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Inf 713 Exam Notes

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023

by Mohammad Dawood

INF 713
June 2023
Exam Notes

To be used only as an aid to the material presented in class, not a substitute.

Goodluck!
INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

Contents
Topic 1: Terminology and Technology Landscape ................................................................................... 1
Terminologies ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Conventional Management Practices ................................................................................................. 1
Principles of Disruptive Technology .................................................................................................... 1
Topic 2: Disruptive Technologies ............................................................................................................. 2
The 6 Ds of Tech Disruption ................................................................................................................ 2
1. Digitized....................................................................................................................................... 2
2. Deceptive .................................................................................................................................... 2
3. Disruptive .................................................................................................................................... 2
4. Demonetized ............................................................................................................................... 2
5. Dematerialized ............................................................................................................................ 2
6. Democratized .............................................................................................................................. 2
The impact of sustaining and disruptive technological change .......................................................... 3
Principles of good management ......................................................................................................... 3
Business Model Canvas ....................................................................................................................... 4
Topic 3: Theory of Disruptive Technologies ............................................................................................ 5
Nonconsumption ................................................................................................................................ 5
Keys for developing a disruptive business model ............................................................................... 5
DT Concepts ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Disruptive Innovations .................................................................................................................... 5
Sustaining Innovations .................................................................................................................... 5
Topic 4: Design Thinking and Digital Disruption ...................................................................................... 6
Design Thinking ................................................................................................................................... 6
Analytical Thinking Vs. Design Thinking .............................................................................................. 6
Analytical Thinking .......................................................................................................................... 6
Design Thinking ............................................................................................................................... 6
Design Thinking Methodology ............................................................................................................ 7
Empathise ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Define .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Point of View (POV) ......................................................................................................................... 8
Ideate .................................................................................................................................................. 8
Prototype ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Test ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Creativity ............................................................................................................................................. 9
Topic 5: AI/Machine Learning and Digital Disruption ........................................................................... 10
INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

AI and Machine Learning .................................................................................................................. 10


Artificial Intelligence ......................................................................................................................... 10
Machine Learning.............................................................................................................................. 10
Machine Learning and Big Data ........................................................................................................ 11
ML Algorithms ................................................................................................................................... 12
Neural Networks ............................................................................................................................... 12
Deep Learning ................................................................................................................................... 13
Which ML Model is best.................................................................................................................... 13
AI/ML Evaluation ............................................................................................................................... 14
Topic 6: Platform Business Models........................................................................................................ 15
Digital Platforms ................................................................................................................................ 15
Platform Disruption ........................................................................................................................... 15
Stakeholder Roles.............................................................................................................................. 15
Platform Revolution .......................................................................................................................... 16
Control and management across platforms...................................................................................... 16
How to take a platform approach ..................................................................................................... 16
Platform-Based Company ................................................................................................................. 17
AI Platforms ....................................................................................................................................... 18
Topic 7: Exponential Organisations ....................................................................................................... 19
Topic 8: Ethics and Digital Disruption .................................................................................................... 20
Four “pathological enthusiasms” make us vulnerable to ethical compromises ............................... 20
Ethics ................................................................................................................................................. 20
Ethical dimensions to design decisions ............................................................................................. 20
Local and International Laws............................................................................................................. 21
Privacy Laws in South Africa.......................................................................................................... 21
Other International ....................................................................................................................... 21
Ethics and the Law ............................................................................................................................ 21
Privacy and Freedom......................................................................................................................... 21
Technology trends that raise ethical issues....................................................................................... 21
Ethical schools of thought ................................................................................................................. 22
INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

Topic 1: Terminology and Technology Landscape


Terminologies
Disruption: the act or process of disrupting something: a break or interruption in the normal course
or continuation of some activity, process, etc.

Technology: the use of science in industry, engineering, etc., to invent useful things or to solve
problems.

Disruptive technology: new technological developments that do not necessary disrupt but changes
the way in which things are done (which could lead to disruption).

