The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

I'mChapter I

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF: THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from

various disciplinal perspectives
2. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across different
disciplines and perspectives
3. Examine the different influences, factors, and forces that shape the self
4. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one’s
self and identity by developing a theory of the self.

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Unit 1

PHILOSOPHY
Learning Objectives
1. Define the meaning of philosophy;
2. Identify the different philosophers and their philosophies about the self;
3. Formulate one’s philosophy.
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Meaning of Philosophy

Philosophy generally means love of wisdom, an active pursuit of wisdom. Philosophy

comes from the Greek words, “philo”, which means love and “Sophia”, which means
wisdom.

Philosophers and their Philosophies about the self

The Greek philosophers are considered as the forerunners in the study of man. In this
topic, we will attempt to understand the nature of identity of the self from the Greek
Philosophy. But what is personal identity? The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
defined personal identity as philosophical questions that arise about ourselves by virtue of
our being people (or, as lawyers and philosophers like to say, persons). There are several
problems of personal identity that are loosely connected. These are the following: Who
Am I?; Personhood; Persistence; Evidence; Population; What Am I?; and What Matters in
Identity? We will limit our discussion with the question of Who Am I? Before we can give
some answers to this question, let us first try to give answers to the activity below.

Activity 1 - Thinking Philosophically

Answer the following questions regarding yourself as fully and specifically as you can:

1. How would you describe yourself?

2. What are the qualities that differentiate you from other selves?
3. In what ways has your self changed during the course of your lifetime? In what ways
has it remained the same?
4. How would you describe the relationship of yourself to your body?
5. How are you able to come to know other selves? Do you think they are similar or
different from you?
6. What do you think happen to yourself after you die? If you believe that your self will
continue to exist in some form will you be able to recognize other selves who have
died? How?
The difficulties in answering these questions are an indication of the challenges posed by
the concept of the self. The responses to these questions reflect our cultural, social and
religious environment in which we were raised. According to Chaffe, J. (2013), the concept
of the “self” has been an ongoing and evolving, subject of inquiry among philosophers

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since the time of Socrates. To grapple with the concept of the self is to begin to explore
what it is to know, to believe, to think, to be conscious. I'm

Who exactly is your “self”? What are the qualifications that define it? What differentiates
your particular “self” from all others? What is the relation of your “self” to your “body”?
How does your “self” relate to the other “selves”? What happens to a “self” when the body
dies? In what ways is it possible for you to “know” your “self”? In what ways you might
never fully know your “self?

The following are the Philosophers and their philosophies about the self.

The Self in Ancient Philosophy

1. Socrates (469-399 B.C.). Socrates was reacting against the Sophists in his time.
Sophists believed in personal good, that which benefits an individual person. The
problem is, we have relative definition of what is good - moral relativism. Socrates
has to find a way to establish morality on common grounds, that is, a moral
standard that cannot come from the individual per se (Alejandro, R., personal
communication, July 29, 2020). Believing on rationalistic moral Philosophy, reason
or rationality, according to Socrates, is the main component in shaping moral
comportment. He thought that the self is not just mind-body aggregate but also a
moral being, thus, he argued that happiness without morality is impossible.
(Degho, S. et al., 2019). For Socrates, man must live a moral life to be happy, but
how, then, the self, be able to live a good moral life?
First, the self must focus on improving the quality of the soul or moral life
instead of indulging in the chase of material things, fame and prestige.
Second, the improvement of the soul can be achieved through the quest for
wisdom and truth. Thus, Socrates believed in the idea that knowledge equals
virtue. Consequently, wrongdoings occur because one fails to attain what is really
good for one’s life.
Third, life must be ceaselessly examined for it to be worth living. By examining
one’s life, the self will be able to know his/her true nature, what is really good for
him/her and what really matters in life that begets happiness. True happiness
comes from goodness or living out a moral life (Castell & Borchert, 1988 cited in
Degho, S. et al., 2019)
For Socrates, reality is dualistic, made up of two dichotomous realms: the
physical realm and the ideal realm. The self in the physical realm changes, is
imperfect, and it dies, whereas the self in the ideal realm, represented by the soul,
is perfect, unchanging and immortal (Chafee, J., 2013).

2. Plato (427-3447 B.C.). The self is a rational substance consisting of body and soul,
according to Plato. Thus, he adheres to the idea of Socrates’ dualistic nature of
reality. The soul comes from the world of ideas, while the body comes from the

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world of matter. He claimed that man is essentially a soul imprisoned in a body.

The individual self that exists in this world is not real since the self exists in space
and time, passes in and out of existence (Degho, S., 2019). This dualistic view of the
self posits a material substance ( physical body) and immaterial substance ( mind
or soul). These are two separate aspects of the self. For Socrates and Plato, the self
was synonymous with the soul. Every human being, they believed, possessed an
immortal soul that survived the physical body.
In Phaedrus, Plato’s elaborated the concept of the soul, as he introduced the
idea of a three-part soul/self composed of:
a) Reason – our divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make
wise choices and achieve a true understanding of the eternal
truths.
b) Physical appetite – our basic biological needs such as hunger,
thirst, and sexual desire; and
c) Spirit or passion – our basic emotions such as love, anger.
ambition, aggressiveness and empathy.
These three elements of our soul/self are in a dynamic relationship with one
another. Plato illustrates his view of the self in a metaphor. In the Chariot Analogy, the
soul is likened to a chariot drawn by two powerful winged horse: a noble horse (Spirit)
and a wild horse (Appetite). The charioteer is the Reason. Those charioteers who are
successful in setting a true course and ensuring that the two steeds work together in
harmonious unity achieve true wisdom and banquet with the gods, while charioteers who
are unable to control their horses and keep their chariot on track are destined to
experience personal, intellectual failure. Plato believed that genuine happiness can only
be achieved by people who consistently make sure that their Reason is in control of their
Spirits and Appetites, representing his concept of Justice (Chafee, J. 2013).

The Self in Medieval Philosophy

The Medieval philosophy relegated the self to secondary concern as God and faith
in Him became primary. The self became secondary as the self credits its origin to God.

St. Agustine (353-430 AD) St. Agustine is one of the two thinkers of the medieval
philosophy whose works were, to some extent, influenced by Plato’s philosophy. St.
Agustine integrated the philosophical concepts of Plato with the tenets of Christianity
especially on the dualistic view of reality and the self. St. Agustine attempted to develop a
more unified perspective of the body-soul relation. Along with St. Tomas Aquinas, they
believed that the self is a tripartite being composed of the body, soul and spirit. The body
is the outer part of the self directly in contact with the world. The soul is the inner part of
the self composed of the mind, emotions and will. The spirit is the inner most part of the
self or the core where it can commune with God (Joven (2006) cited by Degho, S. et al.

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(2019)). He believed that the body is a slave to the soul and sees this relation as
contentious: “The soul makes war with the body”. However, as his thinking became
matured, St. Agustine came to believe that the body is a “spouse” to the soul. He
concludes that, “the body is united with the soul, so that man may be entire and
complete…” (Chafee, J., 201). St. Agustine emphasized the omnipotence of God and
asserted that He created man, body and soul. The soul is created by God to administer
the body. The body is subjected to mortality. The body is united with the soul so that the
body may be complet (Degho, S. et al. 2019).

