Nicolae Bălcescu Technological High School

KING ARTHUR

Teacher coordinator Student

Voicu Adina Dinu Elena

Sesion May 2023

 Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER I- Where it all began .................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Early sources ......................................................................................................................... 3

1.2 Name ..................................................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER II - The legend ............................................................................................................. 6

2.1 Camelot ................................................................................................................................. 6

2.2 The sword .............................................................................................................................. 6

CHAPTER III – How it all ended ................................................................................................... 9

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 10

Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 11

Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 12

Sesion May 2023

Sesion May 2023
 Introduction

King Arthur was a legendary British leader who, according to medieval

histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early
6th centuries. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention,
and modern historians generally agree that he is unhistorical.The sparse historical background of
Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum,
and the writings of Gildas. Arthur's name also occurs in early poetic sources such as Y Gododdin.

Figure 1 - N. C. Wyeth's title page illustration for The Boy's King Arthur (1922)

Arthur is a central figure in the legends making up the Matter of Britain. The legendary
Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of
Monmouth's fanciful and imaginative 12th-century Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the
Kings of Britain). In some Welsh and Breton tales and poems that date from before this work,
Arthur appears either as a great warrior defending Britain from human and supernatural enemies
or as a magical figure of folklore, sometimes associated with the Welsh otherworld Annwn. How
much of Geoffrey's Historia (completed in 1138) was adapted from such earlier sources, rather
than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown.

Although the themes, events and characters of the Arthurian legend varied widely from
text to text, and there is no one canonical version, Geoffrey's version of events often served as the
starting point for later stories. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the

1
Saxons and established a vast empire. Many elements and incidents that are now an integral part
of the Arthurian story appear in Geoffrey's Historia, including Arthur's father Uther Pendragon,
the magician Merlin, Arthur's wife Guinevere, the sword Excalibur, Arthur's conception
at Tintagel, his final battle against Mordred at Camlann, and final rest in Avalon.

The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot and the Holy
Grail to the story, began the genre of Arthurian romance that became a significant strand of
medieval literature. In these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur
himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table. Arthurian literature
thrived during the Middle Ages but waned in the centuries that followed until it experienced a
major resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the legend continues to have prominence,
not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics and other media.

Figure 2 - Lancelot fighting Mordred Figure 3- King Arthur and the

in Guinevere’s chambers, 1911 Knights of the Round Table

2
 CHAPTER I- Where it all began

1.1 Early sources

The historicity of King Arthur has been debated both by academics and popular writers.
While there have been many suggestions that Arthur was a real historical person, academic
historians today consider King Arthur to be a mythological or folkloric figure.

The first definite mention of Arthur appears in 829, where he is presented as a military
leader fighting against the invading Saxons in 5th- to 6th-century Sub-Roman Britain at the Battle
of Badon, written more than three centuries after the events depicted. He develops into a legendary
figure in the Matter of Britain from the 12th century, following Geoffrey of Monmouth's
influential but largely fictional Historia Regum Britanniae.

The King Arthur we encounter in the later medieval texts (and with which people are often
most familiar) is not the Arthur of earlier works – shortly before A.D. 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth
(Galfridus Monemutensis) completed his Historia Regum Britanniae (‘History of the Kings of
Britain’) which glorified Arthur and made him an international warlord. This work quickly became
influential throughout western Europe and affected the Arthurian legend in all areas with the result
that, in general, scholars look to sources written before Geoffrey’s Historia for the ‘original’ Arthur
(that is, in the ‘pre-Galfridian’ sources). One well known dissenter from this is Geoffrey Ashe
(1981; 1985; 1995) who argues that Riotamus, a fifth-century ‘king’ of the Britons who
campaigned on the continent, is the actual historical prototype of Arthur and Geoffrey of
Monmouth drew on this tradition when writing his magnum opus.

Dealing with the last of these first, the occurrence of four (or possibly five) people named
‘Arthur’ in sixth- and seventh-century western Scotland and Wales has often been seen as one of
the best pieces of evidence for a historical Arthur – the argument is, essentially, that the appearance
of these names reflects the commemoration of an earlier historical figure (see, for example,
Chadwick and Chadwick, 1932). However such a commemoration by name of an earlier historical
hero would be totally unparalleled in the Celtic world and as such cannot be at all supported as an
explanation of these names (see Bromwich, 1975-6: 178-79).

