Chapter 6

Reclamation of Sodic Lands and Efficient Irrigation Water

Management Practices
6.1 Introduction

In general most of the soils identified in the study area, those to be irrigated are
moderate to marginally suitable for furrow irrigation of sugar cane plantation. In
particular, concern is sodicity, salinity, flooding and drainage. In general soils
identified in the study area are fine textured. Soils of lacustrine sediments are
generally high to extremely sodic in nature and require reclamation. Similarly soils
of Assaiyta delta particularly near lakes are also affected by moderate sodicity.
Under mechanized farming of the fine textured soils, structural deterioration may
result. These problems may be aggravated by sub-optimal standard of farm
management. In this chapter measures to reclaim the sodic lands of project area
and methods efficiently irrigation water managed are described below.

6.2 Reclamation of Saline - Sodic Land of Project Area

The soils of the project area are mainly characterized by fine (clay, silty clay, silty
loam) to very fine (clay- vertisol, heavy clay, dispersed soil structure), texture
affected by sodicity, moderate to moderately slow permeability and moderately
well to imperfect drainage. With respect to sodicity soils of the project area for
sugarcane cultivation are classified into following three categories.
i. Non saline to slightly sodic soil : ESP < 10 %
ii. Moderately
saline-sodic : ESP 10-15 %
iii. Highly Saline
sodic : ESP 15-20%
iv. Extremely
saline -sodic : ESP > 20%

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In addition the ECe also varies from slightly to moderately saline. Thus soils of the
project area are saline -sodic in nature. In order to harvest potential yields of sugar
cane the soil should be free form sodicity problem. Soils can be reclaimed using
following amendments.

6.2.1 Addition of gypsum (Ca SO4 2H2O )

Reclamation /improvement of sodic soils

The reclamation of sodic soils are more difficult than the reclamation of saline
soils. There are there distinct processes for efficient reclamation of sodic lands viz:
I) Replacement /exchange of adsorbed sodium ions, by calcium ions on
the exchange complex.
II) To increase hydraulic conductivity/ permeability, and
III) Leaching of sodium salts from the soil profile
Excessive exchangeable sodium can be replaced by any cheap source of calcium
and magnesium salt as calcium chloride, magnesium chloride and gypsum. Soluble
calcium and magnesium salts are suitable for the reclamation of alkali soils. Of
these salts, calcium and magnesium chlorides are quick in reaction but are too
expansive to be used on commercial basis for reclamation purposes. However,
gypsum, by virtue of its low solubility and low cost, is quit suitable and is widely
used. In calcareous alkali soil some acid forming reagents can also bring about
reclamation by dissolving calcium carbonate and creating acidity. These acidifying
materials are: i) sulpher ii) sulpheric acid, iii) iron sulphate, iv) aluminum
sulphate, and v) lime sulpher.

The choice of the ameliorants depends on the soil pH, the amount of calcium or
manganese carbonate present, cost of the ameliorants, speed of the reaction desired,
soil condition, quality of water available and cost benefit ratio of reclamation. Of
these materials sulphuric acid and iron and aluminum sulphates are quit reactive
whereas sulpher is to be oxidized by microbial activity before it could act as an
ameliorate agent, and hence it acts slowly.

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The following chemical equations illustrate the manner in which some of the
ameliorants react with alkali soils. In these question the X represents the soil
exchange complex.

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1. Gypsum 2NaX + Ca SO4 = CaX2 + Na2 SO4
2. Sulpher 2S + 3O2 + 2 H2O = 2 H2SO4
3. Sulphuric acid Ca CO3 + H2SO4 = CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
2CaCO3 + H2SO4 = CaSO4 + Ca (HCO3)2

Use of amendment for reclamation of sodic soils

The quantity of amendment necessary for the reclamation of a particular field

depends up on the quantity of the exchangeable sodium present on the clay surface.
This can be calculated on the equivalent basis of sodium to be replaced by calcium
though adding gypsum in sodic soil.

6.2.2 Calculation of gypsum requirement for project sodic soils

The step – by - step procedure for determining the amount of gypsum required to
reclaim a sodic soil is given below.

Step 1

The basic principle governing the use of gypsum, as an amendment is that 1 meq of
Ca++ will replace 1meq of NaX (adsorbed Na+ ion) and it is assumed that
exchange process is 100% efficient.

Step 2

Calculate the equivalent weight of gypsum CaSO4, 2H2O

i.e. (40 + 32 + 64 + 4 + 32)/2 =172/2 = 86 g.

Step 3

1meq of gypsum i.e. 86/1000 = 0.086 g per 100 g of soil is required to replace 1
meq. of 1 NaX (where X is soil complex which adsorb the cations).

