles II1 F and MNF are similar;

Therefore we have;
II1 IF
= 1
MN NF
As aperture of the convex mirror is small, NF = PF
Also NM=OO1
 Therefore we have;
II1 IF PF − I1P
= 1 = ..........................(5.6)
OO1 PF PF

Also, triangle OO1P and II1P are similar.

Therefore we have;
II1 PI1
= ....................(5.7)
OO1 PO1

From Equations (5.6) and (5.7), we get

PF − I1P PI1
= ............................(5.8)
PF PO1

Applying sign conventions, we have

PO1 = −u
PI1 = +
PF = +f
Substituting for PO1, PI1 and PF in Eq. (5.8), we get
f − 
 =
f −u
 
1− = −
f u
1 1 1
 − =−
 f u
1 1 1
or + =
u  f
Which is the required mirror formula.

Q.2) Explain with diagram Refraction, State the laws of refraction and define refractive
index. Explain total internal reflection ducting.
Solution 2.) REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction of light is the phenomenon of change in the path of light, when it goes from one Medium
to another.
When a ray of light enters from one medium into a second transparent medium, such as glass, a
part of it is reflected while the remaining major part is allowed to pass through the second medium.
However, while doing so, the ray suffers a deviation from its original path. This is known as
refraction. The ray through the first medium is the incident ray and that through the second is known
as refracted ray. The refracted ray bends either towards or away from the normal at the point of
incidence depending upon the optical density of the medium. Experimentally, it is found that the
velocity of light in the second medium is different. The Below fig (a) shows refraction of light:
Laws of Refraction
These are known as Snell's Laws of Refraction. They are:
a) The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the refracted ray all lie in the same
plane.
b) For the given two media, the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction is a constant for a light beam of a particular wavelength for the given two media.
Refractive Index
The absolute refractive index of any medium is the ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to the
velocity of light in that, medium i.e.

Velocity of light in vaccum

medium =
Velocity of light in medium
Total Internal Reflection
We know that a ray of light entering a rarer medium from a denser medium goes away from the
normal, i.e. r>i. If we keep on increasing the angles of incidence, angles of refraction also increase
in such a way that sin i / sin r = Constant. However, a stage comes when the angle of refraction
becomes 90°. In other words, the refracted ray grazes along the surface separating the two media.
The angle of incidence for r = 90° is known as critical angle (i.). If the angle of incidence is further
increased, refraction does not take place at the surface separating the two media. Instead, reflection
takes place. This is known as total internal reflection. Let us consider a ray of light entering from
glass into air as shown in Figure (b)
When i =ic, r= 90°
Thus,
sin i 1 1
= a w = =
sin r g 
a
1
i.e. sinic = ( r = 900 and sin900 = 1)


If the refractive index of a medium is known, the critical angle in that medium can be calculated.
Therefore, total internal reflection may be defined as the phenomenon of reflection of light
that takes place, when a ray of light travelling in a denser medium gets incident at the
interface of the two media at an angle greater than the critical angle for that pair of media.
Thus, for the total internal reflection to take place, following conditions should be obeyed:
(a) Light should travel from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
(b) Angle of incidence in denser medium should be greater than the critical angle for the pair of
media in contact.

Q.3) Explain with diagram Mirages (on land), looming (mirages at sea), and propagation
of light in optical fiber.
Solution 3.) Mirage
Mirage is an optical illusion which occurs usually in deserts on hot summer rays. The diagrammatic
representation of Mirage is shown in the below Fig (a)

Mirage on land
In deserts, because of the intense heat, layers of air near the surface of the earth are hotter
compared to the layers above them. Hence the density and the refractive index of these layers are
different from those in the higher levels. Rays of light from a distant object, thus, pass through
layers whose refractive indices gradually decrease. As a result, they go away from the normal, till
they are incident on a layer where the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle. Sure
enough, total internal reflection takes place. These reflected rays travel upwards and undergo a
series of refraction through various layers till they reach the eye of the observer, who sees the image
of the object as though reflected from the surface of a calm lake.
Mirage at sea
As stated earlier, it is an optical illusion in which inverted images of distant objects are seen as if
reflected from a water surface. Sometimes, it even gives the impression that the object is suspended
in air in the atmosphere
Looming