3
 The earliest mention comes from a Spanish Chronicle of 1582 which asserts that it was
common talk that Arthur had been enchanted to the form of a crow and that many penalties were
inflicted on anyone who killed one of these birds. Cervantes also refers to this belief three times
in his Don Quixote (Vol. 1, 1605; Vol. 2, 1615) and his posthumously published ‘Persiles y
Sigismunda’ (1617). The following quote from R. Hunt’s nineteenth-century Popular Romances
of the West of England. The Drolls, Traditions and Superstitions of Old Cornwall, third edition,
based itself largely around an eighteenth-century note, brings some of these elements together
nicely: I quote the following as it stands: [from Notes and Queries, vol. VIII, p. 618] ‘In Jarvis’s
translation of ‘Don Quixote’, book II. chap. V., the following passage occurs:

Have you not read, sir,’ answered Don Quixote, ‘the annals and histories of England,
wherein are recorded the famous exploits of King Arthur, whom, in our Castilian tongue, we
always call King Arthur; of whom there goes an old tradition, and a common one, all over the
kingdom of Great Britain, that this king did not die, but that, by magic art, he was turned into a
raven; and that, in process of time, he shall reign again and recover his kingdom and sceptre, for
which reason it cannot be proved that, from that time to this, any Englishman has killed a raven?

This passage records the curious fact that the legend of King Arthur’s existence in the form
of a raven was still repeated as a piece of folklore in Cornwall about sixty years ago.

Figure 4 - Don Quixote, first edition, 1605

4
1.2 Name

The origin of the Welsh name "Arthur" remains a matter of debate. The most widely
accepted etymology derives it from the Roman nomen gentile (family name) Artorius. Artorius
itself is of obscure and contested etymology, but possibly of Messapian or Etruscan origin.

Linguist Stephan Zimmer suggests Artorius possibly had a Celtic origin, being a
Latinization of a hypothetical name Artorījos, in turn derived from an older patronym Arto-rīg-
ios, meaning "son of the bear/warrior-king". This patronym is unattested, but the root, arto-rīg,
"bear/warrior-king", is the source of the Old Irish personal name Artrí. Some scholars have
suggested it is relevant to this debate that the legendary King Arthur's name only appears
as Arthur or Arturus in early Latin Arthurian texts, never as Artōrius (though Classical Latin
Artōrius became Arturius in some Vulgar Latin dialects). However, this may not say anything
about the origin of the name Arthur, as Artōrius would regularly become Art(h)ur when borrowed
into Welsh.

Another commonly proposed derivation of Arthur from Welsh arth "bear " + (g)wr "man"
(earlier Arto-uiros in Brittonic) is not accepted by modern scholars for phonological and
orthographic reasons.

5
 CHAPTER II - The legend

2.1 Camelot

Camelot was described as a city surrounded by forests and meadows with plenty of open
space for knightly tournaments (which were held frequently). When a tournament was held,
wooden reviewing stands for the ladies and maidens would be set up, one of which is mentioned
as running for half a league (about 2.5 kilometers).

Camelot was a "rich and well provided town" but offers few details as to its layout or exact
size. It was small enough that during a particularly lavish court so many barons and nobles came
that "not a tenth of them could be lodged in the city of Camelot, and the others found shelter in the
meadowland, which was wide and beautiful, in tents and pavilions," (translation by Rupert
Pickens).

Indeed, Camelot saw more than its share of wars in the Vulgate stories. The city's defenses
were formidable, surviving a war against the Saxons and another invasion in which Cornishmen
aided the Saxons. "After the bridges were raised and the gates shut, they [a group of knights]
climbed high on the walls to see whether or not the Saxons were coming to storm the city, but the
Saxons did not have the will," reads a section of one story (translation by Rupert Pickens).

The text says that Arthur held court in a castle (or a tower as it's sometimes called)
furnished with a main courtyard, bedrooms, areas for feasting and, apparently, the Round Table.
The castle is close enough to a body of water so that in one story Arthur could see a boat coming
into Camelot holding what turned out to be a dead maiden.

2.2 The sword

Although the themes, events and characters of the Arthurian legend varied widely from
text to text, here’s the legend:

6
 Arthur was the first born son of King Uther Pendragon and heir to the throne. However
these were very troubled times and Merlin, a wise magician, advised that the baby Arthur should
be raised in a secret place and that none should know his true identity.

Figure 5 - Merlin, the magician, taking Arthur to a secret place

As Merlin feared, when King Uther died there was great conflict over who should be the
next king. Merlin used his magic to set a sword in a stone. Written on the sword, in letters of
gold, were these words: "Whoso pulleth out this sword of this stone is the rightwise born king of
all England." Of course all the contenders for the throne took their turn at trying to draw the sword,
but none could succeed. Arthur, quite by chance, withdrew the sword for another to use in a
tournament. Following this he became King.

He gathered Knights around him and fought back against the Saxons who, since the
Romans left Britain, were slowly but surely taking the country over. After many great battles and
a huge victory at Mount Badon the Saxons' advance was halted. Arthur's base was at a place called
Camelot. Here he built a strong castle. His knights met at a Round Table. They carried out acts of
chivalry such as rescuing damsels in distress and fought against strange beasts. They also searched
for a lost treasure, which they believed would cure all ills - this was the 'Quest for the Holy Grail'.