Step 4

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Calculate the mass of soil of 1 hectare area of furrow slice of 15 cm depth, which
can be worked out by multiplying the volume of soil by its bulk density, as volume
of soil is length x width x depth i.e. 100 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 15 = 15 x 108 cm3

The average bulk density of soil is 1 g cm- 3 The mass of 1 ha – 15 cm. depth works
out to 15 x 108 x 1.5 = 2.25 x 10g = 2.25 x 106 kg.

Steps 5

The amount of gypsum required replacing I meq of Na X per 100g of soil is as 100
gm. of soil requires the quantity of gypsum 0.086g.
As 100g. of soil requires the quantity of gypsum = 0.086g.

Thus 2.25 x 109g. of soil requires the quantity of gypsum = 0.086 x 2.25 x109/100
g = 0.086X2.25 x107/1000kg
= 1935 kg. /ha for 15 cm soil depth.

Step 6

Field application efficiency of gypsum is about 1.25 x gypsum requirement. Thus

the total quantity of gypsum required works out to 1935 x 1.25 kg.

Step 7

Calculate the gypsum requirement to reduce the sodicity i.e. lowering of ESP Two
aspects i.e. CEC and ESP have to be taken in account. This can be understood by
following example.

Example

Calculate the gypsum requirement for the reclamation of a sodic soil of Lacustrilrie
plain having initial ESP as 30, which have to be reduced to 12. The CEC of the soil
is 20 meq. per 100g. and the gypsum is to be added to the depth of 45 cm. The
calculation is as follows.

Solution

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Step 1

The ESP to be reduced = initial ESP – Final ESP = 30 – 12 = 18

Step 2

Recall the relation of ESP = NaX x 100 / CEC

Thus NaX = ESP x CEC / 100 = 18 x 20 / 100 = 3.60meq / 100g of soil

As 1 NaX requires for the replacement the quantity of gypsum = 1935 kg. for 15
cm soil depth.
Thus 3.6 NaX requires for the replacement the quantity of gypsum =
1935 x 3.6 = 6966 kg. for 15 cm soil depth.

For 45 cm soil depth gypsum required = 6966 x 3 = 20,898 kg

On considering in efficiency total quantity of gypsum thus required

= 20,898 x 1.25 = 26,125.50kg = approximate 26 tone.

Ans. Thus about 26 tones of gypsum is required to be mixed in 1 ha. land to a depth
of 45 cm.

A thumb rule to calculate gypsum requirement is “find out the quantity of gypsum
required for 1 NaX multiplied by the quantity of NaX to be lowered.

Accordingly above calculation can be simplified as

1.935 x (20 x18 /100) x 3 x 1.25 = 26.125 tone

= (gypsum required for 1 NaX) x (NaX to be replaced by gypsum) x (depth of soil)

x (efficiency factor) = Total quantity of gypsum required.

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6.3 Leaching Requirement

Leaching requirement (LR) is the minimum amount of irrigation water supplied

that must be drained through the root zone to control soil salinity at the given
specific level. Clay loam soils with good drainage and where rainfall is low the
leaching requirement can be obtained from:

i. For surface irrigation methods (including sprinklers) LR = ECw/5ECe-ECw

ii. For drip

and high frequency sprinkler (near daily) LR= ECw /2 Max Ece

Where

EC w = electrical conductivity of the irrigation water, dS/m

ECe = electrical conductivity of the soil saturation extract for a given
crop appropriate to the tolerable degree of yield reduction.
MaxECe = maximum tolerable electrical conductivity of the soil saturation extract
for a given crop.

Press-mud is a waste material of sugar production is rich in calcium. When it is

added to sodic soils and it releases soluble Ca ++ which replaces Na+, thereby
reclaiming sodic lands. It is the waste product in sugar factory, which is available in
large quantity. When it is added to sodic soils these soils can be reclaimed.

6.4 Addition of organic manures and press-mud of sugar factory waste

Incorporation of organic manures including farm yard manure, green manuring,

addition of straw and crop residues in sodic lands facilitate the reclamation of sodic
soils. Researches have shown that when farm yard manure (FYM) is incorporated
in soil with gypsum has higher beneficial effects. These help in formation of
organic acids lowering of pH, release of cations. By solubilisation of CaCO3 and

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other soil minerals thereby increasing the EC and replacement of exchangeable Na
by Ca & Mg and thereby lowering ESP.

