Two complementary branches of science—anatomy and

physiology—

Anatomy

• studies the structure of body parts and

their relationships to one another

• Anatomy has a certain appeal

because it is concrete.

• Body structures can be seen, felt, and examined closely. You don’t need to imagine what they
look like.

Physiology

• Concerns the function of the body, in other words,

how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities.

Topics of Anatomy
Anatomy is a broad feld with many subdivisions, each providing enough information to be a course in
itself.

1. Gross, or macroscopic anatomy

Is the study of large body structures visible

to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys.

Gross anatomy can be approached in different ways.

Regional anatomy

All the structures (muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves, etc.) in a particular region of the body, such
as the
abdomen or leg, are examined at the same time.

Systemic anatomy

Body structure is studied

system by system. For example, when studying the cardiovascular system, you would
examine the heart and the blood vessels
of the entire body.
Surface anatomy,
the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying
skin surface. You use surface anatomy when you identify the bulging muscles beneath a
bodybuilder’s skin, and clinicians
use it to locate appropriate blood vessels in which to feel pulses
and draw blood
2. Microscopic anatomy

Deals with structures too small to be

seen with the naked eye. For most such studies, exceedingly thin
slices of body tissues are stained and mounted on glass slides
to be examined under the microscope.

Subdivisions of microscopic anatomy

Cytology- which considers

the cells of the body, and

Histology- the study of

tissues

3. Developmental anatomy

Traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span.

Embryology - a subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns

developmental changes that occur before birth.
Some highly specialized branches of anatomy are used
primarily for medical diagnosis and scientific research.

Pathological anatomy - studies structural changes

caused by disease.

Radiographic anatomy- studies internal

structures as visualized by X-ray images or
specialized scanning procedures.

Topics of Physiology
renal physiology - concerns kidney function and
urine production.

Neurophysiology -explains the workings

of the nervous system.

Cardiovascular physiology -examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels.

Cell Physiology – function of cells

System Physiology – study of operation of systems

Pathophysiology – functional changes associated with disease and aging

Exercise Physiology – changes in cell and organ functions during muscular activity.

Endocrinology – hormones and how they control body functions

Immunology – study of body defense mechanism

Respiratory Physiology – study of functions of the air passageways and lungs.

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

Chemical level

At this level, atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form

molecules such as water and proteins. Molecules, in turn, associate in specifc ways to form
organelles, basic components of the microscopic cells.

All atoms and molecules essential for maintaining life.

Cellular level

Cells have some common functions, but individual cells vary

widely in size and shape, reflecting their unique functions in
the body.

Cells are the smallest units of living things

Tissue level.

Tissues are groups of similar cells that have

a common function.

The four basic tissue types in the human

body are epithelium, muscle, connective tissue, and nervous
tissue.

Epithelial/ Epithelium Tissue – covers the body surface, line hollows

organs, cavities and form glands.

Muscular Tissues – contracts to make body parts move and

generate.

Connective Tissue – connects, supports and protect body organ.

Nervous Tissue – carries information to one part to another.

Organ Level – formed by different kinds of tissues joined together

extremely complex functions become possible

Organs- structures composed of two or more different tissues

that have specific functions.

System Level – “organ system level” Organs that work together to accomplish a
common purpose make up an organ system
Organismic Level - represents the sum total of all structural levels working
together to keep us alive

Eleven system of the human body

▪ Integumentary

Components: the skin, hair, nails, sweat and oil glands

Functions: helps regulate body temperature, protects the body, Eliminates some wastes, Helps
produce Vitamin D, Receives certain stimuli such as temperature, pressure, and pain

▪ Skeletal System

Components: all the bones of the body, cartilages, and joints.

Functions: Supports and protects the body, Assists in body movements, Houses cells that give rise to
blood cells, and Stores minerals.

▪ Muscular System

Components: all skeletal muscle tissues

Functions: Participates in bringing about movement, Maintains posture, and Produces heat.

▪ Nervous System

Components: brain, spinal cord, nerves, special sense organs.

Function: generates action potential to regulate body activities; detects changes in body’s internal and
external environment, interprets changes, and responds by causing muscular contraction or glandular
secretions.

