GEOGHRAPHIC

COORDINAL POINT: In order to find the co-ordinal point we shall first of all find
the north. If we stand with over face to the north to our right will be east to our left
and behind it south.

HOW TO FIND NORTH: The north of a place can we find in the following ways.

WITH THE HELP OF POOL STAR: The pool star always point to the north so that
with its help we can find the north. In order to find the pool star first find the great
bear in the sky at the nights. The bear is a conservation of seven stars. The upper
two of which are called pointer. Join the pointer and produced the line. This line will
pass through a bright star at some distance. This bright star is pool star. The pool
star doesn’t indicate the true north it is one degree away from the true north. Since
the pool star is visible in the north hemisphere this method can be use in this
hemisphere.

MARINER COMPASS: By mean of mariner compass the mariner compass is watch

live batter box fitted with a magnetic needle. On end of this needle away point to
north. Ordinarily the compass is not at all an accurate installment instrument. In the
subcontinent of Pakistan and India at present. It points to the true north. The pool
star is a very useful to navigator who can find out the coordinal point even on dark
night. In the mariner compass 32 direction point are indicated.

SHAPE OF THE EARTH: The earth appears to be flat but in reality it is more or
less spherical, more or less round like a ball. It is little flattened at the pools and
bulges out a little at the quarter.

PROOF OF ITS ROTUNDITY: The following are some of the important pint as a
proof of the rotundity of the earth.

1. If we standing at sea level shore (cost) and watch a ship coming toward us we
shall first of all sea the mast of the ship only. As the ship comes near and near we
shall gradually see the lower parts. If the earth were flat we could see the whole ship
at once.

2. Sun rises at the east then the west. The sun rises early at places at the east
then in the west. If the earth were flat the sun would rises at the same time and
same places.

3. Circumnavigation with turning an corner. Several sailors have sailed round the
earth. They started from a certain part and in the same direction and eventually
reached the same part. This can happen only if the earth is round.

4. Circular shape of horizon always and everywhere. If we stand at high place

and look at the horizon. We find that it is always and everywhere circular and we are
in the center of the circular. This can happen only if the earth is spherical

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BEDFORD LEVAL EXPRAMENT: In a canal near Bedford (England) there
upright pool were once fixed in a straight line at a distance of three miles from each
other. The length of the poles above water line is 13ft 4”. When the top of the third
poles was seen from the top of the first pole through a telescope. The top of the
middle pole seemed to rise higher. This is possible when the surface of the water
higher in the middle. Water is also the part of the earth. It proves that the earth is
raised higher in the middle. That is it is round. The experiment is known as Bedford
level experiment. The experiment was first performed by doctor A R Vallance in
1870 AD.

SIZE OF THE EARTH:

1. Earths Circumference about 40,000 km.

2. Earths diameter about 128,00 km.
3. Earths area about 50,432,000 sqr km.

ASTRONOMICAL GRAPHES:

THE SOLAR SYSTEM: This system of spherical heavenly bodies with the sun as its
center is called is solar system or the sun system. The system includes the besides
the sun, the nine major planet about 40 thousand planetoids or small planet and 31
moons and numerous

THE SUN: The sun is fixed star like other stars. It is 148400,000 km from the earth,
whereas nearest other stars is 40,000,000,000,000 km away from the earth which is
270 times. Than the distance of the sun from the earth. The sun is center of its own
solar system and quite separate from other solar systems. The being the center of
its solar system the sun gives light and heat to the planets, satellites and other
bodies. The sun which may be compared to be a ball of gaseous and water has a
surface temperature of 1100” F0 and its internal heat may measured in million of
degrees.

DIA 106,4640 KM.

Where the diameter of the earth is is only 12699 km.

THE PLANNETS: The plannets are the heavenly bodies which revolve round the
sun in their orbits. Some of their plannets even rotates round their axes. Mercury is
the plannets nearest to the sun. The other plannets in order of their distance from
the sun are

M------ VEM ‘J’

SUN ‘P’
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Strum, Urines, Neptune, Plato.
It should be noted however there distance have not been shown by any scale. If we
take 148400,000 km distance of the sun from the earth is a unit the following table
will help to understanding the position of plannets more clearly.
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 Units: 148400,000 km
93000,000 mile

PLANNETS DISTANCE MOONS

Plato 39.5 unit
Neptune 30.1 unit
Uranus 19.2 unit
Stadium 9.5 unit
Jupiter 5.2 unit
Asteroids 5.8 unit
Mars 1.5 unit
Earth 1.0 unit
Venus 0.7 unit
Mercury 0.4 unit

Mercury is the smallest plannets.

Venus and earth are bigger plannet but the former is smaller than the latter.
Jupiter is eleven times bigger than the earth.

All the plannets, comets and planetoids revolves round the sun but satellite or moons
revolve round their respective plannets.

THE SATELLITES: It has a single satellite which we call the moon. The
other plannets have more then one moon.

Jupiter has twelve moons revolving round it.

Saturn has nine moons.
Uranus has five moons.
Mares and neptune have two moons each.

All these moons are different in shapes and size. Some are larger than our moon
and the other are smaller. But the latter are move numerous. If we have a look at a
strum with a telescope. It will be appeared a very interesting body. With not only its
nine satellites revolving round it.

THE MOON: The moon is a sphere like the earth and is about a little
more than a quarter of the earth. The distance of the moon from the earth is 542400
km. The moon appears to us in different shaps in month which we called phases of
the moon. The first phase of the moon is the crescent which appears on the first
night of a lunar month. It increases in size till we see it as full moon on the
fourteenth night. The size decreases till at lest it appears for a few nights. The
moon gets light from the sun and revolves round the earth.

PHASES OF THE MOON: The different phases of the moon due to its
revolution round the earth. A lunar month is about 27 and half days we can see
easily the surface of the moon with a telescope. It has its vast plains, hills, and

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caves. The longest chain of the mountain is not more than 720 km. There is no
water on the moon. It also has no atmosphere like that of the earth.

ASTRIODS: There are small plannets like bodies which revolves round the sun
between the mares and Jupiter. Their diameter approximately 8 to 800 km.