Highly dispersed alkali soils are devoid of soil organic matter and green manuring
with Sesbania acueata in summer is helpful in reclaiming such soils. Green
manuring adds soil organic matter and increases soil fertility. The effectiveness of
Sesbasia acueata is due to the following characteristics: I) it is tolerant to salt and
water logging conditions, ii) its rooting system is extensive, iii) it opens compact
subsoil and improves soil permeability, iv) its rate of decomposition is fast, and v)
its cell sap is acidic and is capable of neutralizing the alkalinity of the soil.

6.5 Irrigation Scheduling

The depth of water to be applied at each irrigation and the time interval between
successive irrigations are important considerations in irrigations scheduling.
Applying water too frequently or too infrequently can result in reduced crop yields
or reduced water use efficiency. The optimum depth of irrigation and the interval
between two irrigations are determined by such factors as the atmospheric
evaporativity, proliferation and depth of root penetration, capacity of the soil to
store and transmit water and the nature of plant responses to soil moisture stress.
For crops other than rice, irrigation management presents major difficulties in
obtaining optimum crop yields in sodic soils. Excess exchangeable sodium
profoundly influences soil water behaviour and therefore the irrigation management
needs of these soils.

6.5.1 Preparation of irrigation schedule based on Soil-Crop-Climate

interrelation

Optimum growth and high yields of sugarcane and efficient use of water in crop
production is achieved when planning, design and operation of water supply and
distribution system is geared toward meeting the crop water needs in quantity and
time. In fact, over a growing season of a crop, its water requirements vary with
depth and time. Such variations are attributed to the highly dynamic nature of Soil
Water Plant- Atmosphere Continuum (SPAC) system.

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 It is, therefore, exceedingly important to operate the supply and distribution system
to deliver the water to fields for meeting the changing water requirements of crops
over a growing season. The supply requirements at field level, which are known as
field irrigation schedules, are expressed in I) frequency or irrigation interval in days
and ii) net depth of water application in mm.

Timely irrigation is of over-riding importance particularly when crop is sensitive to

water stress. Delayed irrigation affects the growth and yield of crops. The main
variables in determining irrigation interval are:

a. Water holding capacity of root zone soil depth

b. Effective rooting depth
c. Level of available water depletion without affecting the crop yields
and
d. Crop water requirement i.e. crop evaportanspiration

6.5.2 When to Irrigate (irrigation interval) and how much to irrigate (irrigation
depth)

In order to decide the depth of irrigation to be applied for different crops and when to
irrigate is calculated using Soil-Crop-Climate Interrelations. The soil is a reservoir for
water as it is stored in root zone. The climate acts as sink for water and creates
evaporative demand for loss of water from plant and soil as well. In the process of
evaportanspiration water travels from soil to root to leaf and finally to the atmosphere.
Accordingly, the different components comprising soil, crop characteristics and
evaportanspiration governing the irrigation scheduling are discussed below;

i) Available water of different soil types

Available water in soil as defined as the difference of water content at field capacity
(FC) minus water content at permanent wilting point (PWP). More explicitly this is
known as total available water (TAW) which varies according to pore geometry of
deferent textural classes and expressed as mm/ meter depth of soil i.e.

TAW = FC – PWP

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The total available water widely varies with soil texture. AS determine I ILRI
laboratory the approximate value of TAW for fine textured soil of project area is
about 200 m/m,

ii. Effective rooting depth of sugarcane grown in project area is 1 m

Effective rooting depth may be defined as the soil depth from which the crop
extracts most of soil water needed for evaportanspiration. The effective rooting
depth varies with many factors as crop genotype, crop varieties, crop growth stages,
soil cover, availability of soil water content, presence of hard pan or relatively
impermeable layer within soil profile, salinity status of the soil etc, Effective
rooting depth plays a significant role in deciding irrigation interval as it is closely
related to the availability of water to support the evaportanspiration rates.
Sugarcane effective rooting depth is about 1.0 metre, however it can grow to a
depth of 3 metres.

6.5.3 To calculate the irrigation interval for project soils the calculation
procedure is as follow.

i. The total available water of fine textured silty clay loam soil is about
200 mm/m soil depth as determined in ILRI Laboratory at Addis
Ababa.
ii. The evaportanspiration (ETm) at peak growth stage is about 7
mm /day.
iii. Rooting depth at peak growth stage is 1 meter, and
iv. Soil water depletion fraction at maximum ET is about 0.4

Thus
Irrigation Interval = 200x0.4 = 80 = 11 days
7 7

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However, 2 to 3 days are required to reach soil to field capacity after irrigation.
Thus irrigation interval = 11 + 3 = 14 days (two weeks)
Thus irrigation interval at peak growth stage is 14 days i.e. two weeks, and depth of
irrigation is 80 mm.