▪ Endocrine System

Components: all hormone-producing glands and cells.

Functions: Regulates body activities through hormones.

▪ Cardiovascular System

Components: blood, heart, and blood vessels

Functions: Distributes oxygen and nutrients to cells, Carries carbon dioxide and wastes away from
cells, Helps maintain the acid-base balance of the body, Protects against disease, Prevents
haemorrhage, Helps regulate body temperature.

▪ Lymphatic and Immune Systems

Components: Lymphatic fluid and vessels; vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils; cell that
carry out immune responds.

Functions: returns proteins and plasma to the cardiovascular system, Transports fats, Filters body fluid,
Site of maturation and proliferation of certain WBC, Helps protect against diseases.

▪ Respiratory System

Components: lungs and a series of passageways leading into and out of them.

Functions: Supplies oxygen, Eliminates carbon dioxide, helps regulate the acid-base balance of the
body, Produces vocal sounds.

▪ Digestive System

Components: gastrointestinal Tract, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

Functions: Performs physical and chemical breakdown and absorption of food, eliminates solid and
other wastes.

▪ Urinary System

Components: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

Functions: Regulates the volume and chemical composition of blood, Eliminates wastes, Regulates
fluid and electrolyte imbalance, Helps maintain the acid-base and calcium balance of the body, Helps
regulate RBC production.

▪ Reproductive System

Components: testes and ovaries; uterine tubes and uterus in females, epididymis, vas deferens and
penis in males.

Function: Reproduces the organism.

Basic life process

❖ Metabolism - sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the body.

Catabol – throwing down

Ism – a condition

Anabolism - build body’s structural and functional components

Catabolism – breaking down large, complex molecules.

❖ Responsiveness – the ability to detect and respond to changes in the external/internal

environment.

❖ Movement – includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, or even
organelles inside cells.
 ❖ Growth – refers to an increase in size and complexity.

❖ Differentiation – the change that a cell undergoes from an unspecialized one to a specialized
one.

❖ Reproduction – either the formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement, or the
production of new individual.

Homo – same

Statis – still

Homeostasis – is the condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment dues to the constant
interaction of the body’s much regulatory process.

Intracellular fluid – fluid within cells

Extracellular fluid – fluid found outside body cells

Interstitial fluid – between cells of tissues

Blood Plasma – in the blood vessels

Lymph – fluid in the lymph capillaries

Cerebrospinal Fluid – fluid found the brain and spinal cord.

Synovial Fluid – fluid found in the joints.

Aqueous humour and Vitreous Body – ECF of the eyes

Stress – any stimulus that tends to create imbalance in the internal environment.

Feedback Systems

• Control Center – determines the point at which some aspect of the body, called a controlled
condition should be maintained.

• Receptor – monitors changes in the controlled condition and then sends the information
(input) to the control center.

• Effector – receives information (output) and produces a response.

CHAPTER 2

Cells— A living structural and functional units enclosed by a membrane.

- Cells are the building blocks of all living things

- Cells are not all the same

- All cells share general structures

 - New cells arise only from other living cells by the process of cell division.

3 main regions of the cell

1. Nucleus – Control center of the Cell for cell metabolism and reproduction.

- Contains DNA

- The largest organelle in the cell.

Genes - each chromosome, a single molecule of DNA associated with several proteins, contains
thousands of hereditary.

Three parts of nucleus

▪ Nuclear membrane – Barrier of nucleus

- Consists of a double phospholipid membrane

- Contain nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with the rest of the cell.

▪ Nucleus – contains one or more nucleoli

- Sites of ribosome production.

▪ Chromatin – Composed of DNA and protein.

- Scattered throughout the nucleus.

- Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes when the cell divides.

2. Plasma membrane – separating cell’s internal environment and external environment.

- Double phospholipid layer: Hydrophilic heads and Hydrophobic tails

- Also contains protein, cholesterol, and glycoproteins.

- Key role among in communication among cell.

- Contains the cytoplasm of the cell.

- Best describes by using structural model called the fluid mosaic model.