The Self in the Modern Philosophy

Rene Descartes (1596-1650). Rene Descartes is a French rationalist, known as the

“Founder of Modern Philosophy”. Descartes’ idea of the self is centered on the concept of
substance, which refers to anything that exists in itself. The two kinds of substance are:
finite and infinite substance. For Descartes, man is a finite substance composed of two
independent substances known as Cartesian dualism: body and mind. The body and soul
are two different entities. The body as a physical entity and the soul as a thinking entity.
The physical body is a material, mortal, non thinking entity fully governed by the physical
laws of nature, whereas, the thinking self or soul is a nonmaterial, immortal, conscious
being independent of the physical laws of the universe. He further argued that the body
and mind are independent with one another, each can exist without the other.

Descartes argued that by committing yourself to a wholesale and systematic

doubting of all things, is the only way to achieve clear and well-reasoned conclusions.
Doing this, he said, is the only way to develop beliefs that are truly yours and not
someone else’s. He further notes, “If you would be a real seeker of the truth, it is
necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far as possible, all things” (Chaffee,
J., 2013). With this, personal courage is necessary since, questioning things or ideas that
had been there for so long, such as religious beliefs and even our concepts about
ourselves, is a very disruptive enterprise. It entails questioning the beliefs of important
people in your life, even challenging the image of yourself, your world may be shaken.
However, according to Descartes, this is the beginning of true knowledge, that leads to
his famous first principle, cogito, ergo sum – I think, therefore, I am.

Cogito ergo sum is Descartes’ first theory of knowledge because no

rational person will doubt his or her own existence as conscious thinking
entity-while we are aware thinking about ourselves. 5
Cogito ergo sum is also the cornerstone of Descartes’ concept of the self.
The essence of existing as a human identity is the possibility of being
aware of ourselves. Being self-conscious is therefore, an integral to having
The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

John Locke (1632-1704). John Locke is a British philosopher and a physician who laid the
groundwork for an empiricist approach to philosophical questions. This means that the
source of knowledge of reality must pass the test of sensory experience. He continued
exploring the themes initiated by Descartes both on the nature of knowledge
(epistemology) and the nature of the self. For Descartes, our reasoning ability is the origin
of knowledge and final court of judgment in evaluating the accuracy and value of the
ideas produced. For Locke, all knowledge originates in our direct sense experience, which
acts as the final court of evaluating the accuracy and value of ideas.

For Locke, knowledge is not innate because at birth, the mind is likened to a black
slate (tabula rasa) upon which life experiences are written (Ramos, 2004 cited in Degho,
S. et al., 2019). As we grow, we experience many things, accumulate knowledge which are
then included in the blank sheet of our mind or paper. When we were toddlers or kids,
we slowly begin to learn how to use spoon and fork, how to dress up properly, how to
read and write and how to behave properly in certain situations. These and many more
experiences are accumulated as more and more knowledge are added thru time. Thus, the
existence of our knowledge of the self is based on our consciousness or memory of it.
Locke’s On Personal Identity engages in a reflective analysis on how we experience
ourselves in everyday life. Here are some of the key notes:

1. To discover the nature of personal identity, we’re going

to have to find out what it means to be person.
2. A person is a thinking being who has the abilities to
reason and to reflect.
3. A person is someone who considers itself to be the same
thing in different times and places
4. Consciousness –being aware that we are thinking-
always accompanies thinking and is an essential part of
the thinking process
5. 5. Consciousness is what makes possible our belief that
we are the same identity in different times and different
places.

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Thus, the essence of the self is its conscious awareness of itself as a thinking,
reasoning, reflecting identity. The self is not tied to any particular body or substance, and
it only exists in other times and places because of our memory of those experiences. Locke
denies that the individual self necessarily exits in a single soul or substance.

For Locked, every aspect of our physical body is integrated with our personal
identity. For him, personal identity remains the same despite the changes in the physical
substance of our body. Consequently, he argues that our personal identity is distinct from
whatever substance it finds itself associated with.

David Hume (1711-1776). Hume is a Scottish philosopher whose skeptical examinations of

religion, ethics and history were to make him a controversial 18 th C figure. He continued
the empiricist tradition of John Locke, believing that the source of all genuine knowledge
is our direct sense of experience. However, Hume took a radical note in saying that, if we
carefully examine our sense of experience, through the process of introspection, we
discover that there is no self! Instead, there are only two distinct entities: “impression”
and “ideas”.

Impressions are the basic sensation of our experience, the elemental data of our minds:
pain pleasure, heat cold, happiness, grief, etc. they are lively and vivid. Whereas, ideas are
copies of impressions. This includes thoughts and images that are built up from our
primary impressions through a variety of relationships, but because they are derivative
copies of impressions, they are once removed from reality.

If we examine these basic data of our experience, we see that they form a fleeting
stream of sensations in our mind and that nowhere among them is the sensation of a
“constant and invariable” self that exists as a unified identity over the course of our lives.
And because the self is not to be found among these continually changing sensations, we
can only conclude that there is no good reason for believing that the self exists (Chaffe, J.,
2013).

What is the self that we experience according to Hume? A ‘bundle or

collection of different perceptions, which succeed each other with an
inconceivable rapidity and are in a perpetual flux and movement’.
Humans so desperately want to believe that they have a unified and
continuous self or soul that they use their imaginations to construct a
fictional self… Mind is a theater, a container for fleeting sensations and
disconnected ideas and our reasoning ability is merely a slave to the
passions (Chaffe, J., 2013, p. 126).

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Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant is a German Philosopher. He attempted to synthesize

the two competing schools of modern period: rationalism and empiricism, by showing the
important role both experience and reason play in constructing our knowledge of the
world.

His view of the self is an antithesis to Hume’s view of the self. Though Kant started his
philosophy by admitting Hume’s point that all knowledge of the world begins with
sensations, Kant argued that Hume may have overlooked that our primary experience of
the world is not in terms of a disconnected stream of sensations, instead we perceive and
experience an organized world of objects, relations and ideas. He further notes that
organization of our world comes from our us, our minds! Our minds actively sort,
organize, relate and synthesize fragmented, fluctuating collection of sense data that our
sense organs take in. For instance, you are presented with a hundred pieces of jigsaw
puzzles in front of you. This jigsaw puzzle would appear to be a random collection of
items unrelated to one another and containing no meaning for you. However, as you
begin to assemble the fragmentary pieces, it forms a coherent image that would
consequently have significance for you. This is what Kant called the meaning-
constructing activity, which our minds are doing every time. This meaning-constructing
activity is precisely what our minds are doing all the time: taking a raw data of experience
and actively synthesizing it into familiar, orderly meaningful world in which we live.
Thus, we construct our world through these conceptual operations, and as a result, this is
a world in which we can gain insight and knowledge.

So, who is the self? Kant conceptualized two kinds of the self: the empirical and
the transcendental. The empirical self is the known self, an aspect of the self that make
the self unique, such as the physical aspect, memories, personalities, history and culture.
The transcendental self is the self that exists independently of experience. It is the
synthesizing, unifying, organizing principle that interprets, constructs and give meaning
to sensory data. The self is product of reason because the self regulates experience by
making unified experience possible.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Sigmund Freud is an Austrian doctor who founded the
psychoanalytic school of psychology. Freud’s view of the self is multi layered divided
among the conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious. The division among the three is
neither absolute nor permanent. What is pre conscious become conscious and what is
unconscious can be made conscious.