It is often confused with:


• Digitization: making something digital – creating a digital version of something (e.g., a book).
• Digitalization: sometimes used as a synonym to digitization, but it is more commonly used to
describe the process of digitization of something. (e.g., health care) Digitalization is the
integration of digital technologies into everyday life by the digitization of everything that can be
digitized.
• Digital Transformation: refers to the transformation of aspects of a business or organization
(e.g., business processes required because of digitization and digitalization such as workflow,
approvals, docs and doc versions, cloud services and repositories).
• Disruptive Revolution: innovation, entrepreneurship, and the new .rules of leadership. Similar to
industrial revolution - refers to the ‘revolution’ caused by disruption from a sociotechnical
perspective. (e.g., a legal systems or ethics).

Disruptive technologies within the context of business disruption / new value proposition as per
Bower & Christensen (1995):
Sustaining technologies: foster product performance. (First color copier (built on xerox design))
Disruptive technologies: bring to a market a very different value proposition than had been available
previously -innovations that result in worse product performance, at least in the near-term. (Xerox
copier (changed the way copies were made))

“A disruptive technology causes a disruptive innovation” – Christensen (1997)

A disruptive technology can be defined by three questions:


• Is it a new technology?
• Does it change things?
• If so, what does it change?

Conventional Management Practices Principles of Disruptive Technology


• Listen to customers • Companies depend on customers and
• Invest aggressively in technologies investors for resources
that give these customers what they • Small markets don’t solve the growth
say they need needs of large companies
• Seek higher margins • Markets that don’t exist can’t be
• Target larger markets rather than analyzed
smaller ones • An organization’s capabilities define
its disabilities
• Technology supply may not equal
market demand

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

Topic 2: Disruptive Technologies

According to Singularity University, disruptive technologies are exponential technologies – double or


half every 18 months according to Moore’s Law.

Exponential technologies: those which are rapidly accelerating and shaping major industries and all
aspects of our lives (e.g., AI, Augmented reality, Robotics, Data Science, Digital Biology (Biotech),
Nanotech, Robocars)

Moore’s Law: Moore’s Law is the observation that the number of transistors per square inch on
integrated circuits has doubled every 18 months since they were invented in 1958 and the prediction
that this trend would continue into the foreseeable future.

Modern technological development is characterized by exponential growth. For a technology to be


“exponential,” the power and/or speed doubles each year, and/or the cost drops by half.

The 6 Ds of Tech Disruption


This works as a roadmap of disruptive technology.

1. Digitized 2. Deceptive
Once something has been digitized, immediately it In the beginning, the growth is a bit slow. For that
gets into an exponential growth like that of reason, its potential might become deceptive. After
computing. It spreads so fast just like the internet. that the growth speed increases. In a matter of
Many people immediately get to understand what time, digital technology growth will be notable
the product is all about. everywhere.

3. Disruptive 4. Demonetized
Here digital technologies are not only cost-efficient The advancement of digital technologies starts
but also effective. Digital things or services tend to removing money from the existing equation. More
outsmart their traditional counterparts. As a result, concentration goes to the enhancement of the
people will tend to go for digital technologies and software. The software becomes even less
forget the traditional ones. expensive than the hardware.

5. Dematerialized 6. Democratized
There is a notable reduction in physical products. Once something becomes fully digital, it can be
Most tasks which required separate products such accessed by millions of people. That is why
as GPS, Phone, Maps, Radio among many more can powerful tools accessibility is not limited to only
now be executed on your smartphone. the super-rich and strong governments around the
world. Many people can now access them.

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

The impact of sustaining and disruptive technological change

Principles of good management


• The first is always listen to your customers, pay attention to what their needs are.
• The second is you should focus on those investments that will deliver the highest returns

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

Business Model Canvas

• Customer Segments. The different groups of people or organizations an enterprise aims to


reach and serve.
• Value Proposition. the bundle of products and services that create value for a specific
customer segment. value may be quantitative (e.g., price, speed of service) or qualitative
(e.g., design, customer experience).
• Channels. How a company communicates with and reaches its customer segments to deliver
a value proposition. Communication, distribution, and sales channels comprise a company’s
interface with customers. Channels can be direct or indirect, owned or partner channels.
• Customer Relationships. The types of relationships a company establishes with specific
customer segments.
• Revenue Streams. the cash a company generates from each customer segment.
• Key Resources. the most important assets required to make a business model work. These
resources allow an enterprise to create and offer a value proposition, reach markets,
maintain relationships with customer segments, and earn revenue. key resources can be
physical, financial, intellectual, or human. They can be owned or leased by the enterprise or
acquired from key partners.
• Key Activities. the most important things a company must do to make its business model
work. They are the actions that are required to create and offer a value proposition, reach
markets, maintain customer relationships, and earn revenues.
• Key Partnerships. The network of suppliers and partners that make the business model
work.
• Cost Structure. All costs incurred to operate a business model.

