He came, he saw he conquered ….

The Gandhara Effect on the Design of the Buddhist Stupas

Dr Uday Dokras
He came, he saw he conquered is a phrase more aptly descriptive of Alexander and the
Greeks that Julius Ceaser. For the Greeks did come, conquered and left an indelible imprint
on the design of several institutions not in the least Buddhism.
The stupa as a structure underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since
Buddhism spread to Central Asia, China and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara,
the stylistic evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of
the stupa (and related artistic or architectural forms) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa
followed several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of
decorative element, leading eventually to the development of the pagoda tower. The main
stupa type are, in chronological order:

1. The Dharmarajika Stupa with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa

almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar
stupas are the Butkara stupa, the Manikyala stupa or the Chakpat stupa.
2. The Saidu Sharif Stupa, pillared and quincunxial, with a flight of stairs to a dome
elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara minutiures represent this spectacular
type (1st century CE).
3. The Loriyan Tangai Stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in
many way the Classical Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).
4. The near-pyramidal Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE).
5. The cruciform type, as in the Bhamala Stupa, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal
directions (4th century CE).

 The towering design of the second Kanishka stupa (4-5th century CE).[

1. A model resembling the Saidu Sharif Stupa, with square base and four columns (1st
century CE).
2. Loriyan Tangai decorated stupa, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (2nd century
CE).
3. A tower-shaped stupa, thought to be the design of the second (rebuilt) Kanishka
stupa, Jaulian monastery
4. Stupa-shaped reliquary, Kushan period, about 2nd century CE
5. Chilas petroglyphs, Buddhist stupa, circa 300-350 CE based on paleography

Origin of the pyramidal temple

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Pyramidal temples

The Mahabodhi Temple in 150-200 CE./The Mahabodhi Temple: a stepped pyramid with
round stupa on top
Model of the sikhara of a Buddhist temple; 900s
It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid may have derived from the
design of the stepped stupas which developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh
Gaya is one such example, formed of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha
images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars. The structure is crowned by the shape of an
hemispherical stupa topped by finials, forming a logical elongation of the stepped Gandharan
stupas such as those seen in Jaulian.
Although the current structure of the Mahabdhodi Temple dates to the Gupta period (5th
century CE), the "Plaque of Mahabhodi Temple", discovered in Kumrahar and dated to 150-
200 CE based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins,
suggests that the pyramidal structure already existed in the 2nd century CE. This is confirmed
by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.
This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the aniconic stupa dedicated to
the cult of relics, to the iconic temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
This design was very influential in the development of later Hindu temples.
Expansion in Asia-Asian stupas

The Chinese Songyue Pagoda Row of stupas on roadside east of Leh, Ladakh

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(523 CE) is thought to derive from the Gandharan tower-stupa model.[32]
Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as
a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. The Indian gateway arches,
the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold
that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century
BCE – 11th century CE). In Tibet, the stupa became the chörten, and the pagoda in East
Asia. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the
Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. In general,
however, "stupa" is the term used for a Buddhist structure in India or Southeast Asia while
"pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia which can be entered and which may be used for
secular purposes. However, use of the term varies by region. For example, stupas in Burma
tend to be referred to as "pagodas."
Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to
Buddhism. The first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later, many more were built
over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura, being one of the tallest
ancient structures in the world.

S Y M B O L I S M

View of the Wat Phra Kaew complex from the northeast, temple complex of the Emerald
Buddha with stupas
"The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on
a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire's base; his
body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his
throne.”
Five purified elements
Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the
five purified elements:

 The square base represents earth

 The hemispherical dome/vase represents water
 The conical spire represents fire
 The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represent air
 The sun and the dissolving point represent wisdom

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 C O N S T R U C T I O N

To build a stupa, Dharma transmission and ceremonies known to a Buddhist teacher are
necessary. The type of stupa to be constructed in a certain area is decided together with
the teacher assisting in the construction. Sometimes the type is chosen directly connected
with events that have taken place in the area.[49]

The sharing of the relics of the Buddha. Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 2-3rd century
CE. ZenYouMitsu Temple Museum, Tokyo.

Buddha relics from Kanishka's stupa in Peshawar, Pakistan. These surviving relics are
now housed in Mandalay, Myanmar.

Treasury
All stupas contain a treasury filled with various objects. Small clay votive offerings
called tsatsas in Tibetan fill most of the treasury. Creation of various types of tsatsas is a
ceremony itself. Mantras written on paper are rolled into thin rolls and put into small clay
stupas. One layer of tsatsas is placed in the treasury, and the empty space between them
is filled with dry sand. On the thus created new surface, another layer of tsatsas is made,
and so on until the entire space of the treasury is full.
The number of tsatsas required to completely fill the treasury depends on its size and the
size of the tsatsa. For example, the Kalachakra stupa in southern Spain contains
approximately 14,000 tsatsas.
Jewellery and other "precious" objects are also placed in the treasury. It is not necessary
that they be expensive, since it is the symbolic value that is important, not the market
price. It is believed that the more objects placed into the stupa, the stronger the energy of
the stupa.
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 Tree of Life
An important element in every stupa is the "Tree of Life". This is a wooden pole covered
with gems and thousands of mantras; it is placed in the central channel of the stupa. It is
positioned during a ceremony or initiation, where the participants hold colorful ribbons
connected to the Tree of Life. Together, the participants make their most positive and
powerful wishes, which are stored in the Tree of Life. In this way the stupa is charged,
and starts to function.
Benefit
Building a stupa is considered extremely beneficial, leaving very positive karmic imprints
in the mind. Future benefits from this action result in fortunate rebirths. Fortunate worldly
benefits will be the result, such as being born into a rich family, having a beautiful body,
a nice voice, being attractive, bringing joy to others, and having a long and happy life in
which one's wishes are quickly fulfilled. On the absolute level, one will also be able
quickly to reach enlightenment, the goal of Buddhism.
Destroying a stupa, on the other hand, is considered an extremely negative deed, similar
to killing. Such an action is said to create massive negative karmic imprints, leading to
serious future problems. It is said this action leaves the mind in a state of paranoia after
death has occurred, leading to totally unfortunate rebirths
Circumambulation (from Latin circum around and ambulātus to walk) is the act of moving
around a sacred object or idol.
Circumambulation of temples or deity images is an integral part
of Hindu and Buddhist devotional practice (known in Sanskrit as pradakśiṇā). It is also
present in other religions, including Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.
Parikrama
In many Hindu temples, the temple structure reflects the symbolism of the Hindu association
of the spiritual transition from daily life to spiritual perfection as a journey through stages.
Passageways for circumambulation are present through which worshipers move in a
clockwise direction, starting at the sanctuary doorway and moving inward toward the inner
sanctum where the deity is enshrined. This is a translation of the spiritual concept of
transition through levels in life into bodily movements by the worshipers as they move
inwardly through ambulatory halls to the most sacred centre of spiritual energy of the deity. It
is done in a clockwise direction and in an odd rather than even number of times.
Circumambulatory walking around the shrine, by keeping time, is a common form of Hindu
prayer. The ambulatory pathway made of stone around the shrine is called
the Pradakshina path.
In the Catholic Church, a priest sometimes circumambulates an altar while incensing it with
a thurible. Also, at some Catholic shrines, it is a tradition to circle the cult object of the place,
usually relics of a saint or an image of Jesus or the Virgin Mary. Often this is performed three
times, as a reference to the Trinity.
Parikrama