The concept of the unconscious forms part of the core of Freud’s theory of the
structure and dynamics of the human personality. It is the unconscious self or the id that
holds the greatest fascination for Freud and has a significant influence in our personality.

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The unconscious self has the dominant influence in our personalities. It contains basic
instinctual drives that seeks immediate gratification (e.g. sexuality, aggressiveness,
traumatic memories, etc.) characterized by the most primitive level of human motivation.
It is the naked impulses that are governed by the “pleasure principle”. Our unconscious
self operates at a pre logical and pre rational level. Though this is a great influencer in our
lives, it is not directly observable and its existence can only be inferred from such
phenomena as neurotic symptoms, dreams and “slips of the tongue” (Chaffe, J., 2013).

Meanwhile, the conscious self or the ego is governed by the “reality principle” such
that behaviors are organized in ways that are rational, practical and appropriate to the
social environment. It has ultimately the task of controlling the constant pressures of the
unconscious self. The superego is the moral aspect of the self. It provides a check and
balance to the demands of the id.

Freud, just like Plato and Aristotle, wanted to restore a harmonious balance among
the parts of the mind (id, ego and superego), the individual and this world. A good balance
among the three is the secret to attaining a positive mental health and well-being of the
self.

The Self in Contemporary Philosophy

Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976). Ryle is an analytic philosopher and an important figure in the
field of “Linguistic Analysis” which focused on solving philosophical puzzles through an
analysis of language.

Ryle, in his book, The Concept of Mind, made rather clear that the dualism of
mind-body created a category mistake. This category mistake takes place when the self is
thought to be pure mental entity that exists apart from certain observable behavior. For
Ryle, he believes that the mind is a concept that expresses the entire system of thoughts,
emotions, actions and so on that make up the human self. The self, then, must be
understood as a pattern of behavior or the tendency of an individual to behave in a
certain way in particular situation.

The nature of the motive of the self can be described by the actions and reactions
of the self in different circumstances. The self, therefore, is the way he/she behaves.

Patricia and Paul Churchland (1943-Present). Paul and Patricia Churchland are
Canadian-American philosophers whose work has focused on integrating the disciplines
of philosophy of mind and neuroscience. The approach is called neurophilosophy. They
are also central figures in the philosophical stance known as eliminative materialism.

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Neurophilosophy is a young science Eliminative materialism (eliminativism) is

that explores the impact of the radical claim that our ordinary,
discoveries in neuroscience on a common-sense understanding of the
range of traditional philosophical mind is deeply wrong and that some or
questions about the nature of the all of the mental states posited by
mind. This subfield aims to move common-sense do not actually exist and
forward on questions such as the have no role to play in a mature science
nature of knowledge and learning, of the mind (Stanford Encyclopedia of
decision-making and choice, as well Philosophy)
as self-control and habits, by
drawing on data from the relevant
sciences (Churchland, P., 1986)

Neurophilosophers, Paul and Patricia disagreed with the behaviorism concept of the self
by Ryle, which equates the self with bodily behavior. For them, the self is the brain. They
assumed that even morality and free will are the products of the brain, such that our
physical and mental lives are influenced by the brain (Bowie et al., 1998 cited by Degho,
S., 2019). Neuroscientists believed that to understand the mind, we must understand the
brain. The mental state of the mind can have an influence to the physical conditions of
the self. It has an impact on the cognitive, affective and psychomotor of the self.

Maurice Merlaeu-Ponty (1908-1961). Merlaeu-Ponty is a French philosopher whose

thinking is influenced by Husslerl. He argued that perception is essential to our
knowledge of the world and objected to philosophies that underestimated the
significance of the body. He also claimed that consciousness is a dynamic form that
actively structures our experience.

Is the self both body and soul? Or is the self a body or soul? Western philosophical
tradition does not view the human body as a subject, but simply considers the body as an
object. For Merleau-Ponty, if we see ourselves at the fundamental level of direct human
experience, we discover that the body and mind are unified, not separate. In his book,
Phenomenology of Preception, he argued that it is this basic consciousness that is the
foundation for our perception and knowledge about our world. In sum, Merlaeu-Ponty
claimed that everything we are aware of is contained within our consciousness, ‘it is our
consciousness that is primary and the space/time world that is secondary, existing
fundamentally as an object of our consciousness’ (Chaffe, J., 2013).

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LEARNING ACTIVITY

Note to the Instructor:

In this unit, there are two possible activities that students can undertake for them to
apply what they have learned from the unit. These activities aim to help the students refresh
their memories on the various philosophers discussed and consequently, students can
develop reflective thinking that can assist them in evaluating their own philosophies in life.

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A. Individual Work
Answer the reflective question below. Write it in a paper with your name on the upper
left. Do it in 30 minutes.

Q: Choose one among the several philosophers whom you think has the same philosophy
of the self as yours and explain.

B. Group Work
Group yourselves into four. Contemplate on the question below and share with the group
your answer. A volunteer from each group will share his/her answer to the class.

Q: Why is it important to have a philosophy of the self?

ASSESSMENT

1. On your learning journal, write a reflection paper on what are your deepest
questions in life?

Rubric on the learning journal

Clear and well-expressed thoughts/ideas 20

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Use of relevant Philosophical concepts/ideas 20

Overall clarity of points and connection to the 10

topic

Total 50

Unit 2
SOCIOLOGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE SELF

Learning Objectives
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1. Analyze the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from a

sociological/anthropological point of view.
2. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented as examined by the
different sociological/anthropological constructs.
3. Understand and internalize the different sociological/anthropological
perspectives in the development of a social self.
4. Determine the concept of stigma or self-stigma and how they arise from
social/cultural biases and prejudices.
____________________________________________________________________________

A. What constitutes a Society?

1. In Anthropology: a society connotes a group of people who are linked together
through sustained interactions, a common culture or at least a recognized set of
norms, values and symbolism that defines its members (Kottak, 2015:31; Peoples
and Bailey, 2016:22).
2. In Sociology: a society is composed of a group of people sharing a common
territory, a common culture and who are in continuous interaction with one
another. Societies may be separated in terms of geography, language, beliefs and
practices at the very least (Macionis, 2015:20).

B. Defining Culture
There is no definite way to define what culture is. Perhaps, the most succinct
encapsulation of what culture is would be the working definition provided by the
anthropologist Sir Edward B. Tylor who contended that:

“that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”

Hence, in simple words, culture is people’s way of life. It is composed of behavioral

patterns, which has been created by human beings. As such, culture can be divided into:

1. Material Culture: refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people.

2. Nonmaterial Culture: consists of the ideas, attitudes and beliefs of a society.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

Because culture is an all-encompassing concept, we have to further understand it in terms

of its basic characteristics. Culture is universal; there is no existing society that is devoid
of culture and there is no living individual or group of people with no acquired culture.
Thus, it is important to understand that all cultures share these basic characteristics:

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● Culture is learned. Culture is not biologically inherited although much of what

we know about our own cultures happen unconsciously. The process of learning a
culture is called enculturation. We get enculturated through our families, peers,
the media and other social institutions.
● Culture is shared. We learn culture and become integrated in a society because
we share it with other members of the society. By closely interacting with specific
groups of people, we learn to act in socially appropriate ways, make mental notes
of what we should not do and predict how others will act. Although culture is
shared, it does not mean to say that everything within it is homogenous. There are
multiple cultural life worlds which exist simultaneously in one society with various
cultural expressions.
● Culture is based on symbols. Symbols are arbitrary and the meanings attached
to specific symbols vary cross-culturally. Art, belies, language and value systems
are all within the symbolic structure of cultures. The heterogeneity of cultures is
based on their symbolic differences.
● Culture is an integrated whole. The different aspects of culture are all
interconnected. To truly understand a culture, it is important that we acknowledge
how all parts relate to one another. To avoid cultural biases and prejudices toward
one, all of its parts must be learned and understood.
● Culture is dynamic. Although cultures are universal, they are not static. The
various aspects of culture are in constant interaction with each other and through
this, cultural change is constant. When cultures come in contact with other
cultures, ideological and symbolical exchange happens. As such, if one part of
culture changes, it is most likely that the entire cultural system must adjust to the
change.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
We have mentioned that cultures have certain aspects/dimensions that are in constant
interaction with each other. Within these dimensions are specific components that make
a culture both an integrated whole and a by-product of the relationship of its parts. In
this section, we will cover the three components of culture: the cognitive, the normative
and the material.