METEORS: These are solid bodies that become heated and visible as shooting stars
as they pass through the atmosphere.

COMETS: These are bodies with luminous heads haring quite long tails and
following orbits round the sun. Their orbit are much longer, than other plannets and
therefore. We can see the comets at very longer internal.

STARS: The stars are fixed heavenly bodies. Their number is estimated at
30, 000, 000, 000, 000,. They are divided in to a numbers of constellations for
purpose of study. The nearest star is 40,000,000,000,000 km away from earth.
Some of their stars have their own solar system.

MOTION OF THE EARTH:

EARTH AXIS: The axis of the earth is in fact an imagery line

round which the earth turns. The northern externality of the axis is called the north
place. While the souther5n externality is called the South Pole.

MOTION OF THE EARTH: There are two motion of the earth.

Rotation daily motion

Rotation annually motion

ROTATION: The earth rotates round its axis from west to east
once in 24 hrs this motion is called the daily motion.

EFFECTS OF Rotation:

1. Days or nights caused,

2. The sun, the moon and other heavenly bodies appears to revolve round the
east from east to west.
3. Wind and current change there direction.
4. Different places has different local time.

REVOLUTION: The earth revolves round the sun once in approximately

365 days. This motion of the earth is called revolution or annual motion.

EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTION: Days and nights are caused by the

rotation of the earth. The sun is stationary and earth rotates around the sun in its
axis from west to east. Thus one half of the earth always faces the sun and one half
is always away from the sun. Moreover every part of the earth comes in front of sun

4
in turn vise and then goes into darkness. The part of the earth facing the sun has
day and the part in the dark has night. Change of the season are caused.

OBLIQUITY OF THE EARTHS AXIS: The earth axis can be in the three
possible position with respect to plane of its orbit.
Vertical
Horizontal
Oblique
PHENOMENA DUE TO THE OBLIQUITY OF THE EARTH: Days and nights are
of unequal length. The altitude of the midday sun varies at different periods of the
years. The seasons of two hemispheres are opposite.

EFFECTS OF THE OBLIQUITY OF THE EARTH: Days and nights would be of

equal length through out the years. There would be no change in the season the
same season would continue through out the year.

PHENOMENA OF SEASON: We experienced summer, winter spring and autumn

during a year. These changes are due to following caused:

1. Revolution of the earth around the sun.

2. Inclination of the earth’s axis at 66 and half to the plan of its orbit.
3. Pointing of earth’s axis always in the same direction the earth rotates in its
axis in same direction.
4. The earth’s axis is included to the plan of its orbit and always pointed in the
same direction with the result that six months in the year the north pole is inclined
to ward the sun and for the next six months.

The South Pole is inclined towards the sun. This brings about the phenomena to of
season.

POSITION: There are four position of the earth are to be explain:

1. The earth in this position about 21 June now it is clear that the north pole in
inclined toward the sun and the South Pole is inclined away from it. The sun rays
are perpendicular at the tropic of cancer 23 and half north, and comparatively
slanting in the southern hemphere. The major portion of northern himsphere faces
the sun and only miner portion is away from it. Hence in the northern himsphere the
days are longer than nights. Just opposite in the case in the southern himsphere
when nights are longer and the days shorter.

Note: the position of the earth on the 21 of June is called the summer solstice this is
longest day of the year.

WHERE ARE DAYS AND NIGHTS ARE EQUAL: days and nights are
equal through out the years at the equator. That is both days and nights are of
twelve hours duration.

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REASON: the reason of this through out the course of the earth’s revolution
round the sun. One half of the equator always in the light and the other half is in the
dark. That is the circle of illumination always cuts the equator in the two equal parts.
Hence the days and nights are always equal at every point of equator.

SIX MONTHS DAYS AND NIGHTS AT POLES: Due to obliquity of the

earth is axis for six months. That is from March 21 September 23 the North Pole is
in inclined towards the sun and always in the light. During this is inclined away
from the sun and is though out in the dark. Hence it is day for six months at north
pole and nights at the south pole. But September 23 to March 21 the case is just
the opposite. The north pole is inclined away form the sun and is in the dark while
the south pole being inclined towards the sun is in the light. For this reason the
north pole has six months nights and the south pole six month days.

THE ATMOSPHERE:

COMPOSITION OF AIR: The two main component of air are oxygen and
nitrogen which are found in the ratio of 21:78 and part of other gases. In addition to
these two air also contains carbon dioxide, water vapor dust particle and a few other
gases.

PRESSURE OF AIR: Air has weight and exert pressure on the surface of the
earth. It has been calculated that at sea level. The pressure of air is generally 14.7
psi or 1 bar.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE: The pressure of air is measure by an

instrument called the barometer. It generally consist of a glass tube about 825 mm
long. One end is open and one end is close.

PRESENTATION OF PRESSURE ON MAPS: Pressure is represented on maps

by joining all places having the same pressure by mean of line. Theses lines are
called Isobar.

ISOBAR: Iso: equal Bar – Weight

Hence isobar is lines which join places having same average pressure at the same
time.

ISOTHERMS: These are lines which join places having the same average
temperature for a specified period. These lines do not represent the actual average
temperature of a place at sea level.

WIND: Air moves horizontally from one direction to another direction is

called wind. Winds are caused by the unequal pressure at different places of the
earth. Just as water maintains its level some as water air maintain pressure
equalence. To equalize this pressure winds always below from region of high
pressure to region of low pressure. For example near the equator the air is always
hot and its pressure is low. Therefore the air from high pressure area north and
south of the equator blow toward the equator.
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KIND OF WINDS:

CONSTANT: these winds always below in the same direction. The trade wind
and antitrade wind.

PERIODICAL WIND: these winds below in one direction at a particular time or

during a particular season. Moon soon and the land wind and breeze

VARIABLE WINDS: There are irregular wind a the cyclone and anti cyclone.

TRADE WIND: Trade winds are constant winds which below toward the
equator. Generally there winds blow from 30 n and 30 s toward the equator. In the
northern himsphere their direction is north earth and in the southern himsphere
southeast.

FERREL’S LAW: A scientist pr. Ferrel discovered a law about fluids which
know after him feral law it is fluids winds currents turn to their right in the northern
hemisphere and turn to their left in southern hemphere.

