CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Unconventional or Non-traditional

Conventional or Traditional: In conventional machining process, the material is

removed by the direct contact between tool and workpiece. The energy is utilized to

rotate either workpiece or tool, and the cutting tool should be harder than workpiece (35-

50% more hardness). In non-conventional or advanced machining process, energy is

utilized in its direct form (thermal, mechanical and electrical etc.) to remove the

material.Traditional, also termed conventional, machining requires the presence of a tool

that is harder than the work piece to be machined. This tool should be penetrated in the

work piece to a certain depth. Moreover, a relative motion between the tool and work

piece is responsible for forming or generating the required shape. The cutting action

removes the machining allowance in the form of chips, which are visible to the naked

eye.

Unconventional or Non-traditional: This manufacturing revolution is now, as it has

been in the past, centered on the use of new tools and new forms of energy. The result has

been the introduction of new manufacturing processes used for material removal, forming

and joining, known today as non-traditional manufacturing processes. The conventional

manufacturing processes in use today for material removal primarily rely on electric

motors and hard tool materials to perform tasks such as sawing, drilling and broaching.

Conventional forming operations are performed with the energy from electric motors,

hydraulics and gravity. Likewise, material joining is conventionally accomplished with

thermal energy sources such as burning gases and electric arcs. In contrast, non-

traditional manufacturing processes harness energy sources considered unconventional by

yesterday’s standards. Material removal can now be accomplished with electrochemical

reaction, high temperature plasmas and high-velocity jets of liquids and abrasives.

Materials that in the past have been extremely difficult to form, are now formed with

magnetic fields, explosives and the shock waves from powerful electric sparks. Material-

joining capabilities have been expanded with the use of high-frequency sound waves and

beams of electrons and coherent light. An unconventional machining process (or non-

traditional machining process) is a special type of machining process in which there is no

direct contact between the tool and the work piece. In unconventional machining, a form

of energy is used to remove unwanted material from a given work piece.

Classification of unconventional machining processes:

Unconventional machining processes can be broadly classified into several types based

on four main criteria.

The classification of unconventional machining processes is given below:

Based on energy used, unconventional machining processes can be broadly classified into

five main types. They are:

1. Mechanical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes

2. Electrical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes

3. Electrochemical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes

4. Chemical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes

5. Thermo-electrical (or Electro-thermal) Energy based Unconventional Machining

Processes

1.2 ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is one of the important machining

process for machining alloys and composites. ECM is gaining more industrial

applications for its advantages such as no thermal affected area, no mechanical force is

required, no tool wear, good surface quality and machined products with no stress. ECM

is a non conventional machining process for machining difficult to cut materials and

MMCs. However ECM is limited to the nature of the material like electrical conductivity.

ECM is applied to machine micro holes, complicated shapes and hard to machine

materials like inconel, titanium and other alloys.

 The ECM was initially developed by Gussef.W in the year 1929 as a n

experimental setup and later in 1959 it was commercialized by a company named Anocut

Engineering. The ECM is generally used to fabricate complicated design work piece

with smooth surface finish and also to machine harder materials. It is also used

effectively in the process of deburring, where the projection and the sharp edges in the

machined parts are removed.

In ECM material removal takes by the principle of Faradays law. The

electrolysis process is working on the law of Faraday, which is defined as ‘the weight of

the metal removed during the process is proportional to the applied voltage, time taken

and the quantity of the material deposited. Micheal Faraday have invented that when two

electrodes are placed in the container filled with liquid and then a voltage is applied

between these electrodes, which results in removal of the metal from the anode and the

same will be deposited on the cathode. The motion of the electrolyte between the tool and

the work piece will flush away the dissolved metal ions from the anode workpiece, so

that there will not be any deposition on the cathode tool. The inter electrode gap (IEG)

has to be maintained around 0.25 mm and ensure that the dissolved metal ions should not

encroach this gap, so that the machining rate is not reduced. The electrolyte should be

pressurized at a range of 0.65 to 3 MPa for removing the metal ions in the IEG. The
electrolyte has to be cleaned by recirculation unit to remove the metal ions deposited in it

during the machining process.