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Relief of a devotee couple in Greek dress (right), with two Buddhist monks (left),
cicumbulating a stupa. Private collection. Personal photograph 2006. Description: the male
devotee holds a lamp in his right hand. He has hair, marked by the volume of his mane and
incised lines, identifying him as a lay devotee, in contrast to the monks who are shaven. Also,
his dress covers both shoulders, whether the monks only leave the right shoulder bare. He is
accompanied by his wife, who wears a scarf over the head and forms a gesture of
devotion. Detail of the couple of devotees, in profile. Frontal detail. Top detail. A similar
scene is also visible at the British Museum (drawing hereafter).

Ground plan of Borobudur showing the 9 platforms, each of which can be circumambulated,
and the large central stupa
Also called pradakṣina or caṅkramaṇa in Sanskrit.In Zen Buddhism, jundō can mean any
ritual circuit or circumambulation. At Tassajara each morning, the officiating priest (dōshi)
visits four different altars on their way to the zendō, to make bows and offerings of incense.
This jundō begins with the first rolldown of the han and ends as the dōshi enters the zendō
with the third rolldown. After offering incense and bowing at the altar, the dōshi walks
around the zendō behind the meditators, in what is called the kentan, inspection of the sitting

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platform. As the dōshi passes, each resident raises their hands in gasshō without bowing.
This joins the dōshi and sitters in mutual acknowledgement.
THE DYNAMISM OF THE YANTRA
It consists of three concentric parts:
1. An inner figure of interpenetrating triangles. This 2gure, symmetric in its vertical central
axis, contains both upward-pointing triangles (vahni), symbolizing the male element
(“Purusha”, the Cosmic Person), and downward-pointing triangles (sakti ), symbolizing
the female aspect (“Prakriti”, i.e. energy) of divinity. There are 4 male triangles, and 5
female ones. Their inter-penetration symbolizes the complementarity of the opposite
principles in creating the illusion of duality through ignorance, whereas the general
symmetry and balance of the whole 2gure symbolizes the more profound reality of Unity
of God through its various unfoldings.

2. Two concentric rings, holding a regular lotus (padma) design. The inner pattern bears 8
lotus petals, the outer one 16. These patterns symbolize the sanctity of the inner diagram,
used as instrument (yantra) in yoga meditation; such diagrams are abstract analogues of
the more profusely decorated tibetan thankas.

3. A triple Greek-like key-pattern, the bhupura (shivered) frame. It symbolizes the ground-
plan of a temple with 4 square openings, in the 4 directions of space. This sanctuary is the
seat (pitha) . ha) of one’s chosen deity or devata, representing one’s Higher Self. The Sri
Yantra diagram is a sacred symbol of Tantric Hinduism, and it is traditionally used in
yoga meditation exercises. The original edition of Zimmer had erroneous descriptions of
Sr ! Yantra, according to the later English translation. Unfortunately, that one is also
marred with errors in diagrams, and unclear references to inside-out construction
instructions for the drawing of the triangular central pattern.

For those who are interested in obtaining a deeper insight please read- Theoretical Computer
Science 281 (2002) 609 – 628 www.elsevier.com/locate/tcs, Sri Yantra Geometry, Gerard
Huet which gives aa more precise analysis of Sr ! Yantra than was previously available in the
published literature. We oGer this study as evidence of the non-triviality of bridging the
cultural gap between Humanities and Science on the one hand, and Eastern–Western
knowledge, or sensibility, on the other.

Vaastu Shastra, the ancient Indian canons of architecture and town planning, employs
symmetrical drawings called mandalas. Complex calculations are used to arrive at the
dimensions of a building and its components. The designs are intended to integrate
architecture with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient
beliefs utilizing geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry and directional alignments. However,
early builders may have come upon mathematical proportions by accident. The
mathematician Georges Ifrah notes that simple "tricks" with string and stakes can be used to
lay out geometric shapes, such as ellipses and right angles.