Looming is also an optical illusion which occurs usually in very cold regions. In looming, a distant
object such as a ship moving in polar areas appears to be hanging in midair due to atmospheric
refraction and the total internal reflection of light rays.
In Polar Regions the layers of air near the surface of earth are very cold and hence behave as
optically denser medium. Whereas, the upper layers of air are comparatively warm and hence
behave as optically rarer medium.
Now, a ray of light coming from point S of ship goes from denser to rarer medium along the path
SB and bends away from the normal, at every layer due to atmospheric refraction. But, at a particular
layer, when the angle of incidence becomes greater than the critical angle, the total internal
reflection occurs, and the totally reflected ray travels along the path BE and reaches the observer.
As we have already discussed that we can see the light only in straight line path, so the reflected
ray BE appears to be coming from the point S’ to the observer. Due to this, the observer sees a
virtual and erect image of the ship at position S’, which is much above the actual position of the ship
in the sea.
 • Looming
Looming is also an optical
In Polar Regions
illusion whichtheoccurs
layersusually
of air
near inthe surface
very of earth In
cold regions. are
very looming,
cold and hence behave
a distant objectas
optically
suchdenser medium.
as a ship moving in
Whereas,
polar the upper
areas layers
appears toofbeair
are comparatively
hanging in midairwarm and
due to
hence behave as optically
atmospheric refractionrarer
and
medium.
the total internal reflection
Now,ofalight rays.
ray of light coming from
point S of ship goes from denser
to rarer medium along the path
SB and bends away from the
normal, at every layer due to
atmospheric refraction. But, at a
particular layer, when the angle
of incidence becomes greater
than the critical angle, the total
internal reflection occurs, and
the totally reflected ray travels
along the path BE and reaches
the observer. As we have already
discussed that we can see the
light only in straight line path, so
the reflected ray BE appears to
be coming from the point S’ to
the observer. Due to this, the
observer sees a virtual and erect
image of the ship at position S’,
which is much above the actual
position of the ship in the sea.
Propagation of light in Optical fiber
Operation of a light pipe is based on total internal reflection. Unlike a normal pipe wherein water
poured through one end will come out through the other because of the hole, in the case of light
pipe, the hole is replaced by a transparent medium and so light entering one end of the pipe comes
out through the other after multiple total internal reflections. The pipe consists of a high refractive
index medium surrounded by a low index medium. It may be polished rod of glass or transparent
plastic. Because of multiple reflections, an image cannot be passed through such a pipe. But the
image can be broken down to a large number of fine dots of various shades of light and darkness
and each portion of the image is then sent through a small light pipe. The Propagation of light in
case of optical fiber is shown in the below Fig (b).

A bundle of glass fibres, each behaving like a light pipe, will transmit an image if the arrangement
at the point of emergence of the rays is the same as what it is at the entrance. A lens is used to cast
an image on one end of the bundle and the image is then transmitted to the other end. Precaution
is taken to coat each fibre with a material of low refractive index so that light through one fibre does
not enter the other. Bundles in which the order of the fibres is not maintained will transmit light,
though not images. Such pipes are needed to illuminate places difficult to reach. The use of this
principle is so broad that a new area known as fibre optics has been developed. In practice, glass
fibres of diameter of about 2 microns are commonly used. Of late, these have been replaced by
transparent plastics. E.g. One major use of optical fiber is in the medical field wherein it is used for
internal examination of parts of the body.

Q.3) Explain with diagram Reflection through prism, the azimuth mirror, periscope, lenses
image formation, telescope, prism binocular. Show how prisms are used to produce an
erect image by drawing a ray diagram of binoculars.
Solution 4.) Reflection through Prism
A prism is the portion of transparent refracting medium bounded by two plane surfaces meeting
each Other along a straight edge.