1. Cognitive: it includes ideas, knowledge, values, beliefs and various cultural

accounts and narratives that are passed down from one generation to the next.
a. Value: the basis of our judgment of what is good and what is bad depending on
the situation and on how an individual make use of them. Example:
pakikisama, honesty, cooperation

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b. Beliefs: statements about reality or convictions that people hold to be true,

and are divided between Primitive/Superstitious beliefs or Scientific
beliefs (beliefs with empirical basis)
c. Symbols: they represent things other than itself. Symbols are composed of:
-Paralanguage: extra linguistic noise
-Objects: physical things
-Gestures: actions and behaviors
-Characteristics: colors, emblems, designs and marks
-Language: a complex system of written, verbal and non-verbal cues that is
governed by grammar and syntax.
2. Normative: guidelines of behavior in our society that tells us what is wrong or
tight, proper or improper in the society. Any deviations from it is followed by
sanctions.
a. Folkways: norms without moral underpinnings; they direct appropriate
behavior in the everyday practices and expressions of a culture.
b. Mores: norms which have moral significance; their source mainly is from the
ten commandments. Example: the universal incest taboo,
monogamy/polygamy
c. Laws: formal and written codes of conduct that have been formally integrated
in the constitutional laws established and created by the state and the sanction
depends upon the degree of violation. Example: Euthanasia, Anti-Abortion
3. Material: any man-made creation or thinking; tangible objects
Technology: refers to techniques and know how in utilizing raw materials to
produce food, tools, shelter, clothing, means of transportation and weapon. These
products become artifacts.

OF CULTURE
Culture exists in multiple levels and it is experienced variably in different cultural
patterns. To further understand the variability of culture, we need to know some basic
patterns of culture that we consciously and unconsciously live with.

High Culture. A term which describes the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes
that exist in the highest, class segments of society.

Popular Culture. Refers to the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in
mainstream society.

Cultural Change: Culture is always evolving. Cultures change when something new
opens up new ways of living and when new ideas enter a culture. (Globalization,
Innovation, Inventions)

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Cultural Lag: coined by William F. Ogburn. It refers to the time that elapses between
when a new item of material culture is introduced and when it becomes an accepted part
of nonmaterial culture.

Ethnocentrism. The practice of judging other’s culture by the standards of one’s own
culture.

Xenocentrism. Considering other’s culture as superior to one’s own.

Cultural Relativism. The practice of judging a culture by its own standards; a particular
pattern of behavior is right or wrong as it is declared by the people who follow it.

C. SOCIALIZATION AND SELF-CONSTRUCTION

Socialization is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of
the society. It describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and
expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values. Socialization is
not the same as socializing (interacting with others, like family, friends, and co-workers);
to be precise, it is a sociological process that occurs through socializing.

Sociologists have long been fascinated by circumstances in which a child receives no

social interaction because they highlight how much we depend on social interaction to
provide the information and skills that we need to be part of society or even to develop a
“self”.

WHY SOCIALIZATION MATTERS

Socialization is just as essential to us as individuals. Social interaction provides the means
via which we gradually become able to see ourselves through the eyes of others, learning
who we are and how we fit into the world around us. In addition, to function successfully
in society, we have to learn the basics of both material land nonmaterial culture,
everything from how to dress ourselves to what’s suitable attire for a specific occasion;
from when we sleep to what we sleep on; and from what’s considered appropriate to eat
for dinner to how to use the stove to prepare it. Most importantly, we have to learn
language in order to communicate and to think.

FUNCTIONS OF SOCIALIZATION
1. Transmission of values, customs, beliefs from one generation to another.
2. Development of a person into a socially functioning person.
3. Social control mechanism.

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

⮚ SOCIAL GROUP AGENTS: Social groups often provide the first experiences of
socialization. Families and later peer groups, communicate expectations and
reinforce norms.

1. FAMILY: the first agent of socialization; influenced by race, social class, religion
and other factors.

2. PEER GROUPS: made up of people who are similar in age and social status and
are sharing the same interests. Peer groups provide their own opportunities for
socialization since kids usually engage in different types of activities with their
peers than they do with their families.

⮚ INSTITUTIONAL AGENTS: The social institutions of our culture also inform our
socialization. Formal institutions—like schools, workplaces, and the government—
teach people how to behave in and navigate these systems. Other institutions, like
the media, contribute to socialization by inundating us with messages about
norms and expectations.

1. SCHOOL: It serves a latent function in society by socializing children into

behaviors like teamwork, following a schedule and using textbooks. School and
classroom rituals regularly reinforce what society expects from children.
Sociologists describe this aspect of schools as the hidden curriculum, the
informal teaching done by schools.

2. RELIGION: It focuses on practices related to formal institutions. From ceremonial

rites of passage that reinforce the family unit, to power dynamics which reinforce
gender roles, religion fosters a shared set of socialized values that are passed on
through society.

3. MASS MEDIA: Refers to the distribution of impersonal information to a wide

audience. It greatly influences social norms, people learn about objects of material
culture (technology options), as well as non-material culture (beliefs, values and
norms).

THEORIES REGARDING THE SELF, SOCIETY and CULTURE

THE LOOKING GLASS SELF THEORY by CHARLES HORTON COOLEY: People’s self-
understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception of how others view them.

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Elements of the Theory:

1. The imagination of how we appear to other persons.
2. The imagination of the judgment of the appearance.

THE GENERALIZED OTHER: ROLE TAKING & ROLE PLAYING THEORY by

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: the self (a person’s distict identity that is developed through
social interaction). Before an individual develops the self, he must first see himself in the
eyes of others through the roles he takes.

STAGES CHARACTERIZATION

Imitation The preparatory stage; they copy the actions of people with whom they regularly
(0-1 year) interact with like their mothers and fathers.
Play Stage Role playing takes place where the child becomes gradually conscious of the role
(2-7 years
he plays but do not have a complete idea of the role; Example: acting out grownup
old) behavior, dress up and acting the mom role, talking on a toy telephone the way
they see their fathers do.
Game (8 Children learn to consider several roles at the same time and how those roles
years old interact with each other. They learn to understand interactions involving different
onwards) people with a variety of purposes.