The mathematics of fractals has been used to show that the reason why existing buildings
have universal appeal and are visually satisfying is because they provide the viewer with a
sense of scale at different viewing distances. For example, in the tall gopuram gatehouses
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of Hindu temples such as the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi built in the seventh century, and
others such as the Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho, the parts and the whole have the
same character, with fractal dimension in the range 1.7 to 1.8. The cluster of smaller towers
(shikhara, lit. 'mountain') about the tallest, central, tower which represents the holy Mount
Kailash, abode of Lord Shiva, depicts the endless repetition of universes in Hindu
cosmology. The religious studies scholar William J. Jackson observed of the pattern of
towers grouped among smaller towers, themselves grouped among still smaller towers, that:
The ideal form gracefully artificed suggests the infinite rising levels of existence and
consciousness, expanding sizes rising toward transcendence above, and at the same time
housing the sacred deep within.
The Meenakshi Amman Temple is a large complex with multiple shrines, with the streets
of Madurai laid out concentrically around it according to the shastras. The four gateways are
tall towers (gopurams) with fractal-like repetitive structure as at Hampi. The enclosures
around each shrine are rectangular and surrounded by high stone walls.[
Sacred geometry ascribes symbolic and sacred meanings to certain geometric shapes and
certain geometric proportions. It is associated with the belief that a god is the geometer of the
world. The geometry used in the design and construction of religious structures such
as churches, temples, mosques, religious monuments, altars, and tabernacles has sometimes
been considered sacred. The concept applies also to sacred spaces such as temenoi, sacred
groves, village greens, pagodas and holy wells, Mandala Gardens and the creation
of religious and spiritual art.
Mathematics and art: The belief that a god created the universe according to a geometric
plan has ancient origins. Plutarch attributed the belief to Plato, writing that "Plato said god
geometrizes continually" (Convivialium disputationum, liber 8,2). In modern times, the
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss adapted this quote, saying "God arithmetizes".
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) believed in the geometric underpinnings of the cosmos
Harvard mathematician Shing-Tung Yau expressed a belief in the centrality of geometry in
2010: "Lest one conclude that geometry is little more than a well-calibrated ruler – and this is
no knock against the ruler, which happens to be a technology I admire – geometry is one of
the main avenues available to us for probing the universe. Physics and cosmology have been,
almost by definition, absolutely crucial for making sense of the universe. Geometry's role in
this may be less obvious, but is equally vital. I would go so far as to say that geometry not
only deserves a place at the table alongside physics and cosmology, but in many ways it is the
table.
A religious symbol is an iconic representation intended to represent a specific religion, or a
specific concept within a given religion.
Religious symbols have been used in the military in many different countries, such as
the United States military chaplain symbols. Similarly, the United States Department of
Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers recognize 57 symbols (including a
number of symbols expressing non-religiosity).
A mandala (Sanskrit: मण्डल, or 'circle', is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various
spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and
adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid
to meditation and trance induction. In the Eastern
religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Shintoism it is used as a map representing
deities, or especially in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines. A mandala

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generally represents the spiritual journey, starting from outside to the inner core, through
layers. In spiritual or religious process, a mandala is a period of approximately 40 days in
which time the human system completes one physiological cycle.

In Hinduism, a basic mandala, also called a yantra, takes the form of a square with four
gates containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the general shape of a T.
Mandalas often have radial balance
A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It
may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or
meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent
the abode of the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the
practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar,
"Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the
spiritual aspect of human experience"
Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not
representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:
Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists
in the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the
microcosm), every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and
is associated with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness.[6]
The term 'mandala' appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections of the work, and Vedic
rituals use mandalas such as the Navagraha mandala to this day
Mandala is the Sanskrit word for “circle.” The term mandala was introduced into
the Buddhist and Hindu religions as an aid to meditation. A mandala is a vaguely circular
shape with repeating patterns. Some mandalas include a square with four “gates” within the
circle. Each gate has a center point in the form of a T. To a Buddhist or Hindu, a mandala
represents a cosmos within the universe. It is considered a sacred art form with spiritual
significance. In Western culture mandalas are often found in diagrams, charts, or geometric
designs. Mandalas are recently popular art forms used in adult coloring books. They are
intricate and beautiful once color is added.

In Hinduism, mandalas have both religious and political significance. Their intricate designs
can symbolize various forms of power in government, as well as spiritual focus and unity. A
mandala can represent a governmental system and can be used as almost a map of a particular
political infrastructure. In religion, the mandala itself is not seen as having supernatural
powers as an idol might. It is merely a tool used by Hindus to aid them in focusing,
“centering,” and meditating. Many traditional mandalas include depictions of a lotus flower,
which is sacred in Hinduism and some other false religions. The intricate designs found
within a mandala have significance for devout Hindus, but that significance is usually lost to
the general public. Because Hinduism is such a loosely defined religion, mandalas have no
strict definition or usage, either.

The question arises as to whether Christians should shun mandalas because of their
significance in false religion. Some people believe the mandala’s association with paganism
requires Christians to avoid them the way they would a carved idol. Since an idol is a
representative of godless religion and thought to have supernatural powers, it should not be
enjoyed in any way by followers of Jesus. Other people are completely unaware of the

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mandala’s religious ties and simply enjoy the beauty and intricacies of the designs. And some
Christians land in the middle of these two views: they are aware of the Buddhist and Hindu
origins of mandalas but see no problem with enjoying them as coloring projects or in other
artistic avenues. Since there is no religious significance attached to a Christian’s use of the
mandala, is the picture wrong in itself?

The answer to whether or not a mandala is wrong has to do with one’s conscience and
motivation. Paul addresses some similar issues in great detail in Romans 14. In his day, the
question was whether or not Christians should celebrate the Sabbath or eat food offered to
idols. People in the church were taking sides and creating division. Each faction hoped that
the apostle would side with them and tell the others how wrong they were. Instead, Paul
wrote, “One person’s faith allows them to eat anything, but another, whose faith is weak, eats
only vegetables. The one who eats everything must not treat with contempt the one who does
not, and the one who does not eat everything must not judge the one who does, for God has
accepted them” (Romans 14:2–3). He went on to say, “One person considers one day more
sacred than another; another considers every day alike. Each of them should be fully
convinced in their own mind” (verse 5).

His conclusion was that “whatever you believe about these things keep between yourself and
God. Blessed is the one who does not condemn himself by what he approves. But whoever
has doubts is condemned if they eat, because their eating is not from faith; and everything
that does not come from faith is sin” (Romans 14:22–23). Paul stressed the importance of
having a clear conscience in matters that were not clearly sinful.

When we apply that principle to mandalas, our stance should be, “What would God have me
do? Does my conscience bother me when I enjoy a mandala?” If we can’t color, paint, or
enjoy mandalas without thinking of Hindu religious practices, then it is wrong for us. But just
because one person’s conscience condemns him does not mean the consciences of others are
so condemned. On the other hand, if we are hosting a former Hindu who equates mandalas
with false religion, then it may be offensive for us to display our mandala collection. Doing
so could cause a brother to stumble (1 Corinthians 8:13). Our highest priority must always be
unity, purity, and doing everything for the glory of God (1 Corinthians 10:31).