The two plane surfaces are called refracting faces and the line where the two refracting faces meet
is called the refracting edge of the prism. The angle between the two refracting faces is called the
angle of the prism and it is usually denoted by A. As shown in the above fig(a).
Prisms and lenses, normally made of different types of glass are useful in the construction of optical
instruments used on board-the ship. While lenses are used as refracting media, the ability of the
prisms to carryout total internal reflection of the incident rays is put to effective use in periscopes,
azimuth mirror and prism binocular.
Total Reflecting Prisms
As the name itself indicates, these are based on the principle of total internal reflection. Thus, it is
possible to deviate rays of light through a desired angle with the help of these prisms. For total
internal reflection through prism following procedures are to be done;
a) To Turn a Ray through 90°.
b) To Turn a Ray through 180°.
c) To make the Prism Erect or Erecting the Prism.
Azimuth Mirror
This instrument is based on the principles of refraction and total internal reflection. It is used the
bearing of both terrestrial and astronomical bodies such as the sun. Depending upon the
requirement, it is used in two different positions.
a) Arrow Up Position
In this position (shown in below Figure b), the instrument is used to obtain the bearing of the sun
and other heavenly bodies. An equilateral prism is used. Rays of light from the sun suffer refraction
at the first face. When these rays meet the second face, i.e.

the surface separating the glass medium from air, they are incident at an angle greater than the
critical angle and so undergoes total internal reflection. These reflected rays once again suffer
refraction. When they emerge through the third face, they reach the eye and final image is formed
at the eye. Obviously, for the eye, the sun will appear as though it is located in the direction from
which the rays enter the eye. Thus, the eye E would see the image of the sun at S1, while by glancing
just outside the line of the prism itself, a pointer P is seen by direct vision close against the graduated
rim of the compass card. By bringing the image against the pointer, the bearing of the sun is read
off.
Arrow Down Position
In this position (shown in below fig c) the instrument is used to measure the bearing of terrestrial
objects. The diagram shows the rays. In this case, the eye E will

see the image of the pointer and the compass card at P. By raising the line of vision slightly, the
observer can see the terrestrial object, say a light house L. The reading on the compass card gives
the bearing of the light house.
Periscope
As shown in the below fig(c), A periscope consists of a vertical tube with two right angled prisms
placed in such a .way that a ray of light entering the prisms P 1 and P2 suffer total internal reflections
and so deviate the rays through 90°. However, the deviation produced by P 2 is equal and opposite
to that produced by P1. As a result, the incident ray suffers a displacement but no deviation. In other
words, the incident ray gets displaced by a length equal to the length of the tube. Periscopes are
used in submarines and by soldiers in trenches enabling the viewer to remain hidden from the objects
they view.

LENSES
These are refracting media bounded by either two spherical surfaces or one spherical surface and a
plane surface. Depending upon this, the lenses are of different types. They are :
(a) Double convex or biconvex lens
(b) Double concave or biconcave lens
(C) Piano convex lens
(d) Piano concave lens
(e) Convexo concave lens
(f) Concavo convex lens
All convex lenses are convergent lenses, while- all. Concave lenses are divergent
Thin lens formula Let us consider an object AB (shown in below fig e). Object distance is w. A ray of
light from A parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the focus F A ray of light
through O goes undeviated. The two rays meet at C. C is the image of A. If we treat AB as number
of point objects, CD will be the image of AB. It is real, inverted and is at a distance v.

From above figure (e) we have;

 AOB and  COD are similar
AB BO −u
 = = .....................(1)
CD DO 
 EOF and  CFD are also similar
Thus,
EO f
= .................................(2)
CD  − f
But AB=EO
Therefore, from equ (1) and (2) we have
−u f
 =
 −f
−u + uf = f
Dividing throughout by u v and f we get;

1 1 1
− + =
f  u
1 1 1
i.e. − =
 u f
This is often referred to as “Lens formula”.

Astronomical Telescope
In the case of an astronomical telescope, the objective is a convex lens combination of large focal
length and large aperture. The eyepiece also is a combination convex lenses, but of short focal length
and small aperture. While the objective is housed in a large brass tube, the eyepiece is housed in a
small tube, capable of sliding inside the large tube. The distance between the objective and the
eyepiece can be varied.