CLIFFORD GEERTZ: THE IMPACT OF THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE ON THE

CONCEPT OF MAN
Basic Premises:
● It is in a systematic review and analysis of the varying styles of becoming human
that we will find out what it is to be man.
● Elements of culture (marriage, economy, religion, etc.) can be so entwined that
you cannot easily separate any particular layer and analyze it by itself.
● The most fundamental thing about the relationship of culture and man is to look
for what makes people/cultures different and not much on their similarities. It is
more effective to analyse human nature by noting the differences between cultures
that arise over time and space than to try to form vague notions of universals.
● Culture reveals the link between what man is capable of and how he actually
behaves, which in turn helps define human nature.
● Culture is the accumulated totality of symbolic patters that appear in different
societies.
Concepts about Culture and Man:

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

● MAN AS AN UNFINISHED ANIMAL: man’s nature is very much the product of

the society he lives in, hence, man is an unfinished animal because society and
culture evolves and changes.
● CULTURE: cultures are like texts and texts have meanings; meanings are also
enacted and not just pure abstractions, thus, if cultures are texts and texts have
meanings, cultures must be very material and tangible because they are enacted.
● THICK DESCRIPTION: a method of analysis which provides enough context so
that a person outside the culture can make meaning of the behavior of the people
living there, helping a person transition from an outsider to an insider.

ERVING GOFFMAN: DRAMATURGICAL THEORY

a.) Builds on the idea that “men are mere actors and actresses in a large stage called the
society”.
b.) Its key concept is impression management defined as a conscious or subconscious
process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a
person, object or event. They do so by regulating and controlling information in social
interaction.
c.) Impression management and dramaturgy need the combination of certain elements
for it to be successful.

LEARNING ACTIVITY
Heritage mapping
Objectives:
With this activity, the students are expected to:
- Situate their group and personal experience of culture in their respective
hometowns.
- Contextualize how components of culture interact through heritage mapping.
- Identify the significant identifiers of their hometown through group discussion.

Phase 1: Individual Heritage Mapping

Instructions:

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

1. List places, objects, events and community stories which you think symbolizes
your identity as people living in one hometown. List at least two items for each
table.
2. Do this in tabular form. For reference, refer to the example below.
3. Your answers can be expressed in either English or Filipino.

COMMUNITY: BACARRA, ILOCOS NORTE

PLACE WITH CULTURAL CULTURAL IMPACT TO THE SELF

SIGNIFICANCE SIGNIFICANCE

-In the local history of -Knowing my local

● BISLAK RIVER
Bacarra, three Spanish history, specifically the
soldiers saw fisherman story behind the place I
catching fish in this river. consider home, gives me a
They wanted to ask the sense of past and
name of the place but since belongingness to my
the fishermen could not town. As an Ilocano, it
understand Spanish, they makes me more
thought that they were appreciative of the fact
asking for the name of the that within Ilocos Norte
fish. They answered bac- alone, we have our own
bacarra seńor. Since then, versions of how we came
our town was called to be as people.
Bacarra.

OBJECTS WITH CULTURAL CULTURAL IMPACT TO THE SELF

SIGNIFICANCE SIGNIFICANCE

-The domeless bell tower is

● DOMELESS BELL
one of structures which
TOWER
collapsed during the 1990
earthquake. Built by
Spanish friars in the 18th
century, it represents the
strong religious devotion of
Bacarrenos.

EVENTS WITH CULTURAL CULTURAL IMPACT TO THE SELF

SIGNIFICANCE SIGNIFICANCE

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

-Bacarra is an agricultural
● FARMER’S DAY
society and much of our
FESTIVAL
livelihood depends on
farming. Every May of each
year, our best crops, craft
and products per barangay
are displayed during this
event. We all get to see the
creativity and
resourcefulness of every
barangay in coming up with
ingenious products.

COMMUNITY STORIES AND CULTURAL IMPACT TO THE SELF

BELIEFS SIGNIFICANCE

-Growing up, kids at church

● THE MSYTERY OF
would flock in the garden
THE STAIRCASE WELL
OF THE ST. ANDREW where a staircase well is at.
THE APOSTLE We would throw pebbles in
CHURCH the well and compete on
which pebble was thrown
the farthest and deepest.
But at some point, we were
told by parents and
grandparents that the
mysterious staircase well in
the garden of the St.
Andrew Church should not
be disturbed. They told us
that within it are large
treasure chests but no one
can go near it because a
monstrous alligator is
guarding it. Since then,
none of the kids at church
would dare go near the
staircase well again out of
fear that the monstrous

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

alligator would suddenly

get them.

Rubric:

Depth of Analysis 10

Reflective Relevance 15

Coherence and Organization of 5

Thoughts

TOTAL 30

Phase 2: Group Discussion on Heritage Mapping

Instructions:
1. After the individual heritage mapping, students with the same hometowns will be
grouped together.
Note: Some students don’t have townmates in class. Ask them to proceed to
the third instruction.
2. As townmates, they have to compare and contrast their individual work. They will
be asked to fill out a new activity sheet (the same activity sheet they accomplished
individually).
3. To be able to accomplish the group activity sheet, they have to write similar entries
from their individual worksheets. For items with no similar entries, they have to
discuss and decide which among their individual entries should be written in their
group work sheet.
4. After accomplishing the group worksheet, they have to draw a new town emblem
based on their personal knowledge of the heritage of their hometown and the new
things they learned about it when they had the group discussion.
5. Have them present their emblem outputs in class.

Rubric:

Conciseness and originality 15

Group cooperation 10

Overall presentation 5

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

TOTAL 30

Chapter I. Unit 3
THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PSYCHOLOGY
Learning Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. Discuss the different psychological influences, factors and forces that shape the
self.
2. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across the different
disciplines and perspectives.
3. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one’s
self and identity by developing a psychological theory of the self.
____________________________________________________________________________

Main Argument: the self evolves from both observable/repetitive and

unobservable/unconscious behaviors and responses. These behaviors can be classified as
overt and covert, rational and irrational and simple and complex. These patterns of
behavior are believed to come from various experiences as well as unconscious
dimensions of personality.

The Six Questions about Human Nature

Dimension

Are people’s behavior Are people’s behavior

determined by forces out of Determinism vs. Free Will freely, consciously chosen
one’s control? by them?

Are a person’s Are a person’s

characteristics defined characteristics defined
Nature vs. Nurture
mostly by heredity? mostly by the
environment?

Is behavior basically a Is behavior fueled by future

function of past Past vs. Future goals?
experiences?

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

Is the outstanding feature Is the outstanding feature

of people their of people their common
individuality? Does Uniqueness vs. Universality characteristics? Does
personality define personality define likeness?
individual differences?

Are people motivated to Do people have the urge to

maintain a physiological Equilibrium vs. Growth grow and develop?
balance (homeostasis)?

Are people doomed to live Are people capable of

miserable and troubled Optimism vs. Pessimism becoming happy, healthy
lives? human beings?

A. PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF

● Asserts the importance of childhood as a developmental phase in the totality of
self-construction.
● Contends that we go through a series of psychosexual stages.

● Each psychosexual stage has conflicts that we must resolve in order to develop our
adult personality.
● Fixation(s): result of the unresolved conflicts in every stage.