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

Topic 3: Theory of Disruptive Technologies

Nonconsumption
Nonconsumption: the inability of an entity (person or organization) to purchase and use (consume) a
product or service required to fulfill an important job to be done. (Inability to purchase a product or
service)
This could be due to:
• Skill (using a new computer)
• Wealth (affording a computer)
• Access (not within reach to procure)
• Time (waiting in a line or a deadline date)

Growth and prosperity can be found in the consumption economy (conventional wisdom)

The consumption economy:


• Easier to access, capital, new and exciting growth
• Consumer reports: rising middle class, increasing disposable income, demographic dividend

Keys for developing a disruptive business model


• Target nonconsumption
• Leverage the value network
• Use an emergent/flexible strategy
• Executive support

DT Concepts
Disruptive Innovations Sustaining Innovations
• New Entrants • Incumbents often the market leader
• Simple, accessible, affordable, • Complicated product
convenient products • They make good products better
• High Growth • Majority of successful firms
• Large Customer Population o high market share,
• Non consumption / low-end part of the o high-cost structure
market o high margins
• Smaller Customer Population

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

Topic 4: Design Thinking and Digital Disruption

Design Thinking
Design Thinking: A discipline in which designers match consumer needs with knowledge and skills to
design and develop technologically feasible products and services.

• Understand peoples’ wants and needs by observing their lives.


• Balance desirability (what people want), viability (what they can afford) and feasibility (what
can be produced).
• Is human-centered (what humans need, what makes life easier, better / more enjoyable)
• Understanding culture and context
• Start with people and not technology
• Learning by making (building to think – you don’t decide you know the answer)
• Not Consumption (develop for) but Participation (develop with)
• Engagement of all stakeholders
• Principle Based (Establish principles of user engagement, participation etc. up front to drive
development and prototyping)
• Participatory Systems (Refer again to EXO’s (engage), Platforms (value cocreation))

Design thinking emphasizes thinking:


➢ OF: imagines, visualizes and dreams; all aspects of thinking of something
➢ ABOUT: considering, reflecting, and deliberating, the essence of thinking about something
➢ THROUGH: understand, grasp, or work something out.

Analytical Thinking Vs. Design Thinking

Analytical Thinking Design Thinking


• Focus on thorough understanding of • Focus on intuitive information about
problem to develop a solution. the problem from perspective of
• Single perspective. different stakeholders.
• Analytical and thorough, take control. • Contrasting perspectives.
• Select between alternatives. • Creative and original.
• Focus on product / solution • Develop new possibilities and
development for customer rather • user scenarios, convergence.
than co-development. • Focus on understanding and involving
people, co-development.

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

Design Thinking Methodology

Empathise
Empathy is the foundation of a human-centred design process.

To empathize, you need to:


• Observe. View users and their behaviour in the context of their lives.
• Engage. Interact with and interview users through both scheduled and short ‘intercept’
encounters.
• Immerse. Experience what your user experiences.

Define
Understand the people for whom you are designing. Good designs are built on a solid understanding
of these kinds of beliefs and values.

Engage to:
• Uncover needs that people have which they may or may not be aware of
• Guide innovation efforts
• Identify the right users to design for
• Discover the emotions that guide behaviours.

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Point of View (POV)


Two goals:
• Develop a deep understanding of users and the design space and,
• Based on that understanding, produce an actionable problem statement: Point of View (POV)

Point of view should be a guiding statement that focuses on specific users, and insights and needs
that you uncovered during the empathize mode.

POV is not simply defining the problem to work on …


• A design vision crafted based on discoveries during empathy work.
• A meaningful challenge to address based on insights that can be leveraged in design work is
fundamental to creating a successful solution.

A good POV:
• Provides focus and frames the problem.
• Inspires team.
• Provides a reference for evaluating competing ideas.
• Empowers team members to make decisions in response to the high-level goals of the team.
• Fuels brainstorms by suggesting “how might we” statements.
• Captures the hearts and minds of people.
• saves from the impossible task of developing solution concepts that are all things to all
people.
• Guides innovation efforts
• should be revisited and reformulate as you learn by doing.

Ideate
Ideate: the mode of design process with the aim to generate radical design alternatives.

The goal of ideation is to explore a wide solution space.


• both a large quantity of ideas and a diversity among those ideas.
• From vast depository of ideas build prototypes to test with users.

Ideate to transition from identifying problems into exploring solutions for users.
• Step beyond obvious solutions – increase innovation potential of the solution set.
• Harness collective perspectives and strengths
• Uncover unexpected areas of exploration.
• Create fluency (volume) and flexibility (variety) in innovation options.
• Avoid obvious solutions, and drive team beyond them.

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

Prototype
Prototype: getting ideas and explorations into the physical world.

Takes a physical form (a wall of post-it notes, a role-playing activity, a space, an object, an interface,
or even a storyboard).

Prototypes are most successful when people (the design team, the user, and others) can experience
and interact with them.

Prototypes allow for failing quickly and cheaply (Creating quick and dirty prototypes allows for
testing ideas without investing too much time and money.)

• Use prototypes to learn - learning from interactions can help drive deeper empathy, as well
as shape
• successful solutions.
• Prototyping is a tool to deepen understanding of the design space and user, even at a pre-
solution phase of project.
• Build prototypes to think.
• Develop multiple solution options.

Test
Testing phase is used to
• Get feedback on solutions
• Refine solutions to make them better
• Continue to learn about users

Test mode: an iterative mode in which you place low-resolution artifacts in the appropriate context
of the user’s life.

Creativity
• Really understand the user and their needs (usually better than they do themselves).
• Creatively design new products and services – understand the performance metrics.
• Development by understanding users = Design Thinking Methodology
• Creatively design new products and services and establish a new business.

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

Topic 5: AI/Machine Learning and Digital Disruption


AI and Machine Learning
Artificial Intelligence: Any technique which enables computers to mimic human behavior.

Machine Learning: Subset of AI techniques use statistical methods to enable machines to improve
with experience.

Deep Learning: Subset of ML which makes the computation of multi-layer neural networks feasible.

Artificial Intelligence

Machine Learning
In the machine learning regression is a set of problems where the output variable can take
continuous values. For example, predicting the airline price can be considered as a standard
regression task.

• Clustering is the task of grouping similar objects together. It helps to identify similar objects
automatically without manual intervention. We cannot build effective supervised machine
learning models (models that need to be trained with manually curated or labelled data)
without homogeneous data. Clustering helps us achieve this in a smarter way.
• Dimensionality is the number of predictor variables used to predict the independent
variable or target. often, in real-world datasets, the number of variables is too high. Too
many variables also bring the curse of overfitting to the models. In practice, among these
large numbers of variables, not all variables contribute equally towards the goal, and in many
cases, we can preserve variances with a lesser number of variables.
• Deep learning is a subset of machine learning which deals with neural networks. Based on
the architecture of neural networks.

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

Machine Learning and Big Data

Supervised learning: The reason it is called supervised machine learning is because at least part of
this approach requires human oversight. Requires labelled input and output data during the training
phase of the machine learning model lifecycle. It is generally used to classify data or make
predictions.

Unsupervised learning: The training of models on raw and unlabelled training data. It is generally
used to understand relationships within datasets.

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ML Algorithms

Neural Networks

Neural Networks: Subset of machine learning and are at the heart of deep learning algorithms. It is a
computing system inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute human or animal brains.

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Deep Learning

Deep Learning: A type of machine learning based on artificial neural networks in which multiple
layers of processing are used to extract progressively higher-level features from data.

Which ML Model is best


When searching for the best ML model, it is highly dependent on the context of the situation. It
depends on the problem at hand and other associated attributes like outliers, the volume of
available data, quality of data, feature engineering, etc.
In practice, it is always preferable to start with the simplest model applicable to the problem and
increase the complexity gradually by proper parameter tuning and cross-validation.
There is a proverb in the world of data science – ‘Cross-validation is more trustworthy than domain
knowledge.’

Choosing a proper model for a particular use case is very important to obtain the proper result of a
machine learning task.
To compare the performance between various models, evaluation metrics or KPIs are defined for
business problems, and the best model is chosen for production after applying the statistical
performance checking.

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
by Mohammad Dawood

AI/ML Evaluation

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
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Topic 6: Platform Business Models


Digital Platforms
Digital Platforms: a set of digital resources— including services and content — that enable value-
creating interactions between external producers and consumers.
Consider it a service, not a technology. Platforms focus on business solutions to serve clients (internal
or external) and to supply other platforms. They operate as independent entities that bring together
business, technology, governance, processes, and people management and are empowered to move
quickly.
The platform’s purpose: to consummate matches among users and facilitate the exchange of goods,
services, or social currency, thereby enabling value creation for all participants.

Platform Disruption
Platform vs pipelines:
Pipeline business – step by step value creation
Platform – complex value matrix, networked effects, and digital interactions
Supply vs Demand - control of assets vs control of interaction

Stakeholder Roles
Interaction Driven OR Mediation OR Broker model. LinkedIn has a Core Interaction the ‘connection of
business contacts’
Core Interaction is defined by: Participants = Professionals + Recruiters
Participants + Value Unit + Filter/Mediation Value Unit = Resume / Profile
Filter/Mediation = feed / linking related ‘profiles’

• Eliminate or alter gatekeepers – enabling scale.


• Unlock new sources of value creation and supply.
• Data-based tools create feedback loops.

Invert the firm:


• Marketing (broadcast vs segmentation, push vs pull etc.)
• Technology Infrastructure (back-office to front-office)
• Operations control (inventory control vs external partner management)

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
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Platform Revolution
Platforms need to manage the 4 C’s:
• Create
o Uber finance cars, Airbnb photo’s
• Curate
o Access control and quality control
• Customize
o Make it relevant.
• Consumption
o Feedback loops / ratings etc.

Control and management across platforms


Platforms are distinct units, but their value is based on how effectively they work together.
Most companies overlook the criticality of making all IT components work together seamlessly
because their attention is focused on individual projects.

While most organizations understand the need to coordinate, the best ones develop a Mission
Control capability with the resources and authority to lead and manage across platforms in three
ways:
• Make strategic and allocation decisions: to secure resources.
• Set and enforce standards for speed and interoperability: The team establishes business
standards, such as how teams work together in an agile way. It also sets technology
standards, such as platform and application interfaces for seamless connectivity, the way
code is written and logged in service libraries to ensure easy access, and what IT tools should
be used for agile team management.
• Manage and coordinate programs that cut across platforms: optimization.

How to take a platform approach


1) Assess the fitness of the platform portfolio. Business and IT should together quickly cluster
the company’s activities and associated IT into a set of 20 to 40 platforms that cover
customer journeys, business capabilities, and core IT. This does not have to be definitive, just
a useful starting point.
2) Then conduct a fitness check on each platform: “fit” platforms are in good shape and only
need investment to innovate and capture more value; “healthy” platforms work now but
need modernization to prepare for future requirements; and “sick” platforms are no match
for what competitors can do. They need a complete overhaul. DBS, one of Asia’s leading
banking groups, used a similar approach and communicated the assessment to the whole
market at the end of 2017.
3) Visualizing the fitness of all platforms is powerful because it enables an executive team to
have the right debate on tough trade-offs and priorities and to then reallocate resources
assertively.

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Platform-Based Company
Platform-based company: A platform-based company will have 20 to 40 platforms, each big enough
to provide an important and discrete service but small enough to be manageable. To simplify
platform management, it helps to group them into three broad areas: customer journeys, business
capabilities, and core IT capabilities.

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Example:
In personal banking, the customer-journey platforms cover the customer experiences of searching,
opening an account, getting a mortgage, and so on.