Here is an example of a mandala:

The Shri Yantra, Sri Yantra, or Shri Chakra is a form of mystical diagram (yantra) used
in the Shri Vidya school of Hinduism. It consists of nine interlocking triangles of which 4 are
for Shiva and 5 for Raj rajeshwari(parvati ) that surround a central point known as a bindu.
These triangles represent the cosmos and the human body. Because of its nine triangles, Shri
Yantra is also known as the Navayoni Chakra. When the two-dimensional Shri Yantra is

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represented in three dimensions, it is called a Mahameru. Mount Meru derives its name from
this shape. In addition to Mount Meru, all other yantras derive from the Shri Yantra.
In the 2009 issue of Brahmavidya (the journal of the Adyar Library), Subhash Kak argues
that the description of Shri Yantra is identical to the yantra described in the Śrī Sūkta in veda.

The Shri Yantra's 9 constituent triangles vary in size and shape and intersect to form 43
smaller triangles, organized in 5 concentric levels. Together they represent the totality of the
cosmos and express Advaita or non-duality. In the middle, the power point (bindu) represents
the cosmic center. The triangles are circumscribed by two concentric circles composed of 8
and 16 petals, representing the lotus of creation and reproductive vital force. The entire
configuration is framed by the broken lines of an earth square, representing a temple with
four doors open onto the regions of the universe.

Shri Yantra in various forms

Shri Yantra engraved in metal/// The Shri Yantra shown in the three-dimensional
projection called Mahāmeru/ The Lalita Sahasranama in diagrammatic form, showing
how its nine interlocking triangles form a total of 43 smaller triangles.

S Y M B O L I S M
The worship of the Shri Yantra is central to the Shri Vidya system of Hindu worship. It
represents the Goddess in the form of Devi Tripura Sundari, the natural beauty of the three
worlds: Bhu Loka (Physical Plane, Consciousness of the Physical Plane), Bhuvar Loka
(Antariksha or Intermediate Space, Sub-Consciousness of the Prana) and Swar Loka
(Svarga or Heaven or Super-Consciousness of the Divine Mind). The Shri Yantra is the
symbol of Hinduism, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of the vedas. The Shri Yantra
is the object of devotion in Shri Vidya.
The Shri Yantra represents the evolution of the multiverse as a result of the natural Divine
Will of the Godhead Aadi Paraa Shakti. The four upward-pointing isosceles
triangles represent the Goddess's masculine embodiment Brahm, while the five downward-
pointing triangles symbolize the female embodiment Jagat jannani. The 12 and 15 sides of
the four upward and five downward triangles also correspondingly symbolise, on the physical
plane, the 12 sidereal zodiac signs of the Sun and 15 'nityas' phase-signs of the Moon.
The Shri Yantra is also known as the nav chakra because it can be seen to consist of nine
concentric layers that radiate outward from the bindu. ("Nau" or "nava" means "nine"
in Sanskrit.) Each level corresponds to a mudra, a yogini and a specific form of the deity
Tripura Sundari along with her mantra. The various deities residing in the nine levels of the

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Shri Yantra are described in the Devi Khadgamala Mantra. These levels, listed from
outermost to innermost, are:

1. Trailokya Mohana, the outermost square, traced in three lines and interrupted by four
recessed portals;
2. Sarvasaa Paripuraka, the outer lotus, consisting of 16 petals;
3. Sarva Samkshobahana, the inner lotus, consisting of 8 petals;
4. Sarva Saubhagyadayaka, the outermost ring of small triangles (14 in total);
5. Sarvarthasadhaka, the next ring of triangles (10 in total);
6. Sarva Rakshakara, a smaller ring of 10 triangles;
7. Sarva Rogahara, a ring of 8 small triangles;
8. Sarva Siddhiprada, one small triangle containing the bindu at its center;
9. Sarva Anandamaya, the bindu.
The sound of the shankha symbolises the sacred Om sound. Vishnu holding the conch
represents him as the god of sound. Brahma Vaivarta Purana declares that shankha is the
residence of both Lakshmi and Vishnu, bathing by the waters led through a shankha is
considered like bathing with all holy waters at once. Sankha Sadma Purana declares that
bathing an image of Vishnu with cow milk is as virtuous as performing a million yajnas (fire
sacrifices), and bathing Vishnu with Ganges river water frees one from the cycle of births. It
further says "while the mere sight of the conch (shankha) dispels all sins as the Sun dispels
the fog, why talk of its worship?” Padma Purana asserts the same effect of bathing Vishnu by
Ganges water and milk and further adds doing so avoids evil, pouring water from a shankha
on one's own head before a Vishnu image is equivalent to bathing in the pious Ganges river.
A Shankha (conch shell) has religious ritual importance in Hinduism. It is the shell of any
suitable sea snail which had a hole made for the performer's embouchure.
In Hindu history, the shankha is a sacred emblem of The Hindu preserver god Vishnu. It is
still used as a trumpet in Hindu ritual, and in the past was used as a war trumpet. The shankha
is praised in Hindu scriptures as a giver of fame, longevity and prosperity, the cleanser of sin
and the abode of goddess Lakshmi, who is the goddess of wealth and consort of Vishnu.
The shankha is displayed in Hindu art in association with Vishnu. As a symbol of water, it is
associated with female fertility and serpents (Nāgas). The shankha is the state emblem of the
Indian state of Kerala and was also the national emblems of the Indian princely
state of Travancore, and the Kingdom of Cochin.
The shankha is one of the eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism, the Ashtamangala, and
represents the pervasive sound of Buddhism. A powder made from the shell material is used
in ayurveda as a treatment for stomach ailments.
In the Western world, in the English language, the shell of this species is known as the
"divine conch" or the "sacred chank". It may also be simply called a "chank" or conch. The
more common form of this shell is known as "right-turning" in a religious context, although
scientists would call it "dextral". A very rarely encountered form has reverse coiling which is
called "left-turning" in a religious context, but is known as "sinistral" or left-coiling in a
scientific context.[
In Buddhism, the conch shell has been incorporated as one of the eight auspicious symbols,
also called Ashtamangala. The right-turning white conch shell, represents the elegant, deep,
melodious, interpenetrating and pervasive sound of Buddhism, which awakens disciples from

12
the deep slumber of ignorance and urges them to accomplish their own welfare and the
welfare of others
Shankha was the Royal State Emblem of Travancore and also figured on the Royal Flag of
the Jaffna kingdom. It is also the election symbol of the Indian political party Biju Janata Dal.
Shankh was also used by sikh warriors before they started the war. The maryada is still
practiced by all nihangs while doing aarti aarta prayer and is used in hola mohalla festival as
well.