- A bilipid membranous layer composed of proteins and carbohydrates. It is fluid like.

3. Cytoplasm –The jelly-like substance composed of mainly water and found between the cell
membrane and nucleus.

Components of cytoplasm:
 o Cytosol - the fluid portion of cytoplasm, also called intracellular fluid, contains water,
dissolved solutes, and suspended particles.

o Organelles – there are several types of organelles within the cytosol.

E.g. of organelles:

➢ Centrosome – Pair of centrioles plus pericentriolar material.

- The pericentriolar material contains tubulins, which are used for growth of the mitotic spindle
and microtubule formation.

➢ Cilia and flagella – Motile cell surface projections that contain 20 microtubules and a basal
body.

- Cilia: move fluids over cell’s surface; flagella: move entire cell.

➢ Ribosome – Composed of two subunits containing ribosomal RNA and proteins; may be free in
cytosol or attached to rough ER.

- Protein synthesis.

➢ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – Membranous network of flattened sacs or tubules. Rough ER is

covered by ribosomes and is attached to the nuclear envelope; smooth ER lacks ribosomes.

- Rough ER: synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred to cellular
organelles, inserted into plasma membrane, or secreted during exocytosis

- Smooth ER: synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, inactivates or detoxifies drugs, removes
phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate, and stores and releases calcium ions in muscle
cells.

➢ Golgi complex – Consists of 3–20 flattened membranous sacs called cisternae; structurally and
functionally divided into entry (cis) face, medial cisternae, and exit (Trans) face.

- Entry (cis) face accepts proteins from rough ER; medial cisternae form glycoproteins,
glycolipids, and lipoproteins.

- Exit (trans) face modifies molecules further, then sorts and packages them for transport to
their destinations.

➢ Lysosome – Vesicle formed from Golgi complex; contains digestive enzymes.

- Fuses with and digests contents of endosomes, pinocytic vesicles, and phagosomes and
transports final products of digestion into cytosol.

- Digests worn-out organelles (autophagy), entire cells (autolysis), and extracellular materials.

➢ Peroxisome – Vesicle containing oxidases (oxidative enzymes) and catalase (decomposes

hydrogen peroxide); new peroxisomes bud from pre-existing ones.
 - Oxidizes amino acids and fatty acids; detoxifies harmful substances, such as hydrogen peroxide
and associated free radicals.

➢ Proteasome – Tiny barrel-shaped structure that contains proteases (proteolytic enzymes).

- Degrades unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins by cutting them into small peptides.

➢ Mitochondrion – Consists of an outer and an inner mitochondrial membrane, cristae, and

matrix; new mitochondria form from pre-existing ones. power

- Site of aerobic cellular respiration reactions that produce most of a cell’s ATP. Plays an
important early role in apoptosis.

Transport of Materials into and out of Cells (cellular process)

Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more components.

Solvent – dissolving medium.

Solutes – components in smaller quantities within a solution.

Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol

Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell

PASSIVE PROCESSES – Movement of substances down a concentration gradient until equilibrium is

reached; do not require cellular energy in the form of ATP.

❖ Diffusion Movement – of molecules or ions down a concentration gradient due to their kinetic
energy until they reach equilibrium.

Types of diffusion

❖ Simple diffusion - Unassisted process; Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to
pass through membrane pores.

❖ Facilitated diffusion - Substances requires a protein carrier for passive transport.

❖ Osmosis – simple diffusion of water; Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma membrane

Principle of osmosis:

a. Water molecules move from the left arm into the right arm, down the water concentration
gradient.

b. The volume of water in the left arm has decreased and the volume of solution in the right
arm has increased

c. Pressure applied to the solution in the right arm restores the starting conditions.

❖ Filtration – Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure

❖ Dialysis –
ACTIVE PROCESSES – Movement of substances against a concentration gradient; requires cellular
energy in the form of ATP.

❖ Active Transport – Transport substances that are unable to pass by diffusion; They may be too
large; They may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane; They may have to
move against a concentration gradient.

- Polar or charged solutes are being transported.