CHANGES:

CHANGE THE DIRECTION: In the northern himsphere every moving fluid turn
to right and in southern himsphere to its left for the following season. The earth is
not stationary but rotates from west to east. The speed of this rotation is not uniform.
It is greatest at the equator being about 1648 km per hour. But goes on decreasing
to wards the poles where it is 0 km per hours. But goes on decreasing to words the
poles where it is 0 km per hours.

WIND VAN The wind van is an instrument by which the direction of a wind can
be known. It is also called weather cock.

SEA BREEZE

Sea breeze is winds which blow from the sea to land by day. In the day time the rays
of the sun heat the pressure is reduced. The air on the sea is heavy and has higher
pressure. To equalize this pressure winds blow from the sea to the land, during the
day. These winds are called sea breeze.

MOON SOON Moon soon are periodical winds blow from sea to land for six
months in summer ands from land to sea for six month in winter.

CYCLONES Some times its is happens that a region has low pressure an
account of the heat.. While the surrounding region has high pressure so the winds
will blow from high pressure region but due to rotation of the earth these winds blow
in shape of circle. A system of winds in which the winds blow spirally to wards a
central region of low pressure is called a cyclone.

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ANTI CYCLONE Some time it is happen that a certain region has high pressure on
account of cold while surrounding region having low pressure due to heat. In this
case wind blow out wards and owing to the rotation of the earth. They assume a
circular form. This system of winds where the winds blow spirally out ward from
central regions of high pressure is called and anti cyclone.

THE HYDROSPHERE We see vast expenses of water on the surface of the earth.
We call such expanses water sea’s and ocean’s More than 71persent of the earth’s
surface is covered by water. The continents cover only 29% of the total area of the
earth.
This expenses of water is called hydrosheve

CONTINENTS Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, South America, .Australia,

Antarctica are covered by man All the continents accept Antarctica are covered by
man. The Antarctica still covered by snow.

OCEAN large body of the water is called ocean. The pacific ocean, The Atlantic
Ocean, Indian ocean, the Arctic ocean, the Antarctic ocean are chief ocean of the
world. The pacific ocean covers an area of 140800,000 square km. Which is the
equal of area of total land in the world. The Atlantic Ocean is the half of the above in
size. The Indian ocean covers in area of 2384000 square km. the artic ocean
covers an area of 13824000 sqare km. The Antarctic ocean in circular the South
Pole. The Atlantic Ocean pacific ocean Indian Ocean are linked with up with it. The
Antarctic frozen through the year and little in important by the commercial point of
view. The Atlantic which separates the Europe from the new world ids most
important from the commercial point of view.

LAKS A close body of water surrounded by land on all sides is called a lake. Some
lake is inland sea. Such as the Caspian Sea. Where area is about half of the area
of Pakistan. The great lake situated on the frontiers of USA.

ISLAND: There are thousand of small and big island in the world. Greenland is
about twice in the size of Pakistan. The British island, Indonesia, Japan, news eland,
and West Indies are the most important groups of island in the world.

CONTINENTAL SHELF:Continental shelf is the part of country which is submerged

under the sea and where the water is not more than 1800 meter in depth.

ADVANTAGE OF CONTINENTAL SHELF:

1. The most important fisheries of the would are found in these shallow parts.
2. The tides are very high which are useful to trade.

WAVES: Waves are undulation of the surface of the sea and are caused by
winds. The practical of water in a waves move up and down but do not move
forward and backward.

CURRENT: The movement of water is call current when water moving horizontally.
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TIDES: People living on the sea coast known that for six hours the sea
water advanced toward the coast and for the next 6 hrs it’s gradually recedes. Thus
in 24 hrs the sea water rises and fall twice. This flow and ebb of sea water twice in
about 24 hrs in called tide.

CAUSES OF TIDE

Tides are caused by the attraction of moon on the surface of water and center of the
earth. The moon attract the sea water to its self causing lied. The sun much attracts
but it is so far away from the earth. Its attraction is not actionable to pull the sea
water to its self. In the bay of funday (east coast of north America) tides some time
attain of hight of 70 feet the heighes tides in the world.

SPRING TIDES

Spring tides are tides where the rise and fall of water is above the normal This
accrue at new moon and full moon. In there today’s the sun the moon and the earth
are inline and have a combine pull.

NEEP TIDES: these tides are where rise and face of water is below the normal
state. This accure at the first and the third quarter of the moon In there days the sun
and the moon makes right angle with the earth with respect of each other.

ADVANTAGE OF TIDES

 Tides keep the sea water in motion thus the water never freezes.
 Tides wash away the gash of city laying near the coast.
 Tides especially help full to trade. The wash away all the mud which rivers
brings near there mouths.
 In high tide many things such as shell, conch are washed ashore.
BORE: The bore is a high wall of water which occasionally rushes up
stream from the mouth of a river. This generally takes place in the narrow funnel
shaped mouth of rivers. Some time a bore attains a height of 15mtr or even 18
meter. Bores are very frequent in (Hugli city)

EQUATOR: The equator is an imignary line round the glob having equal distance
from the two pole. It is 0’ latitude. Latitude measure from here.

MERIDIANS: Meridians are imaginary lines joint two poles and out the
equation at light angle.

LATITUDE: Latitude is the distance of a place north or south prom the equator along
a meridian. This distance uncaused in degree.
Sixty minutes make a degree and sixty se4conds makes minutes.

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LONGITUDE: Longitude the distance of a place east or west of the prime
meridian along a parallel of latitude
This distance is measured in degree.

ADVANTAGE OF LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE It we know the lat and long of a

place we can locate its accurate positions. With the help of latitude we can find out
the ever age temperature of place. With the help of latitude we can find out the
distance in mile of a place from the equator. One degree of latitude is about one
mile. We can find the local time of a place with the help of latitude.

ANTI TRADE WIND These are constant winds which blow from 35o N to 60 N
and from 35 S to 60 S. In the northern hemphere their direction is south west and in
the Southern himsphere their direction. These winds are also called WESTRLIES.
Because in both hemphere It blows from west.