A shankha carved
Shankha is one of the main attributes of Vishnu. Vishnu's images, either in sitting or standing
posture, show him holding the shankha usually in his left upper hand, while Sudarshana
Chakra (chakra – discus), gada (mace) and padma (lotus flower) decorate his upper right, the
lower left and lower right hands, respectively.
Avatars of Vishnu like Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and Narasimha are also depicted holding
the shankha, along with the other attributes of Vishnu. Krishna – avatar of Vishnu is
described possessing a shankha called Panchajanya. Regional Vishnu forms
like Jagannath and Vithoba may be also pictured holding the shankha. Besides Vishnu, other
deities are also pictured holding the shankha. These include the sun god Surya, Indra – the
king of heaven and god of rain the war god Kartikeya,[18] the goddess Vaishnavi[ and the
warrior goddess Durga. Similarly, Gaja Lakshmi statues show Lakshmi holding a shankha in
the right hand and lotus on the other.
Sometimes, the shankha of Vishnu is personified as Ayudhapurusha "weapon-man" in the
sculpture and depicted as a man standing beside Vishnu or his avatars. This subordinate
figure is called the Shankhapurusha who is depicted holding a shankha in both the hands.
Temple pillars, walls, gopuras (towers), basements and elsewhere in the temple, sculpted
depictions of the shankha and chakra – the emblems of Vishnu – are seen. The city
of Puri also known as Shankha-kshetra is sometimes pictured as a shankha or conch in art
with the Jagannath temple at its centre.

13
Carved conches or Vamavarta shankhas, circa 11–12th century, Pala period, India: The leftmost one is
carved with the image of Lakshmi and Vishnu, and has silver additions.RIGHT A Shankha (conch shell)
with Vishnu emblem carved.
Shaligrams are iconographic fossil stones particularly found in the Gandaki River in Nepal
which are worshipped by Hindus as representative of Vishnu. The shaligrama – which has the
marks of a shanka, chakra, gada and padma arranged in this particular order – is worshipped
as Keshava. Twenty-four orders of the four symbols defined for Shaligrama are also followed
in worship of images of Vishnu with different names. Out of these, besides Keshava the four
names of images worshipped starting with Shankha on the upper hand,
are: Madhusudanah, Damodara, Balarama and Vamana. A Hindu legend in the Brahma
Vaivarta Purana recalls the creation of conchs: Shiva flung a trident towards the asuras,
burning them instantaneously. Their ashes flew in the sea creating conchs. Shankha is
believed to be a brother of Lakshmi as both of them were born from the sea. A legend
describes an asura named Shankhasura, who was killed by Vishnu's fish avatar, Matsya.
In the Hindu epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, the symbol of Shankha is widely adopted.
In the Ramayana epic, Lakshmana, Bharata and Shatrughna are considered part-incarnations
of Sheshanaga, Sudarshana Chakra and Shankha, respectively, while Rama, their eldest
brother, is considered one of the ten Avatars of shri Vishnu. During the great Mahabharata
war, Krishna, as the charioteer of the Pandava prince and a protagonist of the epic – Arjuna –
resounds the Panchajanya to declare war. Panchajanya in Sanskrit means 'having control over
the five classes of beings'. All five Pandava brothers are described having their own
shankhas. Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva are described to possess
shankhas named Ananta-Vijaya, Poundra-Khadga, Devadatta, Sughosha and Mani-pushpaka,
respectively.

14
 Constructed in a quite simplistic albeit breathtakingly beautiful futuristic architectural style on idea of a
famed female musician and spiritual teacher going by the name of Shri Anandi Ma, Nikora ashram is a
unique place of tranquility as well as spirituality.
With a picturesque tree - lined pathway leading to the temple’s main gate, Nikora is like a
magical mirage situated deep in the recesses of the nearby forest by offering devotees and
tourists alike a magnificent view towards the shores of Narmada Nadi.
Geographically situated in the heart of the sleepy Indian village named “Nikora”, Nikora
ashram may not be an age - old shrine but nonetheless, it’s not one to be ignored for it serves
as a refuge for the needy and it houses a small medical center for diagnose and treatment of
rare diseases and a number of eye problems.
With time, the modern - looking temple gained popularity as a site where everyone, no matter
of their religion or social standing, could seek spiritual advice and immerse themselves in the
world of meditation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. THE BOROBUDUR VESSELS IN CONTEXT A Thesis by DOUGLAS ANDREW

INGLIS Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M
University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF
ARTS,2014
2. The Ambiguous Feasibility of Borobudur Temple- Irmawati Marwoto , Mandala
Manurung2 1Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of

15
 Indonesia. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net
Volume 14, Issue 8, 2020 749
3. The famous Borobudur Temple, Indonesia is a Dreamland heavily influenced by the
ancient Indian 'Gupta Era' art . It was built by the legendary "Sailendra" Dynasty
using a combination of both buddhist and Hindu architecture. It's also a UNESCO
WORLD HERITAGE site.
4. The Restoration and Conservation Project of Borobudur Temple, Indonesia. Planning:
Research: Design Caesar Voûte Studies in Conservation-Vol. 18, No. 3, Special Issue
on the Conservation of Borobudur Temple, Indonesia (Aug., 1973), pp. 113-130 (18
pages)

5. GPS STUDY FOR RESOLVING THE STABILITY OF BOROBUDUR TEMPLE

SITE By Dwi Lestari ST., University of Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 1998
A thesis submitted to The University of New South Wales in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Degree of Master of Engineering School of Surveying and
Spatial Information Systems (Formerly the School of Geomatic Engineering) The
University of New South Wales Sydney NSW 2052, Australia March, 2006
http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:4635/SOURCE1?view=true

6. The Symbolism of Mount Meru,I. W. Mabbett,History of Religions

Vol. 23, No. 1 (Aug., 1983), pp. 64-83 (20 pages),Published By: The University of
Chicago Press,https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062318

7. A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURE OF CANDI BOROBUDUR by Kathy

Cheng Mei K u
Proceedings of INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR Borobudur, Magelang, f - 5'" July 2008
pn -Uncovering the Meaning of the Hidden Base of Candi Borobudur

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 II
Gandhara Civilization

Bodhisattva Head, Gandhara

Mary Harrsch (Photographed at The Art Institute of Chicago) (CC BY-NC-SA)

The Gandhara Civilization existed in what is now Northern Pakistan and Afghanistan from
the middle of the 1st millennium BCE to the beginning of the 2nd millennium CE. Although
multiple major powers ruled over this area during that time, they all had in common great
reverence for Buddhism and the adoption of the Indo Greek artistic tradition which had
developed in the region following Alexander's invasions into India.

The Extent of Gandhara

Although mentioned in historical sources at least as far back as the reign of
the Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great (r. c. 550-530 BCE), Gandhara was not known to
have been geographically described in detail until the pilgrimage of the Buddhist monk
Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang, 602- 664 CE) in the 7th century CE. He visited the region during the
tail end of the Gandhara civilization, after the time when it had achieved its greatest feats and
was falling into decay. Following ancient Buddhist sources, he described quite accurately the
area and its various cities and sites, being the first known account that survives to the modern
day and indeed which helped in identifying the remains found in this region during modern
times as being of Gandharan origin.

It has been speculated that Gandhara was a triangular tract of land about 100 kilometers east
to west and 70 km north to south, lying mainly to the west of the Indus River and bounded on
the north by the Hindukush Mountains. The extent of Gandhara proper actually included the
Peshawar valley, the hills of Swat, Dir, Buner, and Bajaur, all of which lie within the

17
northern boundaries of Pakistan. However, the bounds of Greater Gandhara (or regions where
the cultural and political hegemony of Gandhara held sway) extended towards the Kabul
Valley in Afghanistan and the Potwar plateau in the province of Punjab in Pakistan. Indeed
during certain times, the influence spread as far as Sindh where remains of a stupa and
Buddhist city are still visible built over the even older remains of Mohenjo-daro. Well-known
cities of the Gandhara include Takshasila (Taxila), Purushapura (Peshawar) and Pushkalavati
(Mardan), where remains have been discovered and continue to be found to this day.

Origin of the Name Gandhara

The name of Gandhara may have several meanings, but the most prominent theory relates its
name to the word Qand/Gand which means "fragrance", and Har which means 'lands'. Hence
in its simplest form, Gandhara is the 'Land of Fragrance'.

Map of Gandhara/Asia Society (CC BY-NC-SA)

Another more probable and geographically supported theory is that the word Qand/Gand is
evolved from Kun which means 'well' or 'pool of water' and indeed the word Gand appears
with many other place names associated with water i.e. Gand-ao or Gand-ab (pool of water)
and also Gand-Dheri (water mound). Tashkand (stone-walled pool) and Yarkand are also
associated names and hence it holds to reason that the land could have been known as 'Land
of the Lake(s)'. This is further supported by the Peshawar vale even today being blessed with
good drainage especially during the rainy season, resulting in a lake-like appearance to the
marshes which are today covered with crops and fields.

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Political History of Gandhara
Gandhara witnessed the rule of several major powers of antiquity as listed here:
 Persian Achaemenid Empire (c. 600-400 BCE)
 Greeks of Macedon (c. 326-324 BCE),
 Mauryan Empire of Northern India (c. 324-185 BCE),
 Indo-Greeks of Bactria (c. 250-190 BCE),
 Scythians of Eastern Europe (c. 2nd century to 1st century BCE),
 Parthian Empire (c. 1st century BCE to 1st century CE),
 Kushans of Central Asia (c. 1st to 5th century CE),
 White Huns of Central Asia (c. 5th century CE)
 Hindu Shahi of Northern India (c. 9th to 10th century CE)

This was followed by Muslim conquests by which time we come to the medieval period of
Indian history.

Achaemenids & Alexander

Gandhara was briefly part of the Achaemenid Empire but Achaemenid occupation did not
last long. Later on, it was instead known to be a tributary state of the Achaemenids (known as
a satrapy) and later paid tributes and inferred hospitality to Alexander the Great who
eventually conquered it (along with the rest of the Achaemenid Empire). The Achaemenid
hegemony in Gandhara lasted from the 6th century BCE to 327 BCE.
Alexander is said to have crossed through Gandhara to enter into Punjab proper (the same
function it serves today) and he was offered alliance by the ruler of Taxila, the Raja Ombhi,
against his enemy Raja Porus, who was a constant source of agitation for Taxila and its
regions of influence. This culminated in the Battle of Hydaspes, the telling of which is an
integral part of Alexander's victories in India. Nonetheless, Alexander's stay here was short,
and he eventually ventured south via the Indus River, crossing west over into Gedrosia
(Balochistan) and onward into Persia, where he met his demise.

Mauryan Rule

By 316 BCE, King Chandragupta of Magadha (321-297 BCE) moved in and conquered
the Indus Valley, thereby annexing Gandhara and naming Taxila a provincial capital of his
newly formed Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who was
succeeded by his son Ashoka (a former governor of Taxila).
Ashoka famously propagated the spread of Buddhism by building multiple monasteries and
spreading the edicts of his “Dharm” across the subcontinent. One of these is the grand
Dharmarajika monastery east of the river Tamra at Taxila, famous for its stupa, and it is said
Ashoka buried several relics of Buddha there. Mankiyala, Dharmarajika, and Sanchi are said
to be contemporary stupas.

19
Map of Alexander the Great's Conquests/US Military Academy (Public Domain)
Alexander left sizeable Greek populations in every region he conquered, and Gandhara was no exception.
Craftsmen, soldiers, and other followers were encouraged to intermarry and blend with locals to fully
integrate them into the Greek civilization. But when Alexander died in June 323 BCE, his occupying
Greek force, desperate to return home, started the journey back, leaving behind those who stayed with
their new families, gradually becoming more Indian than Greek.

Dharmarajika Stupa
(Taxila)Dr. Muhammad Kashif Ali (CC BY-NC-ND)

20
Indo-Greeks

In 184 BCE, the Greeks (who had remained strong in Bactria, modern North Afghanistan),
invaded Gandhara again under king Demetrius, and it was he who built a new city on the
opposite bank of the river from Bhir Mound. This new incarnation of Taxila is known now as
Sirkap (meaning 'severed head'), and it was built according to the Hippodamian plan
following a gridiron pattern. The Kingdom of Demetrius consisted of Gandhara, Arachosia
(modern-day Kandahar in Afghanistan), the Punjab, and a part of the Ganges Valley. It was a
multiethnic society, where Greeks, Indians, Bactrians, and Western Iranians lived together.
Evidence of this is found all over 2nd-century BCE Taxila, such as a Zoroastrian sanctuary at
Jandial, directly north of Sirkap.

Sirkap

Scytho-Parthians
The gradual takeover of the Punjab by the nomadic Scythians of Central Asia began around
110 BCE. These tribes had been accustomed to invading northern territories such as those in
Bactria but had been kept back by the Achaemenids in the past. They had settled in
Drangiana, modern-day Sistan in Iran and invaded Punjab, infiltrating through the southern
Indus Valley, eventually taking over Taxila.
In the first quarter of the 1st century CE, the Parthians moved in and began taking over the
Greek kingdoms in Gandhara and Punjab. Gondophares, a Parthian leader who lived at Taxila
is said to have been baptised by the apostle Thomas, not a wholly impossible claim since the
city already hosted a number of religious faiths and might have accommodated a fledgling
Christian one nearly 2000 years ago.

Kushans
The Kushans were a tribe that migrated to Gandhara around the 1st century CE from Central
Asia and Afghanistan. The tribe selected Peshawar as its seat of power and later expanded
east into the heartland of India to establish the Kushan Empire, which lasted until the 3rd
century CE. In 80 CE, the Kushans wrested control of Gandhara from the Scytho-Parthians.
The main city at Taxila was again refounded at another site and the new name Sirsukh given

21
to it. It resembled a large military base, with a wall 5 km long and 6 metres thick. It now
became a hub of Buddhist activity and hosted pilgrims from Central Asia and China. The
Kushan era is the high point of Gandhara art, architecture, and culture and considered a
golden age in the history of this region.

Kushan Empire & Neighboring States/John Huntington (CC BY-NC-SA)

The Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana also visited the city of Taxila and compared its
size to that of Nineveh in Assyria. A description of Taxila (probably Sirsukh) can be found
in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana by the author Philostratus:

I have already described the way in which the city is walled, but they say that it was divided
up into narrow streets in the same irregular manner as in Athens, and that the houses were
built in such a way that if you look at them from outside they had only one storey, while if
you went into one of them, you at once found subterranean chambers extending as far below
the level of the earth as did the chambers above. (Philostratus, Life of Apollonius, 2.23; tr.
F.C. Conybeare)

22
The tail end of the Kushan rule saw a succession of short-lived dynasties taking over control
of the Gandhara region, and this resulted in a situation where the region was constantly being
raided, invaded or in some way or other in turmoil. A quick succession of rule by
the Sassanian Empire, Kidarites (or little Kushans), and finally the White Huns following the
ebbing of Kushan rule led to day to day religious, trade, and social activity coming to a
standstill. In about 241 CE, the rulers of the area were defeated by the Sassanians of Persia
under the kingship of Shapur I and Gandhara became annexed to the Persian Empire.
However, under pressure from the northwest, the Sassanians could not directly rule the region
and it fell to descendants of the Kushans, who came to be known as the Kidarites or Kidar
Kushans which literally means little Kushans.

Jandial Temple

White Huns
The Kidarites managed to hold the region, carrying on the traditions of their Kushan
predecessors up to the middle of the 5th century CE when the White Huns, or Hephthalites,
invaded the region. As Buddhism and by extension Gandhara culture was already at an ebb
by this time, the invasion caused physical destruction, and due to the Huns' adoption of the
Shivite faith, the importance of Buddhism began to wane with even more speed.
During the White Hun invasions, the religious character of the region shifted gradually
towards Hinduism and Buddhism was shunned in its favor, as it was deemed politically
expedient by the White Hun who sought to make alliances with the Hindu Gupta
Empire against the Sassanids. The change in religious character (which was the basis of all
social life for centuries) led to a further decline in the character of the Gandhara region.

The White Huns' alliance with the Gupta Empire against the Sassanians also caused the
culture of Buddhism to be subdued to the extent that eventually the religion moved up
through the northern passes into China and beyond. Hinduism then took sway over the region
and the Buddhist people moved away from here. The remaining few centuries saw constant
invasions from the west, especially Muslim conquest, due to which the few existing remnants
of the older culture eventually fell into obscurity. The old cities and worship places of
importance hence fell out of memory for the next 1500 years until they were rediscovered in
the mid 1800s CE by colonial British explorers.

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White Hun (Huna) Empire/John Huntington (CC BY-NC-SA)

Gandhara had various rulers over the centuries but archaeological evidence shows us that the
uniformity of its cultural tradition persisted during these changes in rule. Although the
territories were spread over vast areas, the cultural boundaries of regions such as Mathura and
Gandhara were well defined and can be identified through countless archaeological remains.

Gandharan Art
Gandharan art can be traced to the 1st century BCE and included painting, sculpture,
coins, pottery, and all the associated elements of an artistic tradition. It really took flight
during the Kushan era and especially under King Kanishka in the 1st century CE, who deified
the Buddha and arguably introduced the Buddha image for the first time. Thousands of these
images were produced and were scattered across every nook and cranny of the region ranging
from handheld Buddhas to monumental statues at sacred sites of worship.

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BUDDHA AS THE STAPLE SUBJECT MATTER FOR ALL GANDHARAN ART.

Indeed it was during Kanishka's time that Buddhism saw its second revival after Ashoka. The
life story of the Buddha became the staple subject matter for all aspects of Gandharan art, and
the sheer number of Buddha images enshrined in chapels, stupas, and monasteries continue to
be found in great numbers to this day. The artwork was solely dedicated to the propagation of
religious ideals to the extent that even items of everyday use were replete with religious
imagery.
The materials used were either kanjur stone finished with plaster and paint or Schist stone.
Kanjur is basically fossilized rock which can be easily molded into shapes which are used as
a base for various decorative elements in Gandharan art such as pilasters, Buddha figures,
brackets, and other elements. After the basic shape has been cut out of stone, this is then
plastered to give it a finished look. Gold leaf and precious gems were also applied to select
items. The maximum transportable size the schist stone statues was 2.5 square meters; the
larger statues and reliefs are made of clay and stucco.