- Primary active transport – Active process in which a substance moves across the membrane
against its concentration gradient by pumps (carriers) that use energy supplied by hydrolysis of
ATP; Na, K, Ca2, H, I, Cl, and other ions are being transported.

- Secondary active transport – Coupled active transport of two substances across the membrane
maintained by primary active transport pumps; Antiporters move Na+ (or H+) and another
substance in opposite directions across the membrane; symporters move Na+ (or H+) and
another substance in the same direction across the membrane.

Transport in Vesicles – Active process in which substances move into or out of cells in vesicles that bud
from plasma membrane; requires energy supplied by ATP.

❖ Endocytosis – Movement of substances into a cell in vesicles; Extracellular substances are

engulfed by being enclosed in a membranous vesicles.

- Receptor-mediated endocytosis – Ligand–receptor complexes trigger infolding of a clathrin-

coated pit that forms a vesicle containing ligands.

- Phagocytosis – “Cell eating”; movement of a solid particle into a cell after.

- Bulk-phase endocytosis / pinocytosis – “Cell drinking”; movement of extracellular fluid into a

cell by infolding of plasma membrane to form a vesicle.

❖ Exocytosis – Movement of substances out of a cell in secretory vesicles that fuse with the
plasma membrane and release their contents into the extracellular fluid.

- Transmits Neurotransmitters, hormones, and digestive enzymes.

❖ Transcytosis – Movement of a substance through a cell as a result of endocytosis on one side

and exocytosis on the opposite side.

Cell division – Is the process by which cells reproduce themselves.

Two types of cell division

 ✓ somatic cell division

✓ reproductive cell division

Somatic cell – is any cell if the body other that germ cell. Also cell undergoes a nuclear division called;

Nuclear division – mitosis

And cytoplasmic division – cytokinesis

Germ cell – is a gamete or any precursor cell destined to become a gamete.

Reproductive cell division – is the mechanism that produces gametes, the cells needed to form the
next generation of sexually reproducing organisms. This process consists of a special two step division
called;

Meiosis – in which the number of chromosomes in the nucleus is reduced by half.

Cell cycle – is an orderly sequence of events in which a somatic cell duplicates its contents and divides
in two.

Homologous chromosomes – It is the two chromosomes that make up each pair. They contain similar
genes arranged in the same order.

Sex chromosomes - The exception to this rule is one pair of chromosomes. Designated X and Y.

In females the homologous pair of sex chromosomes consists of two large X chromosomes.

In males the pair consists of an X and a much smaller Y chromosome.

Somatic Cell Cycle

▪ Interphase - Period between cell divisions; chromosomes not visible under light microscope.

▪ Mitotic phase – Parent cell produces identical cells with identical chromosomes; chromosomes
visible under light microscope.

▪ Mitosis – Nuclear division; distribution of two sets of chromosomes into separate nuclei.

▪ Prophase – Chromatin fibers condense into paired chromatids; nucleolus and nuclear envelope
disappear; each centrosome moves to an opposite pole of the cell.

▪ Metaphase – Centromeres of chromatid pairs line up at metaphase plate.

▪ Anaphase – Centromeres split; identical sets of chromosomes move to opposite poles of cell.

▪ Telophase – Nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear; chromosomes resume chromatin form;
mitotic spindle disappears.

▪ Cytokinesis – Cytoplasmic division; contractile ring forms cleavage furrow around center of
cell, dividing cytoplasm into separate and equal portions.
Number of chromosomes per cell:

Mitosis - 46, or two sets of 23; this makeup, called diploid (2n), is identical to the chromosomes in the
starting cell.

Meiosis - One set of 23; this makeup, called haploid (n), represents half of the chromosomes in the
starting cell.
Tissues (Histology)

Types of Tissues:

1. Epithelial Tissue

COVERS BODY SURFACES

Surfaces:

1. Apical surface

2. Lateral surface

3. Basal surface

(+) Basement membrane - “tape”

• CLASSIFICATION of Epithelia based on NUMBER of CELL LAYERS:

1. Simple epithelium

• Single layer of cells

• Extends from basement membrane to apical surface

2. Stratified epithelium

• More than one layer of cells

• Only the basal layer attaches to the basement

membrane

3. Pseudostratified epithelium

• “Pseudo” - false

• Appears Stratified but is not

• Only one layer of cells but appear to be multiple in

layers due to different heights or extensions of each
cell

• CLASSIFICATION of Epithelia based on CELL SHAPE:

• Squamous cell

• Flat or Scale-like

• Cuboidal cell

• Cube-shaped

• Same width and height

 • Columnar cell

• Tall and thin

• SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

• Single layer of thin, flat cells.