The principle of ECM process is a reverse of electrolysis, where the tool will

act as cathode and the workpiece will act as anode. In ECM the metal is removed

whereas in electroplating the material is added. The ECM is considered to be similar to

electrical discharge machining (EDM), where electrode acts as cathode (negatively

charged), the workpiece will act as anode (positively charged). Both the anode and

cathode are immersed in a electrolyte which initiate the machining process on the

application of electrical parameters. However, in ECM there is no any sparks created like

EDM, also there is no contact between the electrode and the workpiece during

machining. When the current is passed the gap between the cathode and anode will get

ionized due to the electrolyte and the metal removal takes place by anodic dissolution.

The advantages of ECM are tool wear is minimum, there is no mechanical force applied

and hence there will not be any induced stress nor burr formation, good surface finish can

be achieved as well as high accuracy in machining operation. The applications of ECM

are machine hard & soft materials to create cavities, irregular shapes, micro holes,

machine the materials with complex shapes also it can machine thin structures.
 Fig.1.1 Schematic arrangement of ECM

During machining the tool is lowered towards the workpiece by using a

mechanism and the inter electrode gap (IEG) is maintained. The electrolyte is circulated

by using a feed pump, which will pressurize the electrolyte and it will be passing through

the gap between the electrode and the work piece. During the ionic reaction between the

electrode and the workpiece the metal will get dissolved and it forms as derbies. The

derbies that have been formed by the ionic reaction will be removed so that the efficiency
of the ECM is maintained. As well as the inter electrode gap between electrode and the

workpiece is maintained by flushing out the derbies by the electrolyte.

ADVANTAGE

 Complex, concave curvature components can be produced easily by using

convex and concave tools.

 Tool wear is zero; same tool can be used for producing infinite number of

components.

 No direct contact between tool and work material so there are no forces and

residual stresses.

 The surface finish produced is excellent.

 Less amount of heat is generated.

DISADVANTAGES:-

1. Non-conducting material cannot be machined

2. Consumption of power is nearly 100 times more than in turning or milling steel

3. Machining process comparatively slow

4. Initial investment is quite high

5. More space is required

6. To vary the tool feed rate supply of electrolyte constant monitoring is needed

7. Difficulty in designing proper tooling system

APPLICATIONS:-

Some of the very basic applications of ECM include:

1. Die-sinking operations

2. Drilling jet engine turbine blades

3. Multiple hole drilling

4. Machining steam turbine blades within close limits

1.3 PROCESS PARAMETERS OF THE ECM

Electrolyte: The electrolyte should possess certain features like good carrier

of current, high specific heat, low viscosity, resistance to chemical reactions, non- toxic,

non -corrosive. The electrical conductivity of the electrolyte will depend on the nature of

the salt and its concentration, dissolved gases, metal ions and the electrolyte temperature

present during the machining process. The salt concentration in the liquid will decide the

electrical properties and the inorganic salts like sodium nitrate, potassium chloride,

sodium chloride, sodium citrate etc., are used for this purpose. The pressurized electrolyte

will be made to flow between the electrode and the workpiece which will remove the

derbies present and the dissolved gasses produced as a result of chemical reactions.

Tool Material: the essential requirement of the tool material should possess

the following properties like electrical conductivity, corrosion resistant and thermally

conductive. Generally, the materials like stainless steel, copper, aluminium, brass,
titanium, bronze etc., are used. The electrode is usually chosen in small dimensions since

the desired cavity produced will be larger than the tool dimensions, since the metal

removal takes place in the outer region of the tool, which will lead to a larger carter than

the electrode.

Power Requirements: it requires a DC power supply with the provisions to

vary the voltage, current, duty cycle and frequency.