Construction Methods in Ancient Taxila/Gandhara Buddha, Taxila

The Buddha was worshipped through these sculptural representations which had a distinct
style associated with them that remained largely constant. The Buddha is always depicted in
simple monastic robes, with his hair tied in a bun known as the Ushnisha and the expression
on his face is almost always one of content. Whereas originally these sculptures were painted
in bright colors, now only the plaster or stone remains; a handful of items have been found
with their original colors intact. Images of the Buddha were made for the various cults in the
region all of which had their own distinct identifying features such as the laksanas (divine
marks), mudras (hand gestures), and different robes. Buddha always had the central role in
these pieces and can be immediately identified by the halo and his simple attire. Many
mythological figures are also seen as a part of these scenes along with couples, gods,

25
demigods, celestials, princes, queens, male guards, female guards, musicians, royal chaplains,
soldiers, and also common people.
One of the most enduring elements of Gandharan art besides the Buddha is the Bodhisattva,
which is essentially the state of the Buddha before he attained his enlightenment. Various
Bodhisattvas from the previous lives of the Buddha are depicted in Gandharan art, with
Avalokiteshvara, Maitreya, Padmapani, and Manjsuri being prominent. Compared to the
austerity of the Buddha images, the Bodhisattva sculptures and images depict a high degree
of luxury with variations in jewelry, headdress, loincloth, sandals, etc., and so the various
incarnations of the Bodhisattva are recognizable from their clothing and postures,
and mudras

Gandharan Architecture
The most prominent and unique characteristic of Gandharan architecture was the proliferation
of stupas and other associated religious establishments such as monasteries which formed the
core of the regional identity for nearly 1000 years. The stupas were built mainly for the
reverence of the remains of Buddhist masters, and the oldest ones were said to hold the
remains of the Buddha himself. Besides the Buddha, monks of high stature were also
venerated by having stupas built for them, and these edifices also marked locations where
certain legendary events related to the various lives of the Buddha were said to have
occurred.

The proliferation of stupas across India is said to have been the hallmark of Ashoka's rule
who reinterred the ashes of the Buddha in multiple stupas all across his kingdom. Even
though it was mainly an architectural feat, the stupa nonetheless was a vessel for the display
and worship of Gandharan art, encompassing sculptures, reliefs, paintings, and other highly
decorated elements. These images stood against walls, in courts, inside niches and chapels
and stuccos adorned the walls of the stupa courts and monasteries.
Stupas were initially built with circular bases and were of modest size. But as the cult of the
Buddha grew in importance in the region, these centers of worship were elaborately
redesigned and adorned to boost the stature of the religion and to attract more worshippers
and patrons. The original stupas at Kunala and Dharmarajika are known to have been small
affairs which were later on expanded to grand proportions by rulers such as Asoka and
Kanishka.
A base (medhi), either circular or square, would support a drum or cylinder on top of which
the dome (anda) would be placed. Steps were used to surmount the platform and to begin the
clockwise circumambulation around the dome along the processional path (Pradakshina
Patha) which was bounded by the railing (vedika). At times the base would have multiple
circular stories raising the height of the stupa. The corners of the base were usually affixed
with lion capital pillars and the top of the dome had first a harmika, an inverted square
enclosure on which stood the yasti or pillar which had the various chattras or parasols
diminishing sizes equally distributed along it.

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Buddhist Monastery Plan (Gandharan)//Stupa - Labelled Isometric View

The stupas came to represent the zenith of Buddhist architectural achievement in the region
and, of course, as with the artwork, they are also meant to promote religious power structures.
The stupas themselves were decorated with relief panels and friezes depicting religious
stories and events further solidifying their role.
The stupa was the main center of worship, and, in support, it had the monastery, a structure
with its own fully contained living area for monks. The monastery or Sangharama became a
huge part of the Buddhist tradition and over time came to be its own self-sustaining unit, with
lands for growing crops and wealth showered on them by laypeople and royalty alike for their
blessings. In its final form, the monastery had some defined elements which suited its basic
functions and these were:

 Refectory/Service Hall: Upatthana-sala

 Kitchen: Aggi-sala
 Cloistered Promenade: Chankamana-sala (for walking/exercise)
 Bathroom: Jantaghara next to the central water tank
 Storeroom: Kotthaka
 Medical and general storage: Kappiya-kuti
These buildings were usually rendered in mud plaster and this was then painted over either
completely or like in some cases (as in the monastery of Jina Wali Dheri in Taxila) scenes of
the Buddha's life.

Aside from these religious buildings, there was, of course, civic architecture which varied and
changed with the culture prevalent in the region. Cities ranged from organic settlements such
as Bhir to the more rigid and planned settlements like Sirsukh. The older cities developed
organically while the newer ones seem to be very directly inspired by the Hippodamian
layout which surfaces later in the 1st century BCE. Shops, promenades, palaces, temples,
sundials, hovels, huts, villas, insulae, pavilions, streets, roads, watchtowers, gates, and
fortification walls, all form part of the urban fabric which is true of most ancient cities as
well.
Although the religious landscape was dominated by the Buddhist faith, there is nonetheless
ample evidence of other faiths intermingling and thriving in the social fabric such

27
as Jainism, Zoroastrianism, and early Hinduism amongst others. The temple at Jandial is said
to be Zoroastrian in nature whereas a Jain temple and a temple of the Sun is in evidence on
the main street of Sirkap city along with various stupas.

Double-Headed Eagle Stupa/Muhammad Bin Naveed (CC BY-NC-SA)

One of the most well-known remains is the Double-Headed Eagle stupa in Sirkap which
contains its namesake motif of the double-headed eagle affixed on three different types of
decorative arches namely the classical Greek, Persian, and Indian style of arch. This shows
the degree of mixing of cultures in the region which we can deduct from the archaeological
remains.

Daily life in the cities of Gandhara was very well-developed, and due to its favorable location
between India, Persia, and China, it constantly saw invaders, traders, pilgrims, monks, and
travelers cross through its lands. Westwards from India or eastwards from Persia, the route
through the region of Gandhara made it the center of every traveler's route. This is the same
route through which Islam entered the region and probably struck the final nail in the coffin
of Buddhism in the area. In fact, the same route would be used for centuries even after
Gandhara collapsed until the Age of Discovery.

The riches of Gandhara, although well known to treasure hunters for centuries, would not be
discovered again until the era of British colonial rule in the Indian subcontinent, when the
artistic traditions of this lost civilization were rediscovered and brought to light in the late
19th and throughout the 20th centuries CE.

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