SIGMUND FREUD’S PYSCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

STAGE CONFLICT EROGENOUS IMPLICATIONS TO

ZONE PERSONALITY
ORAL DEPENDENCE Mouth Over stimulated: gullible,
VS. gossiping, dependency
INDEPENDENCE Under stimulated: low self-
esteem, anxious, aggression
ANAL COMPETENCE Anus Anal Retentive: rigid,
VS. meticulous
INFERIORITY Anal Expulsive: messy,
generous
PHALLIC PURPOSE VS. Genitals Oedipus Complex (boys):
ENVY trying to prove toughness
Electra Complex (girls):

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

feeling inferior to men

LATENCY INTIMACY VS. Non-sexual High or low levels of
ISOLATION sociability
GENITAL CONTROL VS. Genitals Unresolved conflicts:
IMPULSE withdrawn from the
opposite sex
Resolved conflicts: loving,
healthy and mature
relationships

Freudian Defense Mechanisms

CARL JUNG’S ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY: reflects on the combination of a person’s

past childhood experiences which will determine not only a person’s future behavior but
also his/her future aspirations.

Jung’s idea of Psychic energy:

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

● The Principle of Opposite: Existence of the opposites or polarities in physical

energy. Ex. Heat vs. cold, creation vs. decay.
● Principle of equivalence – relates to the physical principle of conservation of
energy. Energy expanded in bringing about some condition is not lost but rather is
shifted to another.
● Principle of entropy – equalization of energy differences. Ex. Heat will flow from
the hotter object to the colder object until they are in equilibrium at the same
temperature.

Jung theory of the unconscious

● The Personal Unconscious – compared to pre conscious reservoir of material

that was once conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed.
● Complexes – core pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions and wishes
organized around a common theme. Ex. Person have complex about power or
status, does he / she will invest seeking for achievements or run for election to gain
authority over the other.
● The Collective Unconscious – it accumulates personal experiences of the human
and pre human species in the collective unconscious. This heritage is passed to
each new generation.
● Archetypes – is the ancient experiences contained in the collective
unconsciousness
● The Persona – is the mask that we portray each day. This role we play is necessary
for everyday survival.
● The Anima / Animus archetypes – Human are essentially bisexual. Anima is the
psych contains feminine side of a male while animus is the masculine psych of a
female.
● The Shadow – most powerful and dark side archetype, we conform to live
harmoniously to our society and so we suppressed or fight this shadow.
● Self-Archetype – represent unity, integration, harmony; helps to balance our
personality; the hero, the mother, and wise old men are other archetypes.

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

B. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF

● Psychosocial development involves both the psychological and social development
of a person. This means that a person’s personality is greatly influenced by social
interactions and his/her immediate social environment.
● Erik Erikson is the most notable figure in the theory of psychosocial development.
He focused on the formation of ego identity which he referred to as the conscious
sense of self which we develop through social interaction.
● He asserted that our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experience
and information which we acquire through daily social interaction.
● His primary argument revolves around the idea of being competent in one aspect
of life to healthily proceed to the next. Accomplishing the desired outcome in each
stage’s crisis builds mastery. Not acquiring the favorable outcome in each stage
however, builds an accumulated sense of inefficiency that will bring about life
crises in the future.

ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage Crisis Favorable Unfavorable
Outcome Outcome
Early Childhood Autonomy vs. Will Compulsion or loss
Shame and Doubt of self- control
Play Age Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose Fear of punishment
School Age Industry vs. Competence Sense of Inadequacy
Inferiority
Adolescence Identity vs. Identity Fidelity Confusion or
Confusion identity crisis
Young Adulthood Intimacy vs. Love Avoidance
Isolation
Middle Age Generativity vs. Care Self-Indulgence
Stagnation
Old Age Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom Disgust with Life

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

Source: https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740

C. HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF

● Humanistic psychology is also called as the existentialist theory.

● It is a perspective which emphasizes the good in people, concentrating on the free-

will, self-efficacy and the concept of self-actualization rather than dysfunctions
and fixing what is bad among people.
● Self-actualization in a nutshell, refers to the fulfillment of the maximum potential
of human beings anent to a positive well-being and a transcendental personality.
Humanism further contends thatthis need for fulfillment and personal growth is a
key motivator of all behavior because people are continually looking for new ways
to grow, to become better, to learn new things, and to experience psychological
growth and
self-actualization.

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

CARL ROGERS

● He argued that self-actualization is not just the fulfillment of the ladder of needs.
Rather, he addedthat for a person to "grow", he/she needs an environment that
will provide him/her genuineness (as exemplified in openness and self-disclosure),
acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being
listened to and understood). According to Rogers, without these, relationships and
healthy personalities will not develop as they should.

● As such, he mentions that, “the organism has one basic tendency and striving - to
actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism.”

Rogers’ Personality Theory

● Rogers described the self as “that whole which expresses who we really are” and
that it could be divided into three components:

Self-image How individuals see themselves; one’s ideas about self-image can
be positive or negative and impact what they experience and how
they act.

Self-worth The value individuals place on themselves. It is forged in

childhood through individuals’ interactions with their parents.

Ideal Self The person an individual wants to be. The ideal self-changes as
we grow and our priorities change.

● He further asserted that for this sense of self to ensue and develop, the
following concepts are essential:

Unconditional - Occurs in social situations when an individual is

Positive supported and not judged regardless of what the
Regard individual does or says.
- It instills the needed to experiment with what life has
to offer and make mistakes.
- People who experience unconditional positive regard,
especially from their parents while they are growing
up, are more likely to self-actualize.
Congruence - a concept of the ideal self and the tendency of people
to constantly want to feel and act in ways that are
consistent with this ideal.

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

- Incongruence means identity crisis and it happens

when the ideal self often doesn’t match with the
person’s image of who they are.
- Rogers mentions that if the ideal self and the self-
image have a large degree of overlap, the individual
will come closer to achieving a state of congruence.
- Congruence is achieved through unconditional
positive regard and the pursuit to self-actualization.
Self- - The achievement of a person’s full potential.
actualization - It can only arise in a supportive environment.
The Fully - Rogers mentions the following as the characteristics of
Functioning a fully functioning person coming from expressions of
Person unconditional positive regard, congruence and is near
self-actualization:
- openness to experience
- Living in the moment
- Trust in one’s feelings and instincts
- Self-direction and the ability to make independent
choices
- Creativity and malleability
- Reliability
- Feeling fulfilled and satisfied by life

ABRAHAM MASLOW

● His approach in the construction of a sense of self focused on people’s

subjective experiences, human agency and the innate drive of people towards
self-actualization.
● Maslow laid down that people follow a hierarchy of needs and the fulfillment of
each need leads to the fulfillment of our transcendent or self-actualized self. He
however, noted that our needs change as we go through life and these changes
influence the development of our sense of self.
● For Maslow, self-actualization also includes creative expression, the quest for
spiritual enlightenment, a deep pursuit of knowledge and the desire to give
back to the society.

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http://journalpsyche.org/revisiting-carl-rogers-theory-of-personality/

Learning Activity/Assessment: MANDALA

Instructions:

● Reflect on the class discussion and draw your own mandala.

● You may use any shape, image and color as long as the following layers are
followed.
o First layer/outer layer: should be composed of the things, characteristics
and values that people know about you or the sets of characteristics you are
known for.
o Second layer: should be composed of your dreams, aspirations and goals in
life.