The business-capability platforms deliver the banking solutions, such as payments and credit
analytics, and the support capabilities, such as employee-pension management, visual dashboarding,
and management information systems (MIS).

Finally, the core IT platforms provide the shared technology on which the journeys and business
capabilities run, such as the cloud platform, the data analytics environment, and the set of IT
connectivity solutions.

AI Platforms
Artificial Intelligence platforms are being leveraged progressively as a part of enterprise level
initiatives to digitize business processes.

A conversational AI platform integrates deep learning and machine level computation to automate
operations. These automated processes save a lot of time and effort while making work less
daunting.

List some of the top AI platforms for developers & data engineers that help maximize company
operations:
• Microsoft Azure: top choice of software developers to build AI-enabled business solutions.
They leverage the power of machine learning, speech recognition, object recognition,
language capabilities and knowledge mining.
• TensorFlow: draws heavily from deep learning techniques and allows enterprises to unlock
the power of machine learning capabilities in different programming environments.
• Google Cloud: This artificial intelligence platform makes it easy for data engineers and ML
developers to go from ideation to completion of their projects quickly and cost-effectively
with an easy-to-use interface. Its integrated toolchain enables enterprises to design and
deploy their machine learning apps.

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
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Topic 7: Exponential Organisations


(Lecture notes seem sufficient)

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Topic 8: Ethics and Digital Disruption


Four “pathological enthusiasms” make us vulnerable to ethical compromises
1) In the case of idolization or technological infatuation, managers get carried away with the
excitement of the possibilities that new technology developments offer to transform the
business completely. People vastly overestimate what can be achieved by technology.
2) In the case of technophilia by developers, the idea is that “the more technology, the better.”
In other words, new technology will be able to solve every existing (or imagined) problem.
3) Lomanism describes the role of overly enthusiastic and dedicated salespeople who will do
anything to flog their company’s product. Managers that overall have little knowledge or
capacity in technology will be easily convinced by the rosy promises that technology
companies make them and, as such, form an unusually responsive audience.
4) Finally, there is what the authors call managerial faddism. This is the tendency for
consultants and managers to embrace the idea that most problems can be fixed along the
lines of a new managerial fad, with new information technology projects often being a key
element.

Ethics
Ethics: The study of standards of conduct and moral judgment; also, the standards of right conduct.
(Technology create new opportunities for right and wrong)

Normative Judgment: A comparative evaluation stating or implying that something is good or bad,
right, or wrong, or better or worse.

Morality: A society’s accepted norms of behavior.

Ethical dimensions to design decisions


• Information rights and obligations
• Property rights and obligations
• Accountability and control
• System quality
• Sustainability
• Safety
• Unintended consequences
• Quality of life
o Work life balance
o Increasing Inequality

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
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Local and International Laws


Privacy Laws in South Africa
• Protection of Personal
• Information Act (POPIA)
• Electronic Communications and Transactions Act
• Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communication related
Information (“RICA”)
• The Criminal Procedure Act (“CPA”)
• The Cybercrimes and Cyber Security Bill

Other International
• EU – The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
• US – The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)

Ethics and the Law


Important Points:
• Something may be legal but not right (ethical)
• Something may be right (ethical) but not legal.

Privacy and Freedom


• Privacy
• Informed consent
o Opt-in
o Opt-out

Technology trends that raise ethical issues


• Moral artificial agents
• AI
• Electronic marketplace
• Crypto currency
• Gig Economy
• Mobile Devices
• Robotics

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INF 713 Exam Notes June 2023
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Ethical schools of thought


• Utilitarianism perspective
o The greatest good for the greatest number
o Benefits outweigh the costs
o Outcomes justify the means or ways to achieve it
o Minimizing the consequences
o But calculating consequences is difficult?
• Deontological perspective
o Focuses on duties/obligations regardless of the consequences
o An act is simply right or wrong despite its consequences e.g., killing an innocent
person
• Virtue Ethics perspective
o Virtue ethics focuses on the moral character of the person rather than action
o The action is good if it’s what a virtuous person would do.
o Maximize the wellbeing and fulfillment of the individual.
o What would a virtuous person do?
• Legal implication
• Multiple stakeholder perspective

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