Under the guidance of Merlin, Arthur had obtained a magical sword from The Lady Of
The Lake. This sword was called 'Excalibur" and with this weapon he vanquished many foes.
Unfortunately, as peace settled over the country things turned sour within the court of Camelot

7
and civil war broke out. In the final battle at Camlan both Arthur and Mordred, Arthur's traitorous
nephew, were mortally wounded. Arthur was set upon a boat and floated down river to the isle of
Avalon. Here his wounds were treated by three mysterious maidens. His body was never found
and many say that he rests under a hill with all his knights - ready to ride forth and save the country
again.

Figure 6 - Camelot Figure 7 - The magical sword, Excalibur

8
 CHAPTER III – How it all ended

After Arthur’s death

The story of Camelot does not end quite yet. According to the Post-Vulgate Cycle this
would occur sometime after the death of Arthur. A ruler named King Mark of Cornwall, whom
Arthur (with help from Galahad) had once defeated in battle, takes his revenge by launching a
final invasion of the Kingdom of Logres.

He reaches Camelot, whose people are now without the protection of the Knights of the
Round Table. King Mark "went to Camelot, whose people were few in comparison to his own,
but they were of great heart and reputation, and they said they would not let themselves be
besieged. They all rode forth from the city and fought with the enemy, but they were so few that
they were all soon killed, so that none escaped..." the text reads:

King Mark entered the city and destroyed most of it," it continues. "When he came to Round
Table and saw Galahad's place, he said, 'this was his place who in a single day destroyed me and
the Saxons. For hatred of him I'll destroy the Round Table, his place first and after that all the
others.

This was the end of Camelot and the Round Table. For the 13th-century readers this story
may have provided a reason why Camelot did not still exist.

9
 Conclusion

The end of the Middle Ages brought with it a waning of interest in King Arthur. Although
Malory's English version of the great French romances was popular, there were increasing attacks
upon the truthfulness of the historical framework of the Arthurian romances – established since
Geoffrey of Monmouth's time – and thus the legitimacy of the whole Matter of Britain. So, for
example, the 16th-century humanist scholar Polydore Vergil famously rejected the claim that
Arthur was the ruler of a post-Roman empire, found throughout the post-Galfridian medieval
"chronicle tradition", to the horror of Welsh and English antiquarians. Social changes associated
with the end of the medieval period and the Renaissance also conspired to rob the character of
Arthur and his associated legend of some of their power to enthrall audiences, with the result that
1634 saw the last printing of Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur for nearly 200 years. King Arthur and
the Arthurian legend were not entirely abandoned, but until the early 19th century the material was
taken less seriously and was often used simply as a vehicle for allegories of 17th- and 18th-century
politics.

In the early 19th century, medievalism, Romanticism, and the Gothic Revival reawakened
interest in Arthur and the medieval romances and influenced poets such as William
Morris and Pre-Raphaelite artists including Edward Burne-Jones. Even the humorous tale of Tom
Thumb, which had been the primary manifestation of Arthur's legend in the 18th century, was
rewritten after the publication of Idylls.

10
 Bibliography

1. https://www.livescience.com
2. https://www.caerleon.net
3. https://en.wikipedia.org
4. “ Historia Regum Britanniae”

11
 Appendix

(A map of Camelot)

(Early latin version of the legend of King Arthur)

12
Merlin
Merlin is Arthur's mentor, instrumental in every aspect of his life from his conception to
his education, his rise to power, and his vision of a kingdom ruled through justice and
goodwill. Merlin is central to the lives of all the main characters of the legend, able to see
both past and future, eager to advise and be of service, but unable to alter what he knows
must be.

From his earliest appearance in medieval literature, Merlin has remained among the most
popular characters in the legends. He may have originally been a fertility god or spirit,
feared or revered for his great wisdom and magical abilities, and this concept of Merlin
was revived in 19th-century CE romantic literature. Since then, he has appeared in or
influenced numerous works of fiction, film, and other media, almost always depicted or
referenced in this same way, as a powerful mage.

13
Arturus, military leader

Although the Saxons finally conquered Britain, the Celts remained strong in Cornwall,
Cumberland, and Wales. There, the Celtic people retained a degree of independence and
kept alive the memory of old champions like Arturus. Celtic bards traveled from court to
court recounting folk tales of the past. Over time, Arturus, the military leader, became
King Arthur of England. Some historians believe Arthur was Dux (Duke) of Britain, a
Roman title. However, by AD 500, such titles had become vague and 'King' was the
customary designation of Celtic leaders. When Roman rule faded on the island, the old
kingly families of the tribes and regions re-emerged.

From hints found in ancient records, we can glean a picture of Arthur as a warrior who
was successful for a time, only to die tragically in a civil war after a mysterious Battle of
Camlann in AD 537 or thereabouts. Arthur's father may have been Ambrosius
Aurelianus, himself a Duke of Britain. The decades between Ambrosius' death, sometime
after 495, and Arthur's own demise some 40 years later were a time of shifting fortune
and wide-ranging struggles. This may explain the myriad of places in Britain that claim a
connection to the legendary king.

14