15 Lens Impact

Resistance and
Testing

T he optical finishing laboratory is the last step

before lenses and frame become finished
eyewear. When the product is assembled, it must be
suitable for wear. The product’s suitability involves legal,
optical, and aesthetic aspects. To be suitable for wear,
the spectacles must be safe enough to pass certain
preestablished standards. This section investigates impact
resistance and how impact resistance is determined to
be sufficient.

General Eyewear Categories

Eyewear is divided into the following three broad
categories:
1. Dress eyewear: designed for everyday use
2. Safety eyewear: designed to meet higher standards of
impact resistance because it will be worn in situations
that could be potentially hazardous to the eyes
3. Sports eyewear: designed to protect the eyes and/or
enhance vision in specific sports situations; the design
varies by sport

Requirements for Dress Eyewear

There did not used to be any impact-resistance
requirements for dress ophthalmic lenses in the United
States. The United States is currently the only country
with an impact-resistance requirement for dress eyewear.1
1
Impact resistance compliance guide: street/dress eyewear (not industrial
eyewear), Falls Church, Va, 1998, Optical Laboratory Association, p 3.
In many countries it is possible to surface glass lenses to the patient, explaining that the patient is receiving
as thin as 0.3 mm and still dispense the lenses for a lens that is not impact resistant.
regular spectacle lens wear. Such lenses appear thin Q: May a physician or optometrist prescribe
and are still considered optically excellent. However, non–impact-resistant lenses for a patient for purely
they afford little protection for the eyes, and in many cosmetic reasons?
situations end up becoming a hazard to the wearer. A: No. If medical problems are related to cosmetic
considerations, however, the physician or optometrist
may invoke special exemption provisions of the
FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION regulation based on professional judgment. For
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began example, if the patient’s prescription cannot be filled
mandating impact resistance for dress ophthalmic by impact-resistant lenses because the physician or
lenses in 1971. Since then all eyeglass and sunglass optometrist knows from previous experience that
lenses must be impact resistant, except when the opto- the weight of the heavy lenses may cause headaches,
metrist or physician finds that they will not otherwise undue pressure on the bridge of the nose or ears,
fulfill the patient’s visual requirements. If the lens pressure sores, etc., the physician or optometrist may
cannot be rendered impact resistant, this must be find that the visual requirements of the patient
recorded in the patient’s record and the patient also cannot be met by use of impact-resistant lenses.
must be notified in writing.
For lenses to qualify for impact resistance, they must
meet certain qualifications.
Situations for Dispensing Non–Impact-Resistant
Lenses
Some dispensers may assume that a written agreement
MINIMUM THICKNESS FOR DRESS
having the patient assume responsibility makes it
OPHTHALMIC LENSES
possible to dispense non–impact-resistant lenses. This
does not ensure freedom from liability. The following Formerly the American National Standards Institute
are the FDA’s responses to three frequently asked (ANSI) Z80.1 prescription lens standards had a
questions regarding dispensing non–impact-resistant minimum thickness recommendation of 2.0 mm. Now
lenses2: no thickness recommendation exists. FDA impact-
resistance requirements are—and have always been—
Q: Under what circumstances may retailers
performance-based; the lens must be capable of with-
dispense lenses that are not impact resistant?
standing a predetermined amount of impact. If that
A: Lenses that are not impact resistant may be
requirement can be met with lenses that are thinner
dispensed when a physician or optometrist determines
than 2.0 mm, the lens is acceptable. Today many lenses
that impact-resistant lenses will not fulfill the visual
can meet current impact-resistance requirements and still
requirements of a particular patient. The physician
be below 2.0 mm, including some types of glass lenses.
or optometrist directs this in writing and gives written
notification to the patient.
Q: Can a retailer supply a non–impact-resistant IMPACT-RESISTANCE TEST
lens if a patient requests it or if the patient/customer REQUIREMENTS
agrees to assume all responsibility?
The standard “referee test” for determination of impact-
A: No. Non–impact-resistant lenses may be provided
resistance suitability for dress ophthalmic lenses is the
only when the physician or optometrist determines
drop-ball test. This test has specific administration
that impact-resistant lenses will not fulfill the visual
guidelines. However, the FDA states that this does not
requirements of the patient…. In such cases the
inhibit the lens manufacturer from using equal or
physician or optometrist must give notice in writing
superior test methods to test for impact resistance.

2
Snesko WN, Stigi JF: Impact resistant lenses: questions and answers, HHS
Publication FDA 87-4002, Rockville, Md, Revised September 1987, US THE DROP-BALL TEST
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service,
Food and Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Radiological To be judged acceptable, first a lens is placed front-
Health, pp 11-12. side-up on a neoprene gasket. It must be capable of

293
294 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

Drop-Ball Testing of Glass Lenses

With few exceptions, all glass lenses must be hardened
and individually subjected to the drop-ball test. Only
lenses that could be damaged by the test are exempt.
These lenses must still be hardened but do not need to
be tested. Glass lenses that are exempt from testing are
the following:
• Raised multifocal lenses (lenses that have a ledge
area on the lens, such as an Executive lens)
• Prism segment multifocals
• Slab-off lenses
• Lenticular cataract lenses
• Iseikonic (size) lenses
• Depressed-segment one-piece multifocals
• Biconcave, myodisc, and minus lenticular lenses
• Custom laminate lenses (such as polarizing lenses)
• Cement assembly lenses

INDIVIDUAL VERSUS BATCH TESTING

Batch testing is the practice of selectively testing a
statistically significant number of lenses in a manufactured
group. This prevents having to test individually lenses
that could sustain damage by the test. The practice of
batch testing is permitted for plastic lenses and
nonprescription lenses such as mass-produced sunglass
lenses. Glass, plano-powered sunglass lenses that are
FIGURE 15-1 A drop-ball tester drops a steel ball on the
produced individually in a finishing laboratory must
front surface of a lens from 50 inches.
still be individually drop-ball tested.

Performing Batch Testing

withstanding the impact of a 5/8-inch steel ball weighing Most—but not all—lens manufacturers normally batch-
0.56 ounce, dropped from a height of 50 inches (Figure test for finished lens product impact resistance. This
15-1). (The exact specifications for the drop-ball test allows finished plastic lenses edged in a finishing
are given in Appendix C.) laboratory to avoid individual testing or batch testing.
The area of contact that the dropped steel ball makes Currently, nearly every lens manufacturer states that
with the surface of the lens influences the outcome of laboratories must perform testing to ensure impact
the test. Because with use these steel balls deform over resistance for lenses that have been surfaced from
time they should be replaced periodically. Similarly, the semifinished product.
neoprene gasket compresses and loses some elasticity If the lens is altered after having been received, as
over time. If a worn gasket is not replaced, the per- when it is sent out for antireflection (AR) coating, its
centage of glass lenses that pass the drop-ball test will impact resistance is altered. A great many types of coat-
decrease by 25%.3 ings could be applied to the lens. Each of these coatings
affects the impact resistance of the lens differently.
Timing of Drop-Ball Test The envelope or box that the lens comes in should
Glass lenses must be tested after the lens has been state whether the lens has been batch tested. If the
edged and hardened and before it is placed in the frame. package has nothing on it about impact testing, even if
Plastic lenses may be tested in the “uncut-finished” stage it is polycarbonate, it must be tested for FDA
before they have been edged. compliance.4
Typically the AR-coating laboratory batch tests lenses
being coated. Laboratory personnel use lenses of the
3
Torgersen D: Impact resistance questions and answers, OLA Tech
4
Topic (Optical Laboratories Association), February 1998, pp 3-4. Young J: Technical Information for Labs, Lab Talk, 25(11):25, 1997.
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 295

EFFECT OF LENS PROCESSING ON

same material and minimum thickness as those sent to
IMPACT RESISTANCE
them for coating. Finishing laboratory personnel are
responsible to communicate with the company that A number of processes can be performed on a lens that
applies the coating to determine that testing require- affect the way the lens is able to resist the impact of an
ments have been fulfilled. object. One of the most obvious is lens thickness: the
thinner the lens, the less the impact resistance will be.
Other factors may reduce impact resistance. Some of
DEFINING ‘MANUFACTURER’ the more significant ones are listed below.
A large number of participants are involved in the
process of making a pair of glasses. One company makes Effect of Lens Coatings on Impact Resistance
the lenses, another may surface the lenses, a third may When a plastic lens is either scratch-resistant–coated or
edge the lenses, and someone else could coat the antireflection-(AR-)coated, the impact resistance of the
lenses. Who then is the manufacturer of the finished lens normally decreases. This seems opposite to what
eyeglasses? Although in a lawsuit, each participating would be expected.
party is likely to be named, final responsibility lies Both scratch-resistance and AR coatings are harder
heavily with the unit that performed the final process than the plastic lens material to which they adhere.
on that lens. The following is the FDA’s response to the When a lens breaks, the break starts at the weakest
question: point. If a plastic lens is hit by an object, the lens may
flex but may not break. However, if the coating is
Q: In terms of the regulation, who is the
harder than the lens, as the lens flexes, the harder
manufacturer?
(more brittle) coating cracks before the uncoated lens
A: The manufacturer is the person who puts the
would. When the coating is bonded strongly to the lens,
lens in the form ready for its intended use or who
the energy that is concentrated at the first crack is
alters the physical or chemical characteristics of the
released. The released energy travels through the lens
lens by such acts as grinding, heat treating, beveling,
and may cause it to break.
or cutting. For the purpose of this regulation the
Corzine and colleagues7 used a static load form of
term “manufacturer” includes a company that imports
testing8 and compared uncoated CR-39 lenses to the
eyeglasses for resale.5
following:
In this chain of manufacturing events, the question
• Scratch-resistance–coated lenses
of record-keeping may arise. The following is how the
• Five-layer AR-coated lenses
FDA poses and answers this question:
• Lenses that had been prepped for AR coating but
Q: What are the record keeping requirements on were not yet AR-coated
partially finished lenses furnished by one manufacturer
The mean fracture load required to break the lenses
for completion by another?
in each category were as follows:
A: Records must be kept to show how lenses were
rendered impact-resistant, when and how they were Uncoated CR-39: 587
tested for impact resistance, and by whom in the Scratch-resistance coated CR-39: 505
processing chain these actions were accomplished.6 AR-coated CR-39: 465
AR-prepped, but not AR-coated CR-39: 609
This means that if the retailer is the manufacturer,
then the record-keeping requirements of the manu- As can be seen from the results, the weakening of the
facturer apply. Retailers also have a 3-year requirement lens is as a result of the coating itself, not by the process
of keeping the names and addresses of persons buying the lens is subjected to in preparation for coating.
prescription eyewear. This tendency of the coating to reduce impact
resistance can be countered to some extent by using
cushion coatings or primers applied to the surface of
5
Snesko WN, Stigi JF: Impact resistant lenses: questions and answers, HHS the lens before the application of a hard coating.9
Publication FDA 87-4002, p 7, Rockville, Md, Revised September
1987, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
7
Service, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Corzine JC, Greer RB, Bruess RD, et al: The effects of coatings on the
Radiological Health. fracture resistance of ophthalmic lenses, Optometry and Vision Science
6
Snesko WN, Stigi JF: Impact resistant lenses: questions and answers, HHS 73:8, 1996.
8
Publication FDA 87-4002, p 10, Rockville, Md, Revised September Static load testing is where an increasing amount of pressure is
1987, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health applied to the lens until the lens finally breaks.
9
Service, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Torgersen D: Impact resistance questions and answers, OLA Tech
Radiological Health. Topic (Optical Laboratories Association), February 1998, p 5.
296 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

Newer methods of coating probably will be engineered Effect of Drilling and Grooving on Impact
with impact resistance in mind. Resistance
In consideration of the effect a coating may have, a Drilled glass lenses that are heat treated are not safe to wear.
point worth remembering is that highly impact- They may pass the drop-ball test in their unmounted
resistant lenses such as polycarbonate still have plenty state, but the compounded stress brought about by the
of impact resistance, regardless of the coating. The mounting causes the mounted lenses to fail too easily.
main concern is for plastic lenses, especially some high- Drilled lenses that are tempered chemically will pass
index plastic lenses. These lenses might be surfaced the drop-ball test and are not as affected by drill
very thin and then have a coating applied without the mounting as are heat-treated lenses. Nevertheless, glass
benefit of cushion or primer coatings. As the number lenses are seldom used in a drill mounting even when
of finished stock lenses that have been AR-coated at the chemically tempered.
factory increases, there may be a resulting increase in In fact, glass lenses are seldom used with grooved
impact-resistance quality. This result is because cushion lenses either. In 1993, Optical Laboratories Association
or primer coatings can be engineered for the specific Technical Director George Chase addressed the glass
plastic substrate/lens coating combination being lens grooving/drilling issue in an OLA Tech Topics
delivered in a factory-finished, already-coated, uncut paper. He indicated that even though drilled and
lens blank. grooved glass lenses normally would pass the drop-ball
Lenses sent out for coating have the chemical charac- test, the unprotected, exposed lens edges were likely to
teristics of the lens altered by the coating process. It chip or microcrack with normal use and reduce impact
then becomes the responsibility of the coating laboratory strength. If drilled or grooved glass lenses are to be
to comply with testing requirements for impact made, the OLA encourages optical laboratories to first
resistance. The edging laboratory personnel should be obtain a waiver from the person ordering the lenses.12
certain that the coating laboratory personnel fulfill
these responsibilities. Otherwise the edging laboratory Effect of Surface Scratches on Impact Resistance
becomes responsible.10 A scratched lens surface reduces impact resistance. The
scratch introduces a weak spot on the lens and creates
Effect of Re-edging on Impact Resistance a sort of “fault line.” The scratch provides an easy area
Re-edging a plastic lens to another shape after it has for stress to build during impact, which makes breakage
been edged once does not significantly affect impact more likely. To better imagine how this works, the
resistance. However, edging or re-edging a glass lens reader may think about how panes of glass are “scored”
that already has been hardened will affect impact with a diamond so that they may be broken along the
resistance. So may a hardened glass lens be re-edged to scored line.
a new shape and then worn? The following is the FDA’s Contrary to intuition, scratches on the back surface
response to the question: of a lens reduce lens impact resistance more than front
surface scratches. Glass or CR-39 lenses with front
Q: May a glass lens, after it has been chemically or
surface scratches were reduced in impact resistance by
thermally treated for impact resistance, be processed
20%, whereas CR-39 lenses with back surface scratches
further in any way?
were reduced in impact resistance by 80%.13
A: Lenses that are treated for impact resistance by
induced surface compression may be re-edged or
modified for power. However, the beneficial effects
of surface compression may be reduced substantially. ‘Duty To Inform’
Such lenses must be retreated and tested before they
Eyeglasses come in a large variety of lens materials.
are dispensed to the patient.11
Each of these materials varies in impact resistance.
Lenses that have a lower impact resistance may be
acceptable for a person with a sedentary lifestyle but
would not be appropriate for children who run and
play. Laboratory personnel have no way of knowing the
10 lifestyle of the person whose name appears at the top of
Torgensen D: The effect of coatings on impact resistance,
Clearvisions (Optical Laboratories Association), 3(7):8, 2000.
11 12
Snesko WN, Stigi JF: Impact resistant lenses: questions and answers, HHS Chase G (as quoted by Torgerson D): Impact resistance questions
Publication FDA 87-4002, p 9, Rockville, Md, Revised September and answers (May 26, 1993), OLA Tech Topic (Optical Laboratories
1987, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Association), February 1998, p 4.
13
Service, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Torgersen D: Impact resistance questions and answers, OLA Tech
Radiological Health. Topic (Optical Laboratories Association), February 1998, p 4.
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 297

the prescription form. Yet the laboratory usually is is meant for the wearer and is not to be removed by the
named in a lawsuit. dispenser.
The optical laboratory personnel must lower their This particular OLA program is only one method of
potential liability and ensure the wearer of the ensuring that the wearer is informed fully regarding the
eyeglasses knows of variability in protection given by choices available in lens material and is able to make an
different options in spectacles. The Optical Laboratories informed decision. The mechanics of such a program
Association and others recommend a program of and the methods of passing along the information may
ensuring that wearers are informed of the availability of be varied, depending upon the eyecare practice. The
highly impact-resistant lens material. This type of most important aspect is getting that information
program is called “Duty to Inform.” conveyed in a clear, documented, and regular manner
A similar phrase, “duty to warn,” was used originally that reflects a consistent practice policy.
in a 1980s court case. In that case it was maintained that
the eye injury was a result of negligence by the
dispenser. Lawyers argued that “the dispenser, owner,
laboratory, manufacturer, and all other parties down FDA LABORATORY LABELING
the line had a duty to inform the patient about all REQUIREMENTS
products and options, including the ones purchased.”14
In other words, laboratories and optical dispensers may When an optical laboratory sends a finished spectacle
not have a legal responsibility but do have a professional prescription to an account, the FDA requires certain
responsibility to warn prospective wearers of the dangers labeling, as follows:
that may be associated with wearing spectacles that are Under 21 C.F.R. § 801.1, the label on prescription
not suited for certain potentially hazardous situations. spectacle lenses, or finished spectacles containing those
lenses, must conspicuously contain the name and address
of the optical laboratory (city, state, Zip code, and street
HOW THE PROGRAM WORKS address, if not in current telephone directory) and such
The “duty to inform” program that the Optical name and address should be prefaced with the phrase,
“Distributed by .” The name of the cor-
Laboratories Association recommends starts with the
poration must be the actual corporate name, which may be
eye examination and includes the optical dispensary preceded or followed by the name of a particular division
and the laboratory. The following is an overview of the of the corporation.
OLA Program, which is currently under revision. In addition, the label on prescription spectacle lenses,
At the time of the visual examination the patient or finished spectacle lenses containing those lenses, must
would receive a “Lens Menu.” This pamphlet describes contain the Rx legend, which is simply the text, “Rx Only.”
the variety of options available in lenses. It includes an The label must be “open the immediate container” (not
explanation of lens materials, lens designs (e.g., including package liners) of each set of lenses or finished
aspherics, bifocals, progressives), specialty glasses such spectacles.15
as sports or computer, and lens treatments such as These requirements must be fulfilled by use of the
ultraviolet (UV) protection. The pamphlet is used as laboratory invoice as a “label.” The invoice is printed
a basis for the prescriber and dispenser to explain with the name and address of the laboratory, along with
available lens options. A clear “Vision Safety Notice,” is the words “Rx Only.” It is then folded to expose this
being revised to inform the patient of lens materials printing and secured to the eyeglasses or slipped into
capable of withstanding high impact. At present, the plastic bag holding the eyeglasses so that it may be
these materials are polycarbonate and Trivex (PPG seen through the bag. Alternatively, the label address
Industries, Pittsburgh, Pa.), but new materials with and the words “Rx Only” can be printed on the outside
high-impact capabilities are sure to emerge. of the bag or packing material that encloses the eyeglasses.
When the laboratory personnel complete the The FDA also requires that “…copies of invoices,
spectacles, a printed warning is enclosed with each. shipping documents and records of sale for distribution
These warnings vary, depending upon whether the of all impact resistant lenses be kept and maintained
finished spectacles are dress eyewear, glass safety for a period of three years.”16
spectacles, hard resin safety spectacles, polycarbonate
safety spectacles, or unfinished eyewear components. 15
Hart HA, Smith R: Checklist of federal statutes and regulations of
Except in the case of unfinished components, the warning particular interest to the optical lab, Falls Church, Va, 2002, Optical
Laboratories Association, p 7.
16
Hart HA, Smith R: Checklist of federal statutes and regulations of
14
Duty to Warn: how to set up a program, Eyecare Business, June 1998, particular interest to the optical lab, Falls Church, Va, 2002, Optical
p 53. Laboratories Association, p 9.
298 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

Safety Eyewear standards will be affirmed. The older standard has one
set of requirements for all safety eyewear. The new
Safety eyewear has been an extremely important factor standards may have two levels of standards. One is
in reducing eye injuries. Although safety eyewear is a called basic impact; the other, high impact. The 1998-
must in industry, 60% of eye injuries occur because of a affirmed Z87.1 standard is the same as the basic-impact
failure to wear eye protection at the time of the level for what the new standard is expected to be. In the
accident. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, next sections of the chapter, the two levels of impact
of the remaining 40%, “these workers were most likely resistance requirements that may become the new
to be wearing protective eyeglasses with no side standard are explained.
shields… .”17

REGULATION OF SAFETY EYEWEAR Basic-Impact Requirements for

The standards used for safety lenses and frames are put Safety Eyewear
forth by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). The requirements for use of safety eyewear are Because two levels of safety eyewear may be set forth by
regulated by the Occupational Safety and Health ANSI, the logical question is, why would anyone want to
Administration (OSHA). wear a basic-impact lens when high-impact lenses are
available? Glass lenses are in the basic-impact category.
ANSI In a number of work situations workers are cleaning
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is their glasses constantly; for example, places with a lot of
an industry-based standards-setting association. ANSI dust and places in which liquids or mists are present. In
is not just an agency for ophthalmic matters, but it these situations, plastic and polycarbonate lenses may
addresses standards throughout all of industry, of which scratch. Glass lenses withstand scratching better and
the ophthalmic industry is only a small part. will not have to be replaced constantly. Badly scratched
lenses are irritating to wear and, if vision is impaired,
ANSI’s Relation to OSHA may create a safety hazard.
ANSI standards for dress eyewear are unrelated to
OSHA requirements. However, for safety eyewear, the
situation changes. For safety eyewear the American
BASIC-IMPACT THICKNESS
National Standard Practice for Occupational and
REQUIREMENTS
Educational Eye and Face Protection (ANSI Standard Historically thickness requirements for prescription
Z87.1) has the power of a regulatory instrument. This is safety lenses are a minimum thickness of 3.0 mm, with
because OSHA has incorporated the Z87.1 standard the exception being for plus lenses that have a power of
into their requirements. The Z87.1 standard defines +3.00 D or higher in the most plus meridian of the
what constitutes a pair of safety glasses. The standard distance portion of the lens. Because high plus lenses
goes beyond safety glasses, however, to include the are so much thicker in the center, these lenses may be
whole area of nonprescription eye and face protective thinned to a 2.5 mm minimum edge thickness. These
devices. standards continue on in the basic-impact category.

BASIC-IMPACT TESTING REQUIREMENTS

Impact Requirements for Safety The testing requirements for basic-impact safety lenses
Eyewear are similar to those for dress ophthalmic lenses. Dress
lenses are required to withstand the impact of a 5/8 -inch
At the time of this writing the Z87.1 requirements for steel ball dropped from 50 inches. Basic-impact safety
safety eyewear are those that were passed in 1989 and lenses must withstand the impact of a 1-inch steel ball
reaffirmed in 1998. However, new standards for safety dropped from 50 inches.
eyewear are out for review. It appears likely that these
BASIC-IMPACT MARKING REQUIREMENTS
17
Basic-impact safety lenses must be marked with the
Eye protection in the workplace, US Department of Labor Program
Highlight, Fact Sheet No. OSHA 93-03, GPO: 1993 0-353-374, manufacturer’s logo or identifying marking. The
Washington, DC, 1993, US Department of Labor. markings are applied after edging. In-house laboratories
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 299

TABLE 15-1
Current and Anticipated ANSI Z87.1 Lens Marking Requirements

JO, James Optical (fictitious optical company).

*All markings must be legible and permanent and placed so that interference with the vision of the wearer is minimal.
†
Basic-impact requirements are historically the same as the Z87.1-1989 standard and are part of the projected new standard that would include both basic and
high-impact lenses.
‡
“Many such (special purpose) lenses offer inadequate ultraviolet and/or infrared protection; caution shall be exercised in their use. For each application, the
responsible individual shall ensure that the proper ultraviolet, infrared, and visible protection is provided. Spectral transmittance data shall be available to buyers
upon request.” (ANSI Z87.1-1989 American National Standard Practice for Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection, New York, 1989, American National
Standards Institute, Inc, p 14.)

that do their own edging of safety lenses must mark the Then the mask is sandblasted. The cutout area exposes
lenses. Marks on the surface of the lens should not the lens to the sand and etches the exposed lens
interfere with straight-ahead viewing; they must, surface, which creates the desired symbol (Figure 15-5).
however, be visible. They usually appear at the center Plastic lenses may be marked by indentation of the
of the top of the lens or in the upper, outer corner. If surface. To do this, a small branding-iron–like tool is
the lens is other than a clear lens, it may require an mounted on a specifically designed pair of pliers. The
additional marking. A summary of these marking tool has the shape of the manufacturer’s symbol. When
requirements is found in Table 15-1. A lens that is thick it is squeezed against the lens surface, the surface
enough to be classed as a safety lens and strong enough indents.
to pass safety lens impact testing is not acceptable as a A third option is to “tattoo” the lens using a discreet
safety lens until it is marked with the required method of laser engraving.
manufacturer identification.
WARNING LABELS FOR BASIC-IMPACT
Methods Used to Mark Safety Lenses
LENSES
Several methods may be used to mark safety lenses.
These include sandblasting, indenting, and laser Basic-impact safety glasses are not as impact resistant as
engraving. high-impact safety glasses. The person wearing the
Sandblasting is the only method that works for glass lenses needs to know this. Therefore, if the standards
lenses. The same sandblasting unit (Figure 15-2) works pass as anticipated, a warning must accompany basic-
equally well for plastic lenses. To mark the lens, a thin impact eyewear. That warning will be in the form of a
rubber “mask” is used. This mask has a cutout of the hang tag or label to be removed only by the wearer. The
manufacturer’s mark. Before each use the rubber mask label must say that the lenses meet the basic-impact
is brushed clean (Figure 15-3). The lens is placed on the requirements but should not be relied upon for
mask at the desired location of the mark (Figure 15-4). protection from high-impact exposure.
300 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

FIGURE 15-4 The lens is placed on the rubber mask

FIGURE 15-2 A sandblasting unit may be used to mark where the safety marking is to be etched. The mask is
safety lenses. sandblasted from underneath, leaving an imprint of the logo
on the lens.

FIGURE 15-5 An identifying marking on a safety lens.

FIGURE 15-3 A rubber mask stenciled with the identi- HIGH-IMPACT THICKNESS
fying lens and laboratory marking is positioned in the REQUIREMENTS
sandblasting unit. Before each use it should be brushed
clean. Loose sand particles can scratch the lens. The thickness requirement for high-impact safety lenses
is that they be 2.0 mm thick or more. This includes both
prescription and nonprescription (plano) safety lenses.

High-Impact Requirements for

HIGH-IMPACT TESTING REQUIREMENTS
Safety Eyewear
High-impact safety lenses must pass the high-velocity
High-impact requirements allow the lenses to be thinner impact test. In this test the lens must be capable of
than basic-impact lenses. However, the tests that high- withstanding the force of a 1/4 -inch steel ball traveling
impact lenses must withstand are more stringent. at 150 feet/sec when mounted on a special holder.
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 301

TABLE 15-2
Safety Lens Requirements
TYPE OF THICKNESS MARKING* IMPACT
REQUIREMENT TESTING

Basic 3.0 mm Manufacturer’s 1-inch steel ball

impact† 2.5 mm if logo dropped from
power in 50 inches
most plus
meridian is
+3.00 D
or more
High 2.0 mm Manufacturer’s 1-inch steel ball
impact logo + dropped from
50 inches and
1/ -inch steel
4
ball traveling
at 150 feet/sec

*See also Table 15-1.

†
Basic-impact requirements are historically the same as the Z87.1-1989 FIGURE 15-6 The high-velocity impact test fires a 1/4-inch
standard and are part of the projected new standard that would include both
basic- and high-impact lenses.
steel ball at 150 feet/sec at a frame or lens.

HIGH-IMPACT MARKING REQUIREMENTS

High-impact safety lenses are marked in the same
manner as basic-impact lenses, except that they are to
be additionally marked with a plus (+) symbol—not just
the manufacturer’s logo (Table 15-2).

Safety Frames
In 1989 the ANSI standards for safety frames dropped
specific design requirements, including groove design.
Instead, requirements are performance based. Safety
frames must withstand certain specific impact tests that
are not required of normal dress frames. Frames are
placed on a head model. When impact occurs, the frame
cannot break. Nor can the frame or lens come into
contact with the eye.
One test is the high-velocity impact test. This test simulates
a high-velocity, low-mass object. In the high-velocity
impact test a series of 1/4 -inch steel balls traveling at 150
feet per second are directed at 20 different parts of the
glazed frame18 (Figure 15-6). A new frame is used for
each impact. Neither the frame nor the lens can break,
nor can the lens come out of the frame.
The second test simulates the impact of a large,
pointed, slow-moving object. In this high-mass impact test
a pointed, conical-tipped projectile, 1 inch in diameter,
weighing 17.6 ounces, is dropped 51.2 inches through
a tube and onto the eyeglasses (Figure 15-7). The lens
must not break, nor come out of the frame. FIGURE 15-7 The high-mass impact test drops a pointed,
18
A glazed frame is a frame with lenses. In this case the lenses are 1-inch diameter projectile onto the eyeglasses from 51.2
plano in power. inches.
302 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

MARKING SAFETY FRAMES frame with dress-thickness lenses is no more safety

With safety requirements, a clear distinction between eyewear than a dress frame with safety lenses. Eyeglasses
“dress” frames and safety frames must be kept in mind. are not safety glasses until both the frame and lenses
Dress frames are those worn for everyday purposes. No are in compliance.
matter how sturdy the construction of a dress frame, it Intentionally thick lenses should not be placed in a
is still not a safety frame unless it meets certain pair of regular frames for increased safety. If safety is
requirements and is marked as a safety frame. important enough to warrant thick lenses, it is important
The first requirement is that it be capable of with- enough to warrant safety or sports-type frames. “Safety”
standing a series of stress tests. If the frames are capable lenses in regular frames can give the wearer a false sense
of passing these tests and have been so certified, they of security and the mistaken impression than this is a
may be marked as safety frames. Without these “safe” prescription. Under no circumstances should a pair
markings, the frames are not safety frames. Markings of lenses be marked as safety and placed in a nonsafety frame.
consist of size, the manufacturer’s trademark, and the
all-important Z87 marking on temples and front,
indicating compliance with ANSI Z87 standards.
SIDE SHIELDS
With the anticipated passage of new requirements in Now that eye protection is required and used in many
the form of a high-impact category of safety lenses, more settings, eye injuries that happen to people wearing
safety frames intended for use with 2.0-millimeter thick safety glasses usually occur from the side. Therefore
lenses must be tested for 2.0-mm thick lenses. When “use of protectors providing side protection should be
successfully designed and tested, these frames are to be encouraged whenever practical.”19
marked Z87-2 instead of just Z87. The “2” signifies that Side shields may be removable or permanent
the frame is suitable for lenses with a minimum thickness (Figure 15-8). Most people would rather not wear side
of 2 or 3 mm (Box 15-1). The new requirements will be shields if given the choice. If side shields are constantly
for all safety frames, meaning that all frames will need required, then permanent side shields are logical.
to be marked “Z87-2.” Removable side shields have the advantage of being
able to be taken off when working in a nonhazardous
situation. The drawback is that removable side shields
DEFINING SAFETY GLASSES
often end up not being worn when they should.
Safety frames should be used only with safety lenses. Side shields are not universally interchangeable. A
Regular lenses must not be put into a safety frame, even to removable side shield designed for one particular type
save the wearer money. A pair of regular “dress” lenses
placed in a safety frame may give the wearer the 19
American National Standard practice for occupational and educational eye
impression that they are wearing safety glasses. A safety and face protection, Z87.1-1989, New York, 1989, American National
Standards Institute, Inc, p 15.

BOX 15-1
Safety Frame Marking Requirements

Fronts
• A-dimension (eyesize)
• DBL (distance between lenses)
• “Z87-2”*
• Manufacturer’s identifying trademark

Temples
• Overall length
• “Z87-2”*
• Manufacturer’s identifying trademark
• “Z87-2” markings also required for side shields

*The marking “Z87” indicates frame compliance with Z87.1-1989 standards.

After new standards take effect, the “Z87-2” marking will indicate frame
compliance with high-impact standards. Thereafter, frames with removable
lenses will only be marked “Z87” if the lenses in the frames are non-Rx (plano). FIGURE 15-8 Some side shields are removable.
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 303

of frame will not necessarily provide the ANSI-standard- remember that as glass heats, it expands and becomes
approved protection required if used on a different more like a liquid. When the hot lens is struck by cool
type of frame. air against its outer surfaces, the outer surfaces
“freeze.” The inner part of the lens cools more slowly.
As it is cooling it is trying to contract. But the outer part
Hardening Glass Lenses of the lens is already “frozen” and refuses to shrink
farther. This creates an inner pull on the lens, which
Glass lenses are not impact resistant enough to pass the induces stress. Part of the stress is surface compaction
FDA-mandated impact test unless they are hardened. or squeezing called maximum compressive stress. Another
Currently two methods are used to harden glass lenses. part of the stress is called maximum tensile stress. This
One uses a heat-treating process and the second a stress creates strength in the same way that the
chemical-tempering process. Not all types of glass are tightened spokes on a bicycle wheel add strength to the
capable of being tempered. These types may be used rim. These forces result in a compression of the lens
only in the United States if no other type of lens surface. The depth from the outside surface of the lens
material is acceptable for the visual needs of the wearer. where compressive stress and tensile stress meet is
Scratched lenses are more likely to break than called the depth of compression.
unscratched lenses regardless of the method used to The advantage to heat treating is that it is fast. The
harden a lens. Scratches introduce weak points on the disadvantage is that the heat-tempered lens is not as
lens. A scratched heat-tempered lens loses more of its impact resistant as lenses that are chemically tempered.
impact resistance than a scratched chemically tempered
(or chemtempered) lens. For maximum safety, scratched
CHEMICAL TEMPERING
lenses should be replaced.
Glass lenses are hardened chemically by immersing
them in molten salt. The salt used for clear crown glass
HEAT-TREATING PROCESS and tinted crown glass lenses is potassium nitrate
Heat treating is done by placement of the edged glass (KNO3). During the process of chemical tempering,
lens into a small kiln, where the temperature is high smaller Sodium (Na) or Lithium (Li) ions from the
enough to almost bring the glass to the softening point. glass are drawn out of the lens surface and replaced by
The lens is left in the kiln for about 2 or 3 minutes. The larger potassium (K) ions from the salt. This crowds the
exact amount of time depends upon (1) lens thickness, surface, setting up a surface tension that “squeezes” the
(2) type of glass, and (3) lens tint. (For more exactness, lens. This surface tension increases impact resistance by
lens weight may also be considered.) creating compressive stresses. The actual amount of
The lens is removed from the heat and cooled compressive stress is 28 to 50 kg/mm2, compared with
rapidly by blowing forced air against both front and 6 to 14 kg/mm2 for heat-tempered glass20 (Figure 15-10).
back surfaces (Figure 15-9). The salt used to temper photochromic lenses is
To understand how this process could cause an different from the salt used for crown glass lenses. Salt
increase in impact resistance, the reader should used for photochromic lenses is a mixture of 40%
sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and 60% potassium nitrate
(KNO3). Both of these salts are hazardous in dry or
molten states. Salts are available in both commercial
and reagent grades. Reagent grade is more expensive,
but being purer, does not require conditioning and
prevents salt-related problems.
If the proportion between salts is incorrect, or if the
salt is contaminated or has been used too long, the
lenses will have problems. Lenses may break in the bath,
come out hazy, or show hairline cracks. Processing a
crown glass lens in a salt bath intended for photo-
chromics will cause the lens to craze, showing a
meshwork of hairline surface cracks (Figure 15-11).
FIGURE 15-9 When air strikes front and back surfaces of
a lens that has been heated just below the softening point,
it “freezes” the outside, setting up a controlled internal stress 20
Krauser RP: Chemtempering today, Corning, NY, 1974, Corning Glass
that makes the lens more impact resistant. Works, p 4.
304 C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G

Before ion exchange After ion exchange

K+ K+
K+
K+ Na+

Na+ Na+
K+
K+
K+ Na+ Na+
K+ Na+
Molten salt Molten salt
O O K+ K+
K+

=
=

Na+ Na+ Na+

Si Si Na+
Na+ Na+ K+ K+

–
–

O Na+ Na+ O
O

–
=

–
Na+
O=
Si
K+
K+ Si
–O
Na+

–
Na+ O K+ Na+ O
Na+ Na+ K+
O O= O

–
O=
Si
–

–
O = Si – O – Si –O – O = Si – O – Si –O–
Glass Glass
FIGURE 15-10 In chemical tempering, smaller sodium (Na) or lithium (Li) ions from the
glass are replaced by larger potassium (K) ions from the molten salt.

±9° F). To temper photochromic glass lenses the salt is

heated to 400° ± 5°C (752° ± 9° F).21
This temperature is especially critical for photochromic
lenses and should be verified with use of a calibrated
stainless steel thermometer with a long stem. The stem
should be long enough so that the thermometer may
be read without having to hold it with the hands near
the salt. Thermometers are important even though the
chemical tempering unit has a temperature control
that reads in degrees.
If the temperature of the bath is not exact, problems
will occur with photochromic lenses being off-color,
splotching, or not lightening or darkening properly.

Chemical Tempering Process

Lenses are cleaned and placed in a lens holder. That
holder is held above the bath for 15±2 minutes for
crown glass lenses. For photochromics these times may
FIGURE 15-11 A crown glass lens mistakenly placed in a vary from 0 to 15 minutes. This allows the lenses to
photochromic salt bath will craze. preheat, which prevents breakage resulting from extreme
temperature changes. The lenses are then immersed in
the molten salt bath for 16 hours. (It is possible to leave
Salt needs to be replaced on a regular basis. As salt the lenses over the weekend for 64 hours. Impact
pH rises above neutral, some salt should be removed resistance drops slightly, but the amount of drop is
and replaced with new salt to lower the pH. When normally insignificant.) At the end of the cycle the
sediment builds up in the bottom of the tank, all of the lenses are again held above the bath. The postbath-cool
salt should be replaced.
To chemically temper crown and tinted glass lenses 21
Chemtempering photochromics, Publication OPO-5-3/79MA, Corning,
together, the temperature of the salt is 450°± 5° C (842° NY, 1979, Corning Glass Works.
C H A P T E R 1 5 L E N S I M PA C T R E S I S TA N C E A N D T E S T I N G 305

times are the same as the preheat times. Lenses are

then removed from the unit, allowed to cool at room
temperature, then rinsed in hot water to remove the salt.
(A special process makes it possible to chemically
harden standard photochromic lenses in 2 hours.22)
Chemically hardened crown glass lenses are more
impact resistant than thermally hardened crown glass
lenses and maintain their strength better, even when
scratched. They will not warp during the chemical
tempering process, as do some lenses during the heat
tempering process. Because their internal tensile stress
is less than that of a heat-tempered lens, chemically
tempered lenses may be re-edged or resurfaced without
breaking.
If a pair of chemically tempered glass lenses has been
removed from a broken frame and reshaped for a new
frame, the lenses should be rehardened. (Heat tem-
pered lenses should never be re-edged on an edger or
hand edger unless they have been dehardened23 first.)
Compared with heat tempering, chemical tempering
FIGURE 15-12 A heat-treated lens may be identified by
of crown glass lenses is clearly the method of choice.
the characteristic maltese cross pattern seen when the lens is
viewed through the crossed polarizing filter of a colmascope.
Determining whether a Lens Has Been Hardened (From Brooks CW, Borish IM: System for ophthalmic
Determining whether a lens has been heat treated is dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann
possible by viewing it between two crossed polarizing [Figure 21-1].)
filters. An instrument with a light source and two crossed
polarizing filters made for this purpose is called a
colmascope or polariscope. Viewed through a colmascope,
a heat-treated lens shows a maltese cross pattern
(Figure 15-12). A perfectly shaped maltese cross pattern
does not mean that the lens is any more impact resistant
than a lens showing a misshapen maltese cross.
Rotating the lens while viewing it though the colmascope
will cause the maltese cross to change in appearance.
This pattern shows up because surface compression in
a heat-treated lens is nonuniform.24
Chemically tempered lenses have an even surface
compression and therefore show no stress patterns when FIGURE 15-13 Sports eyewear is not just safety glasses
viewed through crossed polarizing filters. A chemically for sports. Each sport has particular visual and eye protective
needs.
tempered lens can be identified only by taking the lens
out of the frame and immersing it in a glycerin solution
finished spectacle lenses as assurance that the lens has
while viewing it between crossed polarizing filters.
been chemically hardened.
A chemically hardened lens shows a halolike, bright
band around the edge of the lens. Because of the time-
consuming inconvenience of this process, almost Sports Eyewear
everyone depends upon notification enclosed with the
Standards for sports eyewear vary. Most of that variation
22
The 2-hour photochromic process is used for PhotoGray Extra, takes place in the frame. Generally the same lenses that
PhotoBrown Extra, PhotoGray II, and PhotoSun II. It may not be are appropriate for high-impact safety eyewear also are
used for PhotoGray, PhotoBrown, PhotoSun, PhotoGray Extra 16, or
PhotoBrown Extra 16. appropriate for sports. However, standard Z87–type
23
A heat-tempered lens is “dehardened” by heating it as if it were to safety frames are not necessarily appropriate. Specialized
be heat tempered again. When the lens comes out of the furnace, the sports require specialized frames (Figure 15-13). None
cold air is turned off and the lens allowed to cool slowly.
24
Wilson-Powers B: Chemtempering photochromic lenses, Optical of the lenses placed in sports frames are marked with a
Management, 8(5):39, 1979. manufacturer’s logo as safety lenses.