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

o Third layer: should be composed of your fears, rejections and some things
that you want to change or undo because you feel that they are weighing
you down.
o Fourth layer: should express the person you want to become, the person
you do not want to become or the characteristics, values and other things
that you do not want others to know about you.
● You may refer to the following photo guides in making your mandala:

● At the back of your paper, write a concise explanation revealing the following:
o the meanings behind the colors and shapes that you used per layer
o why you chose that shape or image to overall represent your sense of self
o what aspects of your self or personality were you able to uncover while
making your mandala
Activity Rubric

Creativity and Uniqueness 10

Depth of 15
Reflection/Analysis
Congruence of the 15
explanation to the mandala
Total 40

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

Unit 4

THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHT

Learning Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. To compare and contrast Western and Eastern perspectives on the Self
2. To relate these perspectives with individualistic and collectivistic cultures
3. To identify one’s own definition of Self (self-construal) in relation to the overarching
perspective and culture
4. To relate own self-construals to own behavior
_____________________________________________________________________________

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

From the previous units, we have learned how the environment, such as our society and
culture, can influence our understanding of the Self. In the same way, our own biological/natural
makeup, developmental stage, and personal thought processes can influence the way we interpret
the events happening around us and the actions we do in response to these events.

In this unit, we will initially look into two major perspectives - or thoughts – that
influence the way we define the Self. By first understanding how these two broad categories of
thoughts developed, we get to recognize how these thoughts from early civilizations have
developed cultural patterns such as individualism and collectivism. These patterns show
similarities and differences in the way the Self is defined and manifested in the person’s values,
beliefs, goals, cognitive processes (way of thinking), and behavior.

I. The Self in the Western Thought

Because religions usually dictate beliefs on origins of things, definitions of the

Self in the Western thought may be examined from the religions of early civilizations
in the West such as the Sumerian, Judeo-Christian, and Islam religions.

Sumerian mythology. Sumerians were the first civilization to occupy

Mesopotamia. In their creation story, they depicted the gods to be toiling under the
hot sun to make bread to eat. The gods, then, decided to create a servant – Man - out
of clay from the river, so Man would be the one laboring in their place.
Babylonian mythology. As the civilization that replaced the Sumerians in
2500 BC, they adapted some of the mythologies of the Sumerians. In their creation
story, Man was created out of the blood of a slain god so he could serve and satisfy the
other gods.
Judeo-Christian and Islamic beliefs. The Book of Genesis in the Bible, which
is still read until this present time, spoke of God creating Man by fashioning dust and
breathing life into it. Islam’s Quran also asserted Allah (God) to have made Man out
of clay and breathed soul into the body.

These religions all assert the Self (Man) to be distinct from his creator/creators.
Man’s substance is different from God, and Man was generally created to serve God.

If we consider these religious beliefs together with other Western philosophies

and psychological theories discussed in the previous units of this chapter, we can
figure out how the Self is acknowledged to be a separate, distinct entity. There is an
assumption of the Self as the thinker of thoughts, doer of deeds, and feeler of feelings.
The Self has his/her own conscious and unconscious thoughts, own behaviors that
may be observed apart from other people’s behaviors, and experiences that may differ
from others. Efforts are, then, directed towards the enhancement of the Self’s
existence, such as self-actualization.

II. The Self in the Eastern Thought

By investigating also the established religions and philosophies from the East,
we can learn how the Self is conceived in the Eastern perspective.

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

Hinduism. The Hindu hymn Rig-Veda from the Vedas described the beginning
to be “non-existent nor existent,” no death nor immortality, and day and night to be
undivided. In the Upanishads, the Self was narrated to be the only one in the
beginning. The Self in the shape of a person (Purusha) created another person for a
wife out of himself. When they embraced, Man was created. The wife tried to hide
from Purusha by transforming herself into a cow, but Purusha followed by
transforming himself into a bull. Thus, cows were created. The wife, then,
transformed into a mare; Purusha transformed himself into a stallion. Thus, horses
were created. The hide-and-seek game consisted the rest of the creation story.
Therefore, all things created are made up of the same Self which was in the beginning.
The Self, called the Brahman, is inside everyone and everything. The creator and the
created are unified, such that worshiping one is worshiping the other (Wolter, 2013).
The Atman, which is the non-material Self/soul can be reincarnated and expressed
into another being. With these held beliefs, Hinduism values respect, tolerance,
patience, acceptance, empathy, austerity, compassion, and transience.

Buddhism. The Buddhists believe that incompleted transactions and actions in

the past can be accumulated and are carried forward to present experience. This
“karma” or accumulated past events includes past actions of the person, the group, or
the community. The present Self is, then, understood to be interconnected with the
past. What the Self has in the present are just strongly held beliefs of the past that the
person delusionally thinks to be his/her own (Page & Berkow, 1991). There is in reality
“no Self” in that what exists to be a person in the present time is just a combination of
five groups of elements or skandhas: form, feelings, perceptions, impulses, and
consciousness. The “Self” is just a convenient label of how one can call the current
arrangement of skandhas that may be dismantled and rearranged again in the future.
The “Self” of the present, therefore, needs not to struggle against the rest of the world
because it is integrally interconnected with the universe. Buddhism aims to free the
Self from the illusion of being an individual separate from the universe.

Taoism. Tao is believed to be the ultimate life source of the whole universe; the
pattern and substance of everything that exists. While Tao may be described in this
manner, it cannot be clearly defined but only understood as a person adopts a free-
flowing, relative, unitary and paradoxical view on all things. The concept of Yin and
Yang depict harmony and complementarity of different forces, with one being
dependent on the other. With the Self being a part of the universe, an ideal Self is the
selfless Self – one that is in harmony and balance with the nature and others by
embracing simplicity and acceptance of things as they are.

Confucianism. Confucianism places high regard for harmony and status of the
community. The Self is closely knit with the identity/status of his/her
family/community such that one’s failure is the failure of the family and the family’s
accomplishments are considered to be one’s own. The family/community educates

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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I

the person through rituals on how to behave and understand the Self as part of the
group. Filial piety or the respect for parents and ancestors is one of the most
important virtues inculcated on the person. This involves a recognition of the
hierarchy within the family and a recognition also of the family’s status in a broader
community. Self-cultivation is regarded as a way to bring harmony within the
family/community because the accomplishment of one’s Self brings honor to the
family.

Given these perspectives, it may be gleaned that Eastern thought propagates a

sense of oneness of the Self with others. There is an existence of thoughts without a
thinker, deeds without a doer, and feelings without a feeler. The world is likened into
a drama with all of the things in the world as not made but as acted in the same way
as a player acts parts. There is an emphasis of the Self to be a part of and in harmony
with others.

III. Individualism and Collectivism

Now, how do these two broad perspectives relate with culture and the Self?

Individualism-collectivism as a dimension of (or a way of looking into) culture

was first coined by Geert Hofstede in 1980. This was developed by Harry Triandis, and
later on together with Michele Gelfand.

Individualism refers to societies where relationships are loosely connected and

everyone is expected to look after oneself and one’s immediate family. This culture
may be usually observed where the Western perspective is largely embodied.
Collectivism, on the other hand, refers to societies where relationship bonds within a
group are strongly cultivated since birth and people are expected to loyally continue
protecting the group’s welfare throughout one’s lifetime. This closely takes after the
Eastern perspective where collectivistic cultures may be usually observed.

Here are the attributes that can be commonly found in individualistic and in
collectivistic cultures:

Attributes Individualism Collectivism

View of Self Self as independent from Self as interdependent with

others. The Self is more or others. Self may change
less stable. depending on situations.