• LOCATION:

1. Lining of blood vessels

2. Heart

3. Lymphatic vessels

4. Alveoli

5. Kidney tubules

6. Serous membranes

• FUNCTION:

1. Diffusion

2. Filtration

3. Secretion

4. Protection against Friction

• SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

• Single layer, cube like cells

• LOCATION:

• Kidney tubules

• Choroid plexus of the brain

• Ovaries

• Terminal bronchioles of Lungs

• FUNCTION:

• Secretion & Absorption in:

• Kidney tubules

• Choroid plexus

• Movement of mucus out of terminal bronchioles

• SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

 • Single layer, tall narrow cells.

• LOCATION:

• Glands & Ducts

• Bronchioles of lungs

• Auditory tubes

• Uterus

• Stomach

• Intestines

• Gallbladder

• Bile ducts

• Ventricles of the brain

• FUNCTION:

1. Movement of particles out of bronchioles

2. Secretion in:

• Stomach

• Intestines

• PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

• Single layer, some cells are tall and thin and reach the free surface, while others do
not.

• (+) Cilia

• (+) Goblet cells - secretes mucus

• LOCATION:

• Nasal cavity

• Nasal sinus

• Auditory tubes

• Pharynx

• Trachea

• Bronchi of lungs

• FUNCTION:
 1. Synthesize and secrete mucus to free surface

2. Move mucus

• STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

• Several layers, cuboidal at the basal area, flattened at the surface area.

• keratinized - cytoplasm is replaced by a protein (keratin), and cells are dead; not moist.

• Nonkeratinized - (+) nucleus and cytoplasm; moist.

• LOCATION:

• Keratinized:

• Outer layer of skin

• Nonkeratinized:

• Mouth

• Throat

• Larynx

• Esophagus

• Anus

• Vagina

• Corneas

• FUNCTION:

1. Protects against abrasion

2. Barrier against infection

3. Reduce water loss from body

• STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

• More than 1 layer of cuboidal epithelial cells.

• EXTREMELY RARE; but found in:

• Sweat gland ducts

• Ovarian follicular tubes

• Salivary glands

• FUNCTION:

• Absorption, Secretion, Protection

 • STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

• More than 1 layer of epithelial cells.

• BUT ONLY SURFACE CELLS ARE COLUMNAR!

• Deepest layers are irregular or cuboidal in shape.

• EXTREMELY RARE; but found in:

• Mammary gland ducts

• Larynx

• Part of male urethra

• TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM

• Special type of stratified epithelium.

• Ability to GREATLY STRETCH.

• In the unstretched state, consists of 5 or more layers of cuboidal/columnar cells.

• Often dome shaped at the free surface.

• Located at places that can greatly stretch:

• Urinary bladder

• “Gland” - one or more cells that produce a particular product.

• 2 major gland types:

1. Endocrine glands

• Ductless

• Secretes hormones

2. Exocrine glands

• Empties substances through ducts

• Include sweat and oil glands

2. Connective Tissue

A diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in the body.

Found everywhere in the body.

FUNCTIONS:
 1. Enclosing and separating other tissues.

2. Connecting tissues to one another. (e.g. tendons, ligaments)

3. Supporting moving parts of the body.

4. Storing compounds. (e.g. fats, bones)

5. Cushioning and insulating. (e.g. fats)

6. Protecting. (e.g. bones)

Variations in blood supply:

Some tissues are well vascularised

Some are poorly vascularised or are “Avascular”

Extracellular matrix

Non-living material that surrounds the cells.

Cells of Connective tissues

• The specialised cells of various connective tissues produce the extracellular matrix.

• “Blast” - Creates the matrix

• “Cyte” - Maintains the matrix

• “Clasts” - Breaks down the matrix for remodelling

Cells found in the Extracellular matrix:

Osteoblasts

Osteocyte

Osteoclasts

Fibroblasts

Fibrocytes

Chondroblasts

Chondrocytes

3 major components of the Extracellular matrix:

Protein fibers

Collagen fibers - flexible but resist stretching.

Reticular fibers - form a supporting network (branch of collagen fibers).

 Elastic fibers - fibers with the ability to return to their original shape after stretched
or compressed.

Ground substances

Shapeless BACKGROUND against which the collagen fibers are seen through the
microscope.

Mostly water with adhesion proteins, and polysaccharide molecules.

Fluid

Classification of Connective tissues

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

Where the basement membrane of the epithelia rest.

1. Loose connective tissue (Fibers < Ground substance)

Areolar: FIBROBLASTS! Can soak up excess fluid.

Adipose: ADIPOCYTES (FAT CELLS)!

Reticular: LYMPHATIC TISSUE; forms “Stroma” (internal supporting network)

2. Dense connective tissue (Fibers > Ground substance)

Dense collagenous [tendons, muscle, dermis of the skin]

Dense regular collagenous

Dense irregular collagenous

Dense elastic [vocal cords, walls of large arteries]

Dense regular elastic

Dense irregular elastic

SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE

3. Cartilage

Hyaline cartilage

Most abundant type of cartilage

Covers ends of bones (joint areas)

(+) Connection of ribs to sternum

(+) Respiratory tract

Fibrocartilage
 Resist pulling or tearing

(+) Knee & Jaw

(+) Intervertebral discs of spine

Elastic cartilage

(+) External ear

(+) Epiglottis

4. Bone

Spongy

Spaces between bony plates

Resembles a sponge

Compact

More solid than spongy

Mineralised matrix

5. Blood

Fluid matrix

3. Muscle Tissue

Main function is to “Contract”, or to shorten.

Movement
4. Nervous Tissue

• Forms the Brain, Spinal Cord, & Nerves.

• “Action potential” - communication of neurons with one another or with other tissues by
means of electrical signals.

• Consists of:

1. Neurons

2. Glial cells - support cells of neurons

Tissue membranes

1. Mucous Membranes

• Lines cavities that open to the outside of the body.

• e.g. digestive, respiratory, & reproductive tracts

2. Serous Membranes

• Lines cavities that do not open to the outside of the body.

• e.g. pericardial, pleural, peritoneal cavities

3. Synovial Membranes

• Lines cavities of freely moveable joints.

• (+) “Synovial fluid”

Tissue repair

• Regeneration

• Replacement of destroyed tissue with same type of cells.

• Stem cells

• Fibrosis

• Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue (SCAR)

Events in Tissue repair

• Capillaries become very permeable.

 • Clotting proteins arrive

• Formation of granulation tissue.

• Regeneration of surface epithelium.

Regeneration of Tissues

Inflammation

• Occurs when tissues are damaged.

• May be caused by INFECTION or TRAUMA.

Mobilizes the body’s defences and isolates and destroys micro-organisms, foreign
materials, and damaged cell IN ORDER FOR TISSUE REPAIR TO PROCEED.

Organs of the Respiratory system

• Nose
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Lungs – alveoli
Function of the Respiratory System
• Oversees gas exchanges between the
blood and external environment
• Exchange of gasses takes place within
the lungs in the alveoli
• Passageways to the lungs purify, warm,
and humidify the incoming air

The Nose
• The only externally visible part of the
respiratory system
• Air enters the nose through the external nares (nostrils)
• The interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum

Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity

• Olfactory receptors are located in the
mucosa on the superior surface
• The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa
• Moistens air
• Traps incoming foreign particles

•Lateral walls have projections called

conchae
• Increases surface area
• Increases air turbulence within the nasal cavity
• The nasal cavity is separated from the
oral cavity by the palate
• Anterior hard palate (bone)
• Posterior soft palate (muscle)

Paranasal Sinuses
• Cavities within bones surrounding the
nasal cavity
• Frontal bone
• Sphenoid bone
• Ethmoid bone
• Maxillary bone

Function of the sinuses

• Lighten the skull.
• Act as resonance chambers for speech
• Produce mucus that drains into the nasal
cavity

Pharynx (Throat)
• Muscular passage from nasal cavity to
larynx
Three regions of the pharynx
• Nasopharynx – superior region behind
nasal cavity
• Oropharynx – middle region behind mouth
• Laryngopharynx – inferior region attached
to larynx
• The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are
common passageways for air and food

Structures of the Pharynx

• Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx
• Tonsils of the pharynx
• Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the nasopharynx
• Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
• Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue

Larynx (Voice Box)

• Routes air and food into proper

channels
• Plays a role in speech
• Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages
and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic
cartilage (epiglottis)

Structures of the Larynx

• Thyroid cartilage
• Largest hyaline cartilage
• Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
• Epiglottis
• Superior opening of the larynx
• Routes food to the larynx and air toward
the trachea
• Vocal cords (vocal folds)
• Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)
• Glottis – opening between vocal cords

Trachea (Windpipe)

• Connects larynx with bronchi

• Lined with ciliated mucosa
• Beat continuously in the opposite direction of
incoming air
• Expel mucus loaded with dust and other
 debris away from lungs
• Walls are reinforced with C-shaped
hyaline cartilage

Primary Bronchi

• Formed by division of the trachea

• Enters the lung at the hilus (medial depression)
• Right bronchus is wider, shorter,
and straighter than left
• Bronchi subdivide into smaller
and smaller branches

Lungs
• Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
• Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
• Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)
• Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
• Left lung – two lobes
• Right lung – three lobes

Coverings of the Lungs

• Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the
lung surface
• Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
• Pleural fluid fills the area between
layers of pleura to allow gliding

Respiratory Tree Divisions

• Primary bronchi
• Secondary bronchi
• Tertiary bronchi
• Bronchioli
• Terminal bronchiole

Bronchioles
• Smallest branches of the bronchi

• All but the smallest

branches have
reinforcing cartilage
• Terminal
bronchioles end
in alveoli

Respiratory Zone
• Structures
• Respiratory bronchioli
• Alveolar duct
• Alveoli
• Site of gas exchange

Alveoli
• Structure of alveoli
• Alveolar duct
• Alveolar sac
• Alveolus
• Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli
in the respiratory membrane

Respiratory Membrane
(Air-Blood Barrier)
• Thin squamous epithelial layer lining
alveolar walls
• Pulmonary capillaries cover external
surfaces of alveoli

Gas Exchange
• Gas crosses the respiratory membrane
by diffusion
• Oxygen enters the blood
• Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
• Macrophages add protection
• Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar
surfaces

Events of Respiration
• Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and
out of the lungs
• External respiration – gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli

• Respiratory gas transport – transport of

oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
• Internal respiration – gas exchange
between blood and tissue cells in
systemic capillaries

Mechanics of Breathing
(Pulmonary Ventilation)
• Completely mechanical process
• Depends on volume changes in the
thoracic cavity
• Volume changes lead to pressure
changes, which lead to the flow of
gases to equalize pressure

• Two phases
• Inspiration – flow of air into lung

• Expiration – air leaving lung

Inspiration
• Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
contract
• The size of the thoracic cavity increases
• External air is pulled into the lungs due to
an increase in intrapulmonary volume

Exhalation
• Largely a passive process which depends
on natural lung elasticity
• As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs
• Forced expiration can occur mostly by
contracting internal intercostal muscles to
depress the rib cage

Pressure Differences in the

Thoracic Cavity
• Normal pressure within the pleural
space is always negative (intrapleural pressure)
• Differences in lung and pleural space
pressures keep lungs from collapsing

Nonrespiratory Air Movements

• Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
actions
• Examples
• Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of debris
• Laughing
• Crying
 • Yawn
• Hiccup

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

• Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air

with each breath (tidal volume [TV])
• Many factors that affect respiratory capacity
• A person’s size
• Sex
• Age
• Physical condition
• Residual volume of air – after exhalation,
about 1200 ml of air remains in the lungs
• Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
• Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly
over the tidal volume
• Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml
• Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
• Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
• Approximately 1200 ml
• Residual volume
• Air remaining in lung after expiration
• About 1200 ml