The irrigation schedules for entire crop growth period can be prepared by using as
described in FAO Irrigation & Drainage publication No 24 –Crop Water
Requirement. .

6.6. Deep Tillage

The deficient physical properties of the heavy textured soils identified in the study
area are liable to be aggravated by improper timing of field operation under
mechanized farming for sugar cane. This improvement can only be achieved when
the soil moisture content is neither too high (wet and saturated soils) nor too low
(dry soils). Taking heavy tractors and ploughing on the land when conditions are
too wet will easily result in increasing bulk density and surface crusting, reducing
soil aeration, surface infiltration and soil permeability through compaction. In order
to avoid this, the mould board plough can be used in mechanized farming for sugar
cane plantation. The objective is to diminish compaction as much as possible and to
keep the biggest part of the residues on the soil surface. Mulching and better soil
management may give better soil workability.

6.7 Extensive Irrigation System

Extensive irrigation system may be defined as a farming practice where water

availability is limited and the large area to be irrigated. Generally the irrigation
projects are not designed for this type of approach. However, recently considering
the water availability is short and large area to be irrigated an effort has to be made
to introduce this concept in Tendaho Project. Under extensive irrigation the crop
water requirement is not fully met i.e. partially met and as a result the crop may
experience the water stress during its growing season. As a result the yield of

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individual crop may be less than its potential yield. However, the total crop
production of the area may increase as the crops are grown in large hectarage. The
important aspects of extensive irrigation are as follows.

i. Selection of stress resistant cane varieties under limited water availability.

ii. Judicious use of water through proper

irrigation scheduling.

Selection of resistant cane varieties of under limited water availability.

Under extensive irrigation system the sugarcane varieties resistant to water stress
are chosen. These varieties should have the yield response factor i.e. ky < 1.

Judicious use of water through proper irrigation scheduling.

Under extensive irrigation judicious use of water application plays an important

role. The crop must be irrigated at least at their critical growth stages. Generally
plant establishment and reproductive phases are considered as sensitive growth
stages. Therefore, a care must be taken that under extensive irrigation system the
water should be made available at these critical stages however the crop may
experience the stress under non critical growth stages. The over all irrigation
requirements are less for the crops grown under extensive irrigation system as
compared to the crop grown in intensive irrigation system.

On considering above parameters extensive irrigation is planned. The important

features for extensive irrigation are as follows:

i. Under
extensive irrigation the sugarcane varieties resistant to stress are selected.

ii. Under
extensive irrigation water availability is limited. The quantity of water not
adequately available to meet the peak crop water requirement.(ETm)

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 iii. Crops experience stress during growing period.

iv. There is no
risk of water logging under extensive irrigation, particularly imperfectly
to poorly drained soils.

6.8 Recommendations

In general most soils identified within the command area are moderately to
marginally suitable to irrigated sugarcane agricultural development. The limitations
are drainage, sodicity, and to some extent salinity. It should be also emphasized that
land suitability evaluation results are only guidelines and is a matter of careful
technical and practical judgment.

Therefore, the following are recommended:

 Increased soil fertility may be achieved by mulching and then applying artificial
fertilizer

 Ploughing back in of crops residues and mulching should be encouraged to

raise very low carbon levels and to improve topsoil structure of the soils.
Legumes may also improve top soil structure, by adding nitrogen to soil by
fixation from atmosphere thereby.

 Some land units can be affected by erosion, and this can be controlled, through
careful planning and implementation of properly laid-out optimum size of farm
units and adoption of efficient water management & agronomic practices.

 In the project area –fallowing pracctices should be discouraged and green

manuring is strongly recommended. It is generally believed, that fallowing is
far less beneficial to the soil than green manuring, and that fertilizer are
efficient when applied to a soil with abundant organic matter, biologically
sound and well structured.

 Therefore in the long range planning of farming pattern, forage crops should be
included in the rotation. Dairy cattle breeding might be profitable if good and

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 abundant fodder is available. The rotational crops, most probably green
manures may occur only every 4 years on the sugar cane plantations.

 Crop rotation is recommended, because it is essential for controllingsoil

productivity. Alternate appropriate crops in accordance with a pre-established
schedule helps to keep the soils in good biological condition and to control the
erosion risk, increases its water holding capacity, provides to take full
advantage of fertilizer, prevents the unbalanced depletion of plant nutrients and
counteracts development of the toxic substances.

Most of soils identified in the study area showed significant levels of sodicity
and salinity. Therefore, the appropriate management of the soils to mitigate the
Na adverse effect and leaching requirement to alleviate the adverse salinity
effect should be exactly investigated and quantified.

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