Goals Individual goals are Group goals are prioritized.

prioritized.

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Behavior Behavior is determined by Behavior is determined by

one’s attitudes, personal norms, obligations, and
needs, individual rights, and duties.
established contracts.

Relationships Small, private relationships Communal relationships are

are maintained. One usually most frequent. Individuals
leaves unsatisfactory stay even when relationships
relationships. are unpleasant.

Cognitions (way of Analytic, linear and dualistic. Holistic and dialectical.

thinking) Attention is focused on Attention is focused on
objects, details, and themes and contextual
categories. information. Two seemingly
opposite forces may coexist.

Attributions Dispositional. Traits and Situational. External forces,

attributes of individuals context, and situations
determine events. determine events.

Norms Competition; self- Cooperation; group loyalty

enhancement; self-expression and social order

Emotions Disengaged from others Engaged and moderate in

expression

In 1995, Triandis added vertical and horizontal dimension of individualism and

collectivism. He argued that individualism and collectivism can both be horizontal and
vertical. Here are the common features, as described by Triandis:

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Vertical Vertical
Collectivism Individualism
Self as part of the Self is autonomous /
collective/group independent
Believes and accepts Acknowledges that
inequality and hierarchy inequality will exist
within the collective among individuals and
accepts this inequality

Horizontal Horizontal
Collectivism Individualism
Self as part of the Self as autonomous
collective Believes that equality
Perceives all the among individuals is the
members of the ideal
collective to be equal

While Eastern and Western thoughts may seem exact opposites of each other,
similarities can still be observed. For one, there is a general understanding of the person as
the same across time and space, such as a person for the Western thought is an individual
entity whether the person lives in China or in Spain or whether the person lived 500 years
ago or at the present time in history. Similarly for the Eastern perspective such as the
Buddhist’s, a person is a combination of skandhas whether the person be in China or Spain,
or lived 500 years ago or at the present time.
Furthermore, there are aspects of Eastern thoughts that may be observed also on
Western thoughts, vice versa. Relationships also perpetuate in the Western thoughts in the
form of equality and respect for the rights of others. Recognition of a mystic/Supreme Being
or Cosmos is also present in the Western thought. Judeo-Christian and Islamic beliefs
(particularly its earlier form - Sufism), acknowledges Man to be breathed by the Spirit of
God, in that God has breathed his spirit into Man, thus making Man not distinctly different
from God. On the other hand, a recognition of individuality may also be perceived in the
Eastern perspective in the form of inner nature for Taoism, self-cultivation for
Confucianism, and Atman for Hinduism. Eastern perspective also acknowledges personal
responsibility.
Indeed, in places where a certain perspective propagates – whether it be Eastern or
Western, there still could be detected mixtures of individualistic and collectivistic
attributes. As there are similarities that may be seen between the Eastern and Western
thoughts, other aspects aside from these two broad perspectives can also impact a person’s
individualistic or collectivistic inclinations. These include ecological context (agricultural
societies as more collectivistic), wealth distribution (wealthy being more individualistic),
and demographics (persons of color to be higher in collectivism) among others. With all
these factors coming into play, it should also be emphasized that the Self cannot be entirely

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individualistic/private or entirely collectivistic. The Self remains to be in constant

interaction with the context the Self is a part of.

LEARNING ACTIVITY
A. 20 I AM’s
Objective:
1. To reflect on one’s understanding of Self
2. To understand how Self may be defined differently and similarly by people

Instructions:

This activity allows people to express themselves in relation to the Self.

Step 1: With each student having a sheet of paper, instruct the students to complete 20 “I am __”
sentences. Statements may include how one may introduce him/herself, what makes one happy,
what dreams/ambitions one has, and what kind of life one envisions to have.

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Step 2: Students will then be asked to form small groups where they would discuss among
themselves 3 of the 20 “I am” statements they have written that describes them the most. Let the
members of the small group consider similarities and differences in each other’s answers.

Step 3: As a class, process the individual answers by looking into the frequency of independent
self-construals compared with interdependent self-construals. Independent self-construals may
be seen in identification of one’s own ability, interests, and name. Interdependent self-construals
may be observed in the identification of one’s membership in a group/family, role in a
group/family/society, and goals directed towards the betterment of the group one belongs in.
Discuss the similarities and differences in the frequencies of their independent/interdependent
self-construal answers, and any realizations one may have upon learning one’s own and other’s
self-construals.

B. MAY KASABIHAN TAYO

Objective:
1. To appreciate one’s understanding of the Self as embedded in the culture one is in
2. To appreciate how adages can be used to educate people into a cultural perspective

Instructions:

This activity explores the different age-old quotes that our culture has.

Step 1: On a piece of paper, write down a common quotation that you hear from older people. It
may be in Iluko or Tagalog. Example: “Ang lumakad nang matulin, kung matinik ay malalim.

Step 2: Students will then be asked to form small groups where they would discuss among
themselves the chosen adage and its meaning. Relate this adage with how a person is supposed to
think, feel, or behave. Analyze if the quote suggests a more individualistic or collectivistic
orientation.

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ASSESSMENT

As an assessment, let each student answer the Individualism and Collectivism Scale of Triandis
and Gelfand (1998). This scale measures one’s level of individualism/collectivism and
vertical/horizontal orientation. After answering, the students are to write on their learning
journals reflections on the results of the scale with the following guide questions:

● What does the result say about you?

● In what ways in your life can the scale’s results be directly observed? Do you have habits,
behaviors, or automatic way of deciding on things that may be related with the results you
got from the scale? Do you have values or beliefs that reflect a certain way of thinking?
● In what instances can you say that you act differently from the usual (i.e., if you rank
highly in horizontal individualism, were there times that you are not like that?)
● What have you learned about yourself after doing the scale and reflecting on your
behaviors?
● How do you think understanding the differences in one’s cultural orientation can help you
relate with others who may have similar or different cultural orientations as yours?

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Culture Orientation Scale (Individualism-Collectivism Scale) by Triandis and Gelfand

(1998):

Answer from a scale of 1 to 9, with 1 = never or definitely no and 9 = always or definitely yes.

___ 1. I’d rather depend on myself than others.

___ 2. It is important that I do my job better than others.
___ 3. If a classmate gets a prize, I would feel proud.
___ 4. Parents and children must stay together as much as possible.
___ 5. I rely on myself most of the time; I rarely rely on others.
___ 6. Winning is everything.
___ 7. The well-being of my classmates is important to me.
___ 8. It is my duty to take care of my family, even when I have to sacrifice what I want.
___ 9. I often do “my own thing.”
___ 10. Competition is the law of nature.
___ 11. To me, pleasure is spending time with others.
___ 12. Family members should stick together, no matter what sacrifices are required.
___ 13. My personal identity, independent of others is very important to me.
___ 14. When another person does better than I do, I get tensed and aroused.
___ 15. I feel good when I cooperate with others.
___ 16. It is important to me that I respect the decisions made by my groups.

Scoring:
For Horizontal Individualism, add the following items: 1, 5, 9, 13
For Vertical Individualism, add the following items: 2, 6, 10, 14
For Horizontal Collectivism, add the following items: 3, 7, 11, 15
For Vertical Collectivism, add the following items: 4, 8, 12, 16

Rubric:

Interpretation of the scale to one’s self 10

Use of relevant examples in one’s life 15

Overall clarity of points and connection to the 5

topic

TOTAL 30

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