• Vital capacity
• The total amount of exchangeable air
• Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
• Dead space volume
• Air that remains in conducting zone and
never reaches alveoli
• About 150 ml

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

• Functional volume
• Air that actually reaches the respiratory
zone

• Usually about 350 ml

• Respiratory capacities are measured
with a spirometer

Respiratory Sounds
• Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
• Bronchial sounds – produced by air rushing through trachea and bronchi
• Vesicular breathing sounds – soft
sounds of air filling alveoli

External Respiration
• Oxygen movement into the blood
• The alveoli always has more oxygen than
the blood
• Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the
area of lower concentration
• Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen

• Carbon dioxide movement out of the

blood
• Blood returning from tissues has higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the alveoli
• Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon
dioxide
• Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich
and carbon dioxide-poor

Gas Transport in the Blood

• Oxygen transport in the blood
• Inside red blood cells attached to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin [HbO2])
• A small amount is carried dissolved in the
plasma

• Carbon dioxide transport in the blood

• Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
• A small amount is carried inside red blood
cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding
sites than those of oxygen

Internal Respiration
• Exchange of gases between blood and
body cells
• An opposite reaction to what occurs in the lungs
• Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to
blood
• Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue

Neural Regulation of Respiration

• Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted
to the brain by the phrenic and intercostal
nerves
• Neural centers that control rate and depth are
located in the medulla
• The pons appears to smooth out respiratory
rate
• Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15
respirations per minute
• Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often
due to extra oxygen needs

Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth

• Physical factors
• Increased body temperature
• Exercise
• Talking
• Volition (conscious control)
• Emotional factors

• Chemical factors
• Carbon dioxide levels
• Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the main regulatory chemical for
respiration
• Increased carbon dioxide increases respiration
• Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on
the medulla oblongata
• Oxygen levels
• Changes in oxygen concentration in the
blood are detected by chemoreceptors in
the aorta and carotid artery
• Information is sent to the medulla oblongata

Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

(COPD)
• Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
emphysema
• Major causes of death and disability in
the United States

• Features of these diseases

• Patients almost always have a history of smoking
• Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes
progressively more severe
• Coughing and frequent pulmonary
infections are common
• Most victims retain carbon dioxide, are hypoxic and have respiratory acidosis
 • Those infected will ultimately develop
respiratory failure

Emphysema
• Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers break
through
• Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis
• Airways collapse during expiration
• Patients use a large amount of energy to
exhale
• Overinflation of the lungs leads to a
permanently expanded barrel chest
• Cyanosis appears late in the disease

Chronic Bronchitis
• Mucosa of the lower respiratory
passages becomes severely inflamed
• Mucus production increases
• Pooled mucus impairs ventilation and gas exchange
• Risk of lung infection increases
• Pneumonia is common
• Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early

Lung Cancer
• Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in
the United States
• Increased incidence associated with
smoking
• Three common types
• Squamous cell carcinoma
• Adenocarcinoma
• Small cell carcinoma

Sudden Infant Death syndrome (SIDS)

• Apparently healthy infant stops
breathing and dies during sleep
• Some cases are thought to be a problem of the neural respiratory control
center
• One third of cases appear to be due to
heart rhythm abnormalities

Asthma
• Chronic inflamed hypersensitive
bronchiole passages
• Response to irritants with dyspnea,
coughing, and wheezing
Developmental Aspects of the
Respiratory system
• Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus
• Lungs are not fully inflated with air until
two weeks after birth
• Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface
tension is not present until late in fetal
development and may not be present in
premature babies
• Important birth defects
• Cystic fibrosis – oversecretion of thick mucus clogs the respiratory system
• Cleft palate

Aging Effects
• Elasticity of lungs decreases
• Vital capacity decreases
• Blood oxygen levels decrease
• Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
• More risks of respiratory tract infection

Respiratory Rate Changes Throughout Life

• Newborns – 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
• Infants – 30 respirations per minute
• Age 5 – 25 respirations per minute
• Adults – 12 to 18 respirations per
minute
• Rate often increases somewhat with old
age