HOW TO FIND THE TIME It the longitude of two places are know and the local
time of one place is also known the local time of the other place can be find out in the
following way.

 Find out the difference in degree between the longitudes of the place.
 Multiply the differences by 4 the product will be show the difference between
their local time in minutes reduce it to hours.
 If the place whose local time is required is to the east of the place whose local
time is known add this figure to the time already known and it lies to the west
than subtract it.
 Write AM or PM according as the time calculated is before or afternoon.
 The longitude of grean which is 0 and midday means 12 o clocks.
LOCAL TIME: The local time of place is the time which is calculated according to
the moon. When the sun at any place is highest in the sky (midday). It should be
considered 12 o clocks there. And the watches should be set the local time of that
place.

STANDER TIME: Standard time is a uniform time adopted by all places over a
certain area with out regard to their local time.

THE DATE LINE: In traveling round the world there accrue an error of on day. To
avoid this error a date line has been adopted, which is so called because ships
crossing this line change their date. The date line is an imaginary line roughly
corresponding 0’ to 180’ meridian. Ship crossing this line from west to east repeat a
day. That is if they cross it on Monday December 10 in the other day ship crossing
this line from east drop a day. That is after Monday December 10 comes
Wednesday December 12.

COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH

CRUST OF THE EARTH: According the opinion of some scientist that earliest
age this earth was glob of fluid, mater, and hot gases revolving round the sun. with
the time it radiated its heat in to space and its outer position become coaled and
10
solidified. This hard solid portion of the earth is called its crust. It is now covered
with soil. Scientist have different views about the thickness of curst but the general
view is that it is about 840 mtr thick.

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

No b ody have seen the interior of the earth is certain the interior of the earth is
extremely hot and heavy.

PROOFS OF INTERIOR OF EARTH IS HOT

At serval places hot springs gush out from interior of the earth.
Volcanoes emit hot lava.
As we go deep down below from surface the temperature staidly rise.

THE NOTE
The oilier most position of the earth consisting of cloy, land vegetable. In vegetation
can grow is called the sell. The cruse is every where covered with soil has different
depth t different places.

ROCKS
All material on the crust of the earth, earth is composed are called rocks. Such as
sad, stone, clay, lawa, and hills.

KINDS OF ROCK.

IGNEOUS ROCKS igneous rocks are those rocks which comes out the cooking
of the molten mater which comes out from the interior of the earth. In some cases
lawa cooled and makes a solid object above the surface of the earth and some time
it cooled at some depth below the surface of the earth.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS OR AQUES ROCK OR STRATIFIED ROCKS:

Sedimentary rocks are those rocks which formed by the deposition of
sediment brought by water and wind. When the rivers flow, they bring mud and sand
with self. This mud and sand form these rocks above the surface of the rock above
the surface of the water.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS: Clay and marbles are called metamorphic

rocks. Which is in reality limestone are called the metamorphic rocks.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHANGING AGENTS:

INTERNAL AGENTS: These are forces which works in the interior of the earth
bring changes on its surface. Such as contraction of the earth, volcanic action and
earth quick,

EXTERNAL AGENTS: These are forces which works above the surface of the
earth and bring changes there such as water, air, winds, temperature.

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CONTRACTION OF THE EARTH: The most important internal agent of changes
is the contraction of the earth. We know that the earth was hot and gradually
cooling. As it cools it contracts and occupies less space. This cause folds on the
crust of the earth so that some portion becomes valley and seas.

VOLCANIC ACTION: An other important internal agent of change is volcanic

action. The interior of the earth is so hot and sum of different materials. When this
materials melt there, due to heavy heat. Some time molten mater (lava) comes out
from surface of the earth where the crust is weak. This lava spread over the surface
and forms a plateau. This mass of lava grows big mountain. The deacon plateau is
formed in this way.

EARTH QUACKS: Earthquake is also important agent of changes of the

surface of the earth. These earth quacks causes cracks and fissure on the surface.
Some parts are raised up while other are link down. Many towns are destroyed and
changes take place.

VOLCANOES: Volcanoes are mountains which have formed by the

accumulation of lava. The hot matter that is lava in the interior of the earth is
pressed down by the pressure of the crust. When ever it find a weak spot in the
crust. It comes out through a cracks or a hole and accumulates round it. Gradually it
cools and solidified. Lava builds up a conical mountain. These mountains are called
volcanoes.

EARTHQUAKE: The sudden violent shaking of a part of the earth is called an

earthquake. An earth quack is gernally accompanied by rumbling of sound and
tremors.

EFFECT OF EARTHQUAKES:

 Many towns are destroyed and there is considerable loss of life and prosperity.
 Some places are submerged under the sea.
 Big cracks and fissured are formed on the surface of the earth which interrupt
communication.
 Sometimes rivers disappear or change their course.
 Precious metals and minerals come up the surface of the use of man.
 New lands for habitation appear above the surface of the sea.
 Some time new springs are formed.
SPRINGS: A spring is a place where water issues out from the ground of itself.

SNOW LINE: Snow line is the limit, above which snow never melts. The height
of snow line genially varies with latitude. At the equator it lies 5400 m above sea
level. All the poles it is at sea level.

GLACIERS:Glaciers are extremely slow moving river of ice.

ICE BERGS: Ice Bergs are huge blocks of ice that about the sea.

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CANYON: A deep and narrow river valley with step banks is called a canyon.
When river flows in a rocky region with scanty rainfall. It gradually cuts away its bad
while the banks are remains intact. Thus a deep khud is formed. Such a deep khud
with step banks is called canyon.

DELTA: A delta is a triangular piece of land formed by the deposition of

fertile mud near the mouth of river.

GEYSERS: Geysers are hot springs which shoot up columns of boiling water at
interval. Geysers are hot spring of boiling water which shoot up from the ground at
interval.

WATER VAPOUR IN THE ATMOSPHERE

EVAPORATION & CONDENSTION: Whenever water comes in contact with air in

the sea or a lake. It is being converted into water vapor is called evaporation. When
this moist air cools from any cause. It contains so much water vapor. Some of the
vapor then assumes a visible form.

NOTE: This conversation of water vapor in to visible form is called

condensation. Condensation takes places in many forms such as fog, Cloud hail,
snow, and dew.

FOG: When hot moist air comes in contact with cold air or cold water. It is cooled
and some of the water vapor condenses on the floating partial of dust in the
atmosphere. This is call fog.

MIST:Mist and fog are identical and are formed in the same. The only difference
being that in the mist the water particles are bigger. Mist is afton found on mountain.

CLOUDS: Clouds and fog are identical and are formed alike the only difference
being that clouds are formed in the ripper regions of the atmosphere. Dust particles
are necessary for the formation of clouds too.

DEW: At night every thing radiates heat which it has absorbed by day. Grass,
flowers and leaves radiates heat more quickly than may other things and thus
become very cold. When moist touches them, it also cooled and cannot held the
some vapor. It condoned and deposited on these in form water vapor or drops. This
is called dew.

RAIN GAUGE: The rainfall of a place is measure by means of an apparatus

called rain gauge.

WHY MOUNTAIN ARE COOLER THAN PLAINS: There are two

important reason that mountain are cooler than plains.
1. The air of the mountain is rare than the air of plains and contain a smaller
number of dust particles. The capacity of the air to absorb and retain heat depends
on its density and the number of dust particles. In the air of the mountains less heat
13
than the air of the plains. Due to rarity the mountain radiates heat very quickly at
night. Which it has absorbed by day. Thus night in the mountain are much cooler
than the plains.

DIFFERENT BETWEEN OCEANIC CONTINENTAL CLIMATE: the climate of

places near the sea is called oceanic maritime. The different between the summer
heat and winter cold is very small. So that such places are nether very hot nor very
cold in winter and summer. The claimant of places far away from the sea is called
continental extreme. Hence the rang of temperature is very great. So that such
places are extremely hot in summer and extremely cold in winter. The different is due
to fact that the water heats and cools more slowly that land. Thus it equalizes the
climate of the night boring areas. Influence of the sea does not reach very fare
inland.

CLIMATE OF EQUATORIAL REGION: This region lies between 5N and 5S on

both side of the equator. Conga basin, the Amazon basin and East Indies. The
characteristic of this region is that the rays of the sun fall nearly perpendicularly
through out the whole year and the temperature is high. The axes having this
climate rain accrue daily almost. Thus the region is hot moist through out the year.
There is no cold season. The average annual temperature is 80F and the average
rainfall is two mile miter.

TROPICAL REGION: The region lies on both sides of the equator between 5N to
30N and 5S to 30S in the northern himsphere this region includes. Central America,
Venezuela, Sudan, and deacon. In the southern himsphere it includes.

1. South brazil
2. Zambezi basin
3. central Australia
Thus region has very short season of rainfall.

HOT DESERTS: The region lies on the both side of the equator between 20’
and 30’ and in the west of land masses (continents).

FOREST IN PAKSITAN

THE BALOCHISTAN HILL FORESTS: In the Quetta and kallat division we come
across day hill forest. Some chilgnoze pine and pencil jumpers’ ménage to grow in
this area due to poor rainfall.

THE RIVERAIN OR BELA FORESTS: These are found along the river banks,
expecially the lower Indus, shishum, keakar, frash, jand, and babul, are important
trees.

THE TIDAL FOREST: The extend from Karachi to khuch. There are coast land
forest grow grasses and a mangrove (type of vegetation). Which provides fuel wood
as well fodder for Karachi,

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THE RAKH:All over the aride plain of Pakistan. We come across dry scrub forest.
In solted places for away from the town. The tree includes. Jand, Frash, Karel,
These are used for fuel.

FOREST IN INDIA

EVERGREEN FORESTS: Evergreen trees whose wood is very hard are found
on the slopes of the western chats. In Assam and in the water of Eastern part of the
Himalaya up to 5000 feet above sea level. The rainfall in these area is over 80’
inches in the years.

MOON SOON FOREST: These forest are found in area where rainfall in the
year ranges between 40 and 80 inch. The trees in these area shed there leaves in
the dry season and they are leafless for a part of year. These are very useful trees
and gives valuable timber. Teaks come from western chats and the western part of
plateau. Sall grows in the northeast of the plateau and along the lower slopes of the
Himalayas. These are reserved forest.

SUB FOREST: These forest are found in areas where the annually rainfall
is less than 1000mm. These forest seldom grow. A few trees that grow armed with
thorns to prevent evaporations of moisture. Some trees in these part are only bushes
that grow apart. One of the more useful tree in these area is the Acacia. Whose
bark use for tanning.

MOUNTAIN FOREST: If we go up of High Mountain we shall found evergreen,

coniferous forest or broad leaved forest. These forest supply bharat valuable timber
deodar, kail, chil. The forest line is about 90 miles In Himalaya and 150 miles in the
southern bharat.

ALPINE VEGETATION: Above the forest line maintain grasses, rohdendvons,

bushes and scrubs grew at great highest. There is perpetual snow.

DIFFERENT BETWEEN THE WEATHER CLIMATE: Weather means the

condition of the atmosphere of a place due to temperature, pressure, humidly for a
particular time, such as a day, a week. Climate is the average condition of weather
under observation for a considerable period. The only different in the length of the
period of observation. Weather may change condition such as cloudy, rainy, dry,
wet, and clear. But climate is permanent and constant.

MEAN OF IRRIGATION IN PAKISTAN: Pakistan is an agricultural country. The

people of Pakistan depend upon the development and extension of irrigation system.
Our northern hilly area and foot hill have sufficient rais but 67% of the total area
under the crops is dependent upon irrigation. The most important of irrigation is
canals. They feed 70% of area which need irrigation and from remaining 30% the
16% area gets supply of water from the tube wells, aqueducts, and pound.

CANALS:

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 1. The upper bari dhob and lower baridhob flow from madhpur (India) and
boloki head works respectively.
2. Upper chanab and lower chanb have been cut of from the chanab at
marala and khanki respectively.
3. Upper jehlam and lower jehlam have been taken of from the jehlam at
merla and mong rasool respectively.
4. The sutluge valley cannal have been taken off by constructing dams at
ferozpur (India). Sulmaniki, islam and Punjand.
These are primial cannal system. There are two big dames and seven link canals
have been dug under the Indus brain agreements.

THE LINK CANNAL: This is one hundred and twenty nine km long canal. It
constructed across the rave between bam ban wali and bedian to feed the branches
of the upper bari dhob when they come in Pakistan.

BALLOKI SALMANKI LINK: This is an 86 km long between the ravi and sutlug to
supply water in sutleg valley.

THE MARALA RAVI LINK: This canal is 96km long. It flows from marala on the
chanab to the ravi about 40 km up stream from shahdarah. It supply additional water
for the bloki and salmanki links.

WELL IRRIGATION: In the tehak area in the south of D G Khan and in the valley
of the Kabul River, Persian wheels are used to irrigate the fields. Canal cannot be
taken to these area, wells are in use even in canal irrigated area to supplement the
canal supplies. People now dug more sand more tube wells especially in area sub
soil is found at great depth.

KAREZ IRRIGATION: This irrigation is carried out by means of under ground

channel of water in balouchistan area. These are known as karez. Well are dug in
the area around the foot hill. They are interconnected through under ground pipes.
This don to avoid loss of water by corporation by there pipes water shifted from on
places to other places.

HOW CHANGES TAKES

EXTERNAL AGENTS OF CHANGES

Temperature Temperature also plays a great part of bringing about

change on the surface of the earth. By days rocks are heated by the heat of sun and
expands at night they cool and contract. This construction and expansion break up
the rock,. In dry region especially in deserts. This action is very powerful, an account
of the extremes of temperature.

AIR AND WIND

The oxygen in atmosphere oxidizes the rocks which crumble and ear off.

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Particle of sand in a storm act like sand paper. They strike against the rocks and
wear than away.
Strong winds away sands from one place to other.

PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Plants too are responsible for disintegrating rocks in the search of water and food
their roots spread in the rocks and break them up. Animals especially burrowing
animals such as earth worm, moles and ants also effecting agent of change. They
bring to be surface many ton f soil.

STAGE OF ‘RIVER

MOUNTAIN STAGE In this stage the slope of land is very steep. The river flows
very fast and breaks up rocks. At some places the river makes contracts and water
falls which can be use for generating of electricity navigation. Several small streams
fall in to it and increase the valium of its water.

PLAIN STAGE: In this stage river is generally slow and useful for navigation
as well as irrigation. Most of mud’s which the rivers bring from mountain stage
deposited here. The river is very useful in this stage many towns grow up on the
bank of river.

DELTA STAGE: This is last stage of river. In this stage river is very slow.
And it deposits all the mud which it has brought with it. Level of its bed rises. Now it
branches off into several canals.

ARTESIAN WELL: An artesian well is that out of which water pushes out as in
a fountain.

RIFT VALLEY: A long and narrow valley formed by sinking of a portion of the
earth is called rift valley.

OCEAN CURRENT: Ocean current are so to say the rivers of cold and or warm
water flowing in an ocean. Their banks and beds also consist of water.

CONTINENTAL SLOPES: A part of ocean which is very prominent and when the
depth of water is from 180 mtr to 360 mtr. The ocean having depth 4800 mtr called
deep sea plain.

LAND BREAZ: Land breezes are winds which blow from land to sea at
night. At the night the land cools much more quickly than sea. So the air of land is
cold and heavy and has high pressure. To equalize the pressure winds blow form
high pressure region to the low pressure region. So wind blow from land to sea at
night. These winds are called land breeze.

THE SUEZ CANAL:

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  The Suez Canal is the biggest of it kind lays territory of Egypt.
 The canal connects Asia with Africa.
 It designed and constructed by a French engineer Ferdinand de hispid.
 It was opened for traffic in 1869.
 This canal passes through three lakes.
 Its average width is 90m and about 160 km long and its dept 10.8 m.
 Limited speed is in the canal for cargo ships is 6 knts. A cargo ships takes 15
hrs to clear this canal.
 Deserts are lies on the both side of canal.
 By international agreement the canal is required to remain open to the
commerce for all country during peace and war alien.
 This canal connects the Mediterranean Sea with red sea.
COUNTRY BENEFITING: all most all countries except South America have
benefited from this canal. But the countries of west Europe. Mediterranean
countries. East Africa. Pakistan, bharat, Australia. Japan have befitted, much
greater.

TRADE: Through this canal Asiatic countries especially Pakistan, bharat, china
export like wheat, rice, spices, tea, and coffee, and raw material cotton, oil seeds
skins, teak, wool, rubber. While Iran exports minerals, oil. Australia exports fresh
meat, wheat, wool, butter, wine, timber. European counties export cloth, glass wane,
medicine, and machinery to Asiatic counties.

PANAMA CANAL:

This canal lays in panama a state of Central America. It belongs to USA.

It constructed in 1914. this canal is 50 miles long 500 feet wide and 40 feet
deep.
The ship takes 10 to 12 hrs to clear this canal.
This canal connects Pacific Ocean with Atlantic Ocean.
Both side of panama connected by railway line.

BENEFITING COUNTRIES: This canal primary benefited the USA while other
counties are south America, Japan, Austerities, new eland. Europe is not benefited
in this canal due to its trade with Aais, Australia, Africa.

TRADE: Through this canal western Europe and eastern USA export their
manufactured articles like cotton, woolen cloth, machinery, medicine and hard ward.

IMPORTANCE:

 This canal has brought eastern and western coast of north America nearer to
each other.
 This canal has reduced distance between several counties such a.
 Distance between New York and sanfransisco is about 9000 miles shorter due
to this canal.
 It has reduced about 4000 miles between Western Europe and sanfransisco.
 Distance between New York and Japan is about 4000 miles reduced.
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SOIL EROSION: The area under cultivation in Pakistan is already very
discouraging and in addition. About 30,000, acres of has been victim of the problem
of soil erosion, soil erosion harms not only the land but corps as well forests are also
gripped by this problem because the roots of trees and plants become empty and
loose due to soil erosion. They either are fallen or drained by water. Due to
attention has not yet been given to solve this problem in Pakistan. Soil erosion in
Pakistan, take place either through water or wind. Moreover, there also the problem
of land sliding. There is an acute shortage of domestic fuel. The forests are cut in
discremently, consequently. The oil that used to be bended by the roots of trees and
plant, become loose. The growth of trees is adversely affected due to exertive
grassing actively. The cultivators do not organize their farms properly. The problem
of soil erosion has reached on peak in the deserts and semi deserts area because
both water and wind erosion take place simultaneously.

FOREST IN PAKISTAN:

ALPINE FOREST: These forests are found on the northern mountains area.
Such as dear chitral, sawat, abbatabad, malakand. These are fairly high from
surface of sea. These are found at the height of 3000 feet while the evergreen
forests are found at the height of 5000 feet in balouchistan. Alpine forest included,
Cherri, aloes, pine, keel cut. While in the forest of balouchistan the trees included
chighaza and chnari.

CENTRAL FOREST: These forests are found at mardan, kohat, jehlum, gujrat,
and attock districts. In which beer and Tory and trees are found excessively.

THE REVRIAN OF BELA FOREST: The forests that are grow either on the bank of
rivers. Or around there is called bela forest, when the rivers are flooded, a lair of
fertile soil is spread around the rivers where the forest are grown self. These forests
are found in the district of Gujarat, muzaffergarh, Lahore, shekupura. The trees of
theses forest are shishum, babule, beri, pronding wood for domestic dull and
building.

RAKH FOREST: These forests comprise of through bushes and called rakh
forest. Rakh forest is found in the valley of sind. The wood of these forest are used
as domestic fuel or it is used in the herbal medicine. Such forests are planted at
change manga, chichi watni, pir wall and kessuwall.

GRASS FIELD: The average rainfall in Pakistan is less than 10 inches. This
low rainfall is the main cause for the grow and development of forest here.

ADVANTAGE OF FORESTS

 Forest keep the crops safe from the intention of weather and our food and
cash crops remain safe.
 Forest provide building and decoration wood.
 Animal leaving in forest are the souse of meat and skin.
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  Forest provide raw material such as match and sports goods.
 Different kind of fruit is achieved from the forest.
 The forest extracting co2 and provide o2 are which living being depends.
 The forests are very helpful to protect the land from erosion.
 The forest provide chemical to soil, keep the land fertile.
 Raw internal are achieved for making modern cloth.
 Herbal elements are also achieved.

MEANS OF IRRIGATION: Pakistan according to climate is a country

where the annual rainfall is less than 20 inches, agriculture is occupation of the
majority of population. Agriculture is the backbone of economy of Pakistan. A part
from mountain region the average rainfall is less than 5 inches. 38% of total area of
Pakistan could be cultivated but due to this reason, only 24% is currently being
cultivated. If irrigation water provided to far situated area the total under cultivation
could be extended.

LIFT IRRIGATION: irrigation from well is the most ancient method of irrigation.
The area where the canal system is not found or rainfall is low. Well are used for
irrigation of crops.

POUNDS: The area where the land depressed and have bowl like surface.
Rainwater is stored up called pound. This store water could be used for irrigation
purpose.

Karez: Irrigation through karez is the ancient method of irrigation in Pakistan

which is confined to the province of boalochistn only. Karez is the form of very
narrow canal, from the foundation of mountain where water reserves are found,
karez through under ground channel two to ten miles and than exposed.

CANALS: This artificial system of irrigation is extremely useful and the best
irrigation system. Best canal system is found in Pakistan in Asia. Maximum area of
Punjab is irrigated by the canal. Following three rivers are generated from rave:

1. Upper bari doab canal enter in Pakistan from the district gurdaspur in
India. But India stops it. Further was canalized by river chanab.
2. Lower bari doab canal has been canalized from baloki head works and
irrigate the area of okara, sahiwal and multan.
3. sidhni canal generated from sidhni barrage and irrigate land of district
vehari and multan.

UPPER JEHLUM CANAL: This canal starting from upper jehlum Head works
joins river chanab and provides excess water to lower chanab canal. This canal
irrigates land of district jehlum, Gujarat.

LOWER JEHLUM CANAL: Lower jehlum anal generates from Rasool head
works and irrigate the land in district sargadha and Gujarat.

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SUTLAJ VALLEY: The sutlaj valley canal has been taken by constructing
dame at Ferozepur, Sulmanki and pajnand.

MINERAL: The term minerals applied to all the things that are exerted from the
ground by digging. Theses things may be solid like coal, gold and iron and also be
liquid like gas and oil minerals are the natural gift of country. Which play key role in
making the country strong. It depends upon capabilities and abilities of the people of
country.

DESERTS: A part from mountainous and plain area. There are some deserts areas
also. Although many desert area due to industrious former irrigation system, have
been laid into fertile areas. Some areas are there in the form of Low Mountain of san
and deserts. The deserts are free fro vegetation. Nothing is grow in these plain
except thorny bushes.

THE DESERTS: This desert is comprised of the district of mainwali, bhakkar,

layya and mazaffargarh.

THARPARKER DESERT: This desert is composed by the deserts area of

therparker and mirpur khas.

NARA DESERT: The area that are located on the border of Khyber are included in
the desert of nara.

CHOLISTAN DESERT: The desert of cholistan comprised on one part of the Indian
desert area located in the south of Bahawalpur.

POWER RESOURCES:

Turbela project: Blocking of the water of Indus turbela dam has been constructed
on it at turbela as the biggest power production. This is the biggest earthen dam of
Asia. It has been constructed in the province of NWFP 32 mile far from attock. The
length of this dam 9000 feet. Width 485 feet while 500 feet longs lake is there on the
back of the dam. Work was started on this project in 1958 and it was completed in
1982. turbela dam is multi purpose project which produce not only electricity but also
provide irrigation water. Fourteen electric generator which producing electricity
2000000 kw. Working on the dam.

MANGLA DAM: Mangla dam was constructed on the river Jehlum near Mangla.
This dam is capable to produce 3000.000 kw electricity. Which is used in the plain of
river Indus. The basic of purpose of construction of this dam is to store the water of
jehlum. There are five tunnels on the left bank of the dam and every tunnel is 1600
feet long and diameter is 30 feet. The electricity produced by Mangla dam has been
constructed to the grid system of Pakistan. This project is providing 8000 mw
electricity.

INDUSTRIES: The main industries of the Pakistan as under:

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COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY: Cotton textile no doubt is the biggest and the
main industry in occupying the strategic Pakistan. In the industrial sector of the
country. This industices produces ¼ of the total industrial out put of the country.
Forth 40%of the total export earning is achieved through the export of textile.
Immediate after independence of Pakistan cloth was being importer have from other
countries. The government of Pakistan formed a committee to make this industry in
1978 with the corporation of coordination of messers Warner industrial international.
The main cotton textile center in Pakistan jehlum, sargadha, mauzarrgarh,
rehamyarkhan, d g khan, okara, Karachi, Hyderabad, Peshawar, larkana, gumbat,
haripur, naushara, qutta, charsaddah, lasbela.

ART SILK INDUSTRY: Art silk industry is one of the important industry in Pakistan.
Which is developing rapidly? There are two kind of silk Natural and real silk and
second is artificial or aryon. The natural silk is achieved from the silk warms. It is
too much expensive. This reason that Orion is mostly used. In the beginning, art silk
production was very low therefore silken cloth used to be imported. Pakistan is
exporting the art silk and silk yarn. The details of ant silk enter is given as under.
Karachi is the beggest silk cloth center, other silk center are, Hyderabad, habayyee,
rove, sukhar, Faislabad, gujrat, Lahore, multan, RWP, mingora, swat, saidu shrif, all
of above the silk center in the Pakistan.

JUTE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY: Jut in addition to goods packing internal,

is also a dependable and cheep internal, sand bags, strings are made of jut cotton,
yarn, cotton products, carpets, wheat, rice and other materials are packed in these
bags. These traditional packing bags are gradually being replaced by nylon, paper
and cloth bags. For instance, wheat flour and sugar is being in the cloth bags while
cement is packed in paper bags. Following are the jut production center in Pakistan.
Jut mil are producing at noorwala, jaranwala, mazaffargarh, shekupura, Multan,
faislabad, joaharabad, nausherah, Karachi and hub chocki.

SUGAR INDUSTRY: sugar industry is one of the important agro-based industries

in Pakistan. The raw material for this industry is sugar cane 2/3 of the total sugar
produced in the world is made of sugar cane and the remaining is made of beet.
Although a large amount of sugar can be produced in Pakistan. There ware two
sugar mills in Pakistan when it came in to being. But now state of mills of sugar in
country as below. Takhatbai, charsadds, bannu, peshwar, navsharah, jourhaabad,
etc.

CEMENT INDUSTRY: Only two cement factories were working at the time of
inception of Pakistan in 1947 with a total annual production capacity of 480,000
tones. Both these units were owned by dalmia and associate company of Bombay.
The first cement factory was e4stablished by PIDC in dowood khel with the name of
Naples leaf cement with a production capacity of 25,000 tones. The second factory
zeal PAK cement was established at Hyderabad. The production capacity of this
factory was low in the beginning but it was increased gradually and presently 18
million tones in year. The cement center has been established at wah, Islamabad,
dowooe khel, Karachi, rohvi, sukhar, Hyderabad, thatta, rawalpindi.

22
CHEMICAL FERTILIZER: Fertilizer is an important factor for boosting the
producing of agriculture sector. Three kind of fertilizer are used in Pakistan. Cow-
dung manure green manure and chemical fertilizer. Due to industry and shortage of
two kind most of the chemical fertilizer factories are running under PAK American
fertilizer, dowood khel, lylepur, C.F Faisalabad, Jaranwala, Multan, Bahawalpur,
hazar, machi ghot, derki, shekurpur.

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY:Chemical industry is a comprehensive term in which various

industries could be included like insecticides, pesticides, soap, sanitation, medicines,
varnish, paints, colors, sulphric acid, caustic soda, ash soda. Some important
chemical industries are saushare kherwar, harchi, rawalipnidi, jaranwala, dawood
khel.

CROPS

RICE:After remaining former East Pakistan as Bangladesh emerged and very

important food crops. Pakistan maintain fifth position on the global bases in the rice
production. Although rice is the food of one third population of the world but the
people in Pakistan prefer wheat over the rice to eat. Three kind of rice produced in
the country. Basmati, desi, and irri. Rice production in gujranwala, shakupur,
sialkote, sahiwal, Lahore, multan, bhawaalpur, larkana.

BARLEY: Barley is the low grade grain synonymous to the wheat and which is the
diet of extremely poor people. The farmers use mixing it in the flour of grain and
maiz. The main regions of barley production of, gujranwala, aialkot, gujrat,
masinwali, attock, mauzaffargarh, hazara, mardan, Peshawar, and thatta.

MAIZE: Maize is the crop of khans which is not only the food crop for the human
but it is also used as cattle feed. Maize is not used as the important food grain in
Pakistan, but taken as the pant of the food of poor population and that is why its
important is not like than of rice or wheat. The main cultivating areas in attock, RWP,
Jehlum, gujrat, shekrpur, gujranwala, etc.

MELLETS: A pant from being the food of poor population millets is also b grade
food crop. Both jawar and bagra, do not require neither more water not good soil.
Millet is also used as cattle food. There is corps of khanif.

GRAM: Gram is used as human food and cattle feed. Gram is used as
vegetable prior to its ripening in green form. The leaves of the plant of gram are
used as vegetable (saag). The gram flour is used for making bread and pikoras.
Gram cultivated in the mianwala, mazaffargarh, d g khan, khairpur, gahawalpur,
Hyderabad, thatta.

OIL SEED: Oil seeds refer to the seeds from which oil is extracted. These seeds
include Rap Seeds ground nuts. Mustered seeds tore Soya been, sun flower and
cotton seeds. For the production of oil seeds are Khairpur Multan Bahawalnagar,
Surgodha, Prshawar Rawalpindi kohat and Sangarh.

23
PULES: Pulses are the important source of providing proteins in the human Deit
the main pulses cultivated in Pakistan include from Masroor, moong, Mash, gram.
For the production of pulses in sargadha, mainwali, Bannu, d I khan, dir, Sialkot,
Kohat, Gujrat, Jehlum, attock and Sindh.

24