The rays coming from a distant object, i.e. an object at infinity, after refraction through the objective
lens system form an inverted and diminished image A 1 B1 at its focus. This forms the object for the
eyepiece system of lenses. If the eyepiece is now adjusted in such a way that this object is within
its focal length, the final image A 2 B2 is enlarged, erect with respect to the image A 1 B1 but inverted
with respect to object.
Prism Binoculars
This consists of two astronomical telescopes, each having two totally reflecting right angled prisms.
In this way, the optical distance between the objective and the eyepiece of the telescopes is made
larger than the distance between the two. Hence, the field of vision is increased. Also, the effective
length is made a third of the length of the telescope without compromising on the magnification and
the final image which is erect.
The objective and the eyepiece lenses are convex lenses, Prism A is placed with its refracting edge
horizontal and so turns the image in the 'vertical direction upside down. Prism B is placed with its
refracting edge vertical and so it turns the image.

in the horizontal direction. Thus, the final image produced is erect and magnified. Total optical path
is about three times the length of the binocular and so it works as an astronomical telescope equal
to 3 times its length.
 The Marine Sextant
 A marine sextant is nothing more than a device designed to measure, with a
great deal of precision, the angle between two objects.
 In celestial navigation, these objects are
 a celestial body (star, sun, moon, or planet)
 the visible horizon.
 The “sextant” is so named because it is an instrument which has a graduated arc
which is approximately one sixth of a circle

Principle of the Sextant

1. When a ray of light is reflected by a plane mirror, the angle of the incident ray is equal to
the angle of the reflected ray, when the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal lie on
the same plane
2. When a ray of light suffers two successive reflections in the same plane by two plane
mirrors, the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray is twice the angle
between the mirrors
The sextant is used to measure the following:
1. Vertical Sextant Angle (VSA)
2. Horizontal Sextant Angle (HSA)
3. Altitudes

If ‘X’ is the body and X I the original ray of light, in a sextant, it is first reflected from the
index mirror I to the horizon mirror H, and then reflected again by the horizon mirror
through the telescope to the observer’s eye ‘E’. In the figure, if I I′ is the normal to the
index mirror and HH′ is the normal to the horizon mirror.
Angle XEH is the angle between the incident and reflected ray, while I′H′H is the
angle between the mirrors (as it is the angle between their normals).
∠ XEH = 2 × ∠ IH′H i.e. ∠ E = 2 × ∠ H′

Proof:-

∠ X I I ′ = ∠ I ′ IH
(angle of incidence = angle of reflection)
Similarly, ∠ I H H ′ = ∠ H ′ HE
(angle of incidence = angle of reflection)
 Let these angles be named ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively
and let ∠ IH ′ H and ∠ IEH be named ′h′ and ′e′ respectively.
∠ I ′ IH =∠ IHH ′ + ∠ IH ′ H (exterior angle)
∴∠ a = ∠ h + ∠ b
2a = 2h+ 2b (multiplying throughout by 2)
Similarly, In ΔHIE, 2a = e + 2b (exterior angle)
Substituting 2a as per above,
we get 2h + 2b = e + 2b
2h = e (cancelling 2b from both sides)
Angle between the incident and the reflected rays is twice the angle
between the mirrors.

• Why the windshield of bridge is inclined?

➢ We tend to ignore our own reflection because we can focus our eyes on the distant
horizon, which blurs the reflection, making it hard to see.
➢ Binoculars with curved lenses that glint in the sun from almost any angle and look out of a
vertical window while the sun shines in and you'll see why they insist on tilting the
windows.
➢ The tilt also keeps the lights inside from showing up in the reflection, as long as you didn't
install lights in the ceiling. You'll notice that this ships bridge has a nice dark ceiling with
no lights.

➢ To help avoid reflections, the bridge front windows shall be inclined from the vertical plane
top out, at an angle of not less than 10° and not more than 25°.