The Advantages of using ECM are it can machine very complex design and

also convex and concave shapes can be machined, the tool wear is negligible so it can be

used for long period of time, no mechanical stress since there is no physical contact

between the tool and the workpiece, the surface finish is good.

The limitations of ECM are that it cannot produce parts with sharp corners

and edges, the workpiece should possess good electrical properties, it is generally used to

machine contour surfaces only.

In the ECM the metal is removed by the dissolving the metal by the

application of electrical and chemical application. Hence the MRR will not depend on the

physical or mechanical properties of the workpiece. The basics of ECM are by metal

dissolution of the workpiece with electrical properties, so it will not be depending on the

strength, hardness and the thermal characteristics of the work material. Since there is no

any physical contact between the work piece and the tool there is no any stress formation
on the surface of the machined area and also the surface finish is good. ECM is generally

used for the various operations like grinding, micro drilling, die sinking, contouring etc,.

1.4 Engineering Materials

Materials that are used as raw material for any sort of construction or manufacturing in an

organized way of engineering application are known as Engineering Materials. For

example, the computer or the pen we use, are manufactured through controlled

engineering processes. These gadgets make use of materials like HDPE, PP, Pb-Silica

glass, copper, aluminium, tin, etc. in their fabrication. Civil construction works like

bridges, dams, houses, roads, pavements are carried out with raw materials like stone,

chips, cement, clay, paint, bars, etc.

Everything we use in our daily life can be tailored to use for specific cases. Hence,

materials have been extensively tested for their properties and classified into broad

groups. From this grouping one can know about the gross property of any group of

material.

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Metals:

Metals are usually characterized by a well-defined crystal structure. They are bonded

together by means of metallic bonds which maintain an electron cloud. This electron

cloud is crucial for the high electrical and thermal conductivity characteristic to metals.
  Lustre

 Hardness

 Thermal and electrical conductivity

 Malleability

FIG.1.2 Engineering Material

Ceramic:

These are basically amorphous or complex crystalline structure with strong ionic bonds.

Due to this amorphous nature, they do not have an electron community. In absence of

this, the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivities take a toll. With the strong

ionic bonds between them, it takes a lot of energy to activate and displace atoms from

bonds. Hence ceramics are extremely heat resistant.

 Brittleness
  High thermal and electrical resistance

 High resistance to corrosion

 High temperature stability

Polymer:

Polymers are usually long chain organic macro-molecules with co-valent bonds. Each

molecule is formed from a large number of unitary molecules known as Monomer. For

this reason, the polymers can be bent and stretched easily. In certain polymers some of

the molecules cross link with each other thereby increasing the strength across the

molecules.

 Ductile / soft

 Translucency

 Low thermal stability

 Lightweight (But high molecular weight)

 Poor conductor of heat and electricity (With exception of PPV, etc.)

Composites:

These are macro-physical combination of different phases where the aim is to combine

beneficial properties of the constituent materials. Hence, very clear and abstract

knowledge of properties of the constituent materials are needed in order to select

compatible materials for composite fabrication.

1.6 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)

The SEM is an electron microscope to scan the surface of the material with

the electron beam and as a result an image is produced. The focused electron will interact

with the material atoms and this information reflects the materials composition and the

topography of the surface. The reflected electron beam will be scanned and the intensity

as well as the position of the reflected beam signal will formulate the image. The

secondary electrons that were emitted by the atoms that are in excited will are detected

and these are also reflected in the image. The SEM can produce images in the range of 1

nanometer.

1.7 ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY (EDAX TEST)

EDAX is used to find out the chemical composition or the element present

in a composites or alloys. This technique applies the X-ray source for excitation of the

atoms present in the sample, since the atomic structure of the elements are different, so

that the electromagnetic emission graph displays the intensities in the spectrum which

reflects the present of different elements in the sample. The EDAX spectrum will display

the peaks of the energy level in which the more X-rays received, the spectrum peak is the

reflection of the element concentration in the sample.