Culinary Theory 12th Edition

The Theory of
Hospitality
& Catering
for Levels 3 and 4
David Foskett • Patricia Paskins
Consultant editors: Victor Ceserani • Neil Rippington
Contributors: Paul Hambleton • Andrew Pennington • Suzanne Weekes
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978 1444 12376 0
Previous editions published as The Theory of Catering

First edition published 1964
Second edition published 1970
Third edition published 1974
Fourth edition published 1978
Fifth edition published 1984
Sixth edition published 1989
Seventh edition published 1992
Eighth edition published 1995
Ninth edition published 1999
Tenth edition published 2003
Eleventh edition published 2007
This edition published 2011
Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Year 2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011
Copyright © 2011 David Foskett and Patricia Paskins
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
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or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such
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Contents
Foreword iv
Acknowledgements v
Reasons to come to Booker vii
Introduction to the 12th edition ix
Qualification mapping grids x
Part 1 The hospitality industry 1

1. An overview of the UK and global hospitality industry 1
2. Employment in the hospitality industry 31
Part 2 Food commodities, nutrition and science 48

3. Food commodities 48
4. Basic nutrition, diet and health 112
Part 3 Planning, production and service 149

5. Kitchen planning, equipment, services and energy conservation 149
6. Production systems 204
7. Menu planning, development and structure 227
8. Food purchasing, storage and control 248
9. An overview of food and beverage service, and food service design 277
Part 4 Organisation and business development 300

10. Managing resources 300
11. Marketing, sales and customer care 314
12. Accommodation management 328
Part 5 Legislation 367

13. Health, safety and security 367
14. Food safety and food safety legislation 391
Appendix Useful websites 427

Index 428
Additional free material on the web at www.hodderplus.co.uk/catering:

Chapter 15 Food and society; Chapter 16 Understanding molecular
gastronomy and product development; Chapter 17 ICT in the hospitality
industry.
Foreword
The Theory of Hospitality and Catering is a must- Hospitality and Catering bridges the gap between
read. I remember in my university days reading text- idea and application, between theory and practice.
books by the authorities in their field – but that’s all It was a privilege to work with Professor David
they are, memories. They, too, were must-reads at the Foskett MBE CMA in my capacity as former
time, but invariably grew dusty on the shelves after Chancellor of Thames Valley University (TVU, now
graduation. The University of West London). David is truly one of
The Theory of Hospitality and Catering, however, the titans of the hospitality industry, and as Head of
is a true necessity for any student of catering and the London School of Hospitality and Tourism he has
hospitality anywhere in the world. It is a book you helped create a beacon of excellence, renowned not
will keep with you throughout your career. Most just across the UK but worldwide.
importantly, it not only covers the theory of hospitality And with The Theory of Hospitality and Catering,
and catering, but also the practice. It is a compre- David and his colleagues have produced a book that
hensive, authoritative book for everyone in the field. is itself a beacon of the industry – a work that is clear,
Whether back-of-house or front-of-house, this book and clearly useful, to people at all levels. Whether a
is essential. student or a practitioner, this book is indispensable.
I know, having started a business from scratch, that
Lord Bilimoria of Chelsea CBE DL
ideas are useless on their own. It is ideas combined
Founder and Chief Executive, Cobra Beer
with action that make things happen. The Theory of
Acknowledgements
We are most grateful to Booker plc, in particular Ron ●● Harbour & Jones
Hickey and Niall Brannigan, for their support in the ●● Baxter Storey.
development of the book.
Special thanks to the Catering Equipment Suppliers’ About the contributors
Association for valuable, up-to-date information, and Paul Hambleton is Deputy Dean of the Faculty of
to Keith Warren, its chairman. Professional Studies, University of West London.
We are also greatly indebted to the following Andrew Pennington is Lecturer in Food and
people and organisations for their helpful advice and Beverage Management and Hospitality Operations at
contributions to this edition: the University of West London.
●● Lionel Benjamin for cost control Suzanne Weekes is Senior Lecturer in Hospitality
●● John Cousins, Director, The Food and Beverage Management and Licensing Law at the University of
Training Company, London, for an overview of West London.
food and beverage service
●● Joanne Tucker, Lecturer, University of West London Picture credits
●● Richard Fagan of Ebex Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge
●● Edward Griffiths for planning a function ownership of copyright. The publishers will be glad to
●● Peter Pelham, The University of West London make suitable arrangements with any copyright holders
●● Michael Stapleton, UK Corporate Affairs Director, whom it has not been possible to contact. The authors
Compass Group UK and publisher would like to thank the following for
●● British Egg Information Services permission to reproduce copyright illustrative material:
●● The British Hospitality Association Figs 1.5–1.8, 1.10–2.3 Compass; fig.3.1 © Stephan Gabriel/
●● The Dairy Council Imagebroker.net/Photolibrary.com; figs 3.3–3.12, 3.14–3.16 ©
●● Food Service Intelligence EBLEX; figs 3.18–3.25, 3.27, 3.28 © BPEX; figs 3.30–3.43
●● The Sea Fish Authority © EBLEX; fig.3.96 © Kondor83 – Fotolia; fig.3.120 © karam
●● Russums Catering Clothing and Equipment miri – Fotolia; fig. 3.122 Compass; figs 3.127, 3.128 ©
Andrew Callaghan/Hodder Education; fig.4.11 Crown copy-
●● Bill Graney, Manager Client Services, Harrison right; fig.4.12 Compass; figs 5.8, 5.10 Compass; figs 5.11,
Catering 5.18, 5.19 Russums; figs 5.20, 5.21 Compass; figs 5.23, 5.25
●● Alexia Chan, Rick Jackman, Deborah Edwards Russums; fig.5.26 Compass; fig.5.32 (left) © Silke Lorenz –
Noble, Lynn Brown, Laura DeGrasse and Melissa Fotolia, (right) © Stepanov – Fotolia; fig.5.33 egg slice, cheese
Brunelli at Hodder Education slice ©Tyler Olson – Fotolia, garlic press ©Thomas Brostrom
– Fotolia, lemon squeezer © VRD – Fotolia; fig.5.34 ricer ©
●● John Campbell, Director of Cuisine and Food and Pefkos – Fotolia; masher © Silkstock – Fotolia; pestle and
Beverage at Coworth Park, part of the Dorchester mortar © UgputuLf FT – Fotolia; fig.5.36 © Mario Beauregard
Collection – Fotolia; fig.5.37 Russums; fig.5.38 © Andrew Callaghan/
●● The staff at The Vineyard at Stockcross Hodder Education; fig.5.39 Russums; fig.5.40 Lloyds; fig.6.5
●● Sam Bailey, photographer Compass; fig.6.8 Russums; fig.7.8 The Ritz; fig.8.8 OPRL; figs
9.1, 9.2 Compass; fig.9.3 The Ritz; fig.9.4 © Kumar Sriskandan/
●● Barry Gregory, Chef Lecturer, Halesowen College Alamy; fig. 9.5 © Ilpo Musto/Rex Features; fig.9.6 © tomalu –
●● Gary Hunter, Head of Culinary Arts, Westminster Fotolia; fig.9.8 The Ritz; fig.9.11 © Cultura/Alamy; fig. 12.1 ©
Kingsway College Shariff Che’Lah – Fotolia; figs 12.2, 12.3 © Irving Bartlett/
●● Steve Thorpe, Programme Manager Food and Alamy; fig.12.7 © Alex Segre/Rex Features; fig.12.10 © omi-
Beverage Curriculum, City College Norwich cron – Fotolia; fig.12.14 © David Gilder – Fotolia; fig.12.18
© Fancy/Alamy; figs 12.28, 12.32 © Monkey Business –
●● Tony Taylor, Deputy Director, Academy of Service Fotolia; fig.13.8 Russums; figs 13.10, 13.11 Compass; fig.14.2
Industries, Bournemouth and Poole College Russums; fig.14.4 © photo by Eric Erbe, digital colorisation by
vi Acknowledgements
Christopher Pooley – material produced by ARS is in the public of CESA with the objective of improving the level of
domain; fig.14.8 © Martin Lee/Rex Features; figs 14.14, 14.15 professionalism in the sector by creating a univer-
Compass; fig.14.16 (left) © Ayupov Evgeniy – Fotolia, (right) ©
Bogdan Dumitru – Fotolia; fig.16.4 Compass.
sally recognised and respected industry ‘standard’
for knowledge and experience. See www.cfsp.org.uk.
Except where stated above, photographs are by Sam To successfully achieve the designation and the
Bailey and illustrations by Barking Dog Art. benefits that accrue from it, CFSP candidates must:
About CESA ●● Study for and pass a comprehensive written test

●● Attend a half-day pre-test seminar
The primary interest group for members of the food- ●● Prove a certain level of experience in the
service industry in the UK is the Catering Equipment industry
Suppliers’ Association (CESA). ●● Show personal development through the
The roots of CESA stretch back to 1938, when the completion of recognised education or training
first manufacturers’ association was founded. This programmes
was enlarged in 1994, when the importers’ asso- ●● Demonstrate active involvement in the industry
ciation joined, and again when the Catering Utensils ●● Maintain the above if they wish to continue to
Association joined. Today, CESA has the largest mem- use the CFSP designation and receive regular
bership of any UK association whose members are communication from the programme.
engaged in the manufacture, import or prime supply
of foodservice equipment, including cooking, refrig- Video credits
eration, fabrication, utensils and after-sales service.
CESA is a member of the European Federation of The authors and publishers would like to thank the
Catering Equipment Manufacturers (EFCEM) and following, whose expertise and kind help were instru-
is pivotal within the Federation in working with its mental in the making of the film clips for the accom-
partners to influence pan-European legislation affect- panying Dynamic Learning resource:
ing the sector. CESA also has strong links with ●● John Campbell and the staff at The Vineyard at
the North American Association of Food Equipment Stockcross
Manufacturers (NAFEM), and regularly exhibits at ●● Andie Way, Robert Perry, Janet Rowson, Sue
major trade exhibitions around the world, including in Montgomery, Sibel Roller and Elaine O’Sullivan at
the UK, USA and Middle East. The University of West London
Key goals and objectives for CESA include: ●● Helen Evans, Gary Marshall and the Covent
●● Effective collaboration between all suppliers Garden Market Authority
engaged in food service equipment manufacture ●● Adam Hands, Marigold Keylock and Winchcombe
and prime supply Abbey Primary School
●● Active co-operation with other like-minded trade ●● Andy Hazell, Mike Anthony and Gloucester RFC
associations worldwide ●● Dipna Anand and the staff at the Brilliant
●● To further the interests and raise the standards of Restaurant, Southall
the industry and promote the welfare of its members ●● Dr Claire Mills at IFR, Norwich
●● Sustained representation on all matters affecting ●● The Loon Fung Superstore, Alperton
members to relevant government departments ●● Russ Timpson at The Fire Strategy Company.
and regulatory authorities locally, nationally and Special thanks to Russell Hume Ltd for sponsor-
internationally. ing the butchery videos, and in particular to Pat
CESA has been an instrumental player in advancing Herlihy, Operations Director, and Terry Connelly, Sales
the professionalism and industry awareness of all Account Manager. Russell Hume are meat, game and
members and segments of the foodservice industry, poultry specialists, and national suppliers of meat,
and its members adhere to a code of practice that game and poultry products to hotels, restaurants,
covers the range of support concerning manufacture, pubs and event caterers. They are committed to
supply, installation and after-sales service that buyers quality and service nationwide and have 90 years’
can expect from members of the association. experience, with managers who have over 20 years’
Extracts from the Certified Food Service experience in the meat trade.
Professional (CFSP) programme are included in this The films were produced and created by Adrian
book. This programme is operated under the auspices Moss of Instructional Design Ltd, Cheltenham.
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This page intentionally left blank
Introduction to the
12th edition
As travel, tourism, recreation and hospitality become comprehensive book, but rather have set out an out-
increasingly important in the economic life of the vast line as a basis for further study. In this way we hope to
majority of countries, so the need for well-trained assist students at all levels and, for those who wish to
operatives and managers continues to grow. study at great length, further references and websites
This book is designed to meet the needs of those are suggested where appropriate.
training for, or involved in, the hospitality and catering The qualification mapping grids on the next two
industry. pages show how the chapters of this book relate to
This 12th edition has been revised and updated a range of qualifications at Levels 2 and 3. This book
to keep in line with the continuing changes both in also covers units/modules of Foundation degrees
industry and catering education. As in previous edi- and BA(Hons) degrees in Hospitality Management,
tions we have not attempted to write a completely Event Management and Culinary Arts.
Qualification
mapping grids
Level 2 NVQ and VRQ

NVQ
Professional
Cookery VRQ Diploma NVQ Food
NVQ Food (Preparation in Professional Processing NVQ
Chapter and Drink and Cooking) Cookery and Cooking Hospitality
1 An overview of the UK Unit 201
and global hospitality
industry
2 Employment in the
hospitality industry
3 Food commodities 3 Background 3 3
knowledge: Units
208, 209, 210,
211, 212
4 Basic nutrition, diet and 3 Unit 204 3 3
health
5 Kitchen planning, 3 3
equipment, services and
energy conservation
6 Production systems 3 3 3
7 Menu planning, Unit 205
development and structure
8 Food purchasing, 3 Unit 205 3 3
storage and control
9 An overview of food and
beverage service and food
service design
10 Managing resources 3 3 3 3
11 Marketing, sales and 3 3
customer care
12 Accommodation 3 3
management
13 Health, safety and 3 3 Unit 203 3 3
security
14 Food safety and food 3 3 Unit 202 3 3
safety legislation
15 Food and society
16 Understanding
molecular gastronomy and
product development
17 ICT in the hospitality
industry
Qualification mapping grids xi
Level 3 and BTEC
NVQ NVQ BTEC Edexcel Extended Diploma

Hospitality Professional (Certificate, Subsidiary Diploma
Chapter Supervision Cookery or Diploma)
1 An overview of the UK and global Unit 1
2 Employment in the hospitality 3 Unit 20
industry
3 Food commodities 3
4 Basic nutrition, diet and health Unit 15
5 Kitchen planning, equipment, 3 Unit 14
services and energy conservation
6 Production systems
7 Menu planning, development and 3
structure
8 Food purchasing, storage and 3 Unit 4
control
9 An overview of food and 3 Units 6 and 9
beverage service and food service
design
10 Managing resources 3 3 Units 5, 18, 19 and 20
11 Marketing, sales and customer 3 Units 2 and 3
care
12 Accommodation management 3 Unit 23
13 Health, safety and security 3 3
14 Food safety and food safety 3 3 Unit 8
legislation
15 Food and society
16 Understanding molecular
gastronomy and product
development
17 Information and communication Unit 17
technology in the hospitality
industry
This page intentionally left blank
eh
ospitality
i nd
An overview of
Th
the UK and global
1 us
1
Part
try
The UK Hospitality Industry 1

The Hospitality Industry: Product and Service 9
Types of Catering Establishment 12
References 30
Topics for Discussion 30
Supporting material available on Dynamic Learning Online:

›● Knowledge quizzes
›● Activity worksheets: the industry; tourism
›● Summary presentations
The UK hospitality industry

The largest sectors in the UK hospitality industry, The leisure industry has been described as the
in terms of numbers of outlets, are hotels and pubs biggest, fastest-growing industry in the UK. Within
– a microcosm of the catering industry itself since the leisure sector, some areas have slowed down,
it comprises a wide variety of outlets, from sports while others are consolidating and concentrating on
clubs and stadia to theme parks, historic properties, core businesses. One of the most useful ways of
cinemas and beyond. Indeed, many researchers are categorising the leisure sector is to separate it into
unsure whether to include the leisure sector within popular leisure activities – for example, theatre, ten-
the catering market, since it consists of a large pin bowling and cue sports, casinos, bingo, and health
number of outlets, each of which serves only small and fitness.
quantities of food. However, this sector will be among Traditionally, catering activity has been divided into
those showing the fastest growth over the next few either profit or cost sector markets. The profit sector
years. includes such establishments as restaurants, fast-
Like hospitality and tourism, all leisure markets ben- food outlets, cafés, takeaways, pubs, and leisure
efit from improving economic conditions. For many and travel catering outlets; the cost sector refers to
people, real disposable income has grown and the catering outlets for business and industry, education
forecasts are that it will continue to grow. In wealthy and health care. Recent developments have blurred
markets, the leisure and pleasure sectors outperform the division between profit- and cost-orientated
the economy in general. It is usually the case that, as establishments.
people become wealthier, their incremental income is
not usually spent on upgrading the essentials but on The three main types of business
pleasure and luxury items. However, whenever there The industry can be divided into three main types of
is a downturn in the economy, the leisure sectors business: SMEs, public limited companies and private
suffer disproportionately. companies.
2 The hospitality industry
Small to medium-sized business her work need to be considered. This may include
enterprises (SMEs) whether he or she:
SMEs have up to 250 employees. In the UK as a ●● is in control of their own time, the amount of work
whole, SMEs account for over half of all employment they take on and the decision making
(58.7 per cent). These are usually private companies ●● has no guarantee of regular work
that may become public limited companies if they get ●● receives no pay for periods of holiday or sickness
very large. ●● is responsible for all the risks of the business
●● attends the premises of the person giving him or
Public limited companies and private her the work
companies ●● generally uses her or his own equipment and
The key difference between public and private com- materials
panies is that a public company can sell its shares to ●● has the right to send someone else to do the
the public, while private companies cannot. A share is work.
a certificate representing one unit of ownership in a
company, so the more shares a person has, the more
Partnership
of the company they own. A partnership consists of two or more people work-
Before it can start in business or borrow money, ing together as the proprietors of a business. Unlike
a public company must prove to Companies House limited liability companies, there are no legal require-
(the department where all companies in the UK must ments in setting up as a partnership. A partnership
be registered) that at least £50,000 worth of shares can be set up without the partners necessarily being
have been issued and that each share has been paid fully aware that they have done so.
up to at least a quarter of its nominal value (so 25 per The partnership is similar to a sole trader in law, in
cent of £50,000). It will then receive authorisation to that the partners own the business, take all the risks,
start business and borrow money. stand any losses and keep any profits. Each partner
individually is responsible for all the debts of the part-
Other types of business nership. So, if the business fails, each partner’s per-
The types of business in operation in the catering and sonal assets are fully at risk. It is possible, though not
hospitality industry can be further divided into sole very common, to have partners with limited liability. In
traders, self-employed, partnership and limited liability this case the partner with limited liability must not play
companies. These are usually private companies. any active part in the management or conduct of the
business. In effect, he or she has merely invested a
Sole trader limited sum of money in the partnership.
A sole trader is the simplest form of setting up The advantages of operating a business as a
and running a business. It is suited to the smallest partnership can be very similar to those of the sole
of businesses. The sole trader owns the business, trader. Very little formality is needed, although every-
takes all the risks, is liable for any losses and keeps one contemplating entering into a partnership should
any profits. The advantage of operating in business seriously consider taking legal advice and having a
as a sole trader is that very little formality is needed. partnership agreement drawn up.
The only official records required are those for HM The main official records that are required are
Revenue & Customs (HMRC), National Insurance those for HMRC, National Insurance and VAT. The
and VAT. The accounts are not available to the accounts are not available to the public. There may be
public. important tax advantages, too, when compared with
a limited company. For example, they might be able
Self-employed pay the tax they owe at a later date, or treat deduct-
There is no precise definition of self-employment, ible expenses more generously. These are business
although guidance is offered by HMRC. It is impor- expenses that can be claimed against tax – in other
tant to note that a mere agreement with an individual words, taken away from the business’s income, so
that he or she will be regarded as self-employed the amount of money taxed is less, which means the
is insufficient for the purposes of HMRC and the amount of tax owed is less.
Contributions Agency. Limited liability companies
In order to determine whether an individual is truly
self-employed, the whole circumstances of his or These are companies that are incorporated under the
An overview of the UK and global hospitality industry 3
Companies Acts. This means that the liability of their 2009

owners (the amount they will have to pay to cover the
business’s debts if it fails or if it is sued) is limited
to the value of the shares each shareholder (owner)
owns. Contracted outlets
51% 49%
Limited liability companies are much more complex Self-operated outlets
than sole traders and partnerships. This is because
the owners can limit their liability. As a consequence
people either investing in them or doing business with
them need to know the financial standing of the com-
Figure 1.1 Meals served by food and service management
pany. Company documents, which are listed below, companies, 2009 (business and industry)
are open to inspection by the public.
Source: British Hospitality Association, Food and Service
●● The Constitution: this comprises two documents Management Survey 2009
– the Memorandum of Association and the
Articles of Association. 1999 2009
●● The Memorandum of Association: this is the 5%
‘outer face’ of the company, informing the outside
world of its name and purpose.
47%
●● The Articles of Association: this is the ‘inner 53%
face’ of the company and is concerned with
the detailed conduct of the company, including
rules about general meetings, the powers of the
directors, accounts, and so on.
Number of meals served by FSM companies
The food service management Number of meals served by self operators
industry Figure 1.2 Total number of meals in the cost catering sector,
Food and service management covers providing a 1999 and 2009
food service at work in business and industry, cater- Source: British Hospitality Association, Food and Service
ing in schools, colleges and universities, hospitals and Management Survey 2009
health care, welfare and local authority catering, and
other non-profit-making outlets. Horizons FS has estimated the number of outlets and
Despite its complexity, catering and hospitality rep- meals served (excluding snacks) in the total food ser-
resents one of the largest sectors of the UK economy vice management sector in 2009 as shown in Table 1.1.
and is fifth in size behind retail food, cars, insurance This structure is not reflected in the food and ser-
and clothing. It is also an essential support to tourism, vice management market, where food service man-
another major part of the economy, and one of the agement companies have a greater share of business
largest employers in the country. and industry than of any other sector.
Table 1.1 Number of outlets and meals served (excluding

Number of contracted outlets, 1990 and snacks) in the total food service management sector, 2009
2009 (business and industry)
In terms of outlets, food and service management Outlets Meals (m)
companies have taken their share of the business and Business and industry 16,776 612
industry (B&I) sector up to 49 per cent in 2009 at the Education 34,455 1,136
expense of the self-operator; in terms of meals (see Health and welfare 33,496 1,157
Table 1.1), contracting companies dominate the sector. Other (inc. MoD) 4,513 339
This reflects their generally larger size of outlet.
TOTAL 89,240 3,244
Because they operate the largest outlets, food and
service management (FSM) companies serve far Note: This data should be treated with caution as definition
more meals in the B&I sector than the self-operator, does vary.
even though they operate only just over half the Source: British Hospitality Association, Food and Service
number of outlets. Management Survey 2009
World tourism 9%
International tourism is likely to increase, with Europe 6%
attracting the major share of tourism arrivals and 30%
France the most popular destination – indeed, prob-
ably the most popular destination in the world, with
the USA second and Spain third. However, in terms 20%
of receipts, Spain earns more and is second only to
the USA. Spend per head in France is also less than
in Spain, mainly because many arrivals in France
are passing through to other destinations. China is 18%
emerging as a tourism destination having hosted the 17%
2008 Olympics and because of its rapidly growing
economy. Accommodation Eating and drinking out
Travel in UK Entertainment
UK tourism
According to government statistics, the UK tour- Shopping Others
ism and leisure market is estimated to be worth Figure 1.3 Tourism spend in the UK by UK residents
approximately £85 billion, but taking into account the Source: British Hospitality Association, Trends and Statistics
full spectrum of the industry, the British Hospitality 2009
Association (BHA) suggests that this figure is esti-
mated at around £109.7 billion. Tourism and hospital- The travel balance
ity is an important industry to the UK economy. The The travel balance is the difference between over-
government has a target of £100 billion for the UK seas visitor spending in the UK and spending by UK
tourism industry by 2012; if leisure spend is included residents abroad. The imbalance has been rising con-
in the definition of tourism, this target has already tinuously since the early 1990s and in 2008 stood at
been reached. £20.2 billion. The expansion of budget airlines and the
The principal change in source countries for UK popularity of cheap overseas travel, as well as rising
tourism in recent years has been the inclusion of living standards, have contributed to this growth.
Poland in the list of ten leading visitor countries. Since Up to 2009 fewer long holidays were being spent
2004, the number of Polish visitors to the UK has in Britain, while British residents spent far more on
almost trebled, with most of them likely to be seeking overseas holidays than they did on domestic holidays.
employment or visiting friends and relatives. This is a trend that is unlikely to be reversed in the
Table 1.2 Countries of origin of overseas visitors to the UK, 2000 and 2003–2008 by number of visits
Visits (000s)
Rank Country 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
1 USA 4096 3346 3616 3436 3896 3551 2959
2 France 3086 3073 3254 3333 3693 3404 3636
3 Irish Republic 2082 2488 2578 2824 2909 2970 3069
4 Germany 2757 2611 2968 3318 3411 3376 2905
5 Spain 848 1206 1465 1773 1981 2227 1977
6 Netherlands 1435 1549 1620 1729 1791 1823 1811
7 Italy 946 1168 1348 1189 1477 1615 1645
8 Poland – – 528 1027 1326 1294 1493
9 Belgium/Luxembourg 1047 978 1167 1171 997 1083 1031
10 Australia 776 723 787 915 956 941 959
Source: British Hospitality Association, Trends and Statistics 2009

long term, but in 2009 at least there were early indi- lar type of accommodation enjoyed by almost half of
cations that more people were planning to spend a those holidaying in the UK. Almost four trips out of
holiday in Britain than in previous years. ten are spent in a hotel or guest house.
Tourism and the UK economy UK residents: where they stay and how
The impact of a sector of the economy is measured much they spend
through gross value added (GVA). This measures the The south-west, south-east and north-west are the
value of the output used less the value of the input most popular regions of the country for domestic
used in the production of the output. visitors in terms of trips, nights and spend. London’s
Gross domestic product (GDP) can be measured popularity earns almost approximately £3 billion from
in three ways. the domestic visitor.
1 Output measure: this is the value of the goods
and services produced by all sectors of the 11%
economy – agriculture, manufacturing, energy, 4%
construction, the service sector and government. 1%
2 Expenditure measure: this is the value of the 6% 37%
goods and services purchased by households
and by government, investment in machinery and 5%
buildings; it also includes the value of exports
minus imports. 8%
3 Income measure: the value of the income
generated mostly in terms of profits and wages.
In theory all three approaches should produce the 28%
same number. Friends and relations B&Bs/farmhouses
In the UK the Office for National Statistics (ONS) Hotels and guesthouses Second home/timeshare
publishes one single measure of GDP which, apart from Caravan Camping
the first estimate, is calculated using all three ways of Self-catering Other
measuring. Usually the main interest in the UK figures
is in the quarterly change in GDP in real terms – that Figure 1.4 Type of accommodation used by UK residents on
holiday in the UK (%), 2008
is, after taking account of changes in prices (inflation).
Source: British Hospitality Association, Trends and Statistics
How is GDP calculated? 2009
Calculating a GDP estimate for all three of the above
measures is a huge undertaking every three months. Overseas visitors: where they stay and how
The output measure alone – which is considered the much they spend
most accurate in the short term – involves surveying The distribution of overseas visitors to Britain is mark-
tens of thousands of UK firms. The main sources used edly different to that of domestic visitors. London is
for this are ONS surveys of manufacturing and ser- by far the favourite destination for overseas visitors,
vice industries. Information on sales is collected from accounting for 50% of all their expenditure, followed –
6000 companies in manufacturing, 25,000 service- distantly – by the south-east of England and Scotland.
sector firms, 5000 retailers and 10,000 companies in The distribution of overseas visitors to the rest of the
the construction sector. Data are also collected from UK is evenly balanced although the north-east (with
government departments covering activities such as Northern Ireland) remains the least popular destination.
agriculture, energy, health and education, which is
augmented by a wide range of sources to ensure that The size of the UK hotel industry
activity in the economy is well covered. The UK hotel industry remains a significant sector
of the UK economy, with an annual turnover of
Tourism trips by UK residents approximately £40 billion. There is no all-inclusive
The main purpose of tourism trips by UK residents register of serviced accommodation in the UK. The
in the UK is for a holiday, which accounts for 81% approximate number of hotels and guest houses is
of the total number of trips and 75% of total spend. 46,542 – a figure that has been declining despite
Visiting friends and relatives remains the most popu- new hotel openings. This is because of the closure
Table 1.3 Number of rooms and beds in serviced accommodation categories, 2009
Northern Total Total

London England Scotland Wales Ireland rooms beds
Hotel 63,130 216,300 67,880 21,000 4,950 373,260 769,000
Motor lodge/inn/ 20,250 64,000 8,950 4,000 800 97,700 210,000
branded budget
Guest house/B&B 15,350 100,800 10,600 3,700 3,500 118,600 250,000
Inn – 34,600 900 750 250 36,500 90,000
Farmhouse – 9,500 250 500 100 10,350 20,000
Youth hostel 4,340 14,580 6,880 5,750 715 32,265 81,000
Total 103,070 463,405 99,960 40,000 10,065 716,500 1,490,000
Source: British Hospitality Association, Trends and Statistics 2009
of many small hotels and guest houses, particularly in any other hotel company: approximately 620,000 in
coastal areas. The total number of rooms and beds in over 4300 hotels in approximately 100 countries. It
the UK serviced accommodation sector is very diffi- has a portfolio of the following brands:
cult to calculate because of the lack of definition and
●● InterContinental
detailed statistics.
●● Hotel Indigo
What is a hotel? ●● Crowne Plaza
The definition of a hotel varies according to the ●● Holiday Inn
source used. Basically, any establishment that calls ●● Holiday Inn Express
itself a hotel is classified as a hotel. ●● Staybridge Suites.
Table 1.3 highlights the fragmented nature of the Travelodge (Dubai International Capital)
hotel industry. If the number of hotels and guest
Travelodge was the first budget hotel brand to launch
houses in the UK (which includes budget properties,
in the UK, in 1985, and now operates 3801 hotels
private hotels and guest houses) is 46,0001 the
(over 26,000 rooms) in the UK, Ireland and Spain.
average size of a hotel in the UK is approximately
11.5 rooms with the average-size budget hotel having Accor Hotels
77 rooms. Accor is the fifth largest hotel group by room num-
Structure of the UK hotel industry bers. It has more than 4000 hotels (500,000 rooms)
in 90 countries. It operates 15 brands, with 138
Whitbread, with its Premier Inn brand, is the largest
hotels and almost 20,000 rooms. For example:
hotel operator in the UK (in terms of number of hotel
rooms), followed by InterContinental and Travelodge. ●● Sofitel
Except for Premier Inn and InterContinental, all the ●● Novotel
leading hotel companies in the UK are foreign-owned. ●● Mercure
And, except for Premier Inn, Travelodge and Accor, ●● Ibis
expansion now takes place mainly through franchising. ●● Etap
●● Formule 1.
The UK’s ten largest hotel groups
Whitbread is the UK’s largest hotel and restaurant Hilton Hotels Corporation
group, operating in the budget hotel and branded Hilton now has more than 3300 hotels and 550,000
restaurant sectors. It now has almost 600 Premier rooms in over 77 countries, and employs 135,000
Inns with more than 40,000 rooms. Its restaurants people. It has ten brands.
include Beefeater, Brewers Fayre and Taybarns. Its
Best Western
Costa Coffee brand now has over 900 shops in the
UK and over 400 internationally in 25 countries, Best Western UK has 2801 independently owned
second to Starbucks. hotels, operating 15,000 rooms. It is part of Best
Western International, the world’s largest hotel chain
InterContinental Hotels Group (IHG) of independent operators, which has 4000 hotels
InterContinental Hotels Group has more rooms than with over 300,000 rooms in 80 countries.
Wyndham Worldwide Food tourism

Wyndham is the second largest hospitality company in The experience of food and taste is an important
the world, with almost 7000 hotels offering 588,000 element in tourism. In defining food tourism there is
rooms in 66 countries, the majority franchised. The a need to differentiate between those tourists who
four major brands are: consume food as a part of the travel experience and
those whose activities, behaviours and even choice of
●● Wyndham Grand
destination are influenced by their interest in the food.
●● Ramada
Similar to these people are those who are interested
●● Ramada Encore
in wine and visit the noted wine-producing areas of
●● Jurys Inn.
the world. For such people, vineyards, wineries, wine
Marriott Hotels festivals, wine shows, wine tasting and/or experienc-
ing the attributes of a wine region are the prime moti-
Marriott is the world’s third largest hotel company,
vating factors. Similarly, food tourism refers to visits to
with 32001 hotels and 577,000 rooms in 67 coun-
food producers, food festivals, restaurants and spe-
tries. It operates and franchises ten hotel brands as
cific locations renowned for a particular food, as well
well as extended-stay apartments and vacation own-
as food tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of
ership resorts. In the UK it operates nearly 60 hotels
specialist food production regions, or even visiting a
across five brands:
restaurant to taste the dishes of a well-known chef;
●● JW Marriott for food tourists, such factors provide the motivation
●● Renaissance for them to travel to a certain area. (Some people, for
●● Marriott example, travel to Perigord in France to taste the foie
●● Grand Residences gras and truffles, and sample the local Bergerac wine
●● Courtyard. for which the area is renowned.)
Carlson Hotels
Based in Minneapolis, Carlson operates tour hos- The globalisation of the hospitality
pitality businesses and is the largest privately held and tourism industries
company in the USA. It has five brands. The three Businesses today find themselves competing in a
operating in the UK are: world economy for survival, growth and profitability.
Managers working in the industry have to learn to
●● Park Inn
adjust to change in line with market demands for
●● Park Plaza
quality and value for money, and increased organisa-
●● Radisson Hotels and Resorts, representing 42
tional attention must be devoted to profitability and
hotels in the UK. With 7750 rooms worldwide it
professionalism.
has over 1000 hotels in 72 countries.
The globalisation of the hospitality and tourism
The Rezidor Hotel Group industries has advanced under the pressures of
increased technology, communication, transporta-
The Rezidor Hotel Group is based in Brussels. It has
tion, deregulation, elimination of political barriers,
more than 380 hotels in operation, with approxi-
sociocultural changes and global economic develop-
mately 81,000 rooms in 59 countries under five
ment, together with growing competition in a global
brands. In the UK it has over 50 hotels, operating
economy. An international hospitality company must
Radisson and Park Inn Hotels.
perform successfully in the world’s business environ-
The world’s largest hotel groups ment. There are a vast number of influences in the
external international environment that greatly affect
Table 1.5 lists the world’s ten largest hotel groups. All
the multinational organisation. Some of these are as
but two are US-owned; only one company – IHG – is
follows.
British-owned and Accor is French-owned. It should
be noted that both Choice and Best Western are con- ●● Monetary and fiscal policies and exchange
sortia of independent hotels, so are not groups under controls: some countries may limit the amount
a common ownership. However, even hotels listed of money that can be withdrawn from their
under other names are not necessarily owned or country, as well as impose large payments for
operated by that group, as the list includes all hotels international transactions (e.g. joint ventures, entry
operating under franchise agreements. to the country).
●● Financial and investment markets, individual riers and the easing of visa restrictions. While mas-
consumer and corporate interest rates, the sive growth is forecast for these emerging markets,
availability of credit, exchanges, and so on. other regions around the world, particularly Europe
●● Taxation and tariffs: taxes on individuals, and America, will remain among the most visited
corporations and imported goods, imposed by the destinations.
host country/government. China is investing heavily in travel and tourism.
●● Trade/industrial factors: import/export measures India’s buoyant economy and its boom in business
of activity in commerce, and so on. These can and leisure travel are driving a strong growth in
serve as indices in determining the state of the tourism. To reduce the region’s economic reliance
economy (e.g. prosperity, depression, recession, on oil, many countries of the Gulf States are now
recovery). focusing on tourism, capitalising on their natural
●● Labour markets: the level of unemployment, assets, historic cultures and Islamic traditions: the
welfare spending, and so on. Middle East is now the fourth most visited region
in the world.
Travel, tourism and hospitality together make up the
Investment in tourism in the Middle East is highest
world’s largest industry. According to the World Travel
in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), followed by Saudi
and Tourism Council (WTTC), the annual gross output
Arabia. Dubai’s hotel market currently ranks among
of the industry is greater than the gross national
the world’s best. International tourism is part of the
product (GNP) of all countries except the United
wider move towards globalisation.
States and Japan. Worldwide, the industry employs
over 112 million people. In many countries, especially Airlines
in emerging tourism destinations, the hospitality and
Many people reach the hotel reception desk via an
tourism industry plays a very important role in the
airline. Today, more than 2 billion passengers a year
national economy, being the major foreign currency
use the world’s airlines for business and leisure travel.
earner.
People choose to fly for both business and leisure
As the world economy continues to become more
reasons. Some airlines, such as Aer Lingus, have only
interdependent, this will give rise to increasing
one class on all UK and European services. Food and
amounts of business travel. With this in mind, it is
drink has to be purchased on these flights as the
clear that the global economic environment plays a
carrier is trying to minimise the low-cost formula. The
significant role in the internationalisation opportuni-
use of in-flight entertainment is slowly making its way
ties available to hospitality and tourism companies,
to the low-cost sector.
and that global economic policies and developments
Tier systems are used by airlines to describe the
play a critical role in the hospitality and tourism
prestige of a passenger based on their frequent flyer
industry.
programmes. A first, platinum or premium tier travel-
One of the principal challenges confronting the
ler will normally have travelled hundreds of thousands
industry of the future will result from the ongoing
of miles with the carrier and will have access to its
transition to the ‘information age’. The convergence
lounges and lots of other extras. Fierce competition
of computing, telecommunications and content will
between low-cost and traditional carriers, as well
shape the way and pace at which people live and
as cost-cutting by both airlines and corporate travel
work. Above all, it will change the nature of the
managers, have triggered this trend.
exchange process between providers and their cus-
The major carriers are now offering all-business-
tomers – the latter will have more choice. The inter-
class flights and are investing heavily to improve their
net will offer numerous ways to find out whether a
products. The airlines’ marketing highlights:
hospitality company or restaurant, say, delivers on its
promises. Dissatisfied clients will be able to vent their ●● increased comfort on board the aircraft, and the
feelings to an Internet-connected community of mil- availability of gyms, shower facilities and massages
lions. Companies will in turn be expected to systemat- ●● increased technology – e.g. broadband,
ically accumulate information about their customers. videoconferencing
●● mood lighting to aid jet lag and assist sleep
The effects of international tourism ●● on-board entertainment, online gaming, etc.
As emerging markets such as China and India con- ●● a range of reading materials, menu items, wines,
tinue to grow, people with disposable income keen to etc.
spend it on travel will make the most of low-cost car- ●● door-to-door service rather than gate to gate.
AN OVERVIEW OF THE UK AND GLOBAL HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY 9
The hospitality industry: product and service

The hospitality product consists of tangible and intan- the needs of many different groups of customers,
gible elements of food, drink and accommodation, all with slightly different requirements. The success
together with the service, atmosphere and image that of any customer experience will be determined at
surround and contribute to the product. the interaction point between the customer and the
The hospitality industry contains many of the service provider.
characteristics of service industries with the added The service staff have an additional part to play in
complications of the production process. It is the serving the customer: they are important in the future
production process that is the complicated element selling process, and therefore should be trained to
as it focuses on production and delivery, often within use the opportunity to generate additional revenue.
a set period of time. From this analysis we are able to identify four char-
The need to provide the appropriate environment acteristics of the hospitality industry that make it a
within which hospitality can be delivered means that unique operation.
most hospitality businesses need a substantial amount
1 Hospitality cannot be delivered without customers
of investment in plant and premises. This creates a
who provide the source of revenue for the
high fixed cost/low variable cost structure. The vari-
continued financial viability of the operation. The
able costs in servicing a room are minimal, although
customer is directly involved in many aspects of
the hotel itself – particularly in the luxury hotel market
the delivery of the hospitality service, and is the
– has a high fixed cost. In general, the financial break-
judge of the quality of the hospitality provided.
even point for hospitality businesses is often fairly
2 Achieving a satisfactory balance between
high. Exceeding this level will result in high profits, but
demand patterns, resource scheduling and
low volumes will result in substantial losses.
operations is a particularly difficult task in the
Hospitality services suffer from fluctuations in
hospitality industry.
demand: demand fluctuates over time and by type of
3 All hospitality operations require a combination of
customer. Forecasting business is therefore often dif-
manufacturing expertise and service skill, in many
ficult because of the mixture of patterns and variables
cases 24 hours a day. To deliver a consistent
that can affect demand, making planning, resourcing
product to each individual customer requires
and scheduling difficult. Hospitality cannot be deliv-
teams of people well trained to deliver to a set
ered without customers, who are involved in many
standard every time.
aspects of the delivery of the hospitality service.
4 No matter how well planned the operation,
Achieving a satisfactory balance between demand
how good the design and environment, if the
patterns, resource scheduling and operational capac-
interaction between customer and service
ity is a difficult task for managers in hospitality.
provider is not right this will have a detrimental
Managing customer demand to achieve optimum
effect on the customer experience of the total
volume at maximum value is extremely complex. Too
product, and a missed opportunity to sell future
few customers could spell financial ruin; too many
products. Good interaction between customers
customers without the required capacity or resources,
and service providers can also increase present
often means that the customers’ experience suffers,
sales – for example, a waiter can ‘up sell’ by
leading to dissatisfaction. Scheduling of resources is
suggesting in a positive way additions to the
also difficult, if too many staff are on duty to cover the
meal, perhaps items the customer may not
forecast demand, then profitability suffers. Insufficient
even have considered but is delighted by the
staffing creates problems – with servicing and staff
recommendation or subtle persuasion.
morale. Forecasting is therefore a crucial function,
which contributes to the successful operation of the Hotel catering
hospitality business.
The ability to deliver a consistent product to every Hotel food and beverage strategy
customer is also an important consideration. Staff Unlike in the past, when hotels typically operated food
must be trained in teams to deliver a consistent and beverage facilities merely to satisfy the demands
standard of product and service. This means being of their guests, today’s hoteliers are increasingly
able to cater not just for individual customers but to adopting a more proactive approach by using their
food and beverage outlets as a means to generate Other developments include the following.
not only profitability but also publicity, as well as to
●● Heston Blumenthal is running the restaurant
cultivate a loyal following. Traditionally, hotel restau-
at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in London’s
rants have not been profitable enterprises for hotels,
Knightsbridge, called Dinner.
given that they were often considered to be only an
●● Furthermore, many hotel chains that have come
essential value-added service for guests.
to rely upon the strength of their brand names
Mintel has identified four hotel catering formats, as
have resorted to developing sub-brands designed
follows.
to appeal to both guests and non-residents.
1 General: hotels featuring restaurants that cater
primarily for residents of the hotel and, second, Conferences and business travel
for walk-in guests who are not residents. These Business travel is an important sector of the UK
often take the form of casual, all-day dining tourism industry. This sector is defined by the British
facilities. The most enterprising of these are Association of Conference Destinations (BACD), and
attempting to attract different consumers at includes tourists who attend conferences, trade fairs,
different times of the day. exhibitions, incentive travel, corporate hospitality and
2 Signature: hotels that have developed a business travel.
restaurant as a brand that stands alone The UK is an important market for the global con-
from the hotel, and is therefore primarily ference industry. As the international market con-
aimed at walk-in customers. Most of these tinues to grow, the UK has to continue to become
restaurants are located in luxury or upscale increasingly competitive in order to win lucrative
establishments, a number of which are managed conference business. London is one of the major
by celebrity chefs such as Giorgio Locatelli, capitals that attracts international conventions,
Gary Rhodes, Gordon Ramsay, Brian Turner, hosting international exhibitions and conferences.
Heston Blumenthal, Marcus Wareing and Major exhibition centres are ExCeL, Olympia and
Alain Ducasse. Signature restaurants tend to Earls Court. London also attracts more meetings
operate independently of the hotel they are than most other capital centres. The reason why it
attached to. Establishments that fall into this is able to attract such international business are:
category include Nobu (Metropolitan Hotel,
●● It is easily accessible by mainland Europe and the
London), Chino Latino (Park Plaza, Leeds and
rest of the world via the five international airports
Nottingham), Locanda Locatelli (Hyatt Churchill,
and the Channel Tunnel.
London) and Dinner (Mandarin Oriental, Hyde
●● It has a large number of old and modern
Park, London – Heston Blumenthal).
landmarks – the O2, the London Eye, the
3 Outsourced: hotels that outsource the
Millennium Bridge, Shakespeare’s Globe, and
management and operation of their catering
the Tate Gallery and Tate Modern, as well as, of
provision to a third party. The outsourcing of a
course, the traditional landmarks – the Tower
hotel’s food and beverage operations can take
of London, Buckingham Palace, Palace of
several forms: a lease contract, management
Westminster, and so on.
contract or an agreement with a contracted
●● Its superior facilities – e.g. purpose-built
caterer. An example of an outsourced food and
convention and exhibition centres, museums,
beverage hotel operation is the Cumberland Hotel,
theatres, livery halls, stately homes, hotels with
London, which contracted Restaurant Associates,
meeting facilities.
a division of the contract catering giant Compass
plc, to operate all its bars and restaurants. However, there is competition from mainland Europe.
4 Budget: hotels that provide only a limited Some conventions require larger conference facili-
catering service, and sometimes no catering ties than London can offer. Larger exhibition space
at all other than food from vending machines. can be found in other European cities in Germany
The budget hotel sector in the UK is rapidly and France. Larger exhibition centres are in Milan,
expanding, and consequently the vast majority of Frankfurt, Paris, Hanover and Düsseldorf.
new hotels do not have any food and beverage
facilities at all – in part this is due to lenders Outsourcing
providing limited capital to developers in the The contracting-out of food and beverage services
accommodation sector. to third parties will continue to be a major trend in
the hotel catering sector over the next few years, the product must be attractive to the passing trade.
although this will be much stronger in London Despite these constraints, the number of outsourced
than in the provinces. As many hotels continue to restaurants is expected to increase considerably over
remain sluggish owing to evolving consumer demand the years to come.
for food and beverages and intense competition
from the high street, the attraction of outsourcing Eating out in the UK
food and beverage services will become increasingly The eating-out market remains buoyant despite the
appealing. difficulties experienced with the fluctuations in the
Vertical integration between many hotel and res- economy. There remains big competition from super-
taurant groups has meant that the outsourcing deci- markets with their speciality meals. Many restaura-
sion is often not such a radical step to take for many teurs have had to make their offer more attractive
hoteliers, as costs and revenues remain within the and give better value for money. In times of difficulty,
group. Most outsourcing is agreed on either a flat fee restaurateurs, pub operators and hoteliers have been
or percentage basis and this is expected to remain forced to look at costs, and have ‘re-engineered’
unchanged. their menus using cheaper cuts of meat and smaller
Outsourcing is not always a straightforward option portions.
for hotels, however. To attract walk-in customers, a
hotel ideally needs to be located where there is easy In-house catering development
access to the restaurant itself, and the location of the With increased consumer interest in food and eating
hotel itself (city centre, countryside, etc.) needs to fit out, hotels are becoming more focused on develop-
with the clientele that are being targeted – that is, ing attractive food and beverage facilities in-house.
Table 1.4 Leading restaurant groups in the UK, 2009
Owner No. of outlets Selected brands

Mitchell & Butler 775 Harvester, Browns, Toby, Vintage Inns, All Bar One
Gondola 585 Pizza Express, Ask, Zizzi
Whitbread 372 Beefeater, Brewer’s Fayre
Punch Taverns 362 Chef and Brewer, Two for One, Miller’s
Restaurant Group 350 Frankie & Benny’s, Garfunkels
Tragus 270 Bella Italia, Café Rouge, Strada
Nando’s 213 Nando’s
Bay Restaurant Group 190 La Tasca, Slug & Lettuce, haha Grill
Little Chef 180 Little Chef
Famous Brands 176 Wimpy
Greene King 155 Loch Fyne, Hungry Horse
Prezzo 141 Prezzo, Ultimate Burger
Clapham House 79 Tootsie’s, Gourmet Burger Kitchen
Paramount Restaurants 75 Groupe Chez Gerard, Caffe Uno
Town Centre Restaurants 57 Auberge, Café Giardino, Azzurro
Wagamama 56 Wagamama
Ispani Family 55 Ponti’s, Caffe Alba
Carluccio’s 42 Carluccio’s
Yo! Sushi 41 Yo! Sushi
Orchid Pubs 40 Jim Thompson’s, Country Carvery
Individual Restaurant Group 34 Piccolino, Zinc, Bank
Regent Inns 31 Old Orleans
Source: Horizons FS
Note: The table includes pubs whose food sales exceed 50 per cent of turnover.
12 THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY
The success of in-house catering development will and beverage managers in hotels tend to be hoteliers
depend on the willingness of hotels to deliver a prod- rather than restaurateurs, as well as the shortage of
uct that will be attractive to the outside market, and experienced culinary and service staff.
to maintain this product so that it evolves with chang- For the majority of the population, pub restaurants
ing consumer tastes and trends. According to human and gastropubs remain the most popular places to
resource specialists within the hotel sector, key fac- eat out.
tors holding back further development are that food
Types of catering establishment
Commercial catering in most clubs, particularly in the St James’s area of

London. However, there is an increasing demand for
Hotels and restaurants more modern dishes and service, and members of
The exact number of hotels in the UK is uncer- these clubs also frequent the most prestigious hotels
tain. The majority are group-owned. The presence of and restaurants.
international chains is high in the five-star market. In Nightclubs and casinos usually offer the type of
the UK there are more hotel bedrooms in the mid- service associated with the restaurant trade. This
market, three-star, category than in any other category; provides another source of income to the business.
the independent hotelier traditionally dominates this
market. Chain catering organisations
In some cases special types of meal service – such There are many establishments with chains spread
as grill rooms or speciality restaurants, some with over wide areas and in some cases overseas.
high-profile chefs – may limit the type of foods served Prospects for promotion and opportunities are often
(e.g. smörgasbord or steaks will be provided). considerable, whether in a chain of hotels or restau-
rants. These are the well-known hotel companies
Wine bars, fast foods, takeaway: quick and restaurant chains, the popular type of restaurant,
service chain stores and shops with restaurants, which often
Customer demand has resulted in the rapid growth of serve lunches, teas and morning coffee, and have
a variety of establishments offering a limited choice snack bars and cafeterias.
of popular foods at a reasonable price, with little or no
Licensed house (pub) catering
waiting time, to be consumed either on the premises
or taken away. There are approximately 61,000 licensed houses in
the UK and almost all of them offer food in some
Delicatessens and salad bars form. To many people the food served in public houses
These offer a service (usually lunch) based on a wide is ideal for what they want – that is, often simple,
variety of bread and rolls (e.g. panini, focaccia, pitta, moderate in price and quickly served in a congenial
baguettes and tortilla wraps). Fresh salads, home- atmosphere.
made soups and one hot ‘chef’s dish of the day’ may There is great variety of food on offer in such
be available. places, from the ham and cheese roll operation to the
A chilled food selection, from which customers can exclusive à la carte restaurant. Public-house catering
pick and mix, can provide the basis for a day-long can be divided into the following categories:
service, including breakfast. A ‘made to order’ sand- ●● the luxury-type restaurant
wich counter and a baked jacket potato bar with a ●● gastropubs – there is a growing trend for well-
good variety of fillings are very popular components qualified chefs to work in pubs and develop the
of some of these establishments. menu according to their own specialities, making
good use of local produce
Private clubs
●● the speciality restaurant – e.g. steak bar, fish
These are usually administered by a manager restaurant, carvery, theme
appointed by a management committee formed from ●● ‘fork dishes’ served from the bar counter, where
club members. Good food and drink, often with an the food is consumed in the drinking areas
informal service in the ‘old English’ style, are required ●● finger snacks – e.g. rolls, sandwiches.
Beer and pub facts ●● UK brewers are industry leaders on

environmental issues. Since 1976, energy
Beer usage per pint of beer produced has been
●● Around 90 per cent of the beer sold in the UK
reduced by 45 per cent, water consumption
is produced in the UK. reduced by 40 per cent, and carbon dioxide
●● In the UK 28 million pints of beer are
(greenhouse gas) emissions reduced by over
consumed every day, which equates to 100 40 per cent.
litres per head each year – compared to 20
litres of wine per head. Pubs
●● Beer is a traditional and wholesome produce ●● Over 80 per cent of pubs are small businesses
made from natural ingredients. run by tenants, licensees and owners.

●● Over one-third of the UK barley crop is bought ●● The average pub spends over £70,000 per
by UK brewers, who are also major users of annum on locally sourced goods and services.
English hops. ●● The pub food market continues to thrive; UK
●● There are over 2000 different beer brands pubs now serve over one billion meals per year.
available in the UK, and over 1.5 million pints ●● Gastropubs remain popular in the UK.
a day are exported to over 120 different

countries.
Licensed retailing is a vast sector of the hospitality and marketing skills. A wider range of customer
industry and is experiencing rapid change. Movements needs will be catered for, alcohol will continue to play
in organisations’ structures and size, mergers and an important part but food, entertainment and leisure
divestment ownerships, and management skills have facilities will become an increasing trend. Many pubs
been driven by two macro influences. First, the impact will specialise in particular markets by developing
of ‘Beer Orders’, forcing restrictions on the linkages brands or concepts to attract target groups. This
between brewing and licensed retail outlet ownership, reflects the modern concept of an all-day pub, not
has brought about substantial restructuring of the restricted to set drinking hours.
industry. Five types of pub operators or retailers have
emerged as a result of Beer Orders: Speciality restaurants
1 national retailer with brewing interest Moderately priced speciality eating houses are in
2 national retailer with no brewing interests (either great demand and have seen a tremendous growth in
demerged or fully independent) recent years. In order to ensure a successful opera-
3 regional or local retailer with brewing interests tion it is essential to assess customers’ requirements
4 regional or local retailer with no brewing interests accurately and to plan a menu that will attract suffi-
5 totally independent operator or free houses. cient customers to give adequate profit. A successful
caterer is the one that gives customers what they
To find out more about the licensed trade, contact: want and not what she/he thinks the customers want.
The British Institute of Innkeeping, Wessex House, The most successful catering establishments are
80 Park Street, Camberley, Surrey GU15 3PT, or those that offer the type of food they can sell, which
visit www.bii.org. is not necessarily the type of food they would like to
sell in an area with different levels of demand.
Secondly, pub food is the fastest-growing source of
Country hotels
pub revenue and accounts for approximately 20 per
cent of total sales. Country house hotels have been and are being devel-
Beer remains the cornerstone of the pub, but differ- oped in many tourist areas. Many are listed buildings,
ent beers, such as cask and speciality draught ales, stately homes or manor houses. They normally have
stout and premium lagers, are driving sales. Sales of a reputation for good food, wine and service to reflect
soft drinks, wines, tea and coffee continue to grow. the ambience of the business and surroundings.
Successful pubs are now diversifying to become
significant leisure and retail outlets using sophisti- Consortia
cated management controls, technological systems A consortium is a group of independent hotels that
Table 1.5 The evolution of the pub
Character Consumer
of a pub group Products Pub implementations
Up to late Drinking Men Bitter (mainly cask) Downmarket
1960s place Spirits Basic facilities of the community
Basic food Home-grown entertainment
‘Ordinary’ to working-class men,
not to other groups in society
Late The themed Men Bitter Youth market

1960s to pub Youth Loss of cask Mass market
mid-1970s Lager Insensitive developments
Spirits High-tech entertainment
Basic food Jukeboxes
Fruit machines
Sound/light
One-bar pubs
Mid-1970s Targeted Men Bitter Retailing revolution
to 1990 concept Youth Growth of cask Pub is the hero
Women Lager Targeted concepts
Soft drinks Introduction of service standards
Wine
Substantial growth in food
1990s on Leisure Men Increasing low/non-alcohol Signage/branding revolution
experience Youth products: beers; wines; spirits; soft Concept types crystallise
Women drinks; coffee Greater customer recognition
Families Increasing food sales Opportunity to sign and label
Older people Increasing premium/special pubs better
products More open retail format
Greater range of packaged The term pub becomes less
products relevant
More premium cask ales ‘Pubs’ become more ordinary to
More premium lagers society as a whole
Increasing leisure facilities – The gastropub is established as a
games and accommodation speciality brand
Attractive, heated outside areas for
smokers
Source: Whitbread Market Research
purchase products and services such as marketing is no restaurant. However, there will be other services
from specialist companies providing members of the close by, often managed by the same company or
consortium with access to international reservation group. The growth and success of the budget hotel
systems. This enables the group to compete against sector has been one of the biggest changes to affect
the larger chains. the hospitality industry in recent years.
Motels/travel lodges Timeshare villas/apartments

These establishments are sited near motorways and A timeshare owner purchases the right to occupy a
arterial routes. They focus on the business person self-catering apartment, a room or a suite in a hotel
who requires an overnight stop or the tourist who or leisure club for a specified number of weeks per
is on a driving holiday. These properties are reason- year over a set period of years, or indefinitely. These
ably priced, they consist of a room only with tea- and may be exchanged with the owners of timeshares in
coffee-making facilities. Staffing is minimal and there other locations.
Coffee shops Spas

Coffee shops (both chain and independent outlets) A spa is often part of a luxury hotel or country house
are one of the most rapidly growing parts of the hotel. The client can access a range of health and
hospitality and leisure industries. By the end of 2012 beauty treatments to promote health and well-being.
there will be 12,500 outlets in the UK (predicted in Spa treatments are also an increasingly popular
The Caterer, December 2009). leisure activity.
Coffee shops provide a variety of good coffee
based on the espresso, as well as a range of other The Gambling Act 2005
drinks and snacks. Both comfortable seating and a
Who can provide gaming?
take-away service are available.
Coffee shops may also be found within other Those premises that have a licence to serve alcohol
establishments such as airports, department stores without having to do so as part of a meal may provide
and hospitals. gaming. No licence or permit is required for pubs or
other eligible premises to provide gaming under the
Guest houses exempt gaming provisions.
Guest houses are to be found all over the UK. The
The Gaming Act
owners usually live on the premises and let their
bedrooms to passing customers. Many have regular This allows pubs and other eligible premises to pro-
clients. Guest houses usually offer bed, breakfast vide what the Act calls ‘exempt gaming’. It must be
and evening meal, and are small privately owned ‘equal choice’ gaming (examples would be bingo,
operations. bridge and certain poker games). Stakes and prizes
must comply with the limits prescribed in the regula-
Farms tions. No amount may be deducted or levied from
Farmers, wishing to diversify and recognising the amounts staked or won. No participation fees may be
importance of the tourism industry in the coun- charged. The games played may take place only on
tryside, formed a national organisation called the one set of premises, i.e. there may not be any linking
Farm Holiday Bureau. Most members have invested of games between premises. Children and young
to transform basic bedrooms to meet the required people must be excluded from participating.
standards. The National Tourist Board inspects every
member property to ensure good value and quality Public-sector catering (cost sector)
accommodation. In most cases the accommodation This sector covers hospitals, universities, colleges,
is on or close to working farms. schools, prisons, the armed forces, police and ambu-
lance services, local authority buildings, Meals on
Youth hostels Wheels, and the like. It has been known for many
The Youth Hostels Association (YHA) runs hostels in years as ‘welfare catering’ and characterised by its
various locations in England and Wales. These estab- non-profit-making focus, minimising cost by achiev-
lishments cater mainly for single people and for those ing maximum efficiency. However, with the introduc-
groups travelling on a tight budget. In some locations tion of competitive tendering, many public-sector
they also offer a number of sports facilities. operations have been won by contract caterers (often
known as contract food service providers), which
Airline services have introduced new concepts and commercialism
Airline catering is a specialist operation. to the public sector. This sector is more commonly
known as the cost sector.
Airports
Airports offer a range of hospitality services catering Prisons
for millions of people every year. They operate 24 Prison catering may be run by contract caterers or
hours a day, every day of the year. Services include by the Prison Service. The food is usually prepared
themed restaurants, speciality restaurants, coffee by prison caterers and inmates. The kitchens are also
bars and seafood bars, as well as food courts, often used to train inmates in food production, which can
supplemented with a general shopping arcade. lead to useful qualifications and encourage them to
seek employment on release. Prisons have now lost
their Crown Immunity, which prevented prosecution
for poor hygiene and negligence. There are also usu- quality food that has been carefully prepared and
ally staff food service facilities in prisons for all the cooked to retain the maximum nutritional value, and
personnel who work there, such as administrative present it to the patient in an appetising manner and
staff, prison officers and management. with hygiene of utmost importance.
The armed forces Hospital food
Services here include feeding armed service staff in In 2001 the government looked at how hospital
barracks, in the mess, and in the field or on ships. food services could be improved. Research showed
Much of the work involved is specialist, especially that a few changes could make a huge difference to
field cookery. However, the forces – like every other patients’ mealtime experience. A team of experts was
section of the public sector – are looking to reduce brought together and the Better Hospital Food pro-
costs and increase efficiency. Consequently they too gramme was launched in May 2001. The programme
have initiated market testing and competitive tender- was designed to make effective changes to hospital
ing through the Ministry of Defence, resulting in con- food service country-wide. The Better Hospital Food
tract caterers taking over many service operations at programme’s initial aims were to:
all the aforementioned locations.
●● produce a comprehensive range of tasty,
Catering for the armed services is specialised
nutritious and interesting recipes that every NHS
and they have their own training centre; details of
hospital could use
catering facilities and career opportunities can be
●● redesign hospital printed menus to make them
obtained from career information offices. Contract
more accessible and easier to understand
caterers (contract food service management opera-
●● introduce 24-hour catering services to ensure
tors) are increasingly being used throughout the
food is available night and day
armed services.
●● ensure hot food is available in hospitals at both
Public catering midday and early evening mealtimes.
The fundamental difference between public catering The Better Hospital Food Partnership Hospital Sites
and the catering in hotels and restaurants is that the Club was formed from hospitals previously associ-
hotel or restaurant is run to make a profit and provide ated with the programme plus new hospitals that
a return on the investment capital. The aim of public had made significant progress in implementing the
catering is to minimise cost and cover overheads 2001 Better Hospital Food targets. The club pro-
by achieving maximum efficiency. The standards of vided a forum in which NHS managers responsible
cooking should be equally good, though the types of for providing catering services could share ideas and
menu may be different because of the specific nutri- information.
tional needs of some parties, such as schoolchildren
and soldiers. Hospital catering is sometimes classi- Other organisations involved
fied as ‘welfare catering’, its objective being to assist Environmental health officers worked in close
the nursing staff to get the patient well as soon as association with the NHS to provide a forum of
possible. To do this it is necessary to provide good- opinion about current food safety issues and a
Figure 1.5 Contract catering in a police canteen Figure 1.6 Hospital catering
sounding board for the future. The Hospital Caterers hospital patients is a key issue for caterers and dieti-
Association attended meetings on a quarterly basis cians. Intake of nutritious food is crucial for patients
to discuss issues associated with the implementation who are recovering from the effects of medical
of the Better Hospital Food programme. The NHS or surgical procedures. Patients who receive good
Menu Group included dietetic professionals nomi- nutrition may have shorter hospital stays, fewer post-
nated by the British Dietetic Association, caterers operative complications and less need for drugs and
nominated by the Hospital Caterers Association and other interventions. In order to ensure the effective
nurses who were nominated by the Chief Nursing delivery of good nutrition in health care facilities, a
Officer. The group gathered information about the team-based approach is essential. Caterers, kitchen
most popular dishes currently used in the NHS. To staff, dieticians, doctors, ward housekeepers and
ensure patients’ views were taken into account when porters all have an important part to play.
planning the NHS Menu programme a Patients Food A major challenge facing caterers and nutritionists
Group was set up. This consisted of 14 patient rep- is the number of patients entering health care facili-
resentatives recommended by organisations includ- ties in a malnourished state. Studies show that up to
ing the Patients Association, the Patients Forum 40 per cent of hospital patients are malnourished on
and the Multiple Sclerosis Society. The Vegetarian admission. This means they have not been eating well
Society was involved in the development of recipes; enough to keep themselves healthy.
its logo appears alongside dishes that are suitable for
vegetarians. Sustainability
Health care catering service and other NHS organi-
24-hour catering sations are being encouraged to develop sustain-
Hot food has not always been available to hospital able food procurement policies. This means that the
patients who are admitted late in the day or who miss food they produce should do as little harm to the
mealtimes due to treatment. With the introduction of environment as possible. Sustainable food procure-
24-hour catering, patients can now ask a nurse or ment includes sourcing fruit and vegetables locally to
housekeeper for hot food, snacks and drinks at any prevent transport pollution, and composting peelings
time of the day or night. The 24-hour catering initia- and other preparation waste to keep landfill to a mini-
tive comprises: mum. Other sustainable measures can include using
organic or ‘fairly traded’ goods, energy efficiency
●● light bite hot meals, including dishes such as
measures and reducing food preparation waste.
cottage pie and cod in parsley sauce
●● ward kitchen service of light refreshments such Protected Mealtimes
as tea or coffee with toast or fresh fruit
Protected Mealtimes are periods on a hospital ward
●● snack boxes containing, for example, sandwiches,
when all non-urgent clinical activity stops. During
cheese and crackers, fruit and a drink.
these times patients are able to eat without being
The Flexi Menu interrupted and staff can offer assistance. Research
shows that patients who are not interrupted and
NHS menus traditionally change daily over one- to
receive appropriate service and support during meal-
three-week cycles. This means that patients have a
times are happier, more relaxed and eat more. The
wide choice of dishes over a week but not so many
better nutrition a patient receives, the higher his or
to choose from each day. Better Hospital Food is
her chances of recovering.
trialling a new Flexi Menu system that would give
In order to effectively implement Protected
patients a greater daily choice of meals. The Flexi
Mealtimes, Trusts should:
Menu trials are designed to test the viability of offer-
ing the same fixed menu for both lunch and evening ●● conduct an observational audit of the meal
meals. This system would allow patients to select delivery service
foods they enjoy and to have the same dish more ●● discuss the results with relevant teams
than once. Limited early trials suggest this system ●● establish changes in practices required (times of
would be popular with patients and result in less ward rounds, visiting times, etc.)
waste. ●● obtain agreement from those involved and set a
start date
Nutrition ●● provide information to patients, relatives, staff and
The delivery of adequate and appropriate nutrition to other departments.
To find out more about NHS and hospital

catering, visit the following websites.
• NHS Estates Information Centre:
www.nhsestates.gov.uk
• Hospital Caterers Association:
www.hospitalcaterers.org
• British Dietetic Association: www.bda.uk.com.
School meals
In September 2005, the government received rec-
ommendations from the School Meals Review Panel
(SMRP) on school lunches and on a number of wider
issues concerning food in schools. In response to that
report – Turning the Tables – the newly established
School Food Trust (SFT) was commissioned to advise
ministers on standards for food in school other than
lunch.
Nutritional standards for school lunches

Figure 1.7 Hospital catering dietician
There are two sets of standards for school lunches:
Dieticians 1 food-based, which will define the types of food

that children and young people should be offered
In many hospitals a qualified dietician is responsible for:
in a school lunch and their frequency, and
●● collaborating with the catering manager on the 2 nutrient-based, which will set out the proportion
planning of meals of nutrients that children and young people
●● drawing up and supervising special diets should receive from a school lunch.
●● instructing diet cooks on the preparation of
Table 1.6 sets out nutrient-based standards for school
special dishes
lunches from September 2008 (primary schools) or
●● advising the catering manager and assisting in the
September 2009 (secondary and special schools).
training of cooks with regard to nutritional aspects
Table 1.7 sets out food-based standards for school
●● advising patients.
lunches from September 2008 (primary schools) or
In some hospitals the food for special diets will be September 2009 (secondary and special schools).
prepared in a diet bay by diet cooks.
Diets
Information about the type of meal or diet to be given
to each patient is supplied daily to the kitchen. This
information will give the number of full, light, fluid and
special diets, and with each special diet will be given
the name of the patient and the type of diet required.
Modern developments
As with all catering services, the health care sector
seeks to continually improve the food and drink
services to all stakeholders on hospital premises,
whether they be patients, the personnel directly or
indirectly dealing with them, or patients’ visitors.
Figure 1.8 School meals

Table 1.6 Nutrient-based standards for school lunches from September 2008 (primary schools) or September 2009 (secondary
and special schools)*
Energy 30% of the estimated average requirement (EAR)

Protein Not less than 30% of reference nutrient intake (RNI)
Total carbohydrate Not less than 50% of food energy
Non-milk extrinsic sugars Not more than 11% of food energy
Fat Not more than 35% of food energy
Saturated fat Not more than 11% of food energy
Fibre Not less than 30% of the calculated reference value
Note: calculated as non-starch polysaccharides
Sodium Not more than 30% of the SACN** recommendation
Vitamin A Not less than 40% of the RNI
Vitamin C Not less than 40% of the RNI
Folate/folic acid Not less than 40% of the RNI
Calcium Not less than 40% of the RNI
Iron Not less than 40% of the RNI
Zinc Not less than 40% of the RNI
Notes
This table summarises the proportion of nutrients that children and young people should receive from a school lunch. The
figures are for the required nutrient content of an average lunch over five consecutive school days.
* Nutrient values, except for sodium, are based on Department of Health (1991).
** Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (2003).
EAR 5 estimated average requirement – the average amount of energy or nutrients needed by a group of people. Half the
population will have needs greater than this, and half will be below this amount.
RNI 5 reference nutrient intake – the amount of a nutrient that is enough to meet the dietary requirements of about 97% of a
group of people.
SACN 5 Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition. For details of figures for the dietary reference values and derived amounts
for nutrients for children and young people see Crawley (2005), with the exception that the derived reference value for fibre for
boys aged 15–18 years should be capped at 18 g.
Standards for all school food other than ●● a variety of fruit and vegetables should be available
lunches in all school food outlets; this could include fresh,
dried, frozen, canned or juiced varieties
The government has also decided that similar stand-
●● children and young people must have easy
ards should apply to all school food other than
access at all times to fresh drinking water in
lunches, as recommended by the School food Trust.
schools (NB: in guidance, it is made clear that it
This means that:
would be preferable for this drinking water to be
●● no confectionery will be sold in schools chilled and for it to be located so that children do
●● no bagged savoury snacks other than nuts and not have to depend on going to the lavatory to
seeds (without added salt or sugar) will be sold in access it).
schools
Table 1.7 Food-based standards for school lunches from September 2008 (primary schools) or September 2009 (secondary
and special schools)
Fruit and vegetables – these include Not less than two portions per day per child, at least one of which
fruit and vegetables in all forms (whether should be salad or vegetables and at least one fresh fruit, fruit tinned
fresh, frozen, canned, dried or in the form in juice or fruit salad (fresh or tinned in juice)
of juice)
Oily fish Oily fish shall be available at least once every three weeks
Manufactured meat products Manufactured meat products may be served occasionally as part of
school lunches, provided that they:
1 meet the legal minimum meat content levels set out in the Meat
Products (England) Regulations 2003; products not specifically
covered by these legal minima must meet the same minimum meat
content levels prescribed for burgers
2 are not ‘economy burgers’ as described in the Meat Products
(England) Regulations 2003, and
3 contain none of the following list of offal, except that mammalian
large or small intestine may be used as a sausage skin (including
chipolatas, frankfurters, salami, links and similar products): brains,
lungs, rectum, stomach, feet, oesophagus, spinal cord, testicles,
large intestine, small intestine, spleen, udder
Bread Bread should be available on a daily basis
Deep-fried foods Meals should not contain more than two deep-fried items in a single
week; this includes products that are deep-fried in the manufacturing
process
Drinks The only drinks available should be:
1 plain water (still or fizzy)
2 milk (skimmed or semi-skimmed)
3 pure fruit juices
4 yoghurt or milk drinks (with less than 5% added sugar)
5 drinks made from combinations of those in points 1 to 4 of this list
(e.g. smoothies)
6 low-calorie hot chocolate
7 tea
8 coffee
NB: artificial sweeteners should be used only in yoghurt and milk
drinks, or combinations containing yoghurt or milk
Water There should be easy access at all times to free, fresh drinking water
Salt and condiments Table salt should not be made available; if made available, condiments
should be available only in sachets
Confectionery and savoury snacks Confectionery, chocolate and chocolate-coated products (excluding
cocoa powder used in chocolate cakes, or low-calorie hot drinking
chocolate) shall not be available throughout the lunchtime; the only
savoury snacks available should be nuts and seeds with no added salt
or sugar
Sample menus for schools Residential establishments

You can see full sample menus with all the recipes at Under this heading are included schools, colleges,
www.schoolfoodtrust.org.uk. universities, halls of residence, nursing homes,
homes for the elderly and hostels, where all meals
Further information on school meals policy may are provided. It is essential in these establishments
be obtained from the DfES, Sanctuary Buildings, that the nutritional balance of food is considered,
Great Smith Street, Westminster, London SW10 and it should satisfy all the residents’ nutritional
3BT, Pupil Welfare and Opportunities Division needs, as in all probability the people eating here
Area 4E8. www.dfes.gov.uk/schoollunches. will have no other food provision. Since many of
these establishments cater for students, and the age Many industries have realised that output is related
group that leads a very energetic life, these people to the welfare of their employees. Satisfied workers
usually have large appetites and are growing fast. produce more and better work, and because of this a
All the more reason that the food should be well great deal of money is spent on providing first-class
prepared from good ingredients, nutritious, varied kitchens and dining rooms, and improving the dining
and attractive. experience. This can also mean that the workers
receive their food at a price lower than its actual cost,
The contract food service sector the rest of the cost being borne by the company.
Contract food service management (often referred to This is called a subsidy and contributes to the overall
as contract catering) covers such areas as feeding employment benefits of an employee.
people at work in business and industry, catering in However, many companies are increasingly com-
schools, college and universities, private and public peting within a global economy. Competition is fierce,
health care establishments, public and local authority and this has led them to cut costs, meaning that many
catering, and other non-profit-making outlets such organisations are moving towards a nil subsidy for
as the armed forces, police and ambulance services, meals consumed at the place of work.
or the remote sector such as oil and gas exploration
rigs. There is also a large market in this sector for Information on catering for business and industry
catering in the executive dining rooms of many cor- can be obtained from the Association of Catering
porations and providing all their corporate hospitality Excellence, Bourne House, Horsell Park, Woking,
needs. Surrey GU21 4HY, or by visiting www.acegb.org
Work in the traditional sectors – called cost or
non-profit-making catering – continues but, because Criteria for establishing a catering operation
contractors are readily developing their interests in
A company is not committed to providing any catering
more commercial catering arenas such as stadia,
facility if:
general leisure venues and the like, the term food
service management describes more accurately the ●● there are suitable facilities available within easy
total contract catering industry. access of the employee’s place of work
Definitions in this sector are becoming increasingly ●● these facilities offer a reasonable choice of food
blurred as contract catering enterprises move into ●● the times of opening are suitable to employer and
other areas, including catering for members of the employees.
public in such outlets as leisure centres, department
If the above criteria are not met and the demand for
stores and DIY stores, supermarket restaurants and
catering services exists then a catering facility should
cafés, airports and railway stations, as well as at public
be established. Often, employers will provide a facil-
events and places of entertainment. Contractors are
ity even if the above criteria exist, in order to provide
also providing a range of other support services such
better welfare and amenities for their people, so
as housekeeping and maintenance, reception, secu-
hoping to retain them as employees for longer.
rity, laundry, bar and retail shops.
Holiday centres
Catering for business and industry
Holiday centres around the UK provide leisure and
The provision of staff dining rooms for industrial or
hospitality facilities for families, single people and
business settings has allowed many catering workers
groups. Many companies have invested large sums
employment in first-class conditions. Apart from the
of money in an effort to increase the quality of the
main meal services, beverage services, retail shops,
holiday experience. Center Parcs, for example, has
franchise outlets and/or vending machines may be
developed subtropical pools and also offers other
part of the service. In some cases a 24-hour, seven-
sporting facilities. Included in its complexes are a
day service is necessary, but generally the hours
range of different restaurant experiences and food
are more streamlined than in other sectors of the
courts, bars and coffee shops. These centres are
hospitality industry. Food and drink are provided for
examples of year-round holiday centres, encouraging
all employees, sometimes separately but increasingly
people to take breaks from home, at weekends or
together in high-quality restaurants and dining rooms.
mid-week, throughout the year.
Training and career development potential are excel-
lent, with an emphasis on personnel retention and
people development.
Motoring services 35 minutes. Food and drink is limited to that bought

Many motoring services areas provide food court- before the train departs.
type facilities for travellers, offering a comprehensive Foot passengers wishing to travel from London
range of meals on a 24-hour, seven-day basis. These to Paris or Brussels may travel on Eurostar trains.
are becoming increasingly sophisticated, with baby Eurostar sees the airlines as its direct competition;
changing, infant and pet feeding facilities, bathrooms therefore it provides airline catering standards on
and showers, extensive ranges of branded food board the train for first- and premier-class passen-
outlets and often accommodation, fuel, convenience gers. Meals are served by uniformed stewards and
shops, and car washing and maintenance facilities. stewardesses in an environment similar to an airline’s
MOTO is one such an example; it operates across club class. This food is included in the ticket price.
the country and makes most of the provisions above Provision for economy travellers is usually via buffet
available in all of its outlets. carriages or trolley services along the aisles of the
train. This is another area into which contract food
Table 1.8 Motorway service operators by number of outlets, service providers have expanded.
2009
Marine
Operators Outlets The large liner’s catering is of a similar standard to
MOTO Hospitality 45 that of the big first-class hotels, and many shipping
Welcome Break 28 companies are noted for the excellence of their cui-
RoadChef 27 sine. The kitchens on board ship are usually oil-fired,
Extra 9 and extra precautions have to be taken in the kitchen
First Motorway Services 1 in rough weather. Catering at sea includes the smaller
ship, which has both cargo and passengers, and the
Westmorland Motorway Services 2
cargo vessels, which include the giant tankers of
Cairn Lodge Services 1
up to 100,000 tonnes. Ferries serve routes such as
Stop 24 1 the English Channel and the Irish Sea. The English
Channel ferries are in direct competition with Eurostar
and the Shuttle; in response to this, ferry operators
Drive-thru restaurants have invested in leisure facilities and modern branded
Drive-thru restaurants are a relatively new concept food outlets, sometimes in a food court arrangement,
in the UK. Drive-thrus are an American import – the or in other cases in a buffet or carvery style.
most notable of these being the McDonald’s Drive-
thrus located in many parts of the UK. Customers Other aspects of catering
stay in their vehicles and drive up to a microphone in
order to place a request. This is then relayed to a fast-
Food and service management
food service point and, as the car moves forward in Contract catering is now generally referred to as food
the queue, the order is prepared and then presented and service management. This takes into account cost
to the driver at the service window. This type of facility sector catering. Food and service management now
is often part of the provision made in centres such as covers a much wider range of support services, such
the motoring services described above. as reception, housekeeping, cleaning, estate and land
management, laundry and waste management. This
Transport catering sector covers catering in business and industry, edu-
Railway cation, health care and the Ministry of Defence, and
catering for members of the public in leisure outlets.
Meals on trains may be served in restaurant cars and Food and service management companies are
snacks from buffet cars. The space in a restaurant producing more meals than ever before due to new
car kitchen is very limited and there is considerable styles of food, and more attractive merchandising
movement of the train, which causes difficulty for the and presentation. The increase in grab-and-go
staff. menu items and more emphasis on healthy eating
Two train services run by separate companies are menus have given consumers a wider choice. More
running through the Channel Tunnel. One is Euro snack meals are being sold due to changing life-
Tunnel’s Le Shuttle train, which transports drivers styles, customer preferences and lunchtimes being
and their vehicles between Folkestone and Calais in shorter.
Table 1.9 Structure of the food and service management Today contract catering also covers leisure centres,
market by number of outlets, 2008 department stores, public events and places of enter-
tainment. It also covers housekeeping, maintenance,
Sector No. of outlets
reception, security, laundry, bar and retail shops.
Business and industry 8719 Outsourcing is now a key focus of many businesses
Health care 653 as they look to cut costs, giving operators additional
State education 5136 business from contractors previously in-house. There
Independent schools 637 has also been an expansion of facilities management
Local authorities 282 contracts, which have grown on the back of the grow-
Ministry of Defence 421 ing need to outsource.
Contractors in the food and management sector
Oil rigs 163
have also had to respond to the demand for healthier
Catering for the public 972
menus. There is pressure from the Food Standards
TOTAL 16,983 Agency to include calorie counts on menus so that
Source: British Hospitality Association, Food and Service consumers know how many calories they are eating.
Management Survey, 2009 Some contract caterers have started to implement
nutritional content information. However, this is not
easy to achieve as food is cooked on-site for indi-
vidual contracts, chefs are employed to use their
Table 1.10 Size of food and service management market by skills and to be creative, so therefore asking them to
number of meals served (m), 2008 provide nutritional information is difficult. This should
be relatively easy using a software package, but it
No. of meals requires the chef to weigh all ingredients carefully.
Sector served (m) However, in some schools measuring of nutritional
Business and industry 717 content has been achieved, where caterers’ options
Health care 197 are restrained by the nutritional guidelines laid down
State education 266 by the School Food Trust. These require caterers to
Independent schools 88 provide an analysis of 14 specific nutrients in every
Local authorities 23 recipe used over a three-week menu cycle, two fruit-
based desserts each week, two portions of vegeta-
Ministry of Defence 170
bles every day, red meats twice a week and fish once
Oil rigs 18
a week.
Catering for the public 140
TOTAL 1619 Sustainability
This has become a very important topic in recent
Source: British Hospitality Association, Food and Service
Management Survey, 2009 years and part of a wider, greener strategy. The sourc-
ing of fish and food in general is very much at the
Food and service management covers feeding people top of the sustainability agenda for all contract food
at work in business and industry; catering in schools, service management caterers. Locally sourced food
colleges and universities; hospitals and health care; has also become a marketing and selling point.
welfare and local authority catering and other non-
profit-making outlets. Providing hospitality services Compliance
in these traditional sectors is referred to as ‘cost’, Another major focus for the food service sector is
non-profit-making, non-commercial catering or social working towards compliance with ISO 14001, the
catering. However, as many units in these sectors internationally recognised standard for the environ-
are now run by commercial contract caterers they mental management of businesses. Companies are
are now forms of commercial catering in the public looking at reducing waste, addressing carbon emis-
sector, but they are very much driven by costs. These sions and reducing energy consumption.
definitions of the sectors are now included in the term
food and service management as management com- Types of catering contract, 2007–2009
panies are developing their interests in commercial Significantly in a year of recession, the number of
catering. These describe more accurately the total profit and loss contracts increased by over 75 per
contract catering market. cent – contractors are being asked to take greater
commercial risks than ever before. Cost plus/man- There are many catering concerns that are pre-
agement fee contracts remain the least popular pared to undertake catering for businesses, schools
with clients, especially those wishing to abandon or hospitals, leaving these establishments free to
their catering subsidy, but they still represent almost concentrate on the business of educating, nursing,
a quarter of all contracts. The trend towards fixed and so on. By employing contract caterers and using
price/performance guarantee contracts continues, the services of people who have specialised in cater-
though it lost some momentum during the year. ing, organisations can thus relieve themselves of
the worry of entering a field outside their province.
Number of outlets in which food and service Contract caterers are used by nearly every type of
management companies invested, 2009 organisation, including the armed forces, business
Food and service management companies continue and industry in general, supermarkets, department
to invest in client premises – over £26 million in 2009, stores and DIY chains, leisure centres, museums and
which is more than in the previous year (£16 million). galleries, and at sporting fixtures and events.
A feature in 2009 is that investment in larger projects Contracts will vary considerably, but popular options
(i.e. over £250,000) is more pronounced, indicating are fixed price, cost plus, concession and profit and
that companies are willing to help finance larger as loss arrangements, or a mixture of these. Some
well as smaller projects. arrangements will be subsidised and others won’t.
A recent Eurest lunchtime survey suggested that Contract permutations can be endless, but need to
the time taken by employees to eat at work is serve the interests of all stakeholders.
reducing annually and currently stands at a little
over 20 minutes. Contract catering operators such Contracts
as Compass have had to respond to this changing No two services or clients’ requirements are the
demand, and therefore branded retail outlets have same. For this reason, contracts differ from company
become a growth area, which also reflects the com- to company. Some examples of the types of contract
mercial influence of contracting. available are as follows.
Table 1.11 Types of catering contract, 2007–2009
2009 2008 2007

Number % Number % Number %
Cost plus/management fee 4,143 24.9 3,842 22.6 4,855 27.6
(The client is billed for the cost of the operation, plus a
management fee)
Fixed price/performance guarantee 10,553 63.7 12,070 71.1 12,035 68.4
Profit and loss/concession contracts and total risk 1,887 11.4 1,071 6.3 713 4.0
contracts
(The caterer and the client share the profit – or the
loss; in total risk contracts, the caterer invests in the
facility and earns all the revenue)
TOTAL 16,583 16,983 17,603
Table 1.12 Number of outlets in which food and service management companies invested, 2009
£0–£25k £26k–£50k £51k–£100k £101k–£500k Over £501k

Business and industry 81 30 13 36 8
Health care – 1 – 1 1
Education 8 9 6 6 1
Ministry of Defence – 2 2 2 2
Leisure 1 1 – 5 –
Other – – – 4 7
TOTAL 90 43 21 54 19
Source (Tables 1.11 and 1.12): British Hospitality Association, Food and Service Management Survey 2009
●● Executive lease: the contractor provides a and motorway service stations. Other contract cater-
senior executive who will direct the client’s ers include Harbour & Jones, Elior, Lexington and
catering operation. Normally the whole operation Initial Catering.
remains the responsibility of the client and the
staff are employed by the client. The aim is Partnership
for the contractor and the executive to bring a This describes the situation where the client and cus-
level of expertise, which the client is unable to tomer are partners in the operations and share the
provide. The senior executive will be involved costs and revenues.
in implementing the systems managers and in
Outside and event catering
the policy making. The contractor will provide a
manager for the unit; all staff are employed by When functions are held where there is no cater-
the client on their terms and conditions. ing or where the function is not within the scope
●● Management: the client employs the contractor of the normal catering routine, then certain firms
to supply a total catering service using the will take over completely. Considerable variety is
contractor’s own on-site management and offered to people employed on these undertakings
staff. The client also provides all the facilities and often the standard will be of the very highest
and equipment. The contractor submits a order. A certain amount of adaptability, ingenuity and
monthly account to the client, which identifies specialist equipment is required, especially for some
all the expenditure and income associated outdoor jobs, but there is less chance of repetitive
with the operation. The difference between the work. Greater flexibility is necessary on behalf of the
expenditure and income, including the contractor’s personnel, often involving considerable travel, remote
fee, will be payable to or from the contractor. locations and outdoor venues. The types of function
●● Fixed price: the contractor works to an annual will include garden parties, agricultural and horticul-
budget fixed with the client. If the contractor tural shows, the opening of new buildings, banquets,
overspends, she/he pays. However, if she/he parties in private houses, military pageants and tat-
underspends she/he retains the difference. toos, and sporting fixtures such as horse racing,
●● Concession: the contractor undertakes to motor racing, football, tennis, rowing and rugby.
manage an operation and rely for profit on his Franchising
or her ability to maintain income levels over
expenditure levels. Franchising is an agreement whereby one pays a fee
and some set-up costs in exchange for the use of
Contractor’s charges an established name or brand that is well known by
Contractors generally offset their administration potential purchasers and therefore likely to generate
costs, and they gain their profits from the following more business than an unknown or start-up brand. An
three sources: example of this would be where the contract caterer
Compass Group franchises the Burger King brand
1 fees charged from its owner in exchange for a fee and a proportion
2 cash spent by customers of the turnover. There are normally strict guidelines, or
3 discounts from food and materials supplied to the ‘brand standards’, laid down for the franchisee (fran-
client’s operation. chise user) to perform to, and these will govern which
The fees can be made up in a number of ways: ingredients and raw materials are used and where
●● a set annual figure charged on a weekly or they come from, together with portion sizes and the
monthly basis general product and service ‘offer’. The franchisor (the
●● a percentage of takings or costs franchise provider) will ‘mystery shop’ or check on the
●● a combination of both with different percentages brand standards and operational standards regularly to
applying to various sections of costs ensure that the brand’s reputation is not being jeopard-
●● a per capita or per meal charge. ised. The franchisor will normally also provide advertis-
ing and marketing support, accounting processes, help
With over 60 companies registered in the UK, con- with staff training and development, and design provi-
tract catering is one of the biggest and most diverse sion for merchandising and display materials.
sectors in the industry. Compass and Sodexho are A form of franchising is also practised in the pub
two of the largest food organisations in the UK, with business in addition to other systems like the man-
8400 locations. These include Little Chef, Travelodge aged pub.
Many companies that supply caterers with products Cruises

like soft drinks, ice cream and coffee distribute their Cruise companies are rapidly increasing their number
products by means of purchased operators. Some of cruise liners and the size of their ships. This means
suppliers providing food and drink to caterers have the job opportunities and promotion prospects are
‘brand franchises’, sometimes backing their product excellent, and training is also provided. The benefits
with appropriate equipment and advertising material of travel all over the world, producing food and serv-
to ensure that caterers prepare, present and promote ing customers at the very highest standards make it a
the products in a consistent way. most interesting and worthwhile career. As an exam-
Operating styles vary considerably, from pizzas, ple of working conditions, staff may work for three
hamburgers, doughnuts and baked croissants to full- months and then have, say, two months off. On-board
menu restaurants, coffee shops and pancake houses. hours of work could be ten hours a day, seven days
Despite all the differences, all the franchise schemes a week. This appeals to many people who wish to
work on the same basic principle: an established be producing a wide variety of food at its best in
catering company offers a complete package of excellent conditions. Figure 1.9 illustrates a Purser’s
experience, operating systems and ongoing market- Department F&B.
ing support sufficient to enable outside operators to Cruise ships are floating luxury hotels, and more
set up and operate their own units within the chain. and more people are becoming interested in cruising
The investor makes an initial franchise payment and as a leisure pursuit.
then pays a continuing royalty or commission, which
is often expressed as a percentage of gross turnover. Food and beverage purchases on cruise
All investment in property, buildings and equipment is liners
borne by the franchise; in some cases the franchise
On cruises where the quality of the food is of para-
might play some part in securing the property and
mount importance, other factors such as the dining
assisting with design, building and fitting out so that
room’s ambience of refinement and elegance are
a consistent look and feel are established.
also of great significance. Ship designers generally
Franchising has several advantages.
want to avoid Las Vegas-type glittery dining rooms,
●● First, it allows for many outlets to be set up but also those that are too austere. Interestingly
nationally and, by doing so, maximises on enough, the success of the dining operation is tied to
economies of scale in purchasing promotional the design of the ship.
material in the development of the brand image. Ship architects design cruise liners to provide quick
●● The franchisee gains because the opportunity is and easy access to the kitchen areas, where food
shared to invest in a pre-tested catering concept, is prepared. In a sense, these architects design the
backed by advertising, research and development, ship around the galley and dining rooms. The food on
training and other resources that might otherwise most cruises can be described as excellent, quality
be beyond their financial parameters. banquet-style cuisine. Ships must be designed with
●● The banks also show an interest in franchising easy access to the galley so waiters are able to get
– in many ways they see it as a reasonably safe food quickly and with as little traffic as possible. A dis-
investment because of its established, tried-and- tinction can be made between traditional and modern
tested nature. eating on cruises, as shown in Table 1.13.
●● The oldest franchising schemes in the UK are This set of polarities doesn’t apply as much to
Wimpy, established in the mid-1950s, and KFC, the new giant ships that have many different dining
which started in the early 1960s. Many of the rooms. On such ships passengers can eat in the
most active franchise schemes are based on a dining room of their choice, more or less whenever
fast-food style of menu and operating system. they want, at tables of various sizes. This gives pas-
Now there is a growing market involving wider sengers maximum freedom, but they lose the oppor-
menus and medium-spend restaurants, mainly tunity to get to know people at their table.
licensed. Examples include Pizza Hut, Delice de Dining is one of the most important – and selling –
France, Marks & Spencer Simply Food, Krispy points for cruise lines. People who take cruises want
Kreme bakery products, TGI Friday’s, and many to dine well and generally they do, though cooking
others. dinner for 800 people per sitting and giving people
what they want takes skill and management.
Purser
Food & Beverage
Restaurant Bar Services Hotel

SAP F&B Executive Chef
Manager(s) Manager Services Manager
JAP/AP Premier- JAP/SAP

Assistant Bar
F&B Sous Chef Assistant Hotel
Restaurant- Supervisor
Stores Manager
Manager
Head (Buffet) Senior
Galley
Waiters Supervisor Sous Chef
Bar Tenders
Head Wine
Steward 1st Storekeeper
Senior Sous Chef
Restaurant Junior Assistant Messman Exec.
Stewards Waiters Bar Tenders Wine Pastry Chef
Stewards 2nd Storekeeper
Assistant 3rd Storekeeper
Assistant Galley
Restaurant Bar Stewards Supervisor Junior Sous Chef
Stewards
Head Butcher
Utility Head Baker Utility Stewards
Utility
Stewards Utility Stewards
Stewards
Senior Chef de
Partie/Pastry Chefs
Galley Assistants
Chef de Partie
Junior Chef de Partie
1st/2nd Commis
Cadet Graduate
Trainee Chefs
Galley Assistants
Figure 1.9 The Purser’s Department
Cruise ship staff customised port experiences, changing flights, and

The purser is much like a hotel front-desk manager so on. On larger ships a team of people attends to
or assistant manager. Unlike the hotel manager shore excursions, including an on-board travel agent
– who tends to larger operational issues – the who can book a passenger’s future cruise needs. (If a
purser administers day-to-day affairs. Some exam- sale is made, the passenger’s travel agent will usually
ples include management of passenger accounts, get the commission for that sale.)
mail, messages, printing, the storing of valuables The cruise director coordinates all entertainment
and immigration and customs requirements. On and informational activities that take place as part
larger vessels, the purser has two assistants: the of the cruise experience. Part host, part entertainer,
crew purser (who treats crew issues) and the hotel gregarious and always gracious, the cruise director
purser (who tends to passenger matters). The purser serves as a critical link between passengers and
may have a large team of assistants who staff the crew. He or she presides over many functions, includ-
purser’s desk, coordinate publications, deliver mes- ing passenger orientation and disembarkation meet-
sages and handle other concerns. ings. The cruise director also manages the musicians,
The shore excursion manager orchestrates the entertainers, on-board lecturers (experts who provide
operation and booking of port-based packages. On their services in exchange for a free cruise), social
certain lines, he or she is sometimes called the con- hosts, health club staff, photographers and, in some
cierge, with broader responsibilities such as booking cases, the shore excursion manager.
Table 1.13 The differences between traditional and modern Companies are increasingly recognising the grow-
eating on cruises ing importance of relationship marketing and corpo-
rate reputation.
Traditional Modern
Reasons for spending money on corporate hospi-
Formal dining room Choice of restaurants tality include:
Set times Dine any time
●● building relationships with potential customers
Assigned tables Choice of seating
●● to reward customers/thank them for loyalty
Elaborate table settings Self-serve, buffet or waiter ●● as a marketing tool/raise company or product
service
profile
Printed menu Frequently changing ●● increase business/sales
menus
●● to achieve closer informal contact in a relaxed
Social interaction Wide variety of culinary environment
styles ●● to keep ahead of competitors
●● to raise and keep up the company’s profile/public
relations
●● repeat business/retention of clients or customers
●● keep the customers happy/to entertain them, act
as a sweetener
●● to talk about business/networking
●● to achieve better communication interaction/
improved understanding
●● to meet customer expectations
●● to reward/boost staff or team morale
●● social benefits/opportunity to relax.
Eventia is the professional association for the
corporate and events industry. This industry is
Figure 1.10 Self-service considered to be worth more than £700 million a
year. A major new industry report commissioned by
The executive chef controls the preparation and serv- the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), Meeting
ing of all food and beverages. He or she supervises Professionals International (MPI) and Reed travel
the assistant or sous chef, the pastry chef and other Exhibitions (RTE) strongly recommends adopt-
kitchen staff. ing a form of ‘tourism satellite accounting’ to
The head housekeeper or chief steward man- measure the economic global importance of the
ages all stateroom, public space and other shipboard meetings industry, which is an important economic
cleaning. He or she supervises a squad of cabin or contributor.
room stewards, who tend to the passengers’ state- The main reasons for the growth of this sector are
room needs. (Cabin stewards have a much more company expansion and increased budgets for cor-
active, personal and round-the-clock relationship with porate hospitality. Those companies with increased
guests than do maids at hotels.) budgets are generally committing to bigger or more
The food and beverage manager oversees the serv- superior events and increased spending per head, or
ing of meals and drinks. (On smaller ships this may be holding events more frequently.
handled by the executive chef.) The food and bever- An emerging trend is for companies to use cor-
age manager watches over the dining room maitre d’, porate hospitality in a more targeted way rather
table captains, waiters and busboys (general assis- than taking a broad-brush approach. Companies are
tants). The food and beverage manager also oversees therefore being more selective about invitees and
the bartenders, drink servers and wine steward. matching them to appropriate events.
A total of 90 per cent of corporate hospitality is aimed
Corporate hospitality at current customers or clients. There is also a trend
The purpose of corporate hospitality is to build busi- towards using corporate hospitality to motivate employ-
ness relationships and to raise corporate awareness. ees, in an increasingly competitive corporate environ-
Corporate entertaining is also used as a means of ment that encourages companies to invest in their own
thanking or rewarding loyal customers. workforce.
Recipients of corporate hospitality are more likely of employees in the three principal sectors of the
to accept invitations from current suppliers rather industry – hotels, restaurants and pubs – is rising,
than from potential suppliers. with the total number of workers in the hospitality
industry increasing by just over 1 per cent com-
Using the Internet as a business tool pared with 2007. This is an unexpected and puz-
As in all areas of business, the Internet is playing an zling result.
increasingly important role in corporate hospitality. It In particular, the number of workers in the restau-
is used to source information, and bookings can also rant sector climbed from 526,700 to 567,700 (as
be made online. noted above) – an increase of 7.7 per cent – while
Websites detail comprehensive corporate hospi- the number of workers in the pub and bars sector
tality information on events throughout the year. increased by over 5 per cent. There is also evidence
Online services allow customers to book an event to suggest that some workers from the EU Accession
directly, offering real benefits to the customer. States have returned to their home country. This
These include: would further depress the total number of workers in
the industry, as they represent a significant segment
●● official hospitality in official locations
of the employment market – indeed, 11 per cent of
●● cost efficient by booking direct from source
workers in the industry are from ethnic minorities
●● time efficient
and 17 per cent are from overseas (60 per cent in
●● one-stop shop service from initial enquiry through
London). Female workers represent 58 per cent of
the event.
the total workforce.
Employment and qualifications A characteristic of the industry is that it is domi-
nated by small businesses – over 80 per cent employ
The hospitality, leisure, travel and tourism industry
fewer than 50 people, although they account for
employs over 1.9 million people, but determining
only 42 per cent of the workforce. Indeed, taking
the exact number is complicated by the problems
the entire number of hotels and guest houses (Table
of defining the industry and of accurate data collec-
1.20), the average number of employees per hotel is
tion. Any comparison between different data sources
just over five (nine in restaurants).
should be treated with caution.
A further characteristic is that the industry is
According to the ONS Labour Force Survey, the
notable for its high level of labour turnover. It is
restaurant sector is the largest in terms of employ-
estimated that this currently stands at 30 per
ment, with 567,600 people, while the industry in gen-
cent, but many employers report a much higher
eral has a mainly young workforce with 15 per cent of
figure. Some of this turnover is natural as many
workers under 20 years of age and a further 20 per
seasonal jobs are taken up by full-time students
cent under the age of 30 (see Table 1.14).
who are attracted to vacation work; they provide a
In spite of the economic recession, the number
Table 1.14 Total employment in the tourism and hospitality industry in the UK by sector and age, 2008
16–19 20–29 30–49 50–64 Over 65 TOTAL

Hotels 33,900 81,800 88,200 38,100 6,600 248,700
Restaurants 125,100 184,700 197,200 57,500 2,200 566,700
Pubs, bars and nightclubs 74,900 143,000 82,600 32,200 3,500 336,300
Food and service 8,500 30,800 95,000 44,700 4,200 183,200
management
Travel and tourist services 5,600 31,500 52,400 20,600 1,200 111,300
Visitor attractions 3,800 4,400 1,300 1,200 - 14,100
Holiday parks and 4,100 9,800 19,200 19,900 6,200 59,200
self-catering
Hospitality services 48,200 72,900 151,600 95,200 9,200 377,200
Other* 2,800 23,300 41,700 12,700 2,300 82,800
TOTAL 306,900 582,000 429,200 322,100 35,400 1,985,200
* Includes gambling and youth hostels.

Source: National Statistics website, www.statistics.gov.uk
30 THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY
Table 1.15 Numbers employed in the tourism and hospitality flexible workforce, which suits both employer and
industry in the UK by gender, 2008 employee. It can also be due to the transient popu-
lation that occurs in some city populations, like
Male Female
London, where people move jobs to get experience.
Hotels 113,600 135,100 Nevertheless, turnover generally is higher in hos-
Restaurants 283,500 284,100 pitality than in many other industries and, in some
Pubs, bars and nightclubs 145,400 188,900 cases, staff shortages in the industry are caused
Food and service management 61,300 124,600 more by problems of retention than recruitment,
Travel and tourist services 42,000 69,700 which could be solved by better management.
Visitor attractions 8,100 6,000
Some references to the hospitality industry
Holiday parks and self-catering 22,600 36,600
elsewhere in this book:
Hospitality services 107,000 270,200
✎● Accommodation providers ............................................ 328
Other 38,500 47,900
TOTAL 822,000 1,163,100
✎● Food and beverage providers ................................... 277
Source: National Statistics website, www.statistics.gov.uk
* Includes self-catering and holiday centres, travel and tourist

services, visitor attractions, gambling and youth hostels; sums
may not add to totals due to rounding up.
References
British Hospitality Association (2009) Trends and Department of Health (1991) Dietary Reference
Statistics. London: British Hospitality Association. Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the
Crawley, H. (2005) Nutrition-Based Standards for United Kingdom. London: HMSO.
School Food. British Nutrition Foundation (also Mancini, M. (2004) Cruising: A Guide to the Cruise
available at www.cwt.org.uk). Industry, 2nd edition. Florence, KY: Thomson
Deloitte/NYU (2006) Hospitality 2010. New York, Delmar Learning.
NY: Deloitte Services/New York University Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (2003)
(downloadable at www.nyu.edu/public.affairs/ Salt and Health. London: The Stationery Office.
releases/detail/1116).
Topics for discussion

1 Give your impressions of the food that was occur over the next ten years? Explain why you
served at your previous schools, with sugges- think they will happen.
tions for improvement. 6 Each student in the group to obtain a number of
2 Explain the importance of food for the hospital menus from each type of catering and pool for
patient, with suggestions for the types of food to group discussion.
be offered. 7 What impact, if any, do you think organic foods
3 Industrial catering (feeding people at work) will have on menus?
is an important aspect of the catering 8 What essential differences attract staff to the var-
industry; discuss why this is so and give ious aspects of the industry (consider, for exam-
examples of menus for three different dining ple, pay, conditions of work, career prospects)?
rooms. 9 Establishments such as motorway facilities
4 Discuss what you think persons travelling on should meet special needs; explain what they
aircraft would like to eat and explain how it may, are and how they are met, then select another
or may not, be feasible to provide it. area of catering and state what those needs are
5 How do you think changes in the industry will and how they are achieved.
ospitality
eh i nd
Th
Employment in the
2 us
1
Part
try
Employment Opportunities 31

›● Activity worksheets: employment law; industrial relations
To find out about jobs in the hospitality industry visit:

www.chefjobs.co.uk
www.hospitalityrecruitment.co.uk
www.hoteljobs.co.uk
Employment opportunities
For those employed in the hospitality industry it is months; while the employee undertakes to carry out
important to understand that there is a considerable the work in turn for an agreed wage or salary.
amount of legislation that regulates both the indus- The only workers who can be characterised as not
try itself and employment in the industry. Employers being employees are those engaged on an ‘as and
who contravene the law or attempt to undermine the when required’ basis – for example, from a list of
statutory rights of their workers – for example, paying casual workers who help out in banqueting, restau-
less than the national minimum wage or by denying rant and bar when a member of the regular staff is ill
them their right to paid annual holidays – are not only or when extra staff are needed for a function. They
liable to prosecution and fines but could be ordered are not ‘employees’ in the accepted sense of the
by tribunals and courts to pay substantial amounts of word as there is no ‘mutuality of obligation’ between
compensation. them and the employers who engage their services.
These workers are free to reject work offered to
Workers and employees them, if they wish. Unfair dismissal is exclusive to
An employee is a person who is employed under a employees who have a ‘Contract of Employment’.
contract of employment or service. An essential fea-
ture of a contract of employment is the ‘mutuality of Workers
obligation’. The employer undertakes to provide the Workers that are not necessarily employees have
employee with work on specified days of the week certain levels of protection. A worker is an individual
for specified hours, and, if employed under a limited- who works under a contract of employment where
term contract, during an agreed number of weeks or the individual undertakes any work or services for
another party to the contract whose status is not that ‘waiter’, ‘barmaid’, ‘manageress’) will likewise be taken
of a client or customer. to indicate an intention to discriminate on the grounds
Workers who are not employees nonetheless enjoy of a person’s sex, unless the advertisement contains
the protection afforded by: an indication or is accompanied by an illustration to
the contrary.
●● Health and Safety legislation
●● anti-discriminatory laws Job applications
●● National Minimum Wage Act 1998
Job application forms must be designed with care. A
●● Part-time Workers (Prevention of Less Favourable
form should explain the need, if necessary, for ‘sensi-
Treatment) Regulations
tive personal information’, to reassure the candidate
●● Working Time Regulations 1998
that such data will be held in the strictest confidence
●● Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998
and in keeping with the provisions of the Data
●● Equality Act 2010
Protection Act 1998.
●● Data Protection Act 1998.
Human Rights Act
Recruitment and selection
Candidates must be informed at interview and when
When advertising for and recruiting new or replace- the application is sent out that they have to wear uni-
ment staff, employers in the hospitality industry forms on duty, or protective clothing. Any surveillance
should be mindful of the legislation in place, such as: monitoring the company is likely to carry out must
●● Children and Young Persons Act 1933 also be disclosed to applicants.
●● Licensing Act 1964
Employment of door supervisors
●● Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974
●● Data Protection Act 1988 Door supervisors or bouncers, whose job it is to deal
●● Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006 with unruly behaviour and to screen people entering
●● National Minimum Wage Act 1998 clubs and other licensed premises, are required to
●● Working Time Regulations 1998 have a licence to do the job, issued by the Security
●● Sex Discrimination Act 1975 Industry Authority (SIA). It is an offence under the
●● Race Relations Act 1976 Private Security Industry Act 2001 if a person works
●● Disability Discrimination Act 1995 as a bouncer or door supervisor without this licence.
●● Human Rights Act 1998
The Immigration, Asylum and Nationality
●● Equality Act 2010.
Act 2006
Job advertisements An employer who negligently employs a person sub-
It is unlawful to discriminate against job applicants on ject to immigration control, who does not have the
grounds of: legal right to live and work in the UK, is liable to a
substantial fine. This is an offence under this Act
●● sex, marital status or gender
and is liable to a conviction, unlimited fine and/or
●● colour, race, nationality, or national or ethnic origins
imprisonment for up to two years. To avoid unwit-
●● disability
tingly breaching the legislation, job application forms
●● sexual orientation
should clearly state that shortlisted candidates must
●● religion or beliefs
produce documents confirming their right to take up
●● trades union membership or non-membership.
employment in the UK. Every candidate should be
The following words should be avoided in a job interviewed regardless of sex, colour, race, nation-
advertisement: ality or ethic origin. The candidates should provide
this evidence to avoid allegations of unlawful racial
●● pleasing appearance l articulate
discrimination.
●● strong personality l dynamic
●● energetic l no family commitments. Job interviews
These could be construed, or misconstrued, as indi- The purpose of the job interview is to assess the suit-
cating an intention to discriminate on grounds of sex, ability of a particular applicant for the vacancy under
race or disability. consideration. The interviewer should ask questions
Use of job titles with a sexual connotation (e.g. designed to test the applicant’s suitability for the
Employment in the hospitality industry 33
job, covering qualifications, training and experience, either to provide the statement or accept a statement
and to elicit information about the individual’s per- written by the tribunal. An employer who presumes to
sonal qualities, character, development, motivation, discipline, dismiss or otherwise punish an employee
strengths and weaknesses. for asserting his or her statutory rights, before an
If a job applicant resigned or was dismissed from employment tribunal, may be ordered to pay that
previous employment, the interviewer may need to employee compensation.
know why. Admitted health problems, injuries and
disabilities may also need to be discussed in order to Legislation affecting the employment of
determine the applicant’s suitability for employment – children, young persons and convicted
for example, in a high-risk working environment. persons
Employers may lawfully ask a job applicant if he or Employers, before recruiting staff, must be aware
she has been convicted of any criminal offence, but of the legislation that imposes restrictions on the
must be aware of the right of job applicants, under employment of school-age children and young per-
the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974, not to sons under the age of 18. They should also be
disclose details of any criminal convictions that have mindful of legislation relating to the employment of
since become ‘spent’. persons with ‘spent’ criminal convictions (see below),
The interview should not ask questions about sexu- and door supervisors or bouncers, who now need to
ality or religion. Questions on religion may be asked be licensed.
if, for example, aspects of the job may directly affect
the beliefs of an individual – an example would be the Employment of school-age children
handling of alcoholic drinks. The employment of school-age children in hotels, res-
taurants and public houses at weekends and during
Job offers
the school holidays is regulated by the Children and
An offer of employment should be made or con- Young Persons Act 1933 and by local authority by-
firmed in writing and is often conditional on the laws. As a rule no child may be employed:
receipt of satisfactory references from former
employers. Withdrawing an offer of employment ●● if under age 14
once it has been accepted could result in a civil ●● during school hours
action for damages. ●● before 7.00 am or after 7.00 pm on any day
●● for more than two hours in a school day or on a
Blacklists Sunday
Under the Employment Relations Act 1999 ●● for more than eight hours (or, if under 15, for
(Blacklists) Regulations 2010, it is unlawful to refuse more than five hours) on any one day (other than
to interview or employ someone whose name appears a Sunday) that is not a school day
on a blacklist. A blacklist is a list of prohibited names ●● for more than 12 hours in any week that is a
of people who will be denied employment. The law normal school week
applies whether recruiting new members of staff ●● for more than 35 hours (or, if under 15, for more
directly or through an employment agency. than 25 hours) in any week in which the child is
not required to be at school
Written statement of employment ●● for more than four hours on any day without a
particulars rest break of at least one hour
●● at any time in a year unless, at that time, he or
Every employee, whether full-time, part-time, casual,
she has had, or could still have, during school
seasonal or temporary, has a legal right to be pro-
holidays, at least two consecutive weeks without
vided with a written statement outlining the principal
employment
terms and conditions of his or her employment. This
●● to do any work other than light work (i.e. work
must be issued within two months of the date on
of a kind that is unlikely to affect the safety,
which the employee first starts work, but ideally on
health or development of a school-age child or to
the employee’s first day at work.
interfere with the child’s education, or regular and
Any employee who is not provided with a written
punctual attendance at school).
statement of employment particulars may refer the
matter to an employment tribunal. If the employee’s Before employing a school-age child, (or within seven
complaint is upheld the employer will be ordered days of doing so) an employer must apply to the rel-
evant Local Education Authority for an Employment tion with his or her employment, including any fee,
Certificate. bonus, commission, holiday pay or other emolument.
Most local authority by-laws prohibit the employ- It also includes statutory sick pay, statutory maternity
ment of school-age children in: pay, statutory adoption pay, statutory paternity pay,
guaranteed payments, payments in respect of time
●● hotel kitchens
off work, remuneration on suspension on medical or
●● cook shops
maternity grounds or under a protective award, and
●● fish and chip shops
any sum payable in pursuance of a tribunal order for
●● restaurants
the worker’s reinstatement or re-engagement.
●● snack bars and cafeterias
Pay does not include any loan or advance on
●● any premises in connection with the sale of
wages, payments in respect of expenses incurred by
alcohol, except where alcohol is sold exclusively
a worker in the carrying out of his or her employment,
in sealed containers.
pension payments, or redundancy and severance
If an employee is under the age of 18, any other payments.
employee who works closely with the young person
must be checked with the Criminal Records Bureau Equal pay
(CRB). Under the Equal Pay Act 1970, a woman engaged in
like work, or work of a basically similar nature, or in
Employment of persons with criminal work rated as equivalent, or in work of equal value to
convictions that undertaken by a man in the same employment
Under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974, a is entitled to be paid the same as that man, and to
person applying for work in the hospitality industry enjoy equivalent terms and conditions of employ-
need not admit or disclose any criminal conviction ment. The same rule applies if a woman is appointed
that has become ‘spent’ either when completing a job or promoted to a job previously occupied by a man.
application form or when answering questions at an In the absence of any express term, every con-
interview. tract of employment (and every collective agreement
imported with an employee’s contract) will be treated
in law as containing an implied equality clause.
National minimum wage
Every UK worker, aged 16 and over, who is no longer
of compulsory school age, must be paid no less than
the appropriate national minimum wage (NMW). From
1 October 2010, the NMW for school leavers aged 16
and 17 is £3.64 an hour. For workers aged 18 to 20
inclusive, it is £4.92 an hour, and for workers aged 21
and over £5.93 an hour. There is also a minimum wage
of £2.50 an hour for apprentices who are participating
in government arrangements called Programme-led
Apprenticeships and who are aged 19, or are over 19
Figure 2.1 Outdoor catering but in the first year of their apprenticeship.
Of particular interest to hoteliers will be a pub-
Employment of women lication entitled The National Minimum Wage and
Save for duties imposed on all employers by the Hotel Sector (URN 07/1337), which may be
the Management of Health and Safety at Work downloaded from the website www.berr.gov.uk/
Regulations 1999 there is no health and safety legis- files/file41546.pdf or ordered from the BERR’s
lation that prohibits the employment of women in any Publications Orderline: 0845 015 0010.
occupation within the hospitality industry.
Statutory Sick Pay
Employment legislation Employers in Great Britain are liable to pay up
to 28 weeks’ Statutory Sick Pay to any qualified
The meaning of ‘pay’ employee who is incapable of work because of ill-
Pay means any sums payable to a worker in connec- ness of injury.
Employers who operate their own occupational night for more than an average eight hours in any
sick pay schemes may opt out of the Statutory Sick 24-hour period.
Pay scheme, so long as the payments available to ●● Adolescent workers may not lawfully be employed
their employees under such schemes are equal to at night between the hours of 10.00 pm and 6.00
or greater than payments to which they would oth- am (or between 11.00 pm and 7.00 am if their
erwise be entitled under Statutory Sick Pay, and so contracts require them to work after 10.00 pm).
long as these employees are not required to con- ●● Every worker is entitled to a minimum weekly
tribute towards the cost of funding such a scheme. rest period of 24 hours (or 48 hours in every
Payments made under Statutory Sick Pay may be fortnight); or, if under the age of 18, a minimum
offset against contractual sick pay, and vice versa. weekly rest period of 48 consecutive hours.
●● Every worker is entitled to a daily rest period of
Meaning of ‘incapacity for work’ a minimum 11 consecutive hours or, under the
An employee is incapacitated for work if he or she age of 18, a daily rest period of a minimum 12
is incapable, because of disease or bodily or mental consecutive hours.
disablement, of doing work that he or she can rea- ●● Every worker is entitled to a minimum 20-minute
sonably be expected to do under the contract of rest break during the course of any working day
employment. Under the Food Safety (General Food or shift lasting or expected to last for more than
Hygiene) Regulations 1995, food handlers suffering six hours or, if under the age of 18, a minimum
from (or carriers of) a disease likely to be transmit- 30-minute break during the course of any
ted through food or while afflicted with infected working day or shift lasting, or expected to last,
wounds, skin infections, sores or diarrhoea must not for more than 4.5 hours.
be allowed to work in any food handling, even in any ●● If an adult worker is content to work more than
capacity in which there is a likelihood of directly or an average 48 hours a week, he or she must sign
indirectly contaminating food with pathogenic micro- an agreement to that effect.
organisms. In these circumstances, the worker is
deemed to be incapacitated for work and, subject Holidays and holiday pay
to the usual qualifying conditions, entitled to be paid From April 2009, every worker in the UK, whether
Statutory Sick Pay until such time as the risk has full-time, part-time, temporary, permanent, seasonal
passed. or casual, is entitled to 5.6 weeks’ paid holiday in
every holiday year. For example, for a person who
Working Time Regulations works a standard five-day week, 5.6 weeks translates
The Working Time Regulations apply not only to into 28 working days’ paid annual holiday. To calcu-
employees but also to every worker (part-time, tem- late the holiday entitlement of workers pro rata, go to
porary, seasonal or casual) who undertakes to do or the website www.berr.gov.uk/employment/holidays.
perform work or service for an employer.
The 1998 Regulations are policed and enforced Meaning of ‘holiday year’
by employment tribunals (in relation to a worker’s This will depend on the organisation and the employer
statutory rights to rest breaks, rest periods and paid – for example, some companies use 1 January to 31
annual holidays) and by local authority Environmental December or 1 April to 31 March.
Health Officers.
Part-time workers
Restrictions on working hours Under the Part-time Workers (Prevention of Less
The 1998 Regulations (as amended from 6 April Favourable Treatment) Regulations 2000, part-time
2003) impose a number of restrictions on working workers, regardless of the number of hours they work,
hours and periods of employment for workers aged must not be treated less favourably than comparable
18 and over. full-time workers employed or engaged under the same
type of contract and doing the same or similar work.
●● Adult workers have the right not to be employed
for more than an average of 48 hours a week. Fixed-term contracts
●● Adolescent workers may not lawfully be employed Under the Fixed-term Employees (Prevention of Less
for more than eight hours a day or for more than Favourable Treatment) Regulations 2002, employers
40 hours a week. who use the services of temporary employees, for
●● Adult workers may not lawfully be employed at short or long periods (for example, relief managers,
to cover long-term sickness or maternity leave, or employer of her intentions, so far as her entitlement
during busy operation periods such as summer or to AML is concerned, nor is she under any legal
Christmas) must treat these employees in the same obligation to give her employer advance notice of her
way as permanent employees. intentions when that additional period of leave comes
to an end.
Meaning of ‘fixed-term’ employees
‘Fixed-term employee’ means an employee who is Return to work after additional maternity
employed under a fixed-term contract, which is a leave (AML)
contract that terminates (ends) after a certain date, An employee who takes AML is entitled to return to
or at the end of a set project or task. work in the job in which she was employed before her
OML began or, if that is not reasonably practicable, to
Parental leave another job that is both suitable for her and appropri-
Under the Maternity and Parental Leave Regulations ate for her to do in the circumstances, and on terms
1999, the employed parents of a child who is under and conditions no less favourable to her than those
the age of five (or under the age of 18, if adopted) that would have applied to her but for her absence on
have the legal right to take up to 13 weeks’ unpaid maternity leave.
parental leave during the first five years of the child’s
life or, if adopted, until the fifth anniversary of adop- Adoption leave and pay
tion or the child’s 18th birthday. An employee’s right to adoption leave is found in
the Paternity and Adoption Leave Regulations 2002.
Ordinary maternity leave Under adoption leave and pay legislation, an eligible
Providing an employee informs her employer, the employee with whom a child is to be placed for adop-
pregnant woman may begin her ordinary maternity tion is entitled to take up to 52 weeks’ adoption leave,
leave at any time on or after the beginning of the comprising 26 weeks’ ordinary adoption leave (OAL)
11th week before her expected week of childbirth followed by up to 26 weeks’ additional adoption leave
unless she gives birth prematurely. Then the leave (AAL).
starts the day after the birth occurs. On the other
hand, an employee may choose not to start her leave Parental leave
until the very week her baby is due. Under the Maternity and Parental Leave etc.
Regulations 1999, the employed parents of a child
Rights during ordinary maternity leave who is under the age of five (or under the age of 18 if
Unless the employee’s contract states otherwise, an adopted) have the legal right to take up to 13 weeks’
employee absent on maternity leave does not have unpaid parental leave during the first five years of the
the right to be paid her normal wages or salary during child’s life or, if the child is adopted, until the fifth anni-
her period of leave. Her other terms and conditions versary of adoption or until the child’s 18th birthday,
remain the same, such as holiday entitlement, sick- whichever occurs sooner.
ness benefits, seniority, pension rights, company car,
mobile phone, etc. Paternity leave or pay
Under the Paternity and Adoption Leave Regulations
Return to work after ordinary maternity 2002, complemented by the Paternity and Adoption
leave Leave Regulations 2003, an employee has the quali-
A woman returning to work at the end of her ordinary fied right to one or two weeks’ paid paternity leave to
maternity leave has the right to return to the job she enable him or her to care for a child or to support the
had before the period of leave, unless she wishes to child’s mother. That right applies if he is the child’s
return to work before the end of the 26 weeks. biological father or the current spouse or partner of
the child’s mother. That same qualified right extends
Additional maternity leave to an employee who has adopted a child or who is
Every pregnant employee, regardless of her length of one of the couple who has jointly adopted a child.
service, is entitled to a total of 52 weeks’ maternity Paternity leave must be taken within 56 days of a
leave, comprising 26 weeks’ ordinary maternity leave child’s birth or placement for adoption.
(OML) and 26 weeks’ additional maternity leave From 2012, employees who are fathers, or the
(AML). An employee has no need to forewarn her spouses or partners of mothers on maternity leave,
will enjoy the qualified right to take up to 26 weeks Time off work – trades union officials
of additional paternity leave in the first year of the Employees who are officials of an independent trades
child’s life. This is provided by the Additional Paternity union that is recognised by their employer as having
Leave Regulations 2010, made under the Work and collective bargaining rights for the entire workforce
Families Act 2006. (or for one or more groups within the workforce; this
Flexible working includes shop stewards or work convenors) have the
right to be permitted a reasonable amount of paid
Under the Flexible Working (Eligibility, Complaints time off work to enable them to carry out such of their
and Remedies) Regulations 2002, eligible employees duties as are concerned with pay and other terms
who are the parents (or adoptive parents) of children and conditions of employment, working conditions,
under the age of six, or of disabled children under grievances, disciplinary matters affecting their mem-
the age of 18, and who wish to spend more time bers, etc. This will also include time off for training in
with their children, have the legal right to apply to industrial relations.
their employers for a more flexible pattern of working
hours. Time off for jury service
The meaning of flexible working Section 1 of the Juries Act 1974 states that every
UK resident aged 18 and over who is not otherwise
Flexible working could involve shorter working hours ineligible or disqualified is liable to be summoned for
or a shorter working week, a system of staggered or jury service in the Crown Court, High Court and the
annualised hours, flexi-time, job-sharing, part-time County Courts.
work, term-time working, self-rostering, and so on.
Time off work Unlawful discrimination

Employees have the legal right to be permitted a It is unlawful for employers to discriminate against
reasonable amount of paid or unpaid time off work job applicants or existing workers by denying them
to enable them to carry out their functions as public access to opportunities for employment, promotion,
officials, shop stewards, members of recognised transfer or tracking, or by victimising them, harassing
independent trades unions, safety representatives, them or subjecting to any other detriment because of
pension schemes, trustees, and so on. their race, colour, nationality, national or ethnic origins,
The legislation does not specify what constitutes sex, disability, sexual orientation, religion or beliefs.
a ‘reasonable’ amount of time off. A great deal will It is also unlawful for employers – as the providers
depend on the particular circumstances and a degree of goods, facilities and services to members of the
of common sense. public – to discriminate against would-be or existing
In summary, employees have the right to paid or customers or guests on any of the above grounds,
unpaid time off work in the following circumstances: either by denying them access to these facilities and
services, or by treating them less favourably than they
●● Having responsibilities for dependents – unpaid treat or would treat other members of the public.
●● Having children under the age of 5 or adopted In October 2007, a new non-departmental public
children under the age of 18 – unpaid body, the Commission for Equality and Human Rights
●● For antenatal care during pregnancy – paid (CEHR), came into being.
●● Acting as a justice of the peace or official of a
public body – paid/unpaid Sex Discrimination Act 1975
●● Accompanying another worker at a disciplinary or Under this Act it is unlawful to discriminate against
grievance hearing – paid a woman by refusing to interview her or offer her a
●● Acting as a pension scheme trustee – paid job regardless of qualifications, skills or experience
●● Redundant employees – paid simply because she is a woman, or to treat her less
●● Acting as an employee representative – paid favourably than a man.
●● Young employees in education or training – paid Following amendments introduced by the
●● Acting as a safety representative – paid Employment Equality (User Discrimination)
●● Acting as a trade union official (shop steward) – Regulations 2005, sexual harassment is now specifi-
paid cally prohibited by the Sex Discrimination Act 1975.
●● Trade union members – unpaid. The amended Act states that a person subjects a
woman to harassment if, on the grounds of her sex,
he engages in unwanted conduct that violates her beyond normal retirement ages, by dismissing them
dignity or creates an intimidating, hostile, degrading, or selecting them for redundancy, by subjecting them
humiliating or offensive environment for her. to any other detriment.
Harassment of staff by third parties Age discrimination
Under the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (amendment) Under the Employment Equality (Age) Regulations
Regulations 2008, employers including pub landlords, 2006, it is unlawful for employers, regardless of
restaurateurs, hoteliers and contract caterers, who do the size of their respective establishments, to dis-
not take reasonably practicable steps to put to an end criminate against job applicants existing employees
to any sexual or gender-based harassment directed and in some instances, former employees, solely on
at members of staff by third parties (i.e. customers, grounds of age (e.g. by denying them access to job
guests, visiting contractors or suppliers) are liable to interviews, by refusing to employ them – because
be ordered to pay compensation (including damages they are considered to be too young or too old for
for injury to feelings) to any member of staff whose particular vacancies – by failing to promote them or
complaints about such conduct have been largely provide them with opportunities for further training
ignored. An employer is required to act on such a and development).
complaint if the harassment has occurred on at least
two previous occasions, whether by the same or by Racial discrimination
different person or persons. Under the Race Relations Act 1976, as amended
Sexual harassment, whether in the workplace or in in July 2003 by the Race Relations Act 1976
a public place, may amount to common assault, which Amendment Regulations 2003, it is unlawful for any
could give rise to civil or criminal proceedings. employer, regardless of the size of his or her business
Victimisation or undertaking, to discriminate against any person
(job applicant, customer or member of the public) by
An employer is guilty of unlawful sex discrimination by
denying that person access to employment, goods,
way of victimisation if he or she treats the employee
facilities or services because of his or her colour, race,
victimised less favourably that he or she treats or
nationality, or national or ethnic origins.
would treat other employees. Employees and other
The 1976 Act (as amended in 2003) identifies
workers who are victimised by their employers (or
four types of discrimination in the field of employ-
who have action short of dismissal taken against
ment that (unless shown to be justified irrespective
them) for asserting certain of their statutory rights
of the colour, race, nationality, or national or ethnic
(or for bringing proceedings before an employment
origins of any person affected by such discrimination)
tribunal in order to enforce those rights, or for help-
could prompt a complaint to an employment tribunal
ing others to do so) have the right to complain (or
or attract the attention of the Commission for Racial
complain yet again) to the employment tribunal and
Equality (CRE). These are: direct discrimination; indi-
will be awarded appropriate and, at times, substantial
rect discrimination; discrimination by way of victimisa-
compensation if their complaints are upheld. The rel-
tion; and discrimination by way of harassment.
evant legislation is to be found in the:
1 Direct discrimination: this occurs when an
●● Employment Rights Act 1996
employer discriminates against job applicants and
●● Sex Discrimination Act 1975
existing employees on racial grounds by:
●● Race Relations Act 1976
●● denying job interviews
●● Disability Discrimination Act 1995
●● refusing them access to employment
●● Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation)
●● offering them less favourable terms and
Regulations 2003
conditions of employment
●● Employment Equality (Religion or Belief)
●● withholding opportunities for promotion or
Regulations 2003
transfer (or access to other benefits such as
●● Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006
overtime or shift work)
●● Equality Act 2010.
●● segregating them from other members of staff
By paying them less than other workers because of ●● victimising or harassing them (or permitting
age, by victimising or subjecting them to harassment others to do so)
(or by failing to act when others do so), by unreason- ●● dismissing them, selecting them for
ably denying them an opportunity to continue working redundancy or subjecting them to any other
detriment (or, in the case of an employee on harass any existing or prospective employees for
a fixed- or limited-term contract, refusing to reasons connected with their race or ethnic or
renew that contract when it expires). national origins. By ‘harass’ is meant engaging
in unwanted conduct, which, in the perception
By ‘racial grounds’ is meant any of the following:
of the employee in question, has the purpose or
●● colour l nationality
effect (or should reasonably be considered as
●● race l national or ethnic origins.
having the effect) of violating his or her dignity, or
2 Indirect discrimination: there is indirect racial creating for that person an intimidating, hostile,
discrimination when an employer deliberately or degrading, humiliating or offensive working
inadvertently applies a requirement or conditions environment.
to a candidate for employment, promotion or Employers who fail to take steps to eliminate
transfer etc., which although applied equally to harassment in the workplace will, in most
every candidate competing for the same job, situations, be held vicariously liable for the
nonetheless puts a candidate of a particular activities of managers, supervisors and other
racial group at a disadvantage relative to other members who themselves engage (or encourage
candidates who are not of the same racial group. others to engage) in such conduct.
Such discrimination is unlawful:
●● if the proportion of persons of the same racial Disciplinary and grievance procedures
group as that candidate who can comply with Every employee must be issued with a written state-
that requirement or condition is considerably ment of employment particulars (or contract of
smaller than the proportion of persons not of employment) within eight weeks of starting work with
that racial group who can comply with it a new employer. This rule applies to all employers
●● if the employer cannot show that requirement regardless of the size of their establishments or the
or condition to be justifiable irrespective of the number of people they employ. Among other things
colour, race, nationality or ethnic origins of the the statement must include a note explaining the
person to whom it is applied, and which is to employer’s disciplinary rules and the procedures to
the detriment of that other candidate because be followed should an employee choose to break one
he or she cannot comply with it. or other of these rules. Alternatively, the statement
(or contract) must refer the employee to some other
3 Discrimination by way of victimisation: an
reasonably accessible document that explains these
employer is guilty of unlawful racial discrimination
rules and procedures in more detail.
by way of victimisation if he or she treats (or
would treat) other employees more favourably, Disability discrimination
and does so because the employee in question:
The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 cautions
●● has brought (or is contemplating bringing)
employers that it is unlawful to discriminate against
legal proceedings against the employer (or
disabled job applicants and existing employees either
some other person acting on the employer’s
by refusing to contemplate employing, promoting or
behalf) alleging a breach of his or her statutory
transferring any person who admits to being disabled
rights under the 1976 Act
(regardless of that person’s suitability for appoint-
●● has given (or proposes to give) evidence or
ment, promotion or transfer to the vacancy under
information to the CRE or an employment
consideration), or by offering any such candidate or
tribunal in connection with proceedings
employee less favourable terms and conditions than
brought by some other person (such as a
those offered to able-bodied persons appointed to
fellow employee) under the 1976 Act, or has
(or already doing) the same job. By the same token,
alleged (in good faith) that his or her employer
employers are not required to treat disabled job appli-
(or some other person, such as a manager,
cants more favourably than employees competing
supervisor, or member of the workforce)
with them for appointment, promotion or transfer to
has committed an act that amounts to a
the same job.
contravention of the 1976 Act.
4 Discrimination by way of harassment: under the The meaning of ‘disability’
1976 Act, as amended by the Race Relations Act For the purposes of the 1995 Act, a person has a dis-
1976 Amendment Regulations 2003, employers ability if he (or she) has a physical or mental impair-
are guilty of unlawful racial discrimination if they ment that has a substantial and long-term adverse
effect on his (or her) ability to carry out normal ers, regardless of the number of people they employ,
day-to-day activities. The term ‘mental impairment’ to discriminate against job applicants and exist-
includes an impairment resulting from, or consisting ing employees on grounds of their sexual orienta-
of, a mental illness, but only if the illness is clinically tion. This includes homosexuality, heterosexuality and
well recognised. bisexuality. The regulations envisage four types of
An impairment is to be taken to affect a person’s discrimination on such grounds: direct discrimination;
ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities if it indirect discrimination; harassment; and victimisation.
has an effect on his or her mobility, manual dexter-
ity, physical coordination, continence, concentration,
perception of danger, speech, hearing or sight, or the
ability to lift, carry or move everyday objects.
Any job advertisement that indicates, or might
reasonably be understood to indicate, an intention to
discriminate against disabled job applicants or that
suggests a reluctance or inability on the employer’s
part to make appropriate adjustments to the work-
place to accommodate the needs of people with
particular disabilities, is admissible as evidence in any
subsequent tribunal.
The employer’s duty to make adjustments Figure 2.2 Restaurant with wheelchair access
Employers must take appropriate steps to accom-
modate a disabled person who might otherwise be at
a disadvantage relative to able-bodied persons doing
(or applying for) the same or similar work. These
would include making adjustments to the premises,
allocating some of the disabled person’s duties to
another person, altering his or her working hours,
requiring or modifying equipment, providing supervi-
sion, and so on.
An employer’s refusal to appoint a disabled person
to a particular job may be justifiable on health and
safety grounds, or because it is self-evident that the
applicant would be quite incapable of doing that job
– given the nature and extent of the applicant’s dis- Figure 2.3 A modern staff restaurant
ability, the type of work to be done and the conditions
in which that work is to be carried out.
Discrimination on grounds of religion or
Chronically sick and disabled persons belief
The Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Act 1970 The Employment Equality (Religion or Belief)
(amended by the Chronically Sick and Disabled Regulations 2003 state that it is unlawful for any
Persons (Amendment) Act 1976) imposes a duty on employer to discriminate against a job applicant
the owners and developers of new commercial prem- or existing employee because of that applicant’s
ises (hotels, pubs, restaurants) to consider the needs or employee’s religion or beliefs. The regulations
of disabled persons when designing the means of prohibit discrimination, victimisation or harassment
access to (and within) these premises, including the occurring after an employment relationship has come
means of access to parking facilities, toilets, cloak- to an end.
rooms and washing facilities. The term ‘religion or belief’ means any religion, reli-
gious belief or similar philosophical belief.
Discrimination on grounds of sexual
orientation Exceptions for genuine occupational
The Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) requirements
Regulations 2003 state that it is unlawful for employ- The regulations allow that it is permissible in cer-
tain circumstances for an employer to discriminate Dismissal

against a job applicant (or a candidate for promotion Every employee has the legal right not to be unfairly
or transfer) on the grounds of his or her religion or dismissed. However, unless dismissed for a blatantly
belief if being of a particular religion or having certain inadmissible or unlawful reason, the right to present
beliefs is a genuine and determining occupation or a complaint of unfair dismissal to an employment tri-
requirement for the vacancy in question. bunal is available to those employees only who have
A restaurant serving kosher or halal foods, for been continuously employed for one year or more at
example, may be justified in its refusal to engage the the effective date of termination of their contracts of
services of cooks or waiting staff who are not of the employment.
Jewish or Islamic faiths, if certain foods have to be
treated and prepared in a particular way before being Meaning of dismissal
served to customers.
Dismissal is when an employer terminates an employ-
Termination of employment (minimum ee’s contract of employment with or without notice;
notice periods and rights during notice) when an employee resigns with or without notice in
circumstances in which he or she is entitled to do so,
Notice periods without notice, because of the employee’s unreason-
Notice periods are the written statement of initial able conduct; when a limited-term contract comes
employment particulars necessarily issued to every to an end without being renewed under the same
employee, in compliance with the employment Rights contract.
Act 1996.
Permitted reasons for dismissal and the
Notice to be given by employees issue of fairness
Unless the contract of employment specifies a longer When responding to a complaint of unfair dismissal,
period of notice, an employee who has worked for his it is the employer’s responsibility to explain to an
or her employer for one month or more is required to employment tribunal only if the employee was dis-
give his employer at least one week’s notice to termi- missed and to convince the tribunal that the employee
nate his or her employment. If an employee’s contract had been dismissed for a permitted or legitimate
specifies longer periods of notice than those pre- reason. Examples deemed to be acceptable dismissal
scribed by the 1996 Act, those longer notice periods include the following.
take precedence. If the contract specifies a shorter The Employment Rights Act 1996 allows that it is
period of notice, the statutory minimum periods of prima facie acceptable to dismiss an employee for
notice take precedence. one or other of the following reasons, namely:
Notice to be given by employers ●● incompetence, associated with a lack of
Under the 1996 Act, the statutory notice to be given qualifications, or of the skills or aptitude needed
by an employer to terminate an employee’s contract of to do an efficient or satisfactory job of work
employment is determined by the employee’s length ●● sickness or a debilitating injury (often associated
of continuous service at the material time, as follows: with a poor timekeeping record, or persistent or
prolonged absenteeism).
Length of service Minimum notice ●● misconduct (including gross misconduct)
Less than one month Nil ●● redundancy
One month but less One week ●● Illegality of continued employment (e.g. being
than two years under the age of 18 if employed as a barman or
Two years or more One week for each year barmaid), or
of service ●● for ‘some other substantial reason’ of a kind
12 years or more Maximum 12 weeks such as to justify the dismissal of an employee
If an employee’s contract states that he or she is holding the position which that employee held
entitled to longer periods of notice to terminate his (e.g. for unreasonably refusing to accept a
or her employment (based on length of service, or change in working methods, the introduction of
whatever), those longer periods prevail. If the contract new technology and similar changes prompted
states that the employee is entitled to shorter periods by the need to improve business efficiency or
of notice, the statutory minimum entitlement prevails. profitability.
Dismissals and TUPE transfers ●● for carrying out or proposing to carry out
Under the Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of their functions as elected or appointed safety
Employment) Regulations 2006, which came into representatives, members of safety committees,
force on 6 April 2008, (revoking the eponymous or trustees of occupational pension schemes
1981 regulations commonly referred to as the TUPE ●● for performing or proposing to perform his or
Regulations 2006, or simply TUPE), an employer her functions as an employees’ representative,
who purchases or acquires the lease on another a negotiating representative, an information and
employer’s business as ‘a going concern’ (e.g. in a consultation representative, or a candidate in an
hotel, restaurant, pub) also inherits the contracts of election in which any person elected will, on being
employment of the people working in that business at elected, be such a representative
the time the sale took place. In short, the new owner ●● for leaving the workplace in circumstances of
must honour those employees’ existing terms and danger, which they reasonably believed to be
conditions of employment (including their rates of serious and imminent (e.g. the possibility of a gas
pay, holiday entitlements, etc.) even if (in the case of explosion) and which they could not reasonably
a purchaser expanding his or her business interests) have been expected to avert; or for refusing to
those terms and conditions of employment are more return to the workplace until reassured that it was
generous than those enjoyed by his or her existing safe for them to do so
employees. To dismiss those inherited employees or ●● for having made a ‘protected disclosure’ (i.e.
any one of them, or to select them for redundancy for having disclosed information to the relevant
simply to avoid having to honour their contracts is enforcing authority – such as the Inland Revenue,
unfair and will inevitably lead to complaints of unfair HM Customs & Excise, the Environmental Health
dismissal, subject to the usual qualifying conditions Department) concerning alleged breaches
relating to age and length of service. by their employers of legislation such as the
Licensing Act 1964, the Food Safety Act 1990,
Inadmissible and unlawful reasons for the Environment Protection Act 1990, the
dismissal Working Time Regulations 1998, the National
Minimum Wage Regulations 1999, health and
An employee who is dismissed for an inadmissible
safety legislation, and so on.
or unlawful reason may present a complaint of unfair
dismissal to an employment tribunal regardless of his Constructive dismissal
or her age or length of service at the material time.
The term ‘inadmissible and unlawful’ applies to a dis- An employee will be treated in law as having been
missal on grounds of an employee’s age, sex, marital constructively dismissed if he or she is bullied, har-
status, race, colour, nationality, national or ethnic ori- assed, ridiculed or intimidated to the point where he
gins, sexual orientation, religion or beliefs, disability, or she is left with little choice but to resign, with or
or trades union membership or non-membership. It without notice. The same rule applies if an employer,
is also unlawful and automatically unfair to dismiss without reasonable and proper cause, conducts him-
employees (regardless of their ages or length of ser- self or herself in a manner calculated or likely to
vice when dismissed): destroy or seriously damage the relationship of con-
fidence and trust that should exist between employer
●● for asserting their statutory employment rights, and employee.
or for challenging or questioning their employer’s
refusal to acknowledge those rights (including the Redundancy payments
right to be paid the appropriate national minimum
Under the Employment Rights Act 1996 as amended
wage, the right to 5.6 weeks’ paid annual holiday,
by the Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006,
the right not to be required to work more than
any redundant employee with two or more years’
an average 48 hours a week, the right to be
service is entitled to be paid a statutory redundancy
provided with a written statement of employment
payment on the termination of his or her employ-
particulars, and so on
ment for each complete month of service beyond the
●● for exercising or presuming to exercise their
employee’s 64th birthday. A redundant employee with
rights to maternity leave and pay, adoption leave
the required two or more years’ service must be paid
and pay, parental leave, paternity leave, time off
a statutory minimum redundancy payment equal to:
for dependants, time off for ante-natal care, and
other family-friendly rights ●● one-and-a-half week’s pay for each complete
year of service from the age of 41 to the can readily be identified from that data, or from any
effective date of termination of the employee’s other information or document held by a worker’s
contract of employment employer in a computerised or paper-based filing
●● one week’s pay for each complete year of service system.
between the ages of 22 and 41
●● half a week’s pay for each complete year of Examples of information held
service below the age of 22. The sort of information held is likely to include
age, qualifications, marital status, health, attendance
Service in excess of 20 years (reckoned back-
record, conduct and capabilities.
wards from the effective date of termination of a
redundant employee’s contract of employment) may Data protection principles
be ignored, as may average earnings in excess of
The 1998 Act lists eight data protection principles
£380 per week (which upper limit came into effect
relating to the ‘processing’ of personal data held
on 1 October 2009). It follows that (for 2009/10)
on manual or computerised filing systems. Thus,
the maximum statutory redundancy payment pay-
personal data held in an employee or other worker’s
able to an employee with 20 or more years’ service
personnel file or in a computerised filing system:
is £11,400.
●● must have been obtained fairly and lawfully (see
Dress codes above)
People applying for work in establishments with par- ●● must not be held on file other than for a
ticular dress codes should be given to understand legitimate purpose (nor be used or made use of
that their employment would be dependent on their for any other purpose)
adhering to these codes. The Equal Opportunities ●● must be adequate, relevant and not excessive in
Commission (EOC) is unhappy about dress codes relation to the purpose or purposes for which it is
that require female workers to wear short or reveal- kept
ing skirts or low-cut blouses while at work. However, ●● must be accurate and, where necessary, kept up
its view is that there is no breach of the Sex to date
Discrimination Act 1975 or the Human Rights Act ●● must not be kept for longer than is absolutely
1998 so long as the employer’s policy on dress necessary
and appearance is made known to job applicants at ●● must be held in compliance with a worker’s
employment interviews and employees are willing rights of access to personal data; must not be
to accept it as part of their terms and conditions of processed in a way calculated (or likely) to cause
employment. damage or distress to a worker, and must be
Employers are not obliged to allow members of corrected, erased or destroyed if inaccurate or no
staff, whose religions require them to pray at certain longer relevant
intervals during the day, to take time off in order to ●● must be protected, by the best available means,
comply with their religion’s obligations. against unauthorised access or disclosure, and
against accidental loss, damage or destruction,
The Data Protection Act and must be treated as confidential by the staff
Most employers keep files containing information (or to whom they are entrusted
personal data) about the people they employ. In some ●● must not be transferred to any country or territory
cases this is stored on computer. Some is kept as (e.g. to a parent or controlling company) outside
paper-based information. Under the subject access the European Economic Area (EEA) whose
provisions of the Data Protection Act 1998, workers data protection laws or codes are non-existent
have the right not only to see their personal files but or less than adequate – unless the worker
also to be provided with hard copies or photocopies agrees otherwise or the transfer is necessary for
of most and, in some cases, all of the documents held employment purposes (e.g. a proposed transfer or
in these files. They also have the right to know who secondment overseas).
within the organisation has access to these files.
Disciplinary and grievance procedures
Meaning of ‘personal data’ The written statement of initial employment particu-
In the field of employment, the term ‘personal data’ lars necessarily issued to all employees must include
means information about an employee or worker who a note explaining the employer’s disciplinary rules
and procedures, or refer the employee to some other ples for handling disciplinary and grievance situations
reasonably accessible document that explains them. in the workplace.
Although employers are under no strict obligation
to develop their own rules and procedures for deal- Employment law from 6 April 2010
ing with disciplinary issues within the workplace, the ‘Fit notes’ have replaced the ‘sick notes’ formerly
reasonableness of an employer’s decision to dismiss given by GPs when individuals are ill.
an employee, for whatever reason, might very well There is a new right for employees to request time
be challenged before an employment tribunal, espe- off to undertake study or training where employ-
cially if the evidence before the tribunal reveals that ees work in organisations with 250-plus people. All
the employer had failed to follow the best practice organisations are covered from April 2011.
guidelines laid down in ACAS Code of Practice In addition, whatever your employment status,
on Disciplinary and Grievance Procedures (see the whether you are an employee, worker or freelancer,
ACAS website at www.acas.org.uk/dgcode2009/). you have rights at work that are protected by law. The
This code of practice provides basic practical guid- information in the box offers a comprehensive sum-
ance for employers and employees. It sets out princi- mary of what you are entitled to.
Rights at work, protected by law introduced on 1 January 2010 to reinforce this

statutory right); to attend jury service
Reproduced with kind permission from ●● a stakeholder pension – (if your employer has
www.freelanceadvisor.co.uk more than 5 employees)
The main legal rights of an employee: ●● an itemised pay statement
●● to a written statement – this must be provided ●● plus those rights that a worker has.
within two months of beginning the employment NB: Often employers will give benefits/terms to
●● maternity leave and pay, adoption leave and pay
employees that are more generous than the legal
and paternity leave and pay minimum entitlements.
●● ante-natal care
●● parental leave The main legal rights of a worker
●● time off to care for dependants
Workers (including agency workers) and employ-
●● the right to apply to work flexibly (in April
ees have the following rights:
2010, the right to request time off to undertake
study or training was introduced for employees ●● national minimum wage
working in companies of 250-plus employees ●● rest breaks and paid holiday under the Working
(this will be introduced to all companies from Time Directive
April 2011); this will work in a similar way to ●● protection from unauthorised deductions of pay
the right to apply to work flexibly; employers will ●● maternity and adoption pay (not leave) and
be obliged to consider requests seriously, but paternity pay (not leave) – details as above
will be able to refuse a request where there is ●● protection against less favourable treatment if
a good business reason to do so, but they must you are part-time
follow set procedures) ●● statutory sick pay
●● the right not to be unfairly dismissed ●● protection against less favourable treatment if
●● for your employer to operate a fair disciplinary you ‘whistle-blow’ (i.e. make a disclosure in the
and dismissal policy public interest)
●● access to a grievance procedure at work ●● not to be discriminated against unlawfully on
●● statutory redundancy pay grounds of race, sex, marriage, disability, sexual
●● time off for public duties, e.g. magistrate orientation, age, religion or belief, and to receive
duties; for trades union activities (where your equal pay (with members of the opposite sex
employer recognises a trades union, union if you can show they are doing similar work of
representatives have a statutory right to take equal value)
paid time off to carry out trades union duties ●● protection under health and safety law; for
and training; a new ACAS Code of Practice was details of the health and safety legislation in
the UK, please look at the official website, from the NUJ at www.londonfreelancer.org/
www.hse.gov.uk; with regard to appropriate feesguide
temperatures for the workplace, there is ●● you may also be entitled to statutory maternity
no legal minimum temperature set – the allowance if you are pregnant and have recently
law says that, during working hours, the left an engagement.
temperature inside workplace buildings should
Other information for freelancers
be reasonable; however, the HSE’s guidance
●● On the occasion that you are classed as a
recommends a minimum temperature of 16
‘worker’ (for employment rights) but self-
degrees for workplaces where activity is mainly
employed (for tax purposes), you may be
sedentary (e.g. offices) and 13 degrees for
entitled to the ‘workers’ rights as above, e.g.
workplaces where work involves physical effort
it is quite common in the film and TV industry
●● protection against discrimination for
for freelancers to be classed as ‘workers’ and
membership or non-membership of a trades
receive paid holiday under the Working Time
union; since April 2010, the blacklisting of
Directive legislation.
workers from employment as a result of their
●● Most self-employed individuals will pay class
union membership or activities has been
2 National Insurance Contributions (NICs),
prevented – if a worker is blacklisted and
which give them entitlement to the basic state
suffers a detriment at work because of this
pension and statutory maternity allowance.
(e.g. been refused employment, been subject
Class 2 NICs do not give you entitlement to
to detriment or unfairly dismissed because of
Job Seekers Allowance, statutory sick pay or
being on a blacklist) they can complain to a
the additional state pension.
tribunal for damages and/or a restraining or
●● If you are registered as a limited company and
prevention order against the blacklist
provide your services on a freelance basis to
●● agency workers will receive the right to equal
an organisation (as a provider) then you will not
treatment with permanent employees after 12
receive ‘workers’’ rights from this organisation.
weeks; this legislation will be introduced by 2011.
It is up to you to provide yourself with ‘workers’’
The main legal rights of the self-employed rights as you are employed by your own limited
(freelancer) company.
You do not have employment rights as such, as you What to do if you have a dispute with your
are seen as your own boss and so can make deci- employer about any of the rights listed above
sions on fees, holidays, etc. You will not therefore ●● Try to resolve the problem first by talking to
be entitled to: your manager or personnel/human resources
department if you have one. Your organisation
●● company sick leave, company maternity pay or
should have its own grievance procedure that, if
company pension provisions
you are an employee, you should have access to.
●● the legal right to protection under your company’s
●● Talk to your trades union or employee
internal disciplinary and grievance schemes
representative if you have one.
●● the legal right not to be dismissed (always,
●● Your local Citizens Advice Bureau (CAB) offers
however, read the contract of service you
free and impartial advice on employment
have agreed as this may contain clauses
matters, see www.citizensadvice.org.uk.
relating to termination of your agreement and
●● ACAS (the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration
time-periods).
Service) offers free, confidential advice on all
There is however, legal protection so: employment rights issues. Its helpline is 0845
7474 747, and its website http://www.acas.org.uk.
●● you should not be discriminated against (as
●● If you cannot resolve the matter you may be
above)
able to make a claim at an employment tribunal
●● you are entitled to a safe and healthy working
– but this must be within three months of the
environment (as above); see www.hse.gov.uk
dispute. The Employment Tribunal Service
●● you should be paid for the work that you have
enquiry line is 0845 7959 775 and its website
done; if you are having problems with late
is www.employmenttribunals.gov.uk.
payments look at the comprehensive advice
The Equality Act 2010 they can make sure their work supports equality
In 2010 the government introduced new equality – for example, in their services, through their jobs
laws to speed up issues of equality. Domestic dis- and through the money they spend
crimination law has developed over more than 40 Public bodies already need to think about treating
years since the first Race Relations Act in 1965. people of different races, disabled people, and men
Subsequently, other personal characteristics besides and women fairly and equally. The Act adds extra
race have been protected from discrimination and groups of people to the Equality Duty:
similar conduct, sometimes as a result of domes-
tic initiatives and sometimes through implementing ●● people of different ages – younger and older
European Directives. people
The domestic law is now mainly contained in the ●● lesbian, gay and bisexual people
following legislation: ●● the duty now fully covers people who have
changed their sex or are in the process of doing
●● Equal Pay Act 1970 so; people with a religion or belief, or people
●● Sex Discrimination Act 1975 without a religion or belief
●● Race Relations Act 1976 ●● women having a baby and women just after they
●● Disability Discrimination Act 1995 have had a baby.
●● Employment Equality (Religion or Belief)
Regulations 2003 The Act will let civil partnerships for gay and lesbian
●● Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) couples be held in religious buildings.
Regulations 2003 Equal pay
●● Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006
●● Equality Act 2006 Part 2 If a company has 250 or more workers it may have
●● Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations to publish information about differences in men and
2007. women’s pay. The Act also enables the government
to tell public bodies to publish information about
Stronger laws were needed because the old equality equal pay and how many workers it has who are
laws did not make equality happen fast enough. disabled or people of different races. The govern-
The Equality Act brings together nine big equality ment plans to do this for public bodies with 150 or
laws and about 100 smaller laws. Bringing these laws more workers. The Act also stops employers telling
together makes it a lot easier for employers and other workers they must not talk to each other about how
people to know what they must do. It will also help much they get paid.
everyone understand the law. The Equality Act is for
people in England, Scotland and Wales. It became law Diversity
in spring 2010. The Act makes it easier for employers to use posi-
tive action and it lets them choose a person who
What the Equality Act does will make their workers more diverse when choosing
The Act tells some public bodies to do two new things between people who are right for the job.
to help make equality happen.
Extra powers for employment tribunals
1 Some public bodies will have to think about how
they can help to stop people doing less well than Employment tribunals can suggest how an employer
other people because of their family background can put things right for a worker if they were treated
or where they were born. unfairly. But most of the time this does not help
2 All public bodies must think about treating people the employer’s other workers because most people
from different groups fairly and equally. who complain to employment tribunals have stopped
working for the employer. The Equality Act allows the
These are things the law says someone must do: employment tribunal to tell the employer their advice
●● the Equality Act tells some public bodies that they should apply to all their workers even when the one
will have to think about what they can do to make who complained doesn’t work there any more.
their services more helpful to poorer people The Equality Act has several new rules to protect
●● treating people from different groups fairly and disabled people better. It makes the law on reason-
equally (The Equality Duty); this is a law for public able adjustments clearer.
bodies, telling them they must think about how
Claim for damages arising Claim relating

during the continuance of Restraint of
Injunctive Injunctive to patents or
the relationship trade action
relief relief copyright
County/High Court
Claim for wrongful Claim for contractual

dismissal/wrongful Either County/High Court
damages arising out of
repudiation or employment tribunals
termination of employment or
outstanding on termination
Employment tribunals
Claims for Claims relating to the Discrimination and Claims for

redundancy pay protection of wages equal pay claims unfair dismissal
Figure 2.4 Jurisdiction of the courts and employment tribunals
Reasonable adjustments ple, an employer might need to know if a person

These are changes an employer or someone provid- is disabled so they can make changes to a test or
ing a service has to make so that disabled people can a job interview.
do something like getting into shop or restaurant or a The Act makes dual discrimination against the law.
bank. Sometimes when an employer or someone pro- This is when someone is treated worse than other
viding a service makes a reasonable adjustment so people because of a combination of two things:
that a disabled person can do something it will cost ●● if they are a woman or a man
them extra money. The Equality Act says that most of ●● if they are transsexual
the time they can’t expect the disabled person to pay ●● if they have a disability
them that extra money back. ●● if they are heterosexual, lesbian, gay or bisexual
The Equality Act will make it harder for an ●● their age
employer to be unfair because it says they can only ●● their race
sometimes ask if a person is disabled. For exam- ●● their religion or belief.

1 Outline the function of an employment tribunal. 5 Do you believe that the current employment leg-
2 Discuss the reasons why the hospitality industry islation is adequate, inadequate or prohibits the
is poorly represented by trades unions. development of the hospitality industry?
3 Discuss some of the legislation that protects 6 Why did the government introduce the Equality
people from employment discrimination. Act 2010 when there was already so much leg-
4 Why is it important to any organisation to develop islation governing equality?
good industrial relations?
mmodities a
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3
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nu
Part 2 Fo
trition Food commodities
The Study of Commodities 48 Sugar 95

Meat 50 Beverages (Drinks) 96
Poultry 59 Pulses 100
Game 60 Herbs 100
Fish 63 Spices 102
Vegetables 73 Condiments 107
Fruit 78 Colourings, Flavourings and
Nuts 82 Essences 108
Eggs 83 Grocery, Delicatessen 109
Dairy Products 85 Confectionery and Bakery
Cheese, Fats and Oils 88 Goods 110
Cereals 92 References 111
Raising Agents 95 Topics for Discussion 111

›● Activity worksheets: commodities; seasons
›● Videos and worksheets: Asian and Oriental food commodities
›● Videos: butchery
The study of commodities

When studying commodities, students are recom-
mended to explore the markets to get to know both
fresh foods and all possible substitutes such as
convenience or ready-prepared foods. Comparison
should be made between various brands of foods,
and between convenience and fresh unprepared
foods. Factors to be considered when comparing
should include quality, price, hygiene, labour, cost,
time, space required and disposal of waste.
Students are advised to be cost conscious from
the outset in all their studies and to form the habit
of keeping up to date with the current prices of all
Figure 3.1 Purchasing fruit

Food commodities 49
commodities, equipment, labour and overheads. An Organic foods

inbuilt awareness of costs is an important asset to Consumers are gradually becoming more interested
any successful caterer. in organic foods and more environmentally friendly.
Although there are no nutritional reasons for using
Further information about meat, poultry, fish, fruit organic produce, organic foods are said to con-
and vegetables can be found in Practical Cookery tain fewer contaminants. They have a lower con-
and Practical Cookery Level 3. tent of pesticides, or none at all; however, global
sources of contamination cannot be avoided by the
organic farmer. Food inspection, particularly by the
Seasonality Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
The following are some of the reasons why eating (Defra), keeps a good check on the content of unde-
seasonally is a good idea. sirable substances in conventional produce. The pros-
●● Food tastes better in season. pect of contamination, therefore, is not a good reason
●● Food is better for you in season. Seasonal food for using organically grown produce either. The main
is more likely to be local; and local food will have argument for using organic produce is that it supports
spent the minimum time in transit. So, sometimes, environmentally sustainable development in farming.
seasonal food is healthier. Caterers may thus consider using organic produce
●● Seasonal food is better for the environment. If as a social priority. Some caterers have started using
you believe that human activity contributes to organic produce as they become more environmen-
climate change, then buying air-freighted French tally conscious.
beans from Kenya in the winter is foolhardy, given Today’s consumers, whether guests in a restaurant,
the vast amount of greenhouse gas produced by staff in firms’ restaurants or hospital patients, have
such unnecessary trade – and especially when a natural expectation that insensitive use of the
there are so many great local vegetables around environment or resources should be avoided. Staff in
in winter. Seasonal food fits into traditional catering have a natural expectation with regard to a
systems of farming, which don’t need the same sensible working environment.
energy-intensive inputs of pesticides, herbicides One of the problems for the organic market is
and artificial fertiliser as intensive systems. the lack of a good distribution network. It is difficult
●● Seasonal food is cheaper. Crop permitting, almost to establish a distribution network as long as there
anything that’s in season will be plentiful and are only a few catering kitchens that use organic
therefore cheaper. vegetables. The solution to the problem is to distrib-
●● Seasonal food supports local agriculture. Whether ute organic produce through traditional distribution
it’s from the farm down the road or a specialist channels, and this is being developed. The quality of
producer a few hours away, seasonal food that organic produce is variable. The majority of caterers
suits our climate is more likely to have been and food manufacturers at present take organic pro-
grown closer to home. Buying locally offers duce seriously. The trend for the future is likely to be
another market for beleaguered food producers, towards environmentally friendly food products rather
who are often squeezed between the impossible than organic food products.
demands of the supermarket buyers and cut- ‘Organic’ is a term defined by European law, and all
price competition from overseas. organic food production and processing is governed
●● Seasonal food makes you think about preserving. by strict legislative standards. Catering operations
Jams, chutneys, jellies, pickles preserves . . . all preparing and selling organic menus must be certi-
of these were invented as ways of preserving a fied with a UK certification body – for example, Soil
seasonal surplus. Association Certification Ltd.
●● Finally, seasonal food brings variety into our lives.
Who wants to eat the same things all year round? Environmentally friendly food
There is always a seasonal treat to look forward products
to in Britain, and once you know what they are, These are foods that are produced under conditions
it will change the way you eat and shop – even that save on electricity and water as well as other
the way you order in restaurants – and turn environmental factors, or they can be products made
each month, even each week, into a gastronomic using environmentally friendly technology. Products
adventure. may be packed in environmentally friendly packaging
50 FOOD COMMODITIES AND NUTRITION
and produce grown with a limited use of fertilisers slowly takes on the idea of organic production and
and crop sprays, but not necessarily totally organic. In increasingly begins to market environmentally friendly
this way a trend may be expected in which industry food products to the catering industry.
Meat
Cattle, sheep and pigs are reared for fresh meat. gives an increase in both the tenderness and fla-
Tenderness and flavour are increased in beef and vour. The increase in tenderness occurs as enzymes,
lamb if hung after slaughter. Pork and veal are hung naturally present within the meat, break down key
for three to seven days, according to the temperature. proteins. The so-called calpain enzymes are important
Meat is generally hung at a temperature of 1°C. for the development of tenderness. Flavour may be
increased by the release of small protein fragments
Conversion of muscle to meat with strong flavour. Minimum ageing periods of seven
Glycogen is a carbohydrate energy reserve stored in days from slaughter to consumption are often recom-
the muscle of animals. It is used to provide energy in mended for beef, lamb and pork. The flavour of meat
the living animal, and is broken down to water and is also dependent on the animal’s diet, and the fat
carbon dioxide. In muscle after slaughter there is content dependent on species.
no supply of oxygen and therefore the glycogen is
converted to lactic acid. The build-up of lactic acid Storage
reduces the pH from about 7.0 to 5.6 (i.e. it makes the Raw meat should be stored separately from cooked
meat more acidic). This natural acidity is important for meat or meat products. Chilled meat must be used by
the keeping quality of meat. the ‘use by’ date.
Under some conditions this process cannot follow The temperatures of chillers and freezers should
the normal pattern. In particular, if there is insufficient be checked and recorded regularly. Regulations state
glycogen present in the muscle at slaughter the pH that meat must be stored below 8°C but it is widely
does not fall to the same extent and dark, firm, dry recognised as best practice to store it at 1–4°C, or
meat results. This is caused by insufficient feed prior even lower. High-risk meat products that do not need
to slaughter or a prolonged period of stress. Another any further cooking must be stored in the 1–4°C
condition, known as PSE (pale soft exudative), results range. Any vacuum-packed meat should be stored
if animals (especially pigs) are subjected to a period below 3°C.
of acute stress prior to slaughter. This results in the
pH fall occurring too rapidly, which gives rise to dena- Cuts and joints
turation of the muscle protein. For economic reasons of saving on both labour and
storage space, very many caterers purchase meat by
Carcass hanging joints or cuts rather than by the carcass.
The method of carcass hanging used can give rise to The Meat Buyer’s Guide is a manual that has been
marked differences in eating quality. Hanging the car- designed to assist caterers who wish to simplify and
case by the hip bone (aitch bone) instead of the tra- facilitate their meat purchasing, and provides informa-
ditional Achilles tendon puts tension on the important tion and cutting guides.
muscles of the hindquarter. This ‘stretching’ effect in
some muscles makes them more tender. Traditionally Food value
carcasses were ‘hung’ (held as carcasses) for a Meat, having a high protein content, is valuable for
period of several days. In fact, boning can take place the growth and repair of the body and as a source of
as soon as 12 hours (pigs), 24 hours (sheep) or 48 energy. It is an important source of several vitamins,
hours (cattle) after slaughter, provided a period of minerals and other nutrients (e.g. vitamins B, A and
ageing is allowed following butchery. D, zinc and iron).
The fat content of meat varies according to the type
Ageing of meat and the cut. In some meats, the fat surrounds the
Like cheese and wine, meat benefits from a period lean muscle; in other meat, it appears as flecks of fat
of ageing, or maturation, before it is consumed. This (marbling) in the lean tissue.
Food commodities 51
Preservation as animals are generally slaughtered around the age

●● Salting: meat can be pickled in brine; this method of 18 to 24 months. Also, a short time after death,
of preservation may be applied to silverside, an animal’s muscles stiffen – a condition known as
brisket and ox tongues. Salting is also used in the rigor mortis. After a time chemical actions caused by
production of bacon, before the sides of pork are enzymes and increasing acidity relax the muscles and
smoked. This also applies to hams. the meat becomes soft and pliable. As meat contin-
●● Chilling: this means that meat is kept at a ues to hang in storage rigor mortis dissipates, and
temperature just above freezing point in a tenderness and flavour increase. (Pork, lamb and veal
controlled atmosphere. are obtained from young animals, so toughness is not
●● Freezing: small carcasses, such as lamb and a significant factor.)
mutton, can be frozen; their quality is not affected Large quantities of beef are prepared as chilled
by freezing. They can be kept frozen until required boneless prime cuts, vacuum packed in film. This
and then thawed out before use. Some beef is process has the following advantages: it extends
frozen, but it is inferior in quality to chilled beef. the storage life of the cuts; the cuts are boned and
●● Canning: large quantities of meat are canned; fully trimmed, thus reducing labour costs and storage
corned beef is of importance since it has a very space.
high protein content. Pork is used for tinned It is essential to store and handle vacuum-packed
luncheon meat and in canned hams. Prepared meat correctly. The storage temperature should be
meat products such as beef stew or beef pie 1–4°C with the cartons the correct way up so that
filling are also available canned. the drips cannot stain the fatty surface. A good cir-
●● Many cuts of meat are now sold in vacuum packs. culation of air should be allowed between cartons.
This helps to preserve the freshness of the meat When required for use, the vacuum film should be
but the packs must be kept in the refrigerator at punctured in order to drain away any blood before the
less than 3°C. film is removed. On opening the film a slight odour is
●● Meat cuts and products are also sold in modified usually discernible, but this should quickly disappear
atmosphere packaging (MAP). The meat is placed on exposure to the air. The vacuum-packed beef has
in a clear container sealed with a clear film top. a deep-red colour, but when the film is broken the
The meat is surrounded with a modified gas colour should change to its normal characteristic red
mixture that slows down deterioration. These within 20–30 minutes. Once the film has been punc-
packs must be kept in the refrigerator. tured the meat should be used as soon as possible.
Quality
For further information about meat contact the
Institute of Meat, on info@instituteofmeat.co.uk or Lean meat should be bright red, with small flecks of
visit www.instituteofmeat.co.uk. white fat (marbled). The fat should be firm, brittle in
texture, creamy white in colour and odourless. Meat
of traceable origin is best.
Beef Meat suppliers must be able to show the ‘trace-
The hanging or maturing of beef at a chill tempera- ability’ of the meat that they sell. This means that they
ture of 1°C (34°F) for up to 14 days has the effect of can show where the meat came from and where it
increasing its tenderness and flavour and is essential was slaughtered and butchered.
52 Food commodities and nutrition
Silverside Sirloin Fore Chuck

Middle Sticking
(underneath) Wing ribs ribs
Rump ribs piece
ribs
Topside
Shank
Thick
Shin Fillet
flank
Thin flank Brisket Figure 3.3 Beef, silverside (rolled)
Plate Leg of mutton cut
(underneath)
Figure 3.2 Side of beef
Figure 3.4 Rolled topside of beef Figure 3.5 Boned shin of beef Figure 3.6 Fillet and loin of beef
Figure 3.7 Forerib of beef Figure 3.8 Beef, chuck steaks Figure 3.9 T-bone steaks
Figure 3.10 Sirloin steaks Figure 3.11 Fillet steaks Figure 3.12 Rib eye steaks
Food commodities 53
Veal soft or flabby. Cut surfaces must not be dry, but moist.
Originally, most top-quality veal came from Holland, Bones in young animals should be pinkish white,
but as the Dutch methods of production are now porous and with a small amount of blood in their
used extensively in Britain, supplies of home-pro- structure. The fat should be firm and pinkish white.
duced veal are available all year round. Good-quality The kidney ought to be firm and well covered with fat.
carcasses weighing around 100 kg can be produced Welfare veal comes from calves that are loosely
from calves slaughtered at 12–24 weeks. This qual- penned. The colour of the meat as a consequence is
ity of veal is necessary for first-class cookery. a deeper shade of pink.
The flesh of veal should be pale pink and firm, not
Loin end
Middle neck
Chump
Scrag Best end
Silverside
8 Topside
9 2a
4b 4a 3
7
2b
Oyster 5 2c 1
1 6
Breast Thin flank Thick flank Hock/knuckle

Hock/knuckle
Figure 3.13 Side of veal
Figure 3.14 Veal kidneys Figure 3.15 Veal escalopes Figure 3.16 Veal sweetbreads
Spare rib
Pork
Lean flesh of pork is usually
pale pink. The fat usually is
Loin
white, firm, smooth and not
Head
excessive. Bones are usu-
Leg
ally small, fine and pinkish. Shoulder
The quality of the skin or Belly
Blade
rind depends on the breed. bone
Suckling pigs weigh 5–9 kg
dressed and are usually
roasted whole. Figure 3.17 Side of pork
Figure 3.18 Leg of pork, boned Figure 3.19 Boned leg of pork Figure 3.20 Loin of pork
and rolled
Figure 3.21 Pork chops Figure 3.22 Gammon Figure 3.23 Gammon steaks
Boars smooth. The fat ought to be white, smooth and not

Boars are uncastrated male pigs. The meat of boars excessive in proportion to the lean. The lean meat
is available from specialist farms. It is better to obtain of the bacon should be deep pink in colour and firm,
good-quality animals from suppliers using as near as depending on the cure.
possible 100 per cent pure breeding stock. Animals Bacon should be kept in a well-ventilated, prefer-
that are free to roam and forage for food may have a ably refrigerated, room. Joints of bacon should be
better flavour than farm-reared ones that have been wrapped in muslin. Sides of bacon are also hung on
penned and fed. Animals are best between 12 and hooks. Cut bacon is kept on trays in the refrigerator
18 months old, and weighing 70–75 kg on the hoof. or cold room. Bacon can also be vacuum packed (‘vac
Slaughtering is best done during late summer when packed’).
the fat content is lower. Recommended hanging time
is between seven and ten days at a temperature
of between 1 and 4°C. Marinating before cooking
greatly improves the taste and texture of boar meat.
Bacon
Bacon is the cured flesh of a pig (60–75 kg dead
weight) specifically reared for bacon because its
shape and size yield economic bacon joints.
The curing process consists of salting either by a
dry method and smoking, or by soaking in brine fol-
lowed by smoking. Unsmoked bacon is brine cured
but not smoked; it has a milder flavour but does not
keep as long as smoked bacon.
There should be no sign of stickiness. There must
be no unpleasant smell. The rind should be thin and Figure 3.24 Suckling pig
Food commodities 55
Pancetta is rolled slices of cured pork belly. Pancetta

is salt cured, flavoured with herbs and spices and air
dried. Lardo is an extremely fatty Italian bacon.
See also the section on hams (page 143).
Figure 3.25 Pig’s trotters
Back Collar
Gammon
Streaky Hock
Figure 3.26 Side of bacon
Figure 3.27 Back bacon Figure 3.28 Streaky bacon
Lamb and mutton pleasing dull-red colour, and of a fine texture or grain.
In Britain, more lamb and mutton are eaten than in The fat should be evenly distributed, hard, brittle, flaky
any other European country. Lamb is generally meat and clear white in colour. The bones should be porous
from animals under one year old; mutton is the term in young animals.
for older animals. The factors influencing lamb composition, quality
The carcass should be compact and evenly fleshed. and value are essentially similar to those described
The lean flesh of lamb ought to be firm and of a above for beef.
2
4 7 6 4 5
7
6 5 2
2 1
3
4 5
2 7 6
1
1. Shoulders (2) 5. Scrag end 3
2. Legs (2) 6. Best end
3. Breasts (2) 7. Saddle
4. Middle neck
Figure 3.29 Carcass of lamb
Figure 3.30 Saddle of lamb Figure 3.31 Pair of best ends of Figure 3.32 Boned and rolled lamb
lamb shoulder
Figure 3.33 Shoulder of lamb Figure 3.34 Double loin chops of Figure 3.35 Lamb loin chops
lamb
Figure 3.36 Lamb cutlets Figure 3.37 Best ends of lamb Figure 3.38 Valentines of lamb
(racks, French trimmed)
Food commodities 57
Figure 3.39 Leg chops Figure 3.40 Lamb rosettes
Offal and other edible parts of the tive humidity of 90 per cent for up to seven days.
carcass Frozen offal should be kept frozen until required.
Offal is the name given to the parts taken from
Further information on meats and offal can be
the inside of the carcass: edible offal includes liver,
found in Practical Cookery and Practical Cookery
kidney, heart and sweetbread. Tripe, brains, oxtail,
Level 3, and The Meat Buyer’s Guide (for full
tongue and head are sometimes included under this
details see the ‘References’ section on
term. Fresh offal (unfrozen) should be purchased
page 111).
as required and can be refrigerated under hygienic
conditions at a temperature of 21°C (30°F), at rela-
Figure 3.41 Lamb hearts Figure 3.42 Lamb kidneys Figure 3.43 Calves’ liver
Tripe Bones
Tripe is the stomach lining or white muscle of beef Bones must be fresh, not sticky; they are used for
cattle. Smooth tripe comes from the first compartment stock, which is the base for soups and sauces.
of the stomach. Honeycomb tripe is from the second
compartment of the stomach and is considered to be Liver
the best. Sheep tripe, darker in colour, is obtainable in Calves’ liver is the most expensive and is considered
some areas. Tripe may be boiled or braised. the best in terms of tenderness and delicacy of fla-
vour and colour. Lambs’ liver is mild in flavour, tender
Oxtail and light in colour. Ox or beef liver is the cheapest
Oxtails should be 1.5–1.75 kg, lean and with no signs and, if taken from an older animal, can be coarse
of stickiness. They are usually braised or used for soup. in texture and strong in flavour. Pigs’ liver is full-
flavoured and used in many pâté recipes.
Suet
Beef suet should be creamy white, brittle and dry. It Quality
is used for suet paste. Other fat should be fresh and Liver should appear fresh and have an attractive
not sticky. Suet and fat may be rendered down for colour. It must not be dry or contain tubes. It should
dripping. be smooth in texture.
Food value Sweetbreads

Liver is valuable as a protective food; it consists Sweetbreads is the name given to two glands, one
chiefly of protein and contains useful amounts of is the pancreas, and is undoubtedly the best as it
vitamin A and iron. is round, flat and plump; the other is the elongated
sausage-shaped thymus gland.
Kidney
Lambs’ kidney is light in colour, delicate in flavour, and Quality
ideal for grilling and frying. Calves’ kidney is light in Sweetbreads should be fleshy, large and creamy
colour, delicate in flavour and can be used in a wide white in colour.
variety of dishes. Ox kidney is dark in colour, strong
in flavour and is generally used mixed with beef, Food value
for steak and kidney pie or pudding. Pigs’ kidney is Sweetbreads are valuable foods, particularly for hos-
smooth, long and flat by comparison with sheep’s pital diets. They are very easily digested and useful
kidney; it has a strong flavour. for building body tissues.
Quality For information on quality, types of poultry and

Ox kidney should be fresh and deep red in colour. their use see Practical Cookery and Practical
Lambs’ kidney should be covered in fat, which is Cookery Level 3. For further information on poultry
removed just before use; the fat should be crisp and in general, contact the British Poultry Council:
the kidney moist. www.poultry.uk.com.
Food value
Kidneys are a rich source of protein, vitamin A and
Meat substitutes
iron. Textured vegetable protein (TVP)
This is a meat substitute manufactured from protein
Heart
derived from wheat, oats, cottonseed, soya beans and
Ox or beef hearts are the largest used for cooking. other sources. The main source of TVP is the soya
They are dark-coloured, solid, and tend to be dry and bean, due to its high protein content.
tough. Calves’ heart, coming from a younger animal, TVP is used chiefly as a meat extender, varying
is lighter in colour and more tender. Lambs’ heart is from 10–60 per cent replacement of fresh meat.
smaller and lighter, and normally served whole. Larger Some caterers on very tight budgets make use of it,
hearts are normally sliced before serving. but its main use is in food manufacturing.
By partially replacing the meat in certain dishes
Quality
– such as casseroles, stews, pies, pasties, sausage
Hearts should not be too fatty and should not contain rolls, hamburgers, meat loaf and pâté – it is possible
too many tubes. When cut they should be moist. to reduce costs, provide nutrition and serve food that
is acceptable in appearance.
Food value
Hearts have a high protein content and are valuable Myco-protein
for growth and repair of the body. This meat substitute is produced from a plant that is
a distant relative of the mushroom. Myco-protein con-
Tongue
tains protein and fibre, and is the result of a fermenta-
Tongues must be fresh. They should not have an tion process similar to that used in the production of
excessive amount of waste at the root end. Ox yoghurt. It may be used as an alternative to chicken
tongues may be used fresh or salted. Sheep’s tongues or beef, or in vegetarian dishes.
are used unsalted. Quorn is the brand name for myco-protein.
FOOD COMMODITIES 59
Poultry
Poultry is the name given to domestic birds specially net below 218°C until required. To reduce the risk
bred to be eaten and for their eggs. Poultry is Britain’s of food poisoning, it is essential that frozen birds
most popular meat: almost twice as much poultry is be completely thawed, preferably in a refrigerator,
consumed as beef. before they are cooked. Chilled birds should be kept
at between 1 and 4°C.
Season
Owing to present-day methods of poultry breeding Chicken
and growing, poultry is available all the year round Chicken is probably the most popular type of poultry
either chilled or frozen. dish. It comes in various types, with different uses:
Food value ●● spring chickens (poussin) – four to six weeks
The flesh of poultry is more easily digested than that old
of butchers’ meat. It contains protein and is therefore ●● broiler chickens – three to four months old
useful for building and repairing body tissues, and ●● medium and large roasting chickens
providing heat and energy. Its fat content is low and it ●● capons (castrated cock birds)
contains a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids. ●● old hens – used in soups and sauces.
Storage Quality
Fresh poultry must be hung by the legs under chilled Fresh chicken should have a plump breast, a pliable
conditions, otherwise it will not be tender; the innards breast bone and firm flesh. The skin should be white
are removed as soon as possible after slaughter. with a faint bluish tint and unbroken. The legs should
Frozen birds must be kept in a deep-freeze cabi- be smooth with small scales and spurs.
Figure 3.44 Chicken: whole and Figure 3.45 Corn-fed chicken Figure 3.46 Poussin
prepared for cooking
Duck/duckling and goose/

gosling
Goose is traditionally in season from
Michaelmas (29 September) until
Christmas.
Figure 3.47 Goose Figure 3.48 Goose prepared for

cooking
Figure 3.49 Duck: whole Figure 3.50 Gressingham duck:

prepared for cooking
Quality Quality
The feet and bills should be bright yellow. The upper The breast should be large, the skin undamaged and
bill should break easily. The webbed feet must be with no signs of stickiness. The legs of young birds
easy to tear. Ducks and geese may be roasted or are black and smooth, the feet supple with a short
braised. spur. As the bird ages the legs turn reddish grey and
become scaly. The feet become hard.
Turkey
Turkeys are usually roasted and served hot or cold. Guinea fowl
When the whole bird is not required, turkey cuts are When plucked these grey and white feathered birds
also popular. These include crowns (breasts left on resemble a chicken with darker flesh. The young birds
the bone), legs, boned legs, drumsticks, wings, esca- are known as squabs. The quality points relating to
lopes and mince. chicken (see page 59) also apply to guinea fowl.
Figure 3.51 Turkey Figure 3.52 Turkey prepared for Figure 3.53 Guinea fowl: whole
cooking and prepared for cooking
Pigeon Ostrich
Pigeon should be plump, the flesh mauve-red in Ostrich is usually sold as a fillet (taken from the thigh)
colour and the claws pinkish. Tame pigeons are or leg steak. The neck or offal is also available and is
smaller than wood pigeons. Squabs are young, spe- cheaper. It is often compared to beef, but it has a slightly
cially reared pigeons. coarser texture with less fat and lower cholesterol.
Figure 3.54 Wood pigeon: whole Figure 3.55 Squab: whole and
and prepared for cooking prepared for cooking
Game
Game is the name given to certain wild birds and Food value
animals that are eaten. There are two kinds of As it is less fatty than poultry or meat, game is more
game: feathered and furred. easily digested, with the exception of water fowl,
which has oily flesh. Game is useful for building and
repairing body tissues, and for energy.
Food commodities 61
Storage Venison contains 207 calories per 100 g, and

Hanging is essential for all game. It drains the flesh young venison has only about 6 per cent fat (com-
of blood and begins the process of disintegration that pared to beef, lamb and pork at around 20 per
is vital to make the flesh soft and edible, and also cent fat). It has the highest protein content of the
to develop flavour. The hanging time is determined major meats.
by the type, condition and age of the game, and the Venison is very suitable for a low-cholesterol diet
storage temperature. Old birds need to hang for a because the fat is mainly polyunsaturated. The car-
longer time than young birds. Game birds are not cass has little intramuscular fat; the lean meat con-
plucked or drawn before hanging. Venison and hare tains only low levels of marbling fat.
are hung with the skin on. Game must be hung in a Both farmed and wild venison are available. Joints
well-ventilated, dry, cold storeroom; this need not be should be well fleshed and a dark brownish-red
refrigerated. Game birds should be hung by the neck colour. Venison is usually roasted or braised in joints,
with the feet down. served hot or cold with a peppery/sweet type sauce.
Small cuts may be fried and served in a variety of
Availability ways. Venison is available as: shoulder, boned and
rolled; haunch, boned and rolled; prepared saddles
Game is available fresh in season between the dates and steaks; also as pâté, in sausages and burgers;
shown in Table 3.1, and frozen for the remainder of and smoked.
the year.
Table 3.1 Game in season*

Hare and rabbit
The ears of hares and rabbits should tear easily. In
Grouse 12 August–10 December old hares the lip is more pronounced than in young
Snipe 12 August–31 January animals. The rabbit is distinguished from the hare by
Partridge 1 September–1 February its shorter ears, feet and body.
Wild duck 1 September–31 January Hare may be cooked as a red wine stew thickened
Pheasant 1 October–1 February with its own blood, called jugged hare, and the saddle
Woodcock 31 October–1 February can be roasted.
* Venison, hares, rabbits and pigeons are available throughout Other meats
the year ●● Alligator is a white meat, with a veal-like texture
and a shellfish-like flavour.
Venison ●● Bison should be treated like a gamey, well-hung
Venison is the flesh from any member of the deer version of beef. However, because it is so lean
family, which includes elk, moose, reindeer, caribou it needs to be cooked quickly and served rare or
and antelope. Red deer meat is a dark, blood-red medium rare.
colour; the flesh of the roe deer is paler and the fallow ●● Camel is available as fillet, steak or diced. It
deer is considered to have the best flavour. comes frozen from Africa.
Meat from animals over 18 months in age tends to ●● Crocodile has a firm-textured, light-coloured meat
be tough and dry, and is usually marinated to counter- with a delicate fishy taste, similar to monkfish,
act this. Young animals up to 18 months produce deli- that absorbs other flavours well. It is surprisingly
cate, tender meat that does not require marinating. fatty.
Nowadays, venison is extensively farmed in the UK. ●● European wild boar has been reintroduced to
Figure 3.56 Venison Figure 3.57 Rabbit and hare: furred Figure 3.58 Rabbit and hare:
skinned
British farms. It produces rich, dark-red meat with ●● Pheasant: This is one of the most common game
a dense texture. birds. Average weight is 1.5–2 kg. Young birds
●● Kangaroo is similar to venison in flavour. It has a have a pliable breast bone and soft pliable feet.
fine-grained meat that, once cooked, is similar in They should be hung for five to eight days, and
texture to liver; it is best served rare or medium can be used for roasting, braising or pot roasting.
rare. ●● Quail: These are small birds weighing 50–75 g,
●● Kid usually comes from goats bred for their milk. produced on farms and usually packed in boxes
However, the South African Boer goat, which is of 12. Quails are not hung. They are usually
bred for its meat, has recently been introduced served roasted, grilled, spatchcock or braised.
into this country. It has a rich yet delicate flavour ●● Snipe: Weight is about 100 g. Hang for three to
with very little fat. four days. The heads and neck are skinned, the
●● Kudu is a breed of wild African antelope that eyes removed; birds are then trussed with their
is culled in a controlled way. The animals are own beaks. When drawing the birds, only the
very large and the meat has a stronger flavour gizzard, gallbladder and intestines are removed.
than wild venison. It needs to be tenderised by The birds are then roasted with the liver and heart
marinating and cooking. left inside.
●● Teal: The smallest duck, weighing 400–600 g.
Game birds Hang for one to two days. Usually roasted or
The beak should break easily. The breast plumage braised. Young birds have small pinkish legs and
should be soft. The breast should be plump. Quill soft down under the wings. Teal and wild duck
feathers should be pointed, not rounded. The legs must be eaten in season otherwise the flesh is
should be smooth. coarse and has a fishy flavour. Usually roasted or
braised.
●● Grouse: A particularly famous and popular game ●● Wild duck: Wild duck include mallard and
bird is the red grouse, which is shot in Scotland widgeon. Average weight is 1–1.5 kg. Hang for
and Yorkshire. Average weight is 300 g. Young one or two days. Usually roasted or braised.
birds have pointed wings and rounded soft spurs. ●● Woodcock: These are small birds with long, thin
Hang for five to seven days. Use for roasting. beaks. Average weight is 200–300 g. Prepare as
●● Partridge: The most common varieties are the for snipe. Usually roasted.
grey-legged and the red-legged partridge.
Average weight is 200–400 g. Hang for three to
five days. Use for roasting or braising.
Figure 3.59 Grouse: whole and Figure 3.60 Red-legged and Figure 3.61 Male and female
prepared for cooking English partridge: whole and pheasants and one prepared for
prepared for cooking cooking
Figure 3.62 Snipe: whole Figure 3.63 Quail: prepared for Figure 3.64 Wild duck: prepared for
cooking cooking
FOOD COMMODITIES 63
Fish
Fish have always made up a large proportion of the polluted, thus affecting both the supply and suitability
food we consume because of their abundance and of fish, particularly shellfish, for human consumption.
relative ease of harvesting. However, because the fish Fish are valuable, not only because they are a good
supply is not unlimited, due to overfishing, fish farms source of protein, but because they are suitable for
(e.g. for trout, salmon, cod, halibut and turbot) have all types of menus, and can be cooked and presented
been established to supplement the natural sources. in a wide variety of ways. The range of different types
Overfishing is not the only problem: due to contami- of fish of varying texture, taste and appearance is
nation by man, the seas and rivers are increasingly indispensable to the creative chef.
Table 3.2 Seasons for fish
Variety of fish Season Variety of fish Season

Oily Round
Anchovy Imported occasionally June to Barracuda Check with supplier
December (home waters) Bass (wild/farmed) June to September
Common eel All year, best in autumn Bream, fresh water August to April
Conger eel March to October Bream, sea June to December
Herring All year except spring Carp (mostly farmed) Fluctuates throughout year
Kingfish Check with supplier Cod All year, not at best in spring
Mackerel September to July Dogfish (huss, flake, All year, best in autumn
Pilchard (mature All year rigg)
sardine) Grey mullet May to February, best autumn
Salmon (farmed) All year and winter
Salmon (wild) February to August Grouper Check with supplier
Salmon trout February to August Haddock All year, best autumn and
Salmon (Pacific) July to November winter
Sprat September to March Hake June to February
Sardines All year John Dory September to May
Trout February to September Ling September to July
Trout (farmed) All year Monkfish (anglerfish) All year, best in winter
Tuna All year Pike All year
Whitebait When available Perch May to February
White, flat Pollock (yellow, May to December
green)
Brill June to February
Redfish All year
Dab March to December
Red gurnard All year, best from July to April
Flounder May to February, best in winter
Red mullet Imported best in summer, UK
Halibut June to March
autumn
Megrim April to February
Sea bream June to February
Plaice May to February
Smelt Occasionally
Skate May to February
Shark (porbeagle) Occasionally
Sole, Dover May to March
Snapper, red snapper Check with supplier
Sole, lemon All year, best in sprin
Whiting All year, best in winter
Turbot All year
Turbot (farmed) When available
Witch All year, best in spring
Types or varieties Oily fish

Oily fish are round in shape (e.g. herring, mackerel, ●● Anchovies: Anchovies are small, round fish used
salmon). White fish can be round (cod, whiting, hake) mainly tinned in this country; they are supplied in
or flat (plaice, sole, turbot). Shellfish and cephalopods 60 g and 390 g tins. They are filleted and packed
are discussed on pages 69–72. in oil. They are used for making anchovy butter
and anchovy sauce, for garnishing dishes and for
Purchasing unit savouries, snacks and salads.
Fresh fish is bought by the kilogram, by the number ●● Common eel: Eels live in fresh water and
of fillets or by whole fish of the weight required. are also farmed, and can grow up to 1 m in
For example, 30 kg of salmon could be ordered as length. They are found in many British rivers
2 3 15 kg, 3 3 10 kg or 6 3 5 kg. Frozen fish can and considerable quantities are imported from
be purchased in 15 kg blocks. Fish may be bought Holland. Eels must be kept alive until the last
on the bone or filleted in steaks or supremes. (The minute before cooking and are generally used in
approximate loss from boning and waste is 50 per fish stews.
cent for flat fish, 60 per cent for round fish.) Fillets ●● Conger eel: The conger eel is a dark-grey sea
of plaice and sole can be purchased according to fish with white flesh, which grows up to 3 m in
weight. They are graded from 45 g to 180 g per fillet, length. It may be used in the same way as eels, or
and go up in weight by 15 g. it may be smoked.
●● Herring: Fresh herrings are used for breakfast
Storage and lunch menus; they may be grilled, fried or
soused. Kippers (which are split, salted, dried and
Fresh fish are stored in a fish box containing ice, in
smoked herrings) are served for breakfast and
a separate refrigerator or part of a refrigerator used
also as a savoury. Average weight is 250 g.
only for fish at a temperature of 1–2°C. The tempera-
●● Kingfish come from the Spanish mackerel family;
ture must be maintained just above freezing point.
their flesh is orangey-pink coloured.
Frozen fish must be stored in a deep-freeze cabinet
●● Mackerel: Mackerel are grilled, shallow-fried,
or compartment at –18°C.
smoked or soused, and may be used on breakfast
Smoked fish should be kept in a refrigerator.
and lunch menus. They must be used fresh
because the flesh deteriorates very quickly.
Food value
Average weight is 360 g.
Fish is as useful a source of animal protein as meat. ●● Pilchards: These are mature sardines and can
The oily fish, such as sardines, mackerel, herrings and grow up to 24 cm. They have a good, distinctive
salmon, contain vitamins A and D in their flesh; in white flavour.
fish, such as halibut and cod, these vitamins are present ●● Salmon: Salmon is perhaps the most famous
in the liver. Since all fish contains protein it is a good river fish; it is caught in British rivers like the
body-building food, and oily fish is useful for energy and Dee, Tay, Severn, Avon, Wye and Spey. It is also
as a protective food because of the vitamins it contains. extensively farmed in Scotland and Norway.
The bones of sardines, whitebait and tinned salmon, A considerable number are imported from
which can be eaten, provide calcium and phosphorus. Scandinavia, Canada, Germany and Japan. Apart
Owing to its fat content, oily fish is not so digestible from using it fresh, salmon is tinned or smoked.
as white fish and is not suitable for use in cookery When fresh, it is used in a wide variety of
for invalids. dishes.
Figure 3.65 Herring Figure 3.66 Kipper Figure 3.67 Mackerel

Food commodities 65
Figure 3.68 Side of fresh salmon Figure 3.69 Salmon Figure 3.70 Side of smoked
salmon
●● Salmon trout (sea trout): Salmon trout are a ●● Sprats: Sprats are small fish fried whole; they can
sea fish similar in appearance to salmon, but also be smoked and served as an hors d’oeuvre.
smaller, and are used in a similar way. Average ●● Trout: Trout live in rivers and lakes in the UK;
weight is 1.5–2 kg. they are cultivated on trout farms. Trout may
●● Sardines: Sardines are small fish of the pilchard be poached and served grilled or shallow-fried,
family, which are usually tinned and used for hors and may also be smoked and served as an hors
d’oeuvre, sandwiches and as a savoury. Fresh d’oeuvre. Average weight is 200 g.
sardines are also available and may be cooked by ●● Tuna: Tuna has dark reddish-brown flesh that,
grilling or frying. when cooked, turns a lighter colour. It has a thin
texture and a mild flavour. If overcooked it dries
out, so is best cooked medium rare. It is used
fresh for a variety of dishes or tinned in oil and
used mainly as an hors d’oeuvre and in salads.
●● Whitebait: Whitebait are the fry, or young, of
herring; they are 2–4 cm long and are usually
deep-fried.
Figure 3.71 Sardine
Figure 3.72 Trout Figure 3.73 Smoked trout Figure 3.74 Whitebait
White flat fish

●● Brill: Brill is a large flat fish, which is sometimes
confused with turbot. Brill is oval in shape; the
mottled brown skin is smooth with small scales.
It can be distinguished from turbot by its lesser
breadth in proportion to length; average weight
is 3–4 kg. It is usually served in the same way as
turbot.
●● Dab: Dab is an oval-bodied fish with sandy brown
upper skin and green freckles. Usual size is Figure 3.75 Brill
20–30 cm. It has a pleasant flavour when fresh,
and may be cooked by all methods.
●● Flounder: This is oval, with dull brown upper skin side. Used on all types of menus, they are
(or sometimes dull green with orange freckles). usually deep-fried or grilled. Average weight is
Usual size is 30 cm. Flesh is rather watery and 360–450 g.
lacks flavour, needing good seasoning. It can be ●● Skate: Skate, a member of the ray family, is a
cooked by all methods. very large fish and only the wings are used. It is
●● Halibut: Halibut is a long and narrow fish, usually served on the bone and either poached,
brown, with some darker mottling on the upper shallow- or deep-fried, or cooked in a court
side; it can be 3 m in length and weigh around bouillon and served with black butter.
20–50 kg. Halibut is much valued for its flavour. ●● Sole: Sole is considered to be the best of the
It is poached, boiled, grilled or shallow-fried. It is flat fish. Sole is cooked by poaching, grilling or
also smoked. frying (both shallow and deep). It is served whole
●● Megrim: Megrim has a very long slender body, or can be filleted and garnished in a great many
sandy-brown coloured with dark blotches. Usual ways.
size is 20–30 cm. It has a softish flesh and an –– The quality of Dover sole is well known to be
unexceptional flavour, so needs good flavouring. It excellent.
is best breadcrumbed and shallow-fried. –– Lemon sole: This is related to Dover sole, but
●● Plaice: Plaice are oval in shape, with dark- is broader in shape, and its upper skin is warm,
brown colouring and orange spots on the upper yellowy-brown and mottled with darker brown.
Figure 3.76 Halibut Figure 3.79 Skate
Figure 3.77 Smoked halibut Figure 3.80 Dover sole
Figure 3.78 Plaice Figure 3.81 Lemon sole

Food commodities 67
It can weigh up to 600 g, and may be cooked in length. Cod is cut into steaks or filleted and
by all methods. cut into portions; it can be deep- or shallow-fried
●● Turbot: Turbot has no scales and is roughly or poached. Small cod are known as codling.
diamond in shape; it has knobs known as Average weight of cod is 2.5–3.5 kg.
tubercles on its dark skin. In proportion to its ●● Coley (saith, coalfish, blackjack): Coley is dark
length it is wider than brill; 3.5–4 kg is the greenish-brown or blackish in colour, but the flesh
average weight. Turbot may be cooked whole, turns white when cooked. It has a coarse texture
filleted or cut into portions on the bone. It may be and a dry undistinctive flavour, so is best used in
boiled, poached, grilled or shallow-fried. mixed fish stews, soups or pies. Average size is
●● Witch: This is similar in appearance and weight 40–80 cm.
to lemon sole, with sandy-brown upper skin. It is ●● Dogfish (huss, flake, rigg): These are slender,
best fried, poached, grilled or steamed. elongated small sharks. The non-bony white
or pink flesh is versatile, and is usually served
Round fish shallow- or deep-fried. It has a good flavour when
●● Barracuda: A game fish with reddish flesh that, very fresh. Length is usually 60 cm and weight
when cooked, turns pastel white. A mild-flavoured 1.25 kg.
fish, it should be cooked as a supreme with the ●● Grey mullet: This has a scaly, streamlined body,
skin left on to prevent drying out. which is silver-grey or blue-green. Deep-sea
●● Bass: Bass have silvery grey backs and white or offshore mullet has a fine flavour, with firm,
bellies; small ones may have black spots. They moist flesh. It may be stuffed and baked or grilled
have an excellent flavour, with white, lean, softish in steaks. Some people believe that flavour is
flesh (which must be very fresh). Bass can be improved if the fish is kept in a refrigerator for
steamed, poached, stuffed and baked, or grilled in two to three days, without being cleaned. Length
steaks. Usual length is 30 cm but they can grow is usually about 30 cm, weight 500 g.
to 60 cm. Bass is usually farmed but sea bass is ●● Grouper: Types include brown, brown spotted,
available (also called wild or natural) off the south golden strawberry and red speckled. Grouper has
coast of Britain. Farmed bass is also available a light pinkish flesh that cooks to a greyish-white,
from France and Greece. with a pleasant mild flavour.
●● Bream: Sea bream is a short, oval-bodied, plump, ●● Gudgeon: Gudgeon are small fish found in
reddish fish, with large scales and a dark patch continental lakes and rivers. They may be
behind the head. It is used on many less expensive deep-fried whole. On menus in this country the
menus; it is usually filleted and deep-fried, or French term ‘en goujon’ refers to other fish such
stuffed and baked, but other methods of cooking as sole or turbot, cut into pieces the size of
are also employed. Average weight is 0.5–1 kg, gudgeon.
size 28–30 cm. Bream are caught fresh or farmed. ●● Gurnard: A large family of tasty fish with many
●● Carp: This is a freshwater fish, usually farmed. culinary uses.
The flesh is white with a good flavour, and is best ●● Haddock: Haddock is distinguished from cod
poached in fillets or stuffed and baked. The usual by the ‘thumb mark’ on its side and by its lighter
size is 1–2 kg. colour. Every method of cooking is suitable for
●● Cod: Cod varies in colour but is mostly greenish, haddock, and it appears on all kinds of menus.
brownish or olive grey. It can measure up to 1.5 m Apart from fresh haddock, smoked haddock may
Figure 3.82 Turbot Figure 3.83 Cod

Figure 3.85 Smoked haddock
Figure 3.84 Gurnard
be served for breakfast, lunch and as a savoury.

Average weight is 0.5–2 kg.
●● Hake: Owing to overfishing, hake is not plentiful. Figure 3.86 Arbroath smokie (haddock
It is usually poached and is easy to digest. The smoked over hardwood)
flesh is very white and has a delicate flavour.
●● John Dory: John Dory has a thin distinctive body,
flattened from side to side, which is sandy-beige
in colour and tinged with yellow, with a blue/
silver-grey belly. There is a blotch on each side,
referred to as the ‘thumbprint of St Peter’. It has
very tough sharp spikes. The flavour is considered
superb, and the fish may be cooked by all
methods, but is best poached, baked or steamed.
The large bony head accounts for two-thirds of
the weight. Usual size is 36 cm.
●● Ling: This is the largest member of the cod Figure 3.87 Hake
family; it is mottled brown or green with a bronze
sheen, and the fins have white edges. Size can be
up to 90 cm. Ling has a good flavour and texture,
and is generally used in fillets or cutlets, as for
cod.
●● Monkfish: Monkfish has a huge flattened head,
with a normal fish-shaped tail. It is brown with
dark blotches. The tail can be up to 180 cm,
weight 1–10 kg. It may be cooked by all methods,
and is a firm, close-textured white fish with
excellent flavour.
●● Pike: Pike has a long body, usually 60 cm, which Figure 3.88 John Dory
is greeny-brown, flecked with lighter green, with
long toothy jaws. The traditional fish for quenelles,
it may also be braised or steamed.
●● Perch: Perch has a deep body, marked with
about five shadowy vertical bars, and the fins are
vivid orange or red. Usual size 15–30 cm. It is
generally considered to have an excellent flavour,
and may be shallow-fried, grilled, baked, braised
or steamed.
●● Pollock: This is a member of the cod family,
and has a similar shape and variable colours. Its
usual size is 45 cm. It is drier than cod, and can Figure 3.89 Monkfish
Food commodities 69
●● Wrasse: Fish of variable colours, but usually

tinged with red and blue, covered in white and
green spots. Wrasse has a variety of culinary uses
and can be baked and steamed.
Figure 3.90 Monkfish tail: prepared
be poached, shallow-fried or used for soups and

stews.
●● Redfish: This is bright red or orange-red, with a
rosy belly and dusky gills. Usual size is 45 cm. It Figure 3.91 Red mullet
may be poached, baked or used in soups.
●● Red gurnard (grey and yellow gurnard may
also be available): This has a large ‘mail-
checked’, tapering body with very spiky fins. Usual
size is 20–30 cm. It is good for stews, braising
and baking.
●● Red mullet: Red mullet is on occasion cooked
with the liver left in, as it is thought that this helps
impart a better flavour to the fish. Mullet may be
filleted or cooked whole, and the average weight
is 360 g. Figure 3.92 Snapper
●● Rockfish: Rockfish is the fishmonger’s term for
catfish, coalfish, dogfish, conger eel and the like,
For further information on fish, visit:
after cleaning and skinning. It is usually deep-
www.seafish.org.uk or contact the Seafish
fried in batter.
Industry Authority, 18 Logie Mill, Logie Green
●● Shark: The porbeagle shark, mako or
Road, Edinburgh EH7 4HG.
hammerhead, fished off the British coast, gives
the best-quality food. It is bluish-grey above with
a white belly and matt skin. Size is up to 3 m. Shellfish
It may be cooked by all methods, but grilling in Shellfish are of two types:
steaks or as kebabs is particularly suitable.
●● Smelt: Smelts are small fish found in river 1 crustaceans (lobster, crabs)
estuaries and imported from Holland; they are 2 molluscs (oysters, mussels).
usually deep-fried or grilled. Before grilling they Shellfish is a good body-building food. As the flesh is
are split open. The weight of a smelt is 60–90 g. coarse and therefore indigestible a little vinegar may
●● Snapper: There are several kinds of snapper, be used in cooking to soften the fibres.
all of which are brightly coloured. Deep-red
or medium-sized ones give the best flavour. Crustaceans
Snapper may be steamed, fried, grilled, baked or
smoked. ●● Crabs: Crabs are used in hors d’oeuvre, cocktails,
●● Swordfish: Swordfish is popular grilled, salads, dressed crab, sandwiches and bouchées.
barbecued, roasted or shallow-fried. Soft-shelled crabs are eaten in their entirety. They
●● Whiting: Whiting is very easy to digest and is are considered to have an excellent flavour and
therefore suitable for use in cookery for invalids. may be deep- or shallow-fried or grilled.
It may be poached, grilled or deep-fried and used ●● Crawfish: Crawfish are like large lobsters
in the making of fish stuffing. Average weight is without claws, but with long antennae. They
360 g. are brick-red in colour when cooked. Owing
Table 3.3 Seasons for shellfish

Shellfish Season
Clams All year
Cockles All year, best in summer
Common crab All year, best April to December
Spider crab All year
Swimming crab All year
King crab, red crab Check with supplier
Soft-shelled crab Check with supplier Figure 3.94 Crayfish
Crawfish April to October
Dublin Bay prawn All year
Freshwater crayfish Mainly imported, some farmed
in the UK, wild have short
season
Lobster April to November
Mussels September to March
Oysters May to August
Prawn and shrimp All year
Scallop Best December to March
Sea urchin All year
Figure 3.95 Lobster: raw
to their size and appearance they are used

mostly on cold buffets but they can be served
hot. The best size is 1.5–2 kg. Menu examples
include langouste parisienne (dressed crawfish
Paris-style).
●● Crayfish: Crayfish are a type of small freshwater
lobster used for salads, garnishing cold buffet
dishes and for recipes using lobster. They are
dark brown or grey, turning pink when cooked.
Average size is 8 cm.
Figure 3.96 Lobster: cooked
●● Lobster: Lobsters are served cold in cocktails,
hors d’oeuvre, salads, sandwiches and on buffets.
They are used hot for soup, grilled and served in
numerous dishes with various sauces. fish dishes, for cocktails, canapés, salads, hors
●● Prawns: Prawns are larger than shrimps; they d’oeuvre and for hot dishes, such as curried
may be used for garnishing and decorating prawns. Prawns are also popular served cold with
a mayonnaise-type sauce.
●● Scampi, Dublin Bay prawns, langoustines:
Scampi are found in the Mediterranean. The
Dublin Bay prawn, which is from the same family,
is caught around the Scottish coast. These
shellfish resemble small lobsters, about 20 cm
long, and only the tail flesh is used for a variety of
fish dishes, garnishing and salads.
●● Shrimps: Shrimps are used for garnishes,
decorating fish dishes, in cocktails, sauces,
salads, hors d’oeuvre, potted shrimps, omelettes
Figure 3.93 Crab and savouries.
Food commodities 71
months oysters are imported from France,

Holland and Portugal.
Oysters are usually stored in their original
packaging, in the refrigerator to keep them moist
and alive. The shells should be tightly closed; if
they are open, tap them sharply and, if they do
not shut at once, discard them.
The popular way of eating oysters is in the raw
state. They may also be served in soups, hot
cocktail savouries, fish garnishes, as a fish dish,
Figure 3.97 Langoustines
and in meat puddings and savouries.
●● Scallops: Great scallops are up to 15 cm in size,
Molluscs bay scallops up to 8 cm, queen scallops are small-
●● Clams: There are many varieties; the soft or cockle sized, and are also known as ‘queenies’.
long-neck clams, such as razor and Ipswich, and Scallops may be steamed, poached, fried or grilled.
small hard-shell clams such as cherrystones, can ●● Sea urchin or sea hedgehog: The sea urchin
be eaten raw. Large clams can be steamed, fried has a spine-covered spherical shell. Only the
or grilled and used for soups (chowders) and orange and yellow roe is eaten, either raw out of
sauces. the shell or removed with a teaspoon and used in
●● Cockles: These are enclosed in pretty cream- soups, sauces, scrambled eggs, and so on; 10 to
coloured shells of 2–3 cm. Cockles are soaked in 20 urchins provide approximately 200 g roe.
salt water to purge and then steamed or boiled. ●● Winkles: Winkles are small sea snails with a
They may be used in soups, salads and fish delicious flavour. They may be boiled for three
dishes, or served as a dish by themselves. minutes and served with garlic butter or on a dish
●● Mussels: Mussels are extensively cultivated on of assorted shellfish.
wooden hurdles in the sea, producing tender,
delicately flavoured, plump fish. British mussels Cephalopods and fish offal
are considered good; French mussels are smaller;
Dutch and Belgian mussels are plumper. All vary Cuttlefish
in quality from season to season. Mussels are Cuttlefish are usually dark with attractive pale stripes,
usually stored in their original packaging, in the and their size can be up to 24 cm. They are available
refrigerator. all year by number and weight. Cuttlefish are pre-
●● Oysters: Oysters are produced from centres in pared like squid and may be stewed or gently grilled.
England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. Since the
majority of oysters are eaten raw it is essential Octopus
that they are thoroughly cleaned before hotels Octopus is available all year by number and weight.
and restaurants receive them. Oysters must be Large species are tough and need to be tenderised;
alive; this is indicated by their firmly closed shells. they are then prepared as for squid. Small octopi
They are graded in sizes, and the price varies can be boiled, then cut up for grilling or frying. When
accordingly. Oysters should smell fresh. They stewing, a long cooking time is needed.
should be purchased daily. Oysters are in season
in the UK from September to April (i.e. whenever Squid
there is an ‘r’ in the month). During the summer The common squid has mottled skin and white flesh,
Figure 3.98 Clams Figure 3.99 Mussels Figure 3.100 Scallops

Figure 3.101 Octopus Figure 3.102 Squid

Figure 3.103 Cod roe
two tentacles, eight arms and flap-like fins. Usual size Liver
is 15–30 cm. Careful, correct preparation (see below) An oil rich in vitamins A and D is obtained from the
is important if the fish is to be tender. It may be stir- liver of cod and halibut. This is used medicinally.
fried, fried, baked, grilled or braised.
Roe
Preparation
The soft and hard roes of herring, cod, sturgeon and
●● Pull head away from the body together with the the coral from lobster are eaten. Soft herring roes are
innards. used to garnish fish dishes and as a savoury. Cod’s
●● Cut off the tentacles just below the eye. roe is smoked and served as an hors d’oeuvre. The
●● Remove the small, round cartilage at the base of roe of the sturgeon is salted and served raw as caviar,
the tentacles. and the coral of lobster is used for colouring lobster
●● Discard the head, innards and pieces of cartilage. butter and lobster dishes, and also as a decoration
●● Scrape or peel off the reddish membrane that for fish dishes.
covers the pouch
Vegetables
Fresh vegetables and fruits are important foods, both but none probably more so than fresh vegetables
from an economic and nutritional point of view. On and fruit.
average, each person consumes 125–150 kg per
year of fruit and vegetables. The grading of fresh fruit and
The purchasing of these commodities is difficult vegetables within the EU
because the products are highly perishable, and supply There are four main quality classes for produce:
and demand vary. The high perishability of fresh veg-
etables and fruits causes problems not encountered 1 Extra Class – for produce of top quality
in other markets. Fresh vegetables and fruits are living 2 Class I – for produce of good quality
organisms and will lose quality quickly if not properly 3 Class II – for produce of reasonably good quality
stored and handled. Improved transportation and stor- 4 Class III – for produce of low marketable quality.
age facilities can help prevent loss of quality. For more
information on organic vegetables see page 00. Food value
Automation in harvesting and packaging speeds ●● Root vegetables: useful in the diet because they
the handling process and helps retain quality. Vacuum contain starch or sugar for energy, a small but
cooling – a process whereby fresh produce is moved valuable amount of protein, some mineral salts
into huge chambers, where, for about half an hour, a and vitamins; also useful sources of cellulose and
low vacuum is maintained, inducing rapid evaporation, water.
which quickly reduces field heat – has been highly ●● Green vegetables: no food is stored in the
successful in improving quality. leaves, it is only produced there; therefore
Experience and sound judgement are essential for little protein or carbohydrate is found in green
the efficient buying and storage of all commodities, vegetables; they are rich in mineral salts and
Food commodities 73
vitamins, particularly vitamin C and carotene; the

greener the leaf, the larger the quantity of vitamin
present; chief mineral salts are calcium and iron.
Preservation
●● Canning: certain vegetables are preserved in tins
– artichokes, asparagus, carrots, celery, beans,
peas (fine, garden, processed), tomatoes (whole,
purée), mushrooms, truffles.
●● Dehydration: onions, carrots, potatoes and
cabbage are shredded and quickly dried until they
contain only 5 per cent water.
●● Drying: the seeds of legumes (peas and beans)
Figure 3.104 Root vegetables (left to right: parsnip, carrots,
have their moisture content reduced to 10 per
celeriac, horseradish, radishes, mooli)
cent.
●● Pickling: onions and red cabbage are examples
●● Swede – large root with yellow flesh; generally
of vegetables preserved in spiced vinegar.
used as a vegetable, mashed or parboiled and
●● Salting: French and runner beans may be sliced
roasted; may be added to stews.
and preserved in dry salt.
●● Turnip – two main varieties, long and round; used
●● Freezing: many vegetables, such as peas,
in soups, stews and as a vegetable.
beans, sprouts, spinach and cauliflower, are
deep frozen. Tubers
●● Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP):
●● Artichokes, Jerusalem – potato-like tuber with a
prepared vegetable and salads are packed and
bitter-sweet flavour; used in soups, salads and as
surrounded by modified gases.
a vegetable.
●● Potatoes – many varieties are grown but all
Types of vegetables
potatoes should be sold by name (King Edward,
Roots Desiree, Maris Piper); this is important as the
●● Beetroot – two main types, round and long; used caterer needs to know which varieties are best
for soups, salads and as a vegetable. suited for specific cooking purposes. The various
●● Carrots – grown in numerous varieties and sizes; varieties fall into four categories: floury, firm, waxy
used extensively for soups, sauces, stocks, stews, or salad potatoes. Jersey royals are specially
salads and as a vegetable. grown, highly regarded new potatoes. Purple
●● Celeriac – large, light-brown, celery-flavoured Congo are a blue potato. Truffle de Chine are a
root, used in soups, salads and as a vegetable. deep-purple potato grown in France.
●● Horseradish – long, light-brown, narrow root, ●● Taro is the name used for several varieties
grated and used for horseradish sauce. of tuber found in tropical areas. Two common
●● Mooli – long, white, thick member of radish
family, used for soups, salads or as a vegetable.
●● Parsnips – long, white root, tapering to a point;
unique nut-like flavour; used in soups, added to
casseroles and as a vegetable (roasted, purée,
etc.).
●● Radishes – small summer variety, round or oval,
served with dips, in salads or as a vegetable in
white or cheese sauce.
●● Salsify – also called oyster plant because of
similarity of taste; long, narrow root used in soups,
salads and as a vegetable.
●● Scorzonera – long, narrow root, slightly
astringent in flavour; used in soups, salads and as Figure 3.105 Tubers (left to right: yam, sweet potato,
a vegetable. potatoes, new potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes)
varieties of taro are eddo and dasheen. They are ●● Spring onions – are slim and tiny, like miniature
all a dark mahogany-brown with a shaggy skin, leeks; used in soups, salads and Chinese and
looking like a cross between a beetroot and a Japanese cookery. Ramp looks like a spring onion
swede. but is stronger.
●● Sweet potatoes – long tubers with purple or
sand-coloured skins and orange flesh; flavour is Leafy
sweet and aromatic; used as a vegetable (fried, ●● Chicory – a lettuce with coarse, crisp leaves and
puréed, creamed, candied) or made into a sweet a sharp, bitter taste in the outside leaves; inner
pudding. leaves are milder.
●● Yams – similar to sweet potatoes, usually ●● Chinese leaves – long white, densely packed
cylindrical, often knobbly in shape; can be used in leaves with a mild flavour resembling celery; make
the same way as sweet potatoes. a good substitute for lettuce and can be boiled,
braised or stir-fried as a vegetable.
Bulbs ●● Corn salad – sometimes called lamb’s lettuce;
●● Fennel – the bulb is the swollen leaf base and small, tender, dark leaves with a tangy nutty taste.
has a pronounced flavour. Used raw in salads and ●● Cress – there are 15 varieties of cress with
cooked. different flavours, suitable for a large range of
●● Garlic – an onion-like bulb with a papery skin foods.
inside of which are small individually wrapped ●● Culaboo are leaves of the tero plant, poisonous
cloves; used extensively in many forms of if eaten raw, but widely used in Asian and
cookery; garlic has a pungent distinctive flavour Caribbean cookery.
and should be used sparingly. ●● Lettuce – many varieties including cabbage, cos,
●● Leeks – summer leeks have long white stems, little gem, iceberg, oakleaf, Webb’s; used chiefly
bright green leaves and a milder flavour than for salads, or used as a wrapping for other foods,
winter leeks; these have a stockier stem and e.g. fish fillets.
a stronger flavour; used extensively in stocks, ●● Mustard and cress – embryonic leaves of
soups, sauces, stews, hors d’oeuvre and as a mustard and garden cress with a sharp warm
vegetable. flavour; used mainly in, or as a garnish to,
●● Onions – there are numerous varieties with sandwiches and salads.
different-coloured skins and varying strengths; ●● Nettles – once cooked the sting disappears;
after salt, the onion is probably the most should be picked young, used in soups.
frequently used flavouring in cookery; can be ●● Radicchio – round, deep-red variety of chicory
used in almost every type of food except sweet with white ribs and a distinctive bitter taste.
dishes. ●● Red salanova – a neat, tasty lettuce; very
●● Shallots – have a similar but more refined flavour suitable for garnish.
than the onion and are therefore more often used ●● Rocket – a type of cress with larger leaves and a
in top-class cookery. peppery taste.
Figure 3.106 Bulbs (left to right: leek, garlic, onion, shallots, Figure 3.107 Leafy vegetables (clockwise from top: cabbage,
spring onions) pak choi, spinach, watercress)
Food commodities 75
●● Sorrel – bright-green sour leaves, which can be green and red as a vegetable, boiled, braised or
overpowering if used on their own; best when stir-fried.
tender and young; used in salad and soups. ●● Cauliflower – heads of creamy-white florets with
●● Spinach – tender dark-green leaves with a mild a distinctive flavour; used for soup, and cooked
musky flavour; used for soups, garnishing egg and served in various ways as a vegetable.
and fish dishes, as a vegetable and raw in ●● Chinese mustard greens – deep green and
salads. mustard flavoured.
●● Swiss chard – has large, ribbed, slightly curly ●● Kale and curly kale – thick green leaves. The
leaves with a flavour similar to but milder than curly variety is the more popular.
spinach; used as for spinach. ●● Pak choi – Chinese cabbage with many varieties.
●● Vine leaves – all leaves from grape vines can be ●● Romanescue – pretty green or white cross
eaten when young. between broccoli and cauliflower.
●● Watercress – long stems with round, dark, tender
green leaves and a pungent peppery flavour; used Pods and seeds
for soups, salads, and for garnishing roasts and ●● Broad beans – pale-green, oval-shaped beans
grills of meat and poultry. contained in a thick fleshy pod; young broad
beans can be removed from the pods, cooked in
Brassicas their shells and served as a vegetable in various
●● Broccoflower – a cross between broccoli and ways; old broad beans will toughen and, when
cauliflower. removed from the pods, will have to be shelled
●● Broccoli – various types including calabrese before being served.
white, green, purple sprouting; delicate vegetable ●● Butter or lima beans – butter beans are white,
with a gentle flavour used in soups, salads, stir-fry large, flattish and oval-shaped; lima beans are
dishes, and cooked and served in many ways as smaller; both are used as a vegetable or salad,
a vegetable. Chinese broccoli is a leafy vegetable stew or casserole ingredient.
with slender heads of flowers. ●● Mangetout – also called snow peas or sugar
●● Brussels sprouts – small green buds growing peas; flat pea pod with immature seeds that, after
on thick stems; can be used for soup but are topping, tailing and stringing, may be eaten in
mainly used as a vegetable, and can be cooked their entirety; used as a vegetable, in salads and
and served in a variety of ways. for stir-fry dishes.
●● Cabbage – three main types including green, ●● Okra – curved and pointed seed pods with
white and red; many varieties of green cabbage a flavour similar to aubergines; cooked as a
available at different seasons of the year; early vegetable or in creole-type stews.
green cabbage is deep green and loosely formed; ●● Peas – garden peas are normal size, petits pois
later in the season they firm up, with solid hearts; are a dwarf variety; marrowfat peas are dried;
Savoy is considered the best of the winter green popular as a vegetable, peas are also used for
cabbage; white cabbage is used for coleslaw; soups, salads, stews and stir-fry dishes.
Figure 3.108 Brassicas (clockwise from top left: kale, broccoli, Figure 3.109 Pods and seeds (clockwise from top left: okra,
cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi) sweetcorn, runner beans, mangetout, peas, bean sprouts)
●● Runner beans – popular vegetable that must

be used when young; bright-green colour and a
pliable velvety feel; if coarse, wilted or older beans
are used they will be stringy and tough.
●● Sweetcorn – also known as maize or Sudan
corn; available ‘on the cob’, fresh or frozen or in
kernels, canned or frozen; a versatile commodity
and used as a first course, in soups, salads,
casseroles and as a vegetable.
Stems and shoots

●● Asparagus – the three main types are white, with
creamy white stems and a mild flavour; French, with
violet or bluish tips and a stronger more astringent Figure 3.110 Stems and shoots (left to right: globe artichoke,
celery, fennel)
flavour; and green, with what is considered a
delicious aromatic flavour; used on every course of
the menu, except the sweet course.
●● Bean sprouts – slender young sprouts of the
germinating soya or mung bean, used as a
vegetable accompaniment, in stir-fry dishes and
salads.
●● Cardoon – longish plant with root and fleshy
ribbed stalk similar to celery, but leaves are grey-
green in colour; used cooked as a vegetable or
raw in salads.
●● Celery – long-stemmed bundles of fleshy, ribbed
stalks, white to light green in colour; used in
soups, stocks, sauces, cooked as a vegetable and
raw in salads and dips.
●● Chicory – also known as Belgian endive; conical Figure 3.111 Fruiting vegetables (clockwise from top left:
avocado, Italian aubergine, red pepper, yellow pepper, tomatoes)
heads of crisp white, faintly bitter leaves used
cooked as a vegetable and raw in salads and dips.
●● Fallow wax beans – similar to French beans. ●● Sea kale – delicate white leaves with yellow frills
●● Fiddlecoke fern – also called ostrich fern; 5 cm edged with purple; can be boiled or braised, or
long, a bit like asparagus and used in oriental served raw like celery.
dishes. ●● Thai beans – similar to French beans.
●● Globe artichokes – resemble fat pine cones ●● Water chestnuts – common name for a number
with overlapping fleshy, green, inedible leaves, all of aquatic herbs and their nut-like fruit; the
connected to an edible fleshy base or bottom; best-known type is the Chinese water chestnut,
used as a first course, hot or cold; as a vegetable, sometimes known as the Chinese sedge.
boiled, stuffed, baked, fried or in casseroles.
●● Kohlrabi – stem that swells to turnip shape above Fruiting
the ground; those about the size of a large egg ●● Aubergine – firm, elongated, varying in size with
are best for cookery purposes (other than soup or smooth shiny skins ranging in colour from purple-
purées); may be cooked as a vegetable, stuffed red to purple-black; inner flesh is white with tiny
and baked and added to stews and casseroles. soft seeds; almost without flavour, it requires
●● Palm hearts – the buds of cabbage palm trees. other seasonings, e.g. garlic, lemon juice, herbs,
●● Samphire – the two types are marsh samphire, to enhance its taste; may be sliced and fried or
which grows in estuaries and salt marshes, and baked, steamed or stuffed. Varieties include baby,
white rock samphire (sometimes called sea Japanese, white, striped, Thai.
fennel), which grows on rocky shores. Marsh ●● Avocado – fruit that is mainly used as a
samphire is also known as glass wort and vegetable because of its bland, mild, nutty flavour;
sometimes sea asparagus. two main types are the summer variety, which is
Food commodities 77
green when unripe and purple-black when ripe, ●● Tomatoes – along with onions, probably the most
with golden-yellow flesh; the winter ones are frequently used ‘vegetable’ in cookery; several
more pear-shaped with smooth green skin and varieties, including cherry, yellow, globe, large
pale green to yellow flesh; eaten as first courses ridged (beef) and plum; used in soups, sauces,
and used in soups, salads, dips and as garnishes stews, salads, sandwiches and as a vegetable.
to other dishes, hot and cold. Tomatoes are also sundried or semi-dried
●● Courgette – baby marrow, yellow or light to dark (sunblush) – these are now an important culinary
green in colour, with a delicate flavour becoming ingredient.
stronger when cooked with other ingredients,
e.g. herbs, garlic, spices; may be boiled, steamed, Plantains
fried, baked, stuffed and stir-fried. ●● Ackee – tropical fruit used in Caribbean-style
●● Cucumber – a long, smooth-skinned fruiting savoury dishes.
vegetable, ridged and dark green in colour; used ●● Breadfruit – fruit from a tropical tree found in
in salads, soups, sandwiches, garnishes and as a the Islands of the South Pacific Ocean.
vegetable.
●● Gourds (exotic) – include bottle gourds, Mushrooms and fungi
chayotes (chow-chow), Chinese butter lemons. All mushrooms, both wild and cultivated, have a great
●● Marrow – long, oval-shaped edible gourds with many uses in cookery, in soups, stocks, salads, veg-
ridged green skins and a bland flavour; may be etables, savouries and garnishes. Wild mushrooms
cooked as for courgettes. are also available in dried form.
●● Peppers – available in three colours, green
●● Mushrooms – field mushrooms found in
peppers are unripened and they turn yellow to
meadows from late summer to autumn; creamy
orange and then red (they must remain on the
white cap and stalk and a strong earthy flavour.
plant to do this); used raw and cooked in salads,
●● Cultivated mushrooms – available in three
vegetable dishes, stuffed and baked, casseroles
types: button (small, succulent, weak in flavour),
and stir-fry dishes.
cap and open or flat mushrooms.
●● Pumpkins – vary in size and can weigh
●● Ceps – wild mushrooms with short, stout stalks
up to 50 kg; associated with Halloween as
with slightly raised veins and tubes underneath
a decoration but may be used in soups or
the cap in which the brown spores are produced.
pumpkin pie.
●● Chanterelles or girolles – wild, funnel-shaped,
●● Squash – many varieties e.g. acorn, butternut,
yellow-capped mushrooms with a slightly ribbed
summer crookneck, delicate, hubbond, kuboche,
stalk that runs up under the edge of the cap.
onion. Flesh firm and glowing; can be boiled,
●● Horns of plenty – trumpet-shaped, shaggy,
baked, steamed or puréed.
almost black wild mushrooms.
●● Morels – delicate, wild mushrooms varying in
colour from pale beige to dark brown-black with a
flavour that suggests meat.
●● Oyster mushrooms – creamy gills and firm
flesh; delicate with shorter storage life than
regular mushrooms.
●● Shiitake mushrooms – solid texture with a
strong, slightly meaty flavour.
●● Truffles – black (French) and white (Italian) are rare,
expensive but highly esteemed for the unique flavour
they can give to so many dishes; black truffles from
France are sold fresh, canned or bottled; white
truffles from Italy are never cooked, but grated or
Figure 3.112 Mushrooms and fungi (clockwise from top left:
girolles, chestnut, pieds du moutons, flat, button, chanterelle, finely sliced over certain foods (e.g. pasta, risotto).
shiitake)
Table 3.4 Seasons for home-grown vegetables
Spring
Asparagus Broccoli – white and purple New turnips
Cauliflower New carrots New potatoes
Cabbage Greens
Potatoes
Summer
Artichokes, globe Cos lettuce Carrots
Turnips Beans, broad Sea kale
Asparagus Peas Sweetcorn
Cauliflower Radishes
Aubergine Beans, French
Autumn
Artichokes, globe Beans, runner Salsify
Parsnips Cauliflower Swedes
Field mushrooms Red cabbage Marrow
Artichokes, Jerusalem Broccoli Celeriac
Aubergine Celery Turnips
Peppers Shallots
Winter
Brussels sprouts Parsnips Celeriac
Chicory Cauliflower Swedes
Cabbage Broccoli Turnips
Kale Red cabbage
Celery Savoy cabbage
All year round
Although the following vegetables are available all year round, nevertheless at certain times – owing to bad
weather, heavy demand or other circumstances – supplies may be temporarily curtailed. However, owing to air
transport, most vegetables are now available all year round.
Beetroot Mushrooms Cucumber
Tomatoes Leeks Carrots
Spinach Watercress
Onions Lettuce
Fruit
For culinary purposes fruit can be divided into various should be left in their punnets or baskets and
groups: stone fruits, hard fruits, soft fruits, citrus fruits, refrigerated
tropical fruits and melons. ●● Stone fruits are best placed in trays so that any
damaged fruit can be seen and discarded.
Food value ●● Peaches and citrus fruits are left in their delivery
trays or boxes, and can be refrigerated.
The nutritive value of fruit depends on its vitamin con-
●● Bananas should not be stored in too cold a place
tent, especially vitamin C; it is therefore valuable as a
because the skins will turn black.
protective food. The cellulose in fruit is useful as fibre.
Quality and purchasing points
Storage Soft fruits deteriorate quickly, especially if not sound.
●● Hard fruits, such as apples, are left in boxes and Care must be taken to see that they are not dam-
kept in a cool store. aged or too ripe when bought. They should appear
●● Soft fruits, such as raspberries and strawberries, fresh; there should be no shrinking, wilting or signs
Food commodities 79
of mould. The colour of certain soft fruits is an ous sweet dishes and some meat and poultry dishes.
indication of ripeness (e.g. strawberries, dessert Peaches are also used to garnish certain meat dishes.
gooseberries). Varieties of plums include Dessert, Victoria, Gamota,
Hard fruits should not be bruised. Pears should not Mayoris, Burbank; for cooking, Angelina, Stanley,
be overripe. Beech Cherry and Reeves Seedling.
Preservation
●● Drying – apples, pears, apricots, dates, peaches,
bananas and figs are dried; plums when dried are
called prunes, and currants, sultanas and raisins
are produced by drying grapes.
●● Canning – almost all fruits may be canned;
apples are packed in water and known as
solid packed apples; other fruits are canned
in syrup.
●● Bottling – fruit is commercially preserved in this Figure 3.113 Stone fruits (clockwise from
way; cherries are bottled in maraschino. top: mango, plums, nectarines, dates)
●● Candied, glacé and crystallised fruits are
mainly imported from France. Hard fruits
●● Jam – some stone fruits and all soft fruits can be The popular English dessert apple varieties include
used. Beauty of Bath, Discovery, Spartan, Worcester
●● Jelly – jellies are produced from fruit juice. Pearmain, Cox’s Orange Pippin, Blenheim Orange,
●● Quick freezing – strawberries, raspberries, Pink Lady, Laxton’s Superb and James Grieve;
loganberries, apples, blackberries, gooseberries, imported apples include Golden Delicious, Braeburn
grapefruit and plums are frozen and must be kept and Gala. The Bramley is the most popular cook-
below –18°C. ing apple. The William, Conference and Doyenne
●● Cold storage – apples are stored at du Comice are among the best-known pears. Other
temperatures of between 1–4°C, depending on varieties of Pear include: Anjou, Beurre-Beth, Beurre-
the variety of apple. Bose, Beurre-Hardi, Beurre-Supersin, Forelle, Morton
●● Gas storage – fruit can be kept in a sealed Poirde, Onwaide, Rocha, Housi and Perry Tieatsin.
storeroom where the atmosphere is controlled; Apples and pears are used in many pastry dishes.
the amount of air is limited, the oxygen content Apples are also used for garnishing meat dishes and
of the air is decreased and the carbon dioxide for sauce served with roast pork and duck.
increased, which controls the respiration rate of
the fruit.
Fruit juices, syrups and drinks

Fruit juices such as orange, lemon and blackcurrant
are canned. Syrups such as rosehip and orange are
bottled. Fruit drinks are also bottled; they include
orange, lime and lemon.
Uses
With the exception of certain fruits (lemon, rhubarb, Figure 3.114 Hard fruits (clockwise from
cranberries) fruit can be eaten as a dessert or in its top left: Comice pears, quinces, William
raw state. Some fruits have dessert and cooking vari- pears, Braeburn apples, crab apples, Red
eties (e.g. apples, pears, cherries and gooseberries). Delicious apples)
Stone fruits Soft fruits

Damsons, plums, greengages, cherries, apricots, Raspberries, strawberries, loganberries and goose-
peaches and nectarines are used as a dessert; berries are used as a dessert. Gooseberries, black-
stewed (compote) for jam, pies, puddings and in vari- currants, redcurrants and blackberries are stewed,
Table 3.5 Different fruits and their seasons*
Fruit Season Fruit Season

Apple All year round Greengage August
Apricot May to September Lemon All year round
Avocado pear All year round Mandarin November to June
Banana All year round Melon All year round
Blackberry September to October Orange All year round
Blackcurrants July to September Peach September
Cherry June to August Pear September to March
Clementine Winter Pineapple All year round
Cranberries November to January Plum July to October
Damson September to October Raspberry June to August
Date Winter Redcurrants July to September
Fig July to September Rhubarb December to June
Gooseberry July to September Strawberry June to August
Grapefruit All year round Tangerine Winter
Grapes All year round
*Modern transportation and storage methods mean that imported fruits may be available all year.
sunberries, wineberries, blueberries and elderberries.

Varieties of gooseberries include: Leveller, London
and Golden Drop.
Citrus fruits
Oranges, lemons, limes and grapefruit are not usu-
ally cooked, except for use in marmalade. Lemons
and limes are used for flavouring and garnishing,
particularly fish dishes. Oranges are used mainly for
Figure 3.115 Soft fruits (clockwise from flavouring and in fruit salads, also to garnish certain
top: redcurrants, raspberries, blackberries, poultry dishes. Grapefruit are served at breakfast and
strawberries)
as a first course generally for luncheon. Mandarins,
clementines and satsumas are eaten as a dessert or
used in sweet dishes. Kumquats look and taste like
tiny oranges and are eaten with the skin on. Tangelos
are a cross between tangerines and grapefruit, and
are sometimes called uglis. Pomelos are the largest
of the citrus fruits, predominantly round but with a
slightly flattened base and pointed top.
Tropical and other fruits

●● Banana – as well as being used as a dessert,
Figure 3.116 Citrus fruits (clockwise from bananas are grilled for a fish garnish, fried
top left: pink grapefruit, orange, lemons, as fritters and served as a garnish to poultry
limes, satsuma, white grapefruit) (Maryland); they are used in fruit salad and other
sweet dishes.
used in pies and puddings. They are used for jam and ●● Bubaco – hybrid of the papaya.
flavourings, and in certain sauces for sweet, meat and ●● Cape gooseberry – a sharp, pleasant-flavoured
poultry dishes. Other varieties of soft fruit include: small round fruit, sometimes dipped in fondant
dewberries, jam berries, young berries, boysenberries, and served as a type of petit four.
Food commodities 81
●● Carambola – also known as starfruit, has a ●● Kiwi fruit – have a brown furry skin; the flesh is
yellowish-green skin with a waxy sheen; the fruit green with edible black seeds that, when thinly
is long and narrow and has a delicate lemon sliced, gives a pleasant decorative appearance.
flavour. ●● Loquat – native to China and South Japan, also
●● Cranberry – these hard red berries are used for known as Japanese medlar. They have a sweet
cranberry sauce, which is served with roast turkey. scent and a delicate mango-like flavour.
Cranberry juice is also very popular. ●● Lychee – a Chinese fruit with a delicate flavour,
●● Curuba – also known as banana passion fruit; obtainable tinned in syrup and also fresh.
soft yellowish skin. ●● Mango – can be as large as a melon or as small
●● Custard apple – heart-shaped or oval light tan as an apple; ripe mangoes have smooth pinky-
or greenish quilted skin; soursops (prickly custard golden flesh with a pleasing flavour; they may be
apples) have dark-green skins covered in short served in halves sprinkled with lemon juice, sugar,
spines. rum or ginger; mangoes can also be used in fruit
●● Date – whole dates are served as a dessert; desserts and for sorbets.
stoned dates are used in various sweet dishes ●● Mangostine – apple-shaped with tough reddish-
and petits fours. brown skin, which turns purple as the fruit ripens;
●● Dragon fruit – yellow or pink; pink are large, they have juicy creamy flesh.
about 10 cm long and covered with pointed ●● Maracoya – also known as yellow passion fruit.
green-tipped scales. Vibrant green with a thick shiny skin, which turns
●● Durian – large fruit that can weigh up to 4.5 kg; yellow as it ripens. Inside orange pulp enclosing
round or oval, have a woolly olive-green outer hard grey seeds.
layer covered with stubby, sharp pikes, which turn ●● Passion fruit – the name comes from the flower
yellow as they ripen; contains creamy white flesh of the plant, which is meant to represent the
with the texture of rich custard. Passion of Christ; size and shape of an egg with
●● Feijon – member of the guava family, resembles crinkled purple-brown skin when ripe; flesh and
small slightly pear-shaped passion fruit, with a seeds are all edible. Has many uses in pastry work.
dark-green skin that yellows as the fruit ripens. ●● Pawpaw (papaya) – green to golden skin,
●● Fig – fresh figs may be served as a first course orangey flesh with a sweet subtle flavour and
or dessert; dried figs may be used for fig black seeds; eaten raw sprinkled with lime or
puddings and other sweet dishes. lemon juice. Served with crab or prawns and
●● Granadilla – largest members of the passion fruit mayonnaise as a first course.
family; like an orange in shape and colour, light in ●● Pepino – smooth golden skin heavily streaked
weight and similar to a passion fruit in flavour. with purple, sometimes called a tree melon.
●● Grape – black and white grapes are used as a Native to Peru.
dessert, in fruit salad, as a sweetmeat and also as ●● Persimmon – a round orange-red fruit with a
a fish garnish. tough skin, which can be cut when the fruit is
●● Guava – vary in size between that of a walnut to
that of an apple; ripe guavas have a sweet pink
flesh and can be eaten with cream or mixed with
other fruits.
●● Jackfruit – related to breadfruit; the large,
irregularly shaped oval fruits can weigh up to
20 kg; they have a rough spiny skin, which ripens
from green to brown.
●● Jujube – also known as Chinese jujubes, apples
or dates; small greeny-brown fruit.
●● Kiwano – also known as horned melon, horned
cucumber or jelly melon; the oval fruits have thick,
bright golden-orange skin covered with sharp
spikes. The skin conceals a bright green, jelly-like
flesh, encasing edible seeds, rather like a passion Figure 3.117 Tropical fruits (clockwise from top left:
fruit. pineapple, papaya, coconut, kiwis, passion fruit)
ripe; when under-ripe they have an unpleasant Melons

acid-like taste of tannin. There are several types of melon. The most popular
●● Pineapple – served as a dessert; also used in are listed below.
many sweet dishes and as a garnish to certain
meat dishes. ●● Honeydew – long, oval-shaped melons with dark
●● Pomegranate – apple-shaped fruit with leathery green skins; the flesh is white with a greenish tinge.
reddish-brown skin, and a large calyx or crown. ●● Charentais – small and round with a mottled
Inside is a mass of creamy-white edible seeds, green and yellow skin; the flesh is orange coloured.
each encased in a tiny translucent juice sac. ●● Cantaloupe – large round melons with regular
●● Prickly pear – also known as ‘Indian fig’. Fruit of indentations; the rough skin is mottled orange
the cactus. Skin is covered in prickles. Greenish- and yellow and the flesh is light orange in colour.
orange skin and orangey-pink flesh with a melon- ●● Ogen – small round mottled green skins, each
like texture. suitable for one portion (depending on size);
●● Rambutan – related to the lychee, sometimes mainly used as a dessert, hors d’oeuvre or in
known as hairy lychees. sweet dishes.
●● Rhubarb – forced or early rhubarb is obtainable
from January; natural rhubarb from April to June;
used for pies, puddings, fools and compotes.
●● Sapodilla – oval fruit from central America. Light
brown skin, the flesh is sweet, with inedible hard
black pips.
●● Sharon fruit – a seedless persimmon tasting like
a sweet exotic peach.
●● Snake fruit – large member of the lychee family,
the creamy flesh is divided into four segments
each encasing a very large inedible brown stone. Figure 3.118 Melons (clockwise from top:
●● Tamarillo – known as the ‘tree tomato’, large watermelon, cantaloupe, honeydew, ogen)
egg-shaped fruits with thick, smooth wine-red
skins. Each fruit has two lobes containing a Care must be taken when buying as melons should
multitude of black seeds. not be over- or under-ripe. This can be assessed by
●● Tamarind – red, egg-shaped, flavour a mix of carefully pressing the top or bottom of the fruit and
tomato, apricot and coconut, used in sweet dishes smelling the outside skin for sweetness. There should
and salads. be a slight degree of softness to the cantaloupe and
charentais melons. The stalk should be attached, oth-
For further information, visit the website erwise the melon deteriorates quickly.
of the Fresh Produce Consortium
(www.freshproduce.org.uk).
Nuts
Nuts are the reproductive kernel (seed) of the plant Food value
or tree from which they come. Nuts are perish- Nuts are highly nutritious because of their protein,
able and may easily become rancid or infested with fat and mineral salts. They are of considerable impor-
insects. Some people have an allergy to nuts, which tance to vegetarians, who may use nuts in place of
can cause severe illness and possibly death. meat; they are therefore a food that builds, repairs
and provides energy. Nuts are difficult to digest.
Season
Dessert nuts are in season during the autumn and Storage
winter. Dessert nuts, those with the shell on, are kept in a dry,
ventilated store. Nuts without shells, whether ground,
nibbed, flaked or whole, are kept in airtight containers.
FOOD COMMODITIES 83
Quality and purchasing points also made and used in West Indian, Malaysian
Nuts should be of good size. They should be heavy for and Thai cookery.
their size. There must be no sign of mildew. ●● Cob or hazel nuts: These nuts are used as a
dessert and in praline. Chopped or ground, they
Uses have many uses in pastry work.
●● Macadamia nuts: These expensive nuts have
Nuts are used extensively in pastry and confectionery a rich, delicate, sweetish flavour. They can be
work and vegetarian cookery, and also for decorating used in pasta dishes, savoury sauces for meat,
and flavouring. They are used whole or halved, and game and poultry, and in ice cream, sorbets and
almonds are used ground, nibbed and flaked. puddings.
●● Pecans: Pecan nuts are usually roasted and may
Types be salted. Also used for desserts, various sweets
●● Almonds: Salted almonds are served at cocktail and ice cream.
parties and in bars. Ground, flaked or nibbed ●● Peanuts and cashew nuts: These may be
almonds are used in sweet dishes and for salted and used as bar snacks. Also used in some
decorating cakes. stir-fry dishes. Peanuts are also used for oil and
Marzipan (almond paste) has many uses in pastry peanut butter.
work. ●● Pine nuts: Seeds of the stone pine, a native of
●● Brazil nuts: Brazil nuts are served with fresh fruit the Mediterranean region. An important ingredient
as dessert and are also used in confectionery. in pesto sauce.
●● Chestnuts: Chestnuts are used in certain stews, ●● Pistachios: These small green nuts, grown
with vegetables (e.g. Brussels sprouts) and as mainly in France and Italy, are used for decorating
stuffing for turkey. Chestnut flour is used for galantines, small and large cakes and petits fours.
soup, and as a garnish for ice cream. Chestnut They are also used in ice cream.
purée is used in pastries and gâteaux. Chestnuts ●● Walnuts: Walnuts, imported mainly from France
are also available dried. and Italy, are used as a dessert, in salads and
●● Coconut: Coconut is used in desiccated form for for decorating cakes and sweet dishes. They are
curry preparations, and in many types of cakes also pickled while green and unripe, and used for
and confectionery. Coconut cream and milk are making oil.
Eggs
The term egg applies not only to those of the hen, Food value
but also to the edible eggs of other birds, such as Eggs contain most nutrients and are low in calories:
turkeys, geese, ducks, guinea fowl, quails and gulls. two large eggs contain 180 calories. Egg protein is
Around 26 million hens’ eggs are consumed each day complete and easily digestible, therefore it is useful
in the UK and approximately 85 per cent of these are for balancing meals. Eggs may also be used as a
produced in the UK. main dish; they are a protective food and provide
The British Egg Industry Council set up the British energy and material for growth and repair of the body.
Egg Information Service in 1986. The British Egg
Products Association (BEPA) introduced a strict Code Production
of Practice in 1993, which covers all stages of pro-
duction, from the sourcing of raw materials to pack- Hens’ eggs are graded in four sizes:
aging and finished production standards. Members of 1 small – 53 g or under
the BEPA can qualify to show a date stamp on their 2 medium – 53–63 g
products, which signifies that the products have been 3 large – 63–73 g
produced to standards higher than those demanded 4 very large – 73 g and over.
by UK and European law. The aim of the date stamp
is to reduce the risk of infection in hens, to monitor The size of an egg does not affect the quality but
and take remedial action where necessary, and to does affect the price. The eggs are tested for quality,
ensure that eggs are held and distributed under the then weighed and graded. Under European law there
best conditions. are two classes of egg quality, A and B.
First-quality egg Second-quality egg Second-quality egg

of excellent internal quality of fair internal quality of poor internal quality
Figure 3.119 The quality of eggs
●● Grade A – naturally clean, fresh eggs, internally tamination also include soft-boiled eggs, scrambled
perfect with intact shells and an air cell not eggs and omelettes. The Department of Health has
exceeding 6 mm in depth; the yolk must not move issued the following guidelines, which apply to raw
away from the centre of the egg when it is rotated. eggs.
●● Grade B – eggs of Grade B quality are broken
●● Grade B eggs are always broken out and
out and pasteurised.
pasteurised.
They are then packed into boxes. All egg boxes ●● Look for the Lion quality mark on the egg shell
leaving the packing station are dated. Always buy and egg box – it shows that the eggs have
eggs from a reputable retailer where they will have been produced to the highest standards of food
been transported and stored at the correct tempera- safety in the world, including a programme of
ture (below 20°C). vaccination against salmonella enteritidis.
All Class A eggs have to be marked with a code ●● There does not appear to be a similar risk with
showing the country of origin and the farm or unit eggs that are cooked thoroughly.
where they were produced. The code also includes ●● Eggs should be stored in a cool dry place,
a number to indicate the farming method used: 0 preferably under refrigeration.
means organic, 1 free range, 2 barn and 3 cage. ●● Eggs should be stored away from possible
British eggs may also bear the Lion logo, a quality contaminants such as raw meat.
mark showing that the eggs were produced to the ●● Stocks should be rotated: first in, first out.
highest standards of food safety in the world: the ●● Hands should be washed before and after
hens are vaccinated against salmonella and the eggs handling eggs.
are produced to a strict code of practice. Lion eggs ●● Cracked eggs should not be used.
also have a best-before date on the shell. ●● Preparation surfaces, utensils and containers
should be cleaned regularly and always cleaned
Raw eggs and salmonella between the preparation of different dishes.
In a number of salmonella food poisoning cases, ●● Egg dishes should be consumed as soon as
raw eggs have been suspected as being the cause. possible after preparation or, if not for immediate
Most infections cause only mild stomach upsets use, refrigerated.
but the effects can be serious in vulnerable people
such as the elderly, the infirm, pregnant women and Egg products
young children. Consumers, particularly the more Most egg products are available in liquid, frozen or
vulnerable, are advised to avoid eating raw and lightly spray-dried form. Whole egg is used primarily for
cooked eggs, uncooked foods made from raw eggs, cake production, where its foaming and coagula-
and products such as mayonnaise, mousses and ice tion properties are required. Egg whites are used for
creams. Caterers are advised to use pasteurised meringues and light sponges where their foaming
eggs. Dishes with an obvious risk of passing on con- property is crucial.
FOOD COMMODITIES 85
Table 3.6 Composition of eggs (approximate percentages)

For further information on eggs, visit:
Whole egg White Yolk www.egginfo.co.uk.
Water 73 87 47
Protein 12 10 15 Other types of eggs
Fat 11 33 Turkeys’ and guinea fowls’ eggs may be used in place
Minerals 1 0.5 2 of hens’ eggs. The eggs of the goose or duck may be
Vitamins used only if they are thoroughly cooked. Quails’ eggs
are used in some establishments as a garnish, or as
Table 3.7 Uses of egg products an hors d’oeuvre.
Pasteurised whole egg*†‡ Hard-boiled eggs*
Availability
Salted whole egg*† Pickled eggs
Table 3.7 shows the many egg products carrying the
Sugared whole egg*†‡ Chopped hard-boiled
date stamp (see above) that are currently available. If
egg with mayonnaise*
you would like something a little different, it’s worth
Pasteurised yolk*†‡ Scrambled egg*†
talking to your supplier as he may be able to tailor the
Salted yolk*† Omelettes† product to meet your specific needs.
Sugared yolk*†‡ Egg custard blend*‡
Pasteurised albumen*†‡ Quiche blend*†
Sugared albumen* Egg/milk blends*†‡
Egg granules†
* Chilled † Frozen ‡ Dried
Dairy products
Milk Unless milk is supplied directly from the farm, it will

Milk is a white, nutritious liquid produced by female be heat-treated in one of the ways described below.
mammals for feeding their young. The milk most used Heat treatment will bring any bacteria present down
in this country is that obtained from cows. Goats’ milk to a safe level or destroy them altogether.
and ewes’ milk can also be used. ●● Fresh milk should be kept in the container in
which it is delivered.
Food value ●● Milk must be stored in the refrigerator (four to
Milk can make a valuable contribution to our daily five days).
eating pattern and can help to meet our nutritional ●● Milk should be kept covered as it easily absorbs
needs as part of a balanced, varied diet. Milk is one of smells from other foods, such as onion and fish.
the most nutritionally complete foods available, con- ●● Fresh milk should be ordered daily.
taining a wide range of nutrients, which are essential ●● Tinned milk should be stored in cool, dry,
for the proper functioning of the body. In particular, ventilated rooms.
milk is a good source of protein, calcium and B group ●● Dried milk is packaged in airtight tins and should
vitamins, and whole milk is a good source of vitamin A. be kept in a dry store.
●● Sterilised milk will keep for two to three months
Storage if unopened, but once opened must be treated in
Milk is a perishable product and therefore must be the same way as pasteurised milk.
stored with care. It will keep for four to five days in ●● UHT (ultra-heat-treated) milk will keep
refrigerated conditions. Milk can easily be contaminated unrefrigerated for several months. Before using,
and therefore stringent precautions are taken to ensure always check the date stamp, which expires six
a safe and good-quality product for the consumer. months after processing, and make sure to rotate
stocks. Once opened it must be refrigerated and homogenised, and has a fat content of an
will keep for four to five days. average 3.9 per cent.
●● Semi-skimmed milk – comes homogenised and
Packaging pasteurised and has a fat content of between 1.5
Bulk fresh milk can be supplied in a variety of types and 1.8 per cent.
of packaging. These come in the form of a plastic ●● Skimmed milk – comes homogenised and
bag-in-box, which holds a capacity of between 12 pasteurised, and contains just 0.1 per cent fat.
and 20 litres. This should be placed in the appropriate ●● Organic milk – milk that comes from cows
refrigerated unit and the contents can be drawn off grazing on pastures with no chemical fertilisers,
as required by fitting the correct tap device. pesticides or agrochemicals, meeting the strict
All packs contain fresh pasteurised homogenised requirements of the Soil Association.
milk and can be obtained in either whole, semi- ●● Channel Islands milk – milk that comes from the
skimmed or skimmed varieties. Jersey and Guernsey breeds of cow, and has a
Other types of packaging include: particularly rich and creamy taste. It is not usually
homogenised and has a distinct cream line; it
●● polybottles (large plastic bottles) of fresh milk
contains, on average, 5.1 per cent fat.
available in 1-litre, 2-litre and 3-litre sizes
●● Evaporated milk – a concentrated sterilised
●● cartons of fresh milk available in 0.5-litre and
product with a final concentration about twice
1-litre sizes.
that of the original milk.
All the above milks are homogenised, and available ●● Condensed milk – concentrated in the same
whole, semi-skimmed or skimmed. Channel Island way as evaporated milk but with the addition
milk from the Jersey and Guernsey breeds of cow of sugar; this product is not sterilised but is
usually has a higher fat content than whole milk; it is preserved by the high concentration of sugar it
often non-homogenised. contains.
●● Dried milk powder – milk produced by the
Milk heat treatment and types of milk evaporation of water from the milk by heat, or
Milk is heat-treated in one of several ways to kill any other means, to produce solids containing 5 per
harmful bacteria that may be present. cent or less moisture; available as a whole or
skimmed product; dried milk is skimmed milk
●● Approximately 99 per cent of milk sold in the UK
powder to which vegetable fat has been
is heat-treated.
added.
●● Pasteurised milk – the milk is heated to a
●● Soya milk – can be offered as an alternative to
temperature of at least 71.7°C for 15 seconds
vegans and people with intolerance to cows’
and then cooled quickly to less than 10°C and
milk.
refrigerated.
●● Goats’ milk – nutritionally similar to cows’
●● UHT (ultra-heat-treated) milk – milk is
milk and can be useful for people with lactose
homogenised (see below) and then heated to
intolerance.
a temperature of at least 135°C for 1 second;
●● Rice milk – an alternative to dairy milk for
the milk is then packed under sterile
vegans and those with an intolerance to lactose. It
conditions.
is heat stable, which makes it a good replacement
●● Sterilised milk – milk is pre-heated to 50°C,
for cows’ milk in cooking although it tends to
separated and standardised to produce whole,
have a sweeter taste.
semi-skimmed or skimmed milk. Filled bottles are
●● Coconut milk – is high in saturated fats. It can
then passed through a steam pressure chamber
be served as a drink but is more often used as an
at temperatures of between 110°C and 130°C
ingredient and a base for sauces.
for 10–30 minutes, and then cooled in a cold
water tank. Uses of milk
●● Homogenised milk – milk is forced through a
Milk is used in:
fine aperture that breaks up the fat globules to
an even size so that they stay evenly distributed ●● soups and sauces
throughout the milk and therefore do not form a ●● the making of puddings, cakes and sweet dishes
cream line. ●● the cooking of fish and vegetables
●● Whole milk – comes pasteurised and ●● hot and cold drinks.
Food commodities 87
Cream Storage
Cream is the lighter-weight portion of milk, which ●● Fresh cream should be kept in the container in
still contains all the main constituents of milk but which it is delivered.
in different proportions. The fat content of cream is ●● Fresh cream must be stored in the refrigerator
higher than that of milk, and the water content and until required.
other constituents are lower. Cream is separated ●● Cream should be kept covered as it easily absorbs
from the milk and heat treated. Cream is that part of smells from other foods, such as onion and fish.
cows’ milk rich in fat that has been separated from ●● Fresh cream should be ordered daily.
the milk. ●● Tinned cream should be stored in cool, dry,
Other creams available include: ventilated rooms, and refrigerated after opening.
●● Frozen cream should be thawed only as required
●● extra thick double cream (48 per cent)
and not refrozen.
homogenised and pasteurised – will not whip
●● Artificial cream should be kept in the refrigerator.
●● spooning cream or extra thick textured cream (30
per cent)
●● frozen cream (single, whipping or double)
Ice cream and other frozen dairy
●● aerosol cream – heat-treated by UHT method to products
give a highly aerated cream Ice cream is made by churning (stirring), while freez-
●● soured cream (18 per cent) cream soured by ing, a pasteurised mix of one or more dairy ingre-
addition of a ‘starter’ dients – milk, concentrated fat-free milk, cream,
●● crème fraîche – is a similar product with a higher condensed milk – sweetening agents, flavourings,
fat content. stabilisers, emulsifiers, and optional egg or egg yolk
solids or other ingredients.
Table 3.8 Types of cream and their fat content Frozen custard (French ice cream, French custard
ice cream) is similar to ice cream but contains a
Minimum butterfat
higher content of egg yolk solids.
content per cent by
weight Reduced-fat ice cream, low-fat ice cream, light (lite)
ice cream and fat-free ice cream all contain less fat
Clotted cream 55 per serving.
Double cream 48 Sherbet contains 1 to 2 per cent milk fat and 2
Whipping cream 35 to 5 per cent total milk solids. Water, flavouring (e.g.
Whipped cream 35 fruit, chocolate, spices), sweetener and stabilisers are
Sterilised cream 23 added. Sherbet has more sugar than ice cream.
Cream or single cream 18 Frozen yoghurt is made by freezing a mixture of
Sterilised half cream 12 pasteurised milk, with or without other milk products,
Half cream 12 flavourings, seasonings, stabilisers, emulsifiers and
lactic acid cultures.
Whipping of cream
Nutritional information
For cream to be whipped it must have fat content of
Ice cream and frozen yoghurt can be nutritious
38–42 per cent. If the fat content is too low there will
foods providing high-quality protein, riboflavin (B2),
not be enough fat to enclose the air bubbles and form
calcium and other essential vitamins and minerals,
the foam. Conversely, if the fat content is too high,
The calorie and fat contents of these dairy foods
the fat globules come into contact too easily, move
vary depending on the type of milk used and the
against each other and form butter granules before
addition of cream, egg yolk solids or sweetening
the air can be incorporated to form the foam.
agents.
The addition of stabilisers to cream prevents seep-
age (particularly important when cream is used in
For further information, contact the Ice
flour confectionery). Cream substitutes are, in the
Cream Alliance – Tel: 01332 203333, Email:
main, based on vegetable fats or oils, which are emul-
info@ice-cream.org.
sified in water with other permitted substances.
Yoghurt manufacture. Yoghurt beverages are available in a

Yoghurt is a cultured milk product made from cows’, variety of flavours.
ewes’, goats’ or buffalo milk. Differences in the taste Food value
and texture of the product depend on the type of
milk used and the activity of the micro-organisms Yoghurt is rich in nutrients containing protein and a
involved. A bacterial ‘starter culture’ is added to the range of vitamins and minerals. It is particularly useful
milk, which causes the natural sugar ‘lactose’ to fer- as a source of calcium.
ment and produce lactic acid. There are three types
of yoghurt: Other fermented milk products
●● Cultured buttermilk – this product is made from
1 stirred yoghurt, which has a smooth fluid skimmed milk with a culture added to give it a
consistency slightly thickened consistency and a sharp taste;
2 set yoghurt, which is more solid and has a firmer it contains less than 0.5 per cent fat and should
texture be kept refrigerated.
3 Greek-style yoghurt, a smooth yoghurt that ●● Smetana – this is a cultured product containing
has been stirred to remove some of the water 10 per cent fat; it has a slightly sharp flavour and
content, resulting in a thick, heavy yoghurt. can be served chilled as a drink or used as an
All yoghurt is ‘live’ and contains live bacteria that alternative to soured cream in recipes.
remain dormant when kept at low temperatures,
unless it clearly states on the packaging that it has
Table 3.9 The fat content of yoghurt
been pasteurised, sterilised or ultra-heat-treated. If
stored at room temperature or above, the dormant % fat content per 150 g pot
bacteria become active again and produce more acid.
Too high an acidity kills the bacteria, impairs the fla- Very low fat – plain 0.3
(natural)/fruit
vour and causes the yoghurt to separate. Yoghurt will
keep refrigerated for 14 days. Low fat – plain 1.1–1.2
(natural)/fruit
To find out more, visit the Dairy Council’s website Whole milk/creamy 4.2
at: www.milk.co.uk. Greek, Greek style 13.7, 2 or 0
Bio or BA percentage fat content as for
Yoghurt is available plain (natural) or in a wide variety very low fat, low fat and whole
of flavours; it often has pieces of fruit added during milk yoghurts
Cheese, fats and oils
Cheese any indication of ammonia. Hard, semi-hard and blue-

Cheese is made from milk protein coagulated by an vein cheese, when cut, should not be dry. Soft cheese,
enzyme such as rennet (an animal product). For veg- when cut, should not appear runny, but should have a
etarian cheese a non-animal enzyme is used. delicate creamy consistency.
Cheese is made worldwide from cows’, ewes’ or Hygiene
goats’ milk; it takes approximately 5 litres of milk to
produce 0.5 kg of cheese. Cheese is a living product and should be handled
There are many hundreds of varieties, and most carefully. It should always be wrapped in greaseproof
countries manufacture their own special cheeses. or waxed paper or foil, or put in a closed container.
Cheese stored in a refrigerator should have plenty of
Quality air circulating around it.
The skin or rind of cheese should not show spots of Natural rind can be exposed to air, so it can breathe,
mildew, as this is a sign of damp storage. Cheese, but cut surfaces should be covered with film to pre-
when cut, should not give off an over-strong smell or vent drying out. Mould-ripened cheeses should be
Food commodities 89
Types
British cheese: some examples
●● Cheddar – pale to golden colour with a close
texture and a fresh mellow, nutty flavour, mild to
mature.
●● Cheshire – orange-red or white, loose crumbly
texture and a mild mellow, slightly salty flavour.
●● Double Gloucester – orange-yellow, a buttery
open texture with a delicate creamy flavour.
●● Dunlop – a Scottish equivalent of Cheddar,
milder and lighter in colour and texture.
●● Leicester – red in colour with a buttery open
Figure 3.120 Some cheeses texture; a mellow medium strength.
●● Caerphilly – a Welsh cheese, white in colour and
flaky, with a fresh, mild, slightly salty flavour.
separated from other cheeses. Remove cheese from
●● Lancashire – white in colour, soft and crumbly
the refrigerator about an hour before serving to allow
with a fresh mild flavour.
it to return to room temperature.
●● Wensleydale – white in colour, moderately close
Recent scares about food poisoning included soft
texture with a fresh, mild, slightly salty flavour;
unpasteurised cheeses – this is because listeria
excellent with crisp apples or apple pie.
can grow and multiply at a lower temperature than
●● Stilton – white with blue veins, soft and close
most bacteria; at 10°C or warmer, growth is rapid.
texture, and a strong flavour.
Storage French cheese: some examples
All cheese should be kept in a cool, dry, well-ven-
●● Brie – white, round cheese with close, soft,
tilated store and whole cheeses should be turned
creamy texture and delicate flavour.
occasionally if being kept for any length of time.
●● Camembert – white, round with soft, close,
Cheese should be kept away from other foods that
creamy texture and full flavour.
may be spoilt by the smell.
●● Chevre – a generic name for a wide range of
Food value goats’ cheeses.
●● Fourme d’Ambert – sometimes called a French
Cheese is a highly concentrated form of food. Fat,
Stilton; salty, full flavour.
protein, mineral salts and vitamins are all present.
●● Roquefort – blue cheese made from ewes’ milk;
Therefore it is an excellent body-building, energy-
rich, sharp flavour with salty aftertaste.
producing, protective food.
Italian cheese: some examples
Preservation
●● Bel Paese – round, firm, pearly-white texture and
Certain cheeses may be further preserved by pro-
a fresh, creamy taste.
cessing. A hard cheese is usually employed, ground
●● Gorgonzola – blue vein with a rich, sharp flavour;
to a fine powder, melted, mixed with pasteurised milk,
Dolcelatte is a milder version.
poured into moulds then wrapped in lacquered tinfoil
●● Mascarpone – rich, creamy, slightly acrid, used
(e.g. processed Gruyère, Kraft, Primula).
mainly in desserts.
●● Mozzarella – traditionally made from buffalo
To find out more, visit the Dairy Council’s website
milk; pale and plastic looking, sweet flavour with
at: www.milk.co.uk.
a little bite.
●● Parmesan – hard, low-fat cheese; grated and
Uses used extensively in cooking.
Soups, pasta, egg, fish and vegetable dishes, ●● Ricotta – fresh, white, crumbly and slightly sweet,
savouries. similar to cottage cheese.
Other cheeses: some examples water (approximately 16 per cent) and milk proteins.
●● Ireland – Cashel blue: a creamy rich blue The fat-soluble vitamins A and D are present in butter,
cheese. and there is a small amount of calcium. Each 100 g
●● Netherlands – Edam: round, full-flavoured with of butter supplies 733 kilocalories (3014 kilojoules).
low-fat content; covered in red skin. Quality
●● Switzerland – Gruyère: firm, creamy-white with a
full fruity flavour. The flavour of butter is rich, creamy and mellow. The
●● Greece – Feta: white, moist, crumbly with a colour of butter varies from a delicate pale yellow
refreshing salty-sour taste. to a rich, bright colour; both are entirely natural, as
explained below. Butter’s texture is smooth and creamy,
Soft curd cheeses and remains firm when chilled. It should be kept refrig-
●● Curd cheese – made from pasteurised milk erated, below 5°C for optimum quality, where it can be
soured by the addition of a milk-souring culture kept for up to six weeks. Butter kept at room tempera-
and rennet; produce a soft, milk-flavoured, low-fat ture soon deteriorates and exposure to light causes
(11 per cent) cheese; made from either skimmed rancidity. As a recommendation, butter should be kept
or medium-fat milk. covered in a refrigerator, away from strong flavours or
●● Cottage cheese – a low-fat, high-protein smells that could taint its delicate taste.
product made from pasteurised skimmed milk; Production
also available are very low-fat, sweet, savoury and
flavoured varieties. Essentially, there are two types of butter: lactic and
●● Fromage frais – (fresh cheese) or fromage sweetcream.
blanc is a fat-free soft curd cheese to which In lactic, or ‘continental taste’, butter, the pasteur-
cream can be added to give richer varieties; also ised cream is ripened before churning with a lacto-
available in low-fat, medium-fat, savoury and fruit bacillus culture to produce a mildly acidic flavour.
flavours. This mild acidity enhances the keeping properties,
●● Quark – a salt-free, fat-free soft cheese made meaning that this type of butter can be purchased
from skimmed milk. as unsalted or slightly salted, where 1–1.5 per cent
salt is added.
Low-fat hard cheese In sweetcream butter – traditionally produced in
There is a range of hard cheese with half the fat of the UK and the Republic of Ireland, and imported
traditional cheese. from New Zealand – the cream is not ripened before
churning and therefore the salt content needs to be
Vegetarian cheese a little higher (between 1.5 and 2.5 per cent) to assist
Traditional hard cheeses made using a non-animal keeping qualities.
rennet are also available. Apart from the salt, there are no additives in butter.
The colour of butter is entirely natural, and varies
Fats slightly according to the type of butter, the breed of
cow and the pastures on which they feed. Seasonal
Storage of all fats variations affect the colour of the butter slightly, as
Fats should be kept in a refrigerator. the cow’s diet changes during the year.
Butter Uses
Butter is a natural dairy product made by churning The unique taste and texture of butter mean that
fresh cream. During the churning process, the but- it is ideal for spreading and using in all types of
terfat globules in the cream coalesce to form butter, cooking, both professionally and in the domestic
and the excess liquid – known as buttermilk – is kitchen. It is the foundation of many classic recipes,
drained off. A little salt is added, between 1 and 2.5 as it improves the flavour and appearance of a great
per cent, depending on the type of butter, to enhance many foods.
its flavour and keeping qualities. Butter is used as a base for making soups, sauces,
compound butters and for hard butter sauces like
Food value brandy butter. It is also used for making cakes
Butter contains 80–82 per cent fat and is therefore and pastries, butter icings and frostings. Sometimes
a high-energy food. The remaining constituents are unsalted butter is chosen for these recipes.
Food commodities 91
Butter is ideal for shallow-frying foods, but it is not Vegetable shortening and high-ratio fat are avail-
suitable for stir-frying or deep-frying, where higher able. They are used extensively in bakery products.
temperatures would cause the butter to burn. Melted
butter makes an ideal baste for brushing grilled To find out more, contact Unilever Ltd, Unilever
foods, and can be combined with chopped fresh House, Blackfriars, London EC4 or visit
herbs, spices, grated citrus rind, and so on, to vary www.unilever.co.uk.
the flavour.
For finishing cooked foods, butter can be used as Animal fats
a glaze.
●● Lard: Lard is the rendered fat from pigs. It has
In sandwiches, butter acts as a protective layer,
almost 100 per cent fat content. It may be used
preventing moist foods from permeating the bread.
in hot water paste and with margarine to make
The butter also gives the finished sandwich a deli-
short paste. It can also be used for deep- or
cious flavour.
shallow-frying.
Clarified butter can be made by gently heat-
●● Suet: Suet is the hard solid fat deposits in the
ing butter until it has melted and separated. The
kidney region of animals. Beef suet is the best,
milk solids can then be strained off. The resultant
and is used for suet paste and mincemeat.
clarified butter can be used at higher temperatures.
●● Dripping: Dripping is obtained from clarified
Ghee is a type of clarified butter, widely used as the
animal fats (usually beef) and is used for deep- or
basis of Indian cooking. A type of clarified butter
shallow-frying.
known as concentrated butter is made by removing
most of the water and milk solids. It is suitable for Polyunsaturated fats and
cooking and baking, but not for spreading or finish- monounsaturated fats
ing foods.
Polyunsaturates, and to a lesser extent monounsatu-
Margarine rates, have been shown to lower blood cholesterol
Margarine is produced from milk and a blend of levels and therefore help in reducing the risk of heart
vegetable oils emulsified with lecithin, flavouring, salt, disease.
colouring, and vitamins A and D. It is better to eat foods rich in monounsaturates
(olive oil and rapeseed oil) and polyunsaturates (sun-
Food value flower oil and soya oil), than foods rich in saturates.
Margarine is an energy-giving and protective food. Rapeseed oil, which, like olive oil, contains mostly
With the exception of palm oil, the oils used in the monounsaturated fat, is a good and cheaper alterna-
manufacture of margarine do not contain vitamins A tive to olive oil. Sunflower, soya bean and corn oil all
and D; these are added during production. Margarine contain mostly polyunsaturated fat so are also good
is not inferior to butter from a nutritional point of view. choices.
Some oils are labelled as vegetable oil or blended
Quality oils. All of these are also low in saturated fat and are
There are several grades of margarine: block (hard generally cheaper.
or semi-hard); soft (butter substitute); semi-hard for To find out more, contact the National Edible Oil
making pastry; and cake margarine, which creams Distributors’ Association, see: www.fdf.org.uk.
easily and absorbs egg. Some margarines are blended
with butter. Taste is the best guide to quality. Hydrogenated fats
Uses Hydrogenation is the application of hydrogen to veg-
Margarine can be used in place of butter, the differ- etable oils. It changes the unsaturated fatty acids to
ence being that the flavour and aroma of nut brown saturated, and changes the liquid oil into a solid or
(beurre noisette) or black butter (beurre noir) cannot semi-solid fat. Hydrogenated fats are used in manu-
satisfactorily be produced from margarine. The fla- factured food products, but there is concern that they
vour of margarine when used in the kitchen is inferior may be linked to heart disease. In many cases, food
to butter – it is therefore not so suitable for finishing packaging will state whether hydrogenated fats are
sauces and dishes. It should be remembered, how- present, and in what proportion.
ever, that it is equally nutritious and may be cheaper
than butter.
Oils ●● speciality (e.g. almond, grapeseed, hazelnut,

walnut).
Choice of oil
The choice of an oil as a food ingredient or for cook- Herbal oils are available or can be made by adding
ing will usually involve a compromise. The factors that chopped fresh herbs (e.g. tarragon, thyme, basil) to
will need to be taken into account may include: olive oil and keeping refrigerated in screw-top jars
for about three weeks, then strained and rebottled. If
●● price – variations will occur according to supply fresh green herbs are used, blanching and refreshing
and demand them will enhance the colour of the oil, and kill any
●● intended use – some oils are versatile others are pathogens that may be present.
of limited use
●● durability – in use and in storage Food value
●● nutritional and health concerns As oil has a very high fat content it is useful as an
●● flash point – for frying purposes an oil must, energy food.
when heated, reach a high temperature without
smoking; food being fried will absorb the oil if Storage
the oil smokes at a low temperature; as oils are Oil should be kept in a cool place. If refrigerated
combustibles they can catch fire (known as the some oils congeal but will return to a fluid state when
flash point); in some cases the margin between removed from the refrigerator. Oils keep for a fairly
smoking and the flash point may be narrow (see long time but may go rancid if not kept cool.
Practical Cookery for further information).
Types of oil include: Uses
●● peanut (groundnut) ● coconut ●● Mayonnaise, vinaigrette and hors d’oeuvre dishes.
●● cotton seed ● soya bean ●● Pasta, certain doughs and breads use olive oil.
●● palm ● sunflower ●● Deep-frying, lubrication of utensils and slabs.
●● rapeseed ● palm
●● olive ● corn
Cereals
Cereals are cultivated grasses, but the term is broad- Wheat and flour quality
ened to include sago, rice and arrowroot. All cereal Flours vary in their composition and, broadly speak-
products contain starch. The following are the impor- ing, are defined by the quality of wheats used in the
tant cereals used in catering: wheat, oats, rye, barley, grist prior to milling, and by their rate of extraction.
maize, rice, tapioca, sago and arrowroot. A wide The extraction is the percentage of whole cleaned
variety of cereals are processed into breakfast foods wheatgrain that is present in the flour. A typical mill
(barley, wheat, rice, bran and corn). will produce hundreds of different types of flour
using a wide range of home-grown and imported
Wheat wheats.
Source
Storage
Wheat is the most common cereal produced in the
western world; it is grown in most temperate regions. Keep in airtight containers in a cool, dark, dry place.
Large quantities are home-grown and a great deal, Whole grains can be stored for up to two years;
particularly in the form of strong flour, is imported flaked, cracked grains and flours should be used
from Canada. within two to three months of purchase.
Food value Sprouting

Cereals are one of the best energy foods. Wholegrain Whole grains (e.g. wheat grains, raw buckwheat and
cereals provide vitamin B and are therefore protective barley) can be sprouted, which greatly enhances their
foods. nutritional value.
Food commodities 93
Cooking Uses of flour products

●● Soft flour – cakes, biscuits, all pastes except puff
To find out more, visit the Flour Advisory Bureau’s
and flaky, thickening soups and sauces, batters
website: www.fabflour.co.uk.
and coating various foods.
Cereals can be used in other ways, besides being ●● Strong flour – bread, puff, flaky, choux and hot
ground into flour for bread, cakes, and so on. Whole water pastry, and pasta.
grains can be added to stews and casseroles, or ●● Wholemeal flour – wholemeal bread and rolls,
cooked until soft. Cracked or kibbled grains are cut pastry and pasta.
or broken pieces of whole grains (e.g. kibbled wheat ●● Gnocchi.
and bulgar wheat). Meal, a coarse kind of flour,
can be used to make porridge or thicken soups, or Rye
mixed with wheat flour to add interesting flavours Rye flour is obtained from the cereal rye and is the
and textures to ordinary breads, biscuits, muffins, most important European cereal after wheat.
etc. Rye is the only cereal apart from wheat that con-
Whole grains should be washed thoroughly. Boil tains gluten proteins. However, these gluten proteins
the required amount of water, add the washed grain, are not of the same quality or quantity as those in
stir once, put a tight-fitting lid on the pan and simmer flour produced from wheat. Dough produced from rye
for the required cooking time or until the liquid is flour has a sticky, dense consistency. The baked prod-
absorbed. Turn off the heat and leave to stand for five uct has a low volume. Rye flour is available as light,
minutes before removing the lid. medium and dark rye. Likewise the colour and flavour
of rye bread can range from light and mild to dark
Flour and strong, depending on the type of rye flour used. It
Flour is probably the most common commodity in should be stored in dry conditions at 10–16°C.
daily use. It forms the foundation of bread, pastry and Rye flour must be weighed accurately to ensure
cakes, and is also used in soups, sauces, batters and that:
other foods.
●● the recipe remains balanced
●● White flour contains 72 to 85 per cent of the ●● the correct yield is obtained
whole grain (the endosperm only). ●● a uniform product is obtained
●● Wholemeal flour contains 100 per cent of the ●● faults are prevented.
whole grain.
●● Brown flour contains 85–95 per cent of the Oats
whole grain. Oats are either rolled into flakes or ground into three
●● High-ratio or patent flour contains 40 per cent of grades of oatmeal: coarse, medium and fine.
the whole grain.
●● Self-raising flour is white flour with the addition of Source
baking powder. Oats are one of the hardiest cereals, and are grown in
●● Semolina is granulated hard flour prepared from large quantities in Scotland and the north of England.
the central part of the wheat grain. White or
wholemeal semolina is available. Semolina is used Food value
for couscous. Oats have the highest food value of any of the cere-
●● Bulgar (steamed cracked wheat) is used in als. They contain a good proportion of protein and fat.
tabbouleh.
Storage
Storage of flour
Because of the fat content, the keeping quality of oat
●● The storeroom must be dry and well ventilated. products needs extra care. They should be kept in
●● Flour should be removed from the sacks and kept containers with tight-fitting lids, and stored in a cool,
in wheeled bins with lids. well-ventilated storeroom.
●● Flour bins should be of a type that can easily be
cleaned. Uses
●● Rotate stock rather than adding new deliveries at ●● Rolled oats – porridge.
the front. ●● Oatmeal – porridge, thickening soups, coating
foods, cakes and biscuits, haggis.
●● Patent rolled oats – nowadays largely displace for milk puddings and sweet dishes because of
oatmeal and have the advantage of being already its soft texture (e.g. carolina).
heat treated, and consequently more quickly and
easily cooked. Types
●● Brown rice – any rice that has had the outer
Barley covering removed but retains its bran and as a
The whole grain of barley is known as pot or Scotch result is more nutritious, with a nutty flavour.
barley and requires soaking overnight. Pearl barley ●● Wholegrain rice – whole and unprocessed rice.
has most of the bran and germ removed, and it is then ●● Thai fragrant rice (jasmine rice) – used in Thai
polished. These products are used for making barley and Vietnamese dishes, this rice has a fragrant
water for thickening soups and certain stews. aroma; it is similar to basmati.
Barley when roasted, is changed into malt and as ●● Basmati rice – a thin, long grain rice which has
such is used extensively in the brewing and distilling of a distinctive fragrance when cooking. The cooked
vinegar. Barley needs the same care in storage as oats. rice is light and fluffy with the grains staying
Buckwheat is the seed of the plant ‘bran buck- separate. Served with curries.
wheat’. The grain is usually roasted before cooking, ●● Wild rice – seed of an aquatic plant related to the
and is also ground into a strong savoury flour for rice family. It has a nutty flavour and a firm texture.
pancakes and baking. ●● Ground rice – used for milk puddings.
●● Rice flour – used for thickening certain soups
Maize (e.g. cream soups).
●● Rice paper – a thin, edible paper produced from
Maize is also known as corn, sweetcorn or corn on
rice, used in the preparation of macaroons and
the cob, and besides being served as a vegetable is
nougat.
processed into cornflakes and cornflour. Maize yields
●● Precooked instant rice, par-boiled, ready-cooked
a good oil suitable for cooking.
and boil-in-the-bag rice is also available.
Cornflour Storage
Cornflour is produced from maize and is the crushed Rice should be kept in tight-fitting containers in a
endosperm of the grain, which has the fat and protein cool, well-ventilated store.
washed out so that it is practically pure starch.
Cornflour is used for making custard and blanc- To find out more about cereals, see
mange powders, because on boiling with a liquid it www.vegsoc.org/info/cereals.html.
thickens easily, and sets when cold into a smooth
paste that cannot be made from other starches.
Tapioca
Custard powder consists of cornflour, colouring and
flavouring. Tapioca is obtained from the roots of a tropical plant
Cornflour is used for thickening soups, sauces, and called cassava. Flake (rough) and seed (fine) are
custards, and also in the making of certain small and available. Tapioca may be used for garnishing soups
large cakes. and milk puddings.
Rice Sago
Rice is the staple food of half the world’s popula- Sago is produced in small pellets from the pith of the
tion and is second only to wheat as the world’s most sago palm. It may be used for garnishing soups and
important food grain. for making milk puddings.
Three main types of rice are used in this country:
Arrowroot
●● long grain – a narrow, pointed grain, best suited Arrowroot is obtained from the roots of a West
for savoury dishes and plain boiled rice because Indian plant called maranta. It is used for thicken-
of its firm structure, which helps to keep the rice ing sauces and is particularly suitable when a clear
grains separate (e.g. basmati, patna) sauce is required as it becomes transparent when
●● medium grain – an all-purpose rice suitable for boiled. Arrowroot is also used in certain cakes and
sweet and savoury dishes (e.g. arborio) puddings, and is particularly useful for invalids as
●● short grain – a short, rounded grain, best suited it is easily digested. It is easily contaminated by
FOOD COMMODITIES 95
strong-smelling foods, therefore it must be stored in Potato flour

airtight tins. Potato flour is a preparation from potatoes, suitable
for thickening certain soups and sauces.
Raising agents
The method of making mixtures light or aerated may Yeast
be effected in several ways.
Yeast is a fungus form of plant life available as a fresh
or dried product.
Baking powder
Baking powder may be made from one part sodium Storage and quality points
bicarbonate to two parts of cream of tartar. In com- ●● Yeast should be wrapped and stored in a cold
mercial baking the powdered cream of tartar may place.
be replaced by another acid product (e.g. acidulated ●● It should have a pleasant smell.
calcium phosphate). ●● It should be ordered only as required.
When used under the right conditions it produces ●● It should crumble easily.
carbon dioxide gas; to produce gas, a liquid and heat ●● It must be perfectly fresh and moist.
are needed. As the acid has a delayed action, only
a small amount being given off when the liquid is Food value
added, the majority of the gas is released when the Yeast is rich in protein and vitamin B. It therefore
mixture is heated. Therefore cakes and puddings helps towards building and repairing the body, and
when mixed do not lose the property of the baking provides protection.
powder if they are not cooked right away.
Uses
Uses Yeast is used in bread and bun doughs, cakes and
Baking powder is used in sponge puddings, cakes batters.
and scones, and in suet puddings and dumplings.
Sugar
Sugar is produced from sugar cane grown in a other preserves). This is why reduced-sugar jams
number of tropical and subtropical countries and spoil much more quickly than traditional jams.
from sugar beet, which is grown in parts of Europe, ●● It helps to produce subtle changes in flavour.
including the UK. Syrups and treacle (for cooking and Sugar offsets the acidity and sour flavour of many
spreading) are liquid forms of sugar. It is also possible foods such as mayonnaise, tomato products, and
to buy organic sugar. tart fruits like gooseberries and grapefruit.
●● As a bulking agent: sugar gives the characteristic
Food value texture to a variety of foods – including jams, ice
As sugar contains 99.9 per cent pure sugar, it is cream and cakes.
invaluable for producing energy. ●● To raise the boiling point or lower the freezing
point. This is essential in some recipes (for
Sugar in cooking example, making ice cream).
●● To speed up the process of fermentation (by
Sugar is not just a sweetener; it can be used in a
yeast) in baking. This makes the dough rise (for
number of different ways.
example, bread and tea cakes).
●● As a preservative: at the right concentration sugar ●● It makes cakes light and open-textured when it is
helps to stop micro-organisms growing and so beaten with butter or eggs in a recipe.
prevents food spoilage (for example, in jams and
Types Storage
●● Refined white sugars: granulated, caster; cube; icing. Sugar should be stored in a dry, cool place. When
●● Unrefined sugar: brown sugar. purchased by the sack, the sugar is stored in covered
●● Partially refined sugar: demerara. bins.
●● Syrups and treacle.
To find out more, visit the website of British Sugar
plc: www.britishsugar.co.uk.
Beverages (drinks)
The simplest, cheapest drink of all is water, which – are sold by weight. Coffee essence is obtained in
varies from place to place in taste and character bottles of various sizes.
according to the substances dissolved or suspended
in it. Soft water has a low content of lime. Hard water Arab or Turkish coffee
has an abundance of lime (if the flavour of lime is too Arab or Turkish coffee is very strong and thick. It is
strong, the water may have to be softened to remove made with finely ground beans, sugar is added and it
the excess of lime). may be flavoured with cardamom seeds.
Water that has been artificially softened should
not be used for coffee or tea making. The mineral The filter method
content of water used for brewing can signifi- In the drip, or filter, method, finely ground coffee is
cantly affect the final taste of the coffee or tea. placed in a paper or reusable cone-shaped unit and
A blend of coffee or tea brewed in the very hard nearly boiling water poured on top. The water filters
water of London has a completely different taste through the coffee into the jug below. Individual one-
to the same blend brewed in Edinburgh, where cup filters are also available.
the water is very soft. Water can also contain
varying degrees of other substances (e.g. iron and The plunger/cafetière
sulphur), which in some instances are considered The cafetière pot is warmed, coarsely ground coffee
to be beneficial to health, and these are known is placed in the bottom, hot water is added to the
as mineral waters. grounds and stirred, then it is allowed to steep for
Drink can be broadly classified into two categories: three to five minutes before the plunger is pushed
alcoholic and non-alcoholic (beverage or soft drink). down to separate the coffee grounds from the coffee
Although the word beverage means a drink the gen- infusion. This is an efficient way to serve coffee to
erally accepted definition is a non-alcoholic liquid, customers. Various sizes of cafetière are available,
e.g. chocolate, coffee, tea, cocoa, fruit drinks, mineral including single-serving pots.
waters, milk.
Alcoholic drinks include cocktails, aperitifs, fancy Espresso and cappuccino
drinks, wines, fortified wines, spirits, beers, cider, Today, espresso, which was invented in Italy, is
perry. Low-alcohol drinks are also available. the fastest-growing method of making coffee.
Espresso machines force the hot water through
Non-alcoholic drinks very finely ground and compacted coffee and then
Coffee into the cups below. Espresso may be consumed
Coffee is produced from the beans of the coffee as it is, or diluted with boiling water. Cappuccino,
tree, and is grown and exported from regions such as latte and other popular coffees are based on the
South America, India, the Middle East, the West Indies, espresso, with varying quantities of steamed or
Africa, Java and Sumatra. The varieties of coffee are frothed milk added.
named after the areas where they are grown, such as
Mysore, Kenya, Brazil, Mocha and Java. The percolator
The percolator used to be a very popular way to
Purchasing units make coffee, especially in the home. The percolator
Coffee beans – either unroasted, roasted or ground heats water to boiling point so that it bubbles and
Food commodities 97
filters through ground coffee in the top of the unit. the brew. Instant, or soluble, coffee generally contains
Percolators are now seen as old-fashioned. less caffeine than roast and ground coffee, but may
be consumed in greater volume.
Soluble, or instant, coffee
The quality and diversity of instant coffee have grown To find out more, visit the website of the Roast
dramatically over the years, and we can make a good and Post Coffee Company: www.therealcoffeeco.
cup of coffee from today’s products. Instant coffee com.
has a number of advantages over fresh brewed
coffee, including ease and convenience. It stays Tea
fresher longer, it is hard to damage the flavour, how- Tea is an evergreen plant of the camellia family, which
ever hard you try, and most of all it is fast, cheap and is kept to bush size for easy plucking; only the two top
clean. leaves and bud on each stalk are plucked. There are
more than 1500 blends of tea and tea grows in more
Flavoured coffees
than 31 countries.
An interesting and fast growing area of the market is Use a good quality loose leaf or bagged tea. This
flavoured coffees. Today there are over 100 different must be stored in an airtight container at room tem-
flavoured varieties available. The growth in popularity perature. Always use freshly drawn boiling water. In
of flavoured coffee is proof of coffee’s versatility and order to draw the best flavour out of the tea the water
strength. The flavours are added directly to the beans must contain oxygen; this is reduced if the water is
by roasting them, then spraying them with a carrier boiled more than once. Measure the tea carefully. Use
oil and then the particular flavouring. Another way one tea bag or one rounded teaspoon of loose tea for
to make a cup of flavoured coffee is to add a syrup each cup to be served. Allow the tea to brew for the
to hot brewed coffee and popular coffee shops now recommended time before pouring (see Table 3.10).
offer a range of these syrups. By far the most impor-
tant flavouring added to coffee over the world is milk. Blends
Although milk is not added to Arabian coffee, and Blends of tea provide the widest possible choice of
coffee purists tend not to add milk, most people find tea with many different characteristics and flavours. A
coffee more palatable with its addition. popular brand-leading blend can contain as many as
35 different teas.
Caffeine content Speciality teas take their name from: the area or
The amount of caffeine in a cup of coffee can vary country in which they are grown; a blend of tea for a
greatly, depending on its origin or the composition of particular time of day; a blend of teas known after a
the blend, the method of brewing and the strength of person; a blend of teas to which fruit oil, flower petals
Table 3.10 Recommended brewing times for tea
Country of Milk/black/
Type origin Brewing time lemon Characteristics
Darjeeling Black India 3–5 minutes Black or milk Delicate, slightly astringent
flavour
Assam Black India 3–5 minutes Black or milk Full-bodied with a rich,
smooth, malty flavour
Ceylon blend Black Sri Lanka 3–5 minutes Black or milk Brisk, full flavour with a
bright colour
Kenya Black Kenya (Africa) 2–4 minutes Black or milk A strong tea with a brisk
flavour
Earl Grey Black China or India/ 3–5 minutes Black or lemon Flavoured with the natural
Darjeeling oil of citrus bergamot fruit
Lapsang Black China 3–5 minutes Black Smoky aroma and flavour
souchong
China oolong Oolong China 5–7 minutes Black Subtle, delicate, lightly
flavoured tea
Figure 3.121 Cafetière and filter machine Figure 3.122 A modern coffee machine
or blossoms have been added or a ‘made’ processed Chocolate

tea. Cocoa beans are used to produce chocolate, and
Flavoured teas are real tea blended with fruit, over half of the cocoa bean consists of cocoa butter.
herbs or spices. These should not be confused with To produce chocolate, cocoa butter is mixed with
tisanes and fruit infusions made from herbs, hibiscus crushed cocoa beans and syrup. With baker’s choco-
leaves and fruits, which do not contain any real tea. late, the cocoa fat (butter) is replaced by vegetable
Several varieties of green tea are also available, which fat thus giving a cheaper product that does not need
research suggests has half the caffeine of black teas. tempering. For commercial purposes, chocolate is
Buying sold in blocks known as couverture. Pure chocolate
couverture is made from cocoa mass, highly refined
Tea comes in either tea bag or loose-leaf packs, sugar and extracted cocoa butter. It is the additional
which cover a wide variety of catering needs. cocoa butter that gives couverture its qualities for
moulding, its flavour and therefore its higher price.
To find out more, visit the website of the UK Tea
Council: www.tea.co.uk. Uses
Chocolate or couverture is used for icings, butter-
Cocoa creams, sauces, dipping chocolates and moulding
Cocoa is a powder produced from the beans of the into shapes.
cacao tree. It is imported mainly from West Africa.
Drinking chocolate
Food value This is ground cocoa from which less fat has been
As cocoa contains some protein and a large propor- extracted and to which sugar and milk have been
tion of starch it helps to provide the body with energy. added. It can be obtained in flake or powder form.
Iron is also present in cocoa.
Mineral waters and soft drinks
Storage A wide range of mineral waters are available, both
Cocoa should be kept in airtight containers in a well- home produced and from overseas, and either natural
ventilated store. (still or naturally carbonated) in character or treated
with gas (carbon dioxide) to give a light sparkle or fizz.
Uses Examples of natural mineral waters are Buxton and
For hot drinks, cocoa is mixed with milk, milk and water, Malvern. Manufactured soft drinks include grapefruit,
or water. Hot liquid is needed to ‘cook’ the starch and lime juice (still) and tonic water, Coca-Cola, ginger
make it more digestible. Cocoa can be used to flavour beer (sparkling), and so on.
puddings, cakes, sauces, icing and ice cream. Spring water is bottled water which does not con-
Food commodities 99
form to the natural mineral water regulations. The Aromatised wines

important natural mineral elements in mineral water Aromatised wines are produced by flavouring a
are regulated and must be present in consistent simple basic wine with a blend of ingredients (fruit,
amounts. Spring water does not have to demonstrate roots, bark, peel, flowers, quinine, herbs). Vermouth
this; it must meet the same regulations as tap water. and Dubonnet are two examples of aromatised wines
Squashes are concentrated, sweetened, fruit- popular as aperitifs.
flavoured drinks intended to be diluted with water.
They may or may not contain natural fruit juice, and Spirits
the amount of juice included varies. Spirits are distillations of fermented liquids that are
Fruit syrups converted into liquid spirit; they include whisky, gin,
vodka, brandy and rum.
Fruit syrups are concentrated fruit juices preserved
with sugar or manufactured from compound colour- Liqueurs
ings and flavours (orange, lime, cherry). A large range Liqueurs are flavoured and sweetened spirits. A
of compound flavourings is available. wide range of flavouring agents are employed (e.g.
Milk drinks aniseed, caraway, peach, raspberry, violet, rose petals,
cinnamon, sage, honey, coffee beans). Many different
Milk can be offered plain, either hot or cold. Other liqueurs are available (e.g. Cointreau, cherry brandy).
milk drinks include:
●● milkshake – a mixture of fresh milk, ice cream Cocktails and mixed drinks
and a flavouring syrup, rapidly whisked and Cocktails are usually a mixture of a spirit with one or
served in a tall glass more ingredients from liqueurs, fruit juices, fortified
●● ice cream soda – a combination of fruit syrup wines, eggs, cream, etc. Cocktails may be garnished
and fresh cream in a long glass filled with soda with mint, borage, fresh fruit, olives, and so on.
water and topped with ice cream Mixed drinks have an assortment of names that
●● other products from which beverages are made include flips, fizzes, nogs, sours and cups. Cocktails
either by the addition of hot water or milk include and mixed drinks can also be made from non-alco-
Bournvita, Bovril, Horlicks and Ovaltine. holic ingredients.
Alcoholic drinks Beer

Wine Beer is a term that covers all beer-like drinks such
as ale, stouts and lagers. Beer is made from a com-
Wine has been made for over 6000 years and is pro-
bination of water, grain (e.g. barley), hops, sugar and
duced in most parts of the world. It is the fermented
yeast. Types of beer include: bitter, mild, strong ale,
juice of the grape and is available in many styles: red,
barley wine, porter and lager. Reduced-alcohol beers
white, rosé, sparkling, organic, alcohol-free, de-alco-
are also available.
holised and low alcohol. Wines may be dry, medium
Beers are good sources of energy; they contain
dry, or sweet in character, and according to the type
high levels of carbohydrates and protein. Beers are
and character they may be drunk while young (within
richer in minerals than wines, but lower in alcohol at
a short time of bottling) or allowed to age (in some
only 3–5 per cent.
cases for many years).
Bottled wines should always be stored on their Cider
sides so that the wine remains in contact with the
cork. This keeps the cork expanded and prevents air Cider is fermented apple juice. Also in this category
from entering the wine which, if allowed to happen, are:
will turn the wine to vinegar. The exceptions to this ●● pomagne – a sparkling cider
are champagne and sparkling wines, which should be ●● scrumpy – strong, rough cider.
stored upright.
Perry
Fortified wines Perry is fermented pear juice.
Fortified wines are those that have been strengthened
by the addition of alcohol, usually produced from grape
juice; the best known are port, sherry and Madeira.
Pulses
Pulses are the dried seeds of plants that form pods. ●● Puy lentils – grey-coloured; do not require
soaking and they hold their shape when cooked.
Types Considered the finest of lentils.
●● Aduki beans – small, round, deep-red, shiny beans. ●● Red kidney beans – used in chilli con carne; a
●● Black beans – glistening black skins and creamy black variety is also available.
flesh. ●● Soissons – the finest haricot beans.
●● Black-eyed beans – white beans with a black ●● Soya beans – the most nutritious of all beans.
blotch. ●● Split peas – available in bright green or golden
●● Borlotti beans – pink-blotched mottled colour. yellow.
●● Broad beans – strongly flavoured beans,
sometimes known as fava beans. Food value
●● Butter beans – available large or small, also Pulses are good sources of protein and carbohydrate,
known as lima beans. and therefore help to provide the body with energy.
●● Cannellini – Italian haricots, slightly fatter than With the exception of the soya bean, they are com-
the English. pletely deficient in fat.
●● Chickpeas – look like the kernel of a small
hazelnut; the main ingredient of hummus. Storage
●● Dhal –the Hindi word for dried peas and beans. All pulses should be kept in clean containers in a dry,
●● Dutch brown beans – light brown in colour. well-ventilated store.
●● Flageolets – pale-green, kidney-shaped beans.
●● Ful mesdames or Egyptian brown beans – Uses
small, brown, knobbly beans, also known as the
Pulses are used extensively for soups, stews, vegeta-
field or broad bean in England.
bles and salads, as accompaniments to meat dishes
●● Haricot beans – white, smooth oval beans.
and in vegetarian cookery.
●● Lentils – available in bright orange, brown or green.
●● Mung beans – chiefly used for beansprouts.
●● Pinto beans – pink-blotched mottled colour.
Herbs
Of the 30 well-known types of herbs, approximately in which case they are usually included in a
12 are generally used in cookery. Herbs may be used faggot of herbs (bouquet garni).
fresh, but the majority are dried so as to ensure a ●● Borage: This is a plant with furry leaves and
continuous supply throughout the year. The leaves of blue flowers that produces a flavour similar
herbs contain an oil that gives the characteristic smell to cucumber when added to vegetables and
and flavour. salads.
Herbs have no food value but are important from ●● Chervil: Chervil has small, neatly shaped leaves
a nutritive point of view in aiding digestion because with a delicate aromatic flavour. It is best used
they stimulate the flow of gastric juices. The most fresh, but may also be obtained in dried form.
commonly used herbs are described below. Because of its neat shape it is often used for
decorating chaud-froid work. It is also one of the
●● Basil: Basil is a small leaf with a pungent flavour
‘fines herbes’ (see below) – the mixture of herbs
and sweet aroma. Used in raw or cooked tomato
used in many culinary preparations.
dishes or sauces, salads and lamb dishes.
●● Chive: Chive is a bright-green member of the
●● Bay leaves: Bay leaves are the leaves of the bay
onion family, resembling a coarse grass. It has
laurel or sweet bay trees or shrubs. They may be
a delicate onion flavour. It is invaluable for
fresh or dried, and are used for flavouring many
flavouring salads, hors d’oeuvre, fish, poultry
soups, sauces, stews, fish and vegetable dishes,
and meat dishes, and chopped as a garnish for
Food commodities 101
Figure 3.123 Herbs (clockwise from top left: coriander, Figure 3.124 Herbs (clockwise from top left: rosemary, bay,
oregano, parsley, flat-leaf parsley) lemon thyme, thyme)
soups and cooked vegetables. It should be used cheese, egg and vegetable dishes; when dried, it
fresh. can be used for flavouring soups, sauces, stews
●● Coriander: A member of the parsley family, and certain stuffings.
coriander is one of the oldest flavourings used ●● Mint: There are many varieties of mint. Fresh
by man. It is both a herb and a spice. The leaves sprigs of mint are used to flavour peas and new
have a distinctive pungent flavour. potatoes. Fresh or dried mint may be used to
●● Dill: Dill has feathery green-grey leaves and is make mint sauce or mint jelly for serving with
used in fish recipes and pickles. roast lamb. Another lesser-known but excellent
●● Fennel: Fennel has feathery bright green leaves, mint for the kitchen is apple mint. Chopped mint
and a slight aniseed flavour, and is used for fish can be used in salads.
sauces, meat dishes and salads. ●● Oregano: Oregano has a flavour and aroma
●● Lemon grass: Lemon grass is a tall plant with similar to marjoram but stronger. It is used in Italian
long, spear-shaped grass-like leaves with a and Greek-style cooking, in meats, salads, soups,
strong lemon flavour. A natural companion to fish, stuffings, pasta, sauces, vegetable and egg dishes.
also used in stir-fries and salads and widely used ●● Parsley: Parsley is probably the most common
in Thai cookery. herb in Britain; it has numerous uses for
●● Lovage: Lovage leaves have a strong celery-like flavouring, garnishing and decorating a large
flavour; when finely chopped they can be used in variety of dishes. Flat-leaf, or French, parsley is
soups, stews, sauces and salads. also available.
●● Marjoram: Marjoram is a sweet herb that may ●● Rosemary: Rosemary is a strong fragrant herb
be used fresh in salads, and in pork, fish, poultry, that should be used sparingly, and may be used
Figure 3.125 Herbs (clockwise from top left: chives, chervil, Figure 3.126 Herbs: mint, sage
tarragon, marjoram)
Figure 3.127 Bull’s blood and baby coriander Figure 3.128 A selection of micro-herbs
fresh or dried for flavouring sauces, stews, salads one of the fines herbes and, as such, is used in
and for stuffings. It can also be sprinkled on omelettes, salads, fish and meat dishes.
roasts or grills of meat, poultry and fish during ●● Thyme: Thyme is a popular herb in the UK; it is
cooking and on roast potatoes. used fresh or dried for flavouring soups, sauces,
●● Sage: Sage is a strong, bitter, pungent herb that stews, stuffings, salads and vegetables.
helps the stomach to digest rich fatty meat; it is
therefore used in stuffings for duck, goose and pork. Fine herbs (fines herbes)
●● Samphire: Samphire is not really a herb, but This is a mixture of fresh herbs – usually chervil, tarra-
the leaves of a low, branched bush found on gon and parsley – that is referred to in many classical
salt flats. It has a mellow grassy sweetness that cookery recipes.
complements fish and shellfish dishes.
●● Tarragon: This plant has a bright-green, attractive Other herbs
leaf. It is best used fresh, particularly when
Balm, bergamot, fennel, savory, sorrel, tansy, lemon
decorating chaud-froid dishes. Tarragon has
thyme and other herbs are used in cookery, but on a
a pleasant flavour and is used in sauces, one
much smaller scale.
well-known example being sauce béarnaise. It is
Spices
Spices are natural products obtained from the fruits, to reddish brown. Allspice is ground and used as
seeds, roots, flowers or the bark of a number of a flavouring in sauces, sausages, cakes, fruit pies
different trees or shrubs. They contain oils that aid and milk puddings. It is one of the spices blended
digestion by stimulating the gastric juices. They also for mixed spice.
enhance the appearance of food and add a variety of ●● Anise: This is also known as sweet cumin, and
flavours. As spices are concentrated in flavour, they has a sweet aniseed flavour. It is used for fish,
should be used sparingly, otherwise they can make sweets, creams and cakes.
foods unpalatable. Most spices are grown in India, ●● Anise (pepper): A strong, hot-flavoured red
Africa, the West Indies and the Far East. pepper.
●● Anise (star): Stronger than anise, this has a
●● Allspice or pimento: This is so called because
slight liquorice flavour. Used in Chinese cookery
the flavour is like a blend of cloves, cinnamon and
with pork and duck.
nutmeg. It is the unripe fruit of the pimento tree,
●● Asafoetida: This is used in Indian cookery to add
which grows in the West Indies. Allspice is picked
flavour to vegetarian dishes. Available in block or
when still green, and dried when the colour turns
powder form.
Figure 3.129 Spices (clockwise from top left: tamarind, Figure 3.130 Spices (left to right: nutmeg, cloves, star anise)
liquorice, red chilli, ginger, green chilli)
●● Caraway: Caraway seeds come from a plant ●● Cinnamon: Cinnamon is the bark of the small
grown in Holland, Germany, Russia and North branches of the cinnamon shrub, which grows in
America. The seeds are about 0.5 cm long, China and Sri Lanka. The inner pulp and the outer
shaped like a new moon and brown in colour. layer of the bark are removed and the remaining
Caraway seeds are used in seed-cake and certain pieces dried. It is a pale-brown colour and is
breads, sauerkraut, cheese and confectionery. obtained and used in stick or powdered form,
Also for flavouring certain liqueurs such as mainly by bakeries and for pastry work.
kümmel. ●● Cloves: Cloves are the unopened flower buds
●● Cardamom: Cardamom is frequently used in of a tree that grows in Zanzibar, Penang and
curry; it has a warm, oily sharp taste, and is also Madagascar. The buds are picked when green,
used in some sweets (e.g. rice pudding) and and dried in the sun until they turn a rich brown
drinks (e.g. coffee and tea). colour. They are used for flavouring stocks,
●● Cassia: This comes in thicker sticks than sauces, studding roast ham joints and in mulled
cinnamon, is less delicate and more expensive. wine.
Used in spiced meats and curries. ●● Coriander: Coriander is a pleasant spice obtained
●● Celery seed: Slightly bitter, this should be used from the seed of the coriander plant. It is a
sparingly if celery or celery salt is not available. yellowish-brown colour and tastes like a mixture
●● Chillies and capsicums: These are both from of sage and lemon peel. It is used in sauces, curry
the same family and grow on shrubs. The large, powder and mixed spice.
bright-red type are capsicums; these are ground ●● Cumin: This is frequently used in curry, is
and known as paprika. There are many types of powerful, warm and sweet, and has a slightly oily
chillies; they vary in taste, colour, piquancy and taste.
heat (always test the heat by cutting off a small ●● Dill seeds: These are used for flavouring fish
piece and tasting with the tip of the tongue). The soups, stews and cakes.
seeds are one of the hottest parts of the chilli ●● Fennel seeds: Fennel seeds have a sweet
and they can be removed by splitting the chilli in aniseed flavour; used in fish dishes and soups.
half then scooping them out with the point of the ●● Fenugreek: Fenugreek is roasted, ground and
knife. Hands should always be washed thoroughly frequently used in curry; slightly bitter, with a
after preparing chillies because the oils are smell of fresh hay.
exceptionally strong and will burn the eyes, mouth ●● Garam masala: This literally means ‘hot spices’; it is
and other delicate areas of the body. Chillies are not a standardised recipe, but a typical mixture could
used in many dishes: pizzas, pasta and in Indian, include: cardamom seeds, stick cinnamon, cumin
Thai and Mexican cookery. seeds, cloves, black peppercorns and nutmeg.
●● Chinese five spice powder: Usually consists ●● Ginger: Ginger is the rhizome or root of a reed-
of: powdered anise, fennel, cloves, cinnamon like plant grown in the Far East. The root is boiled
and anise pepper. Used extensively in Chinese in water and sugar syrup until soft. Ground ginger
cookery. is used mainly for pastry and bakery work and
Figure 3.131 Spices (clockwise from top left: black Figure 3.132 Spices (clockwise from top left: sesame seeds,
peppercorns, white peppercorns, juniper berries, pink cardamom, cumin, caraway seeds, poppy seeds)
peppercorns)
for mixed spice. Whole root is used for curries,

pickles, stir-fry dishes and sauces.
●● Juniper berries: If these are added to game, red
cabbage, pork, rabbit and beef dishes, they give
an unusual background flavour.
●● Krachai: A type of ginger with a slightly strange
flavour.
●● Nutmeg and mace: The tropical nutmeg bears
a large fruit like an apricot that, when ripe, splits.
Inside is a dark-brown nut with a bright-red net-
like covering, which is the part that becomes
mace. Inside the nut is the kernel or seed, which
is the nutmeg. Although the two spices come
from the same fruit, the flavour is different. Mace Figure 3.133 Spices (clockwise from top: cinnamon quills,
saffron filaments, turmeric, allspice)
is more delicate and is used for flavouring sauces
and certain meat and fish dishes. Nutmeg is Eastern cooking for their acidic lemon/peppery
used in sweet dishes (particularly milk puddings), flavour. Deep red-maroon colour.
sauces, soups, vegetable and cheese dishes. It is ●● Turmeric: Turmeric grows in the same way as
also used for mixed spice. ginger and it is the rhizome that is used. It is
●● Poppy seeds: Poppy seeds are used as a without any pronounced flavour and its main use
topping for bread, cakes, etc. is for colouring curry powder. It is ground into a
●● Saffron: The stigmas from a crocus known as fine powder, which turns it yellow. Turmeric is also
the saffron crocus (grown chiefly in Spain) are used in pickles, relishes and as a colouring in
dried and form saffron, which is a flavouring and cakes and rice.
colouring spice. It is used in soups, sauces and
particularly in rice dishes, giving them a bright- Others
yellow colour and distinctive flavour. Saffron
is very expensive as it takes the stigmas from There is a large number of other spices, and spice
approximately 4000 crocus flowers to yield just and herb mixtures available – for example, chermonla,
30 g. curries, harissa and curry powders and pastes.
●● Sesame seeds: These are used as a topping for
bread and cakes, and in Chinese and vegetarian Some additional ingredients used in
cookery. They are also crushed for oil and ground Asian and fusion cuisine
in preparations such as tahini. (Fusion cuisine is a mixture of food styles and ingre-
●● Surmac seeds: These are used in Middle dients from the cookery styles of East and West.)
●● Ajowan: A native Indian plant used in Indian ●● Coconut milk and cream: Not to be confused
recipes. An ingredient of Bombay mix, and breads with the ‘milk’ or juice found inside the fresh
such as parathas, bean and pulse recipes. coconut. The coconut milk used for cooking is
●● Annatto: Shrub indigenous to both the Caribbean produced from the white flesh of the coconut. If
and tropical America; has heart-shaped glossy left to stand, the thick part of the milk will rise to
leaves and pink flowers. The seeds are washed the surface like cream.
and dried separately for culinary use. An orange ●● Curry leaves: Come from the tropical tree of the
food colour is made from the husk. citrus-rue family, native to southern India and Sri
●● Asafoetida: Indigenous to Iran and Afghanistan Lanka. Strong, curry aroma. A classical way of
and the north of India. Used in vegetable, fish, using curry leaves is by frying mustard seeds in hot
pulse and pickle ingredients. ghee, then adding a little asafoetida and several
●● Bamboo shoots: Mild-flavoured, tender shoots curry leaves for a few seconds, before stirring them
of the young bamboo. Widely available fresh, or into a plain dhal dish or dhal-based Indian soup.
sliced or halved in cans. ●● Dashi: Light Japanese stock, available in powder
●● Bengali five spices: Bengali in origin, also form. The flavour derives from kelp seaweed.
known as panch phoron. Contains cumin seeds, ●● Dried shrimps and shrimp paste: Dried
fennel seeds, mustard seeds, fenugreek seeds shrimps are tiny shrimps that are salted and dried.
and nigella seeds. They are used as a seasoning for stir-fry dishes.
●● Berbera: An Ethiopian blend of spices: dried Shrimp paste, also known as terasi, is a dark,
red chillies, white cardamoms, allspice berries, odorous paste made from fermented shrimps.
black peppercorns, cumin seeds, coriander seeds, ●● Galangal: Fresh galangal, also known as
ajowan seeds, ground ginger, fenugreek seeds, lengkuas, tastes and looks a little like ginger, with
cloves, ground nutmeg and salt. a pinkish tinge to its skin.
●● Blackbean sauce: Made from salted black ●● Gram flour: Made from ground chickpeas, this
beans, crushed and mixed with flour and spices flour has a unique flavour.
(such as ginger, garlic or chilli) to form a paste. ●● Harissa: Spice mix used in Moroccan, Tunisian
Sold in jars and cans. and Algerian cooking. Used as a dip or
●● Cajun spice mix: Spice mixture used for fish, accompaniment. Contains dried red chillies, olive
chicken and meat. Contains garlic, dried oregano, oil, coriander seeds, garlic, cumin seeds and salt.
white mustard seeds, salt, black peppercorns, chilli ●● Hoi sin sauce: A thick, dark brownish-red sauce
powder, cumin seeds, paprika and dried thyme. that is sweet and spicy.
●● Cardamom pods: Available both as small green ●● Juniper: Grown in Hungary, southern Europe. An
pods and larger black pods containing seeds. evergreen coniferous tree of the cypress family.
They have a strong aromatic quality. The berries are used in the production of gin. A
●● Chillies: There are over 24 different types of seasoning for some birds, venison, duck, rabbit,
chillies – for example, small green or red, garlic, pork, ham and lamb.
and so on. ●● Kaffir lime leaves: These are used like bay
●● Chilli bean sauce: Made from fermented bean leaves, to give an aromatic lime flavour to dishes.
paste mixed with hot chilli and other seasonings. ●● La Kama: Moroccan spice mix. Black
●● Chilli oil: Made from fermented bean paste peppercorns, ground ginger, ground turmeric,
mixed with hot chilli and other seasonings. ground nutmeg, cinnamon stick.
●● Chilli powder: Milder than cayenne pepper and ●● Liquorice: Native of the Middle East and south-
more coarsely ground; prepared from a variety of east Europe. The root is the most important part;
mild and hot chillies. it sends out a deep and extensive network of
●● Chilli sauce: A very hot sauce made from chillies, rhizomes, which are grown for three to five years
vinegar, sugar and salt. Sold in bottles. before they are harvested. The roots and rhizomes
●● Chinese chives: Also known as garlic chives. are cleaned, pulped, then boiled, and the liquorice
●● Chinese rice wine: Made from glutinous rice, also extract is then concentrated by evaporation.
known as yellow wine huang jin or chiew because Liquorice is best known as an ingredient in
of its colour. The best variety is called shuo hsing confectionery, also used in the making of
or shuoxing, and comes from south-east China. Guinness and to flavour the Italian liquor sambuca.
Dry sherry may be used as a substitute. ●● Mahlebi: Tree found only in the Middle East and
Turkey. This ground spice is used in breads and ●● Red bean paste: A reddish-brown paste made
pastries. from puréed red beans and crystallised sugar.
●● Mango powder: The unripe mangoes are sliced, ●● Rice vinegar: There are two basic types:
sundried and ground to a powder, then mixed –– red vinegar – made from fermented rice, has a
with a little ground turmeric. Used in vegetarian distinctive dark colour
dishes, curries and chutneys. –– white vinegar – stronger in flavour, distilled
●● Mirin: A mild, sweet Japanese rice wine used in from rice.
cooking. ●● Sake: A powerful fortified rice wine from Japan.
●● Miso: A fermented bean paste that adds richness ●● Sambaar powder: Also known as sambar, used
and flavour to Japanese soups. in south Indian dishes; made from red chillies,
●● Nigella: Grown in India. The seeds are held in a coriander seeds, black peppercorns, fenugreek
seed head similar to a poppy head. Sometimes seeds, urad dhal, channu dhal, mung dhal, ground
used as a substitute for pepper. Nigella is one of turmeric and cumin seeds.
the five spices in Bengali five spices. It is widely ●● Sambal keeap: Indonesian sauce used as an
used in Indian cooking, in dhal and vegetable accompaniment or a dip. Dark soy sauce, lemon
dishes, pickles and chutneys. The seeds are often juice, garlic, red chilli, deep-fried onion slices.
scattered on naan bread. ●● Sambals: Sambals is an accompaniment that
●● Noodles: There are several types of noodles: is spooned directly on to the plate. Made from
–– cellophane noodles – also known as bean seeded red chillies puréed with salt.
thread, transparent or glass noodles, made ●● Soy sauce: A major seasoning ingredient in
from ground mung beans Chinese cooking, made from fermented soya beans,
–– egg noodles – made from wheat flour, egg and combined with yeast, salt and sugar. Chinese soy
water sauce falls into two main categories: light and dark.
–– rice noodles – made from ground rice and Light has more flavour than the sweeter dark sauce,
water which gives food a rich, reddish colour.
–– rice vermicelli – thin brittle noodles that look ●● Spring roll wrappers: Paper-thin wrappers made
like white hair from wheat or rice flour and water.
–– somen noodles – delicate, thin white Japanese ●● Sumac: Bush grown in Italy, Sicily and the Middle
noodles made from wheat flour East. Its red berries are dried. Widely used in
–– udon noodles – Japanese noodles made of Lebanese, Syrian, Turkish and Iranian cuisines.
wheat flour and water. ●● Szechuan peppercorns: Also known as
●● Nori: Paper-thin sheets of Japanese seaweed. tarchiew; aromatic, best used roasted and ground.
●● Oyster sauce: Made from oyster extract. Not as hot as white or black peppercorns.
●● Pak choi: Also known as bok choi, this is a leaf ●● Tamarind: The brown, sticky pulp of the bean-like
vegetable with long, smooth milky-white stems seed pod of the tamarind tree. Used in Indian,
and dark-green foliage. Thai and Indonesian cooking.
●● Palm sugar: Strongly flavoured, hard brown sugar ●● Thai fish sauce (nam pla): The most common
made from the sap of the coconut palm tree. flavouring in Thai food, in the same way soy
●● Papaya seeds: Seeds of the papaya fruit. Can sauce is used in Chinese dishes. It is made from
be used fresh or dried. Rich in the enzyme salted anchovies and has a strong, salty flavour.
papain, which is an efficient meat tenderiser of ●● Thai nam prik sauce: This is the most famous
commercial value. of the Thai sauces, it can be served on its own
●● Pomegranate seeds: Grown in Mediterranean or used as a dip. Contains brown sugar, lemon
countries, South America, the USA and parts of juice, fish sauce, fresh red chillies, dried prawns,
Africa. Grenadine is a syrup made from the juice blanchan, cooked prawns, garlic and fresh
of the pomegranate. Fresh pomegranate seeds coriander.
are sprinkled on hummus. ●● Thai parsley: Similar in appearance to spring
●● Ras el hanout: Moroccan spice mixture. Contains onion but without the bulb.
black peppercorns, coriander seeds, cumin seeds, ●● Thai red curry paste (krueng gueng phed):
cloves, green cardamoms, ground turmeric, Used for meat, poultry and vegetable dishes.
cinnamon stick, ground ginger, salt nutmeg, dried Contains red chillies, groundnut oil, red onion,
red chillies and dried flowers. blanchan, lemon grass, salt, cumin seeds, citrus
FOOD COMMODITIES 107
peel, garlic, galangal, green chillies, white onion, ●● Wonton wrappers: Small, paper-thin squares of
fresh coriander and coriander seeds. wheat flour and egg dough.
●● Toey leaves: Also known as pandanus leaves, ●● Yard-long beans: Long, thin beans similar to
these are long, flat blades, bright green in colour. French beans but three or four times longer.
●● Tofu: Puréed, pressed soya beans, also known as ●● Yellow bean sauce: A thick paste made from
bean curd. Rich in protein. salted, fermented yellow soya beans crushed with
●● Wasabi: Edible root used in Japanese cooking, flour and sugar.
to make a condiment with a sharp, pungent and ●● Zedoury: A member of the ginger and turmeric
fiery flavour. Similar to horseradish. family, bright yellow in colour. Has a musky aroma
●● Water chestnuts: Walnut-sized bulbs from an with a hint of camphor.
Asian water plant that looks like sweet chestnuts.
Condiments
Salt in cheese straws. It is a hot pepper that is obtained

from grinding chillies and capsicums.
Food value
Salt (sodium chloride) is essential for stabilising body Paprika
fluids and preventing muscular cramp. However, in Paprika is a bright-red mild pepper used in Hungarian
general, too much salt is consumed. It should always dishes, e.g. soups, stews (goulash). Smoked paprika
be used in moderation as it has been proved that is available in sweet, hot and bitter-sweet versions.
excess salt in the diet can be harmful to health, caus-
ing high blood pressure.
Mustard
Storage Mustard is obtained from the seed of the mustard
Salt must be stored in a cool, dry place as it readily plant. There are three different types of seed: white,
absorbs moisture. It should be kept in airtight packets, brown and black. It is sold in powder form and is
drums or bins. diluted with water, milk or vinegar for table use, or
sold ready mixed in jars. A large variety of continental
Uses mustards are sold as a paste in jars, having been
Salt is used for curing fish such as herrings and had- mixed with herbs and wine vinegar.
docks, and for cheese and butter making. Salt is also
used for the pickling of foods, in the cooking of many Vinegar
dishes and as a condiment on the table. Malt vinegar is made from malt, which is produced
from barley. Artificial, non-brewed, pure or imitation
Pepper vinegars are chemically produced solutions of acetic
Pepper is obtained from black peppercorns, which are acid in water. They are cheaper and inferior to malt
the berries of a tropical shrub. White peppercorns are vinegar, having a pungent odour and a sharp flavour.
obtained by removing the skin from the black pep- Spirit vinegars are produced from potatoes, grain
percorn. White pepper is less pungent than black, and or starchy vegetables, but they do not have the
both may be obtained in ground form. same flavour as malt vinegar. Red or white wine
Green peppercorns are fresh unripe pepper ber- vinegars are made from grapes; they are more
ries, milder than dried peppercorns, available frozen expensive and have a more delicate flavour than
or in jars or tins. Pink peppercorns are softer and the other vinegars.
milder than green peppercorns, available preserved All vinegars can be distilled; this removes the
in vinegar. colour. The colour of vinegar is no indication of its
Ground pepper is used for seasoning many dishes strength as burnt sugar is added to give colour.
and as a condiment at the table. Balsamic vinegar is a specially matured vinegar
from Italy, with a distinctive flavour that varies in
Cayenne pepper strength according to the age of the vinegar, which
Cayenne is a red pepper used on savoury dishes and can be up to 30 years.
Other vinegars include chilli, sherry, cider, rice, herb Uses

(especially tarragon) thyme, oregano, sage, rosemary, Vinegar is used as a preservative for pickles, rollmops
and fruit such as raspberry and strawberry. and cocktail onions; and as a condiment on its own
or with oil as a salad dressing; it is used for flavour-
ing sauces such as mayonnaise and in reductions for
sharp sauces (e.g. sauce piquante, sauce diable).
Colourings, flavourings and essences
Colourings colourings must be pure and there is a list of those

A number of food colourings are obtained in either permitted for cookery and confectionery use.
powder or liquid form. Natural colours include the
following. Flavourings and essences
Essences are generally produced from a solution of
●● Cochineal: Cochineal is a red colour, produced essential oils with alcohol, and are prepared for the
from the cochineal beetle, used in pastry and use of cooks, bakers and confectioners. Among the
confectionery work. many types of essence obtainable are:
●● Green colouring: This can be made by mixing
indigo and saffron, but chlorophyll, the natural ●● almond ● orange
green colouring of plants, such as in spinach, may ●● pineapple ● strawberry
also be used. (Green pasta is coloured with dried ●● lemon ● peppermint
spinach powder.) ●● raspberry ● vanilla.
●● Indigo: Indigo is a blue colour seldom used on its Essences are available in three categories: natural,
own but, when mixed with red, it produces shades artificial and compound. The relative costs vary con-
of mauve. siderably and it is advisable to try all types of flavour-
●● Yellow colouring: A deep-yellow colour can be ing essence before deciding on which to use for
obtained from turmeric roots and is prepared in specific purposes.
the form of a powder mainly used in curry and
mustard pickles. Yellow colouring is also obtained Natural essences
by using egg yolks or saffron. ●● Fruit juices pressed out of soft fruits (raspberries
●● Brown: Brown sugar is used to give a deep brown or strawberries).
colour in rich fruit cakes; it also adds to the flavour. ●● Citrus fruit peel (lemon, orange).
●● Blackjack or browning: Blackjack, or commercial ●● Spices, beans, herbs, roots, nuts (caraway seeds,
caramel, is a dark-brown, almost black liquid; it is cinnamon, celery, mint, sage, thyme, clove, ginger,
used for colouring soups, sauces, gravies, aspics, coffee beans, nutmeg and vanilla pod).
and in pastry and confectionery.
●● Chocolate colour: This can be obtained in liquid Artificial essences
or powder form, and is used in pastry and Artificial essences (such as vanilla, pineapple, rum,
confectionery. banana and coconut) are produced from various
●● Coffee colour: This is usually made from coffee chemicals blended to give a close imitation of the
beans with the addition of chicory. natural flavour.
Other colourings Compound essences
A large range of artificial colours is also obtainable; Compound essences are made by blending natural
they are produced from coal tar and are harmless. products with artificial products.
Some mineral colours are also used in foodstuffs. All
Grocery, delicatessen
Delicatessen literally means ‘provision store’, but the ●● Foie gras: This expensive delicacy is obtained
name is commonly used to cover the place where a from the livers of specially fattened geese and is
wide range of table delicacies may be bought. produced mainly in Strasbourg. It is available fresh
and cooked in a variety of ways (e.g. terrine, pâté).
●● Agar-agar: This is obtained from the dried
●● Gelatine: Gelatine is obtained from the bones
purified stems of a seaweed; it is also known
and connective tissue (collagen) of certain
as vegetable gelatine and is used in vegetarian
animals; it is manufactured in leaf or powdered
cookery.
form and used in various sweets, such as
●● Anchovy essence: This is a strong, highly
bavarois. (Vegetable gelatine is agar-agar.)
seasoned commodity used for flavouring certain
●● Haggis: This traditional Scottish dish is made
fish sauces and fish preparations such as
from the heart, lungs (lights) and liver of the
anchovy sauce or fish cakes.
sheep, mixed with suet, onion and oatmeal, and
●● Aspic: Aspic jelly is a clear savoury jelly, which
sewn up in a stomach bag. It is boiled and served
may be the flavour of meat, game or fish. It may
with mashed potatoes.
be produced from fresh ingredients or obtained in
●● Hams: A ham is the hind leg of a pig cured by
dried form. It is used for cold larder work, mainly
a special process, which varies according to the
for coating chaud-froid dishes, and may also be
type of ham. One of the most famous English
chopped or cut into neat shapes to decorate
hams is the York ham, weighing 6–7 kg, which is
finished dishes.
cured by salting, drying and sometimes smoking.
●● Charcuterie: Charcuterie is the name given to
The Bradenham ham is of coal-black colour
cold meat preparations usually pork (e.g. hams),
and is a sweet-cured ham from Chippenham in
galantines, black puddings, pâtés, salamis and a
Wiltshire. Hams are also imported from Northern
large variety of continental sausages and cured
Ireland and Denmark. These are all cooked before
meats (e.g. bresaola).
use. Continental raw hams – Westphalian from
●● Caviar: Caviar is the uncooked roe of the
Germany, Bayonne and Ardenne from France,
sturgeon, which is prepared by carefully
Parma from Italy and Serrano from Spain – are
separating the eggs from the membranes of the
cut into thin slices and served raw.
roe and gently rubbing them through sieves of
●● Horseradish: Horseradish is a plant of which
coarse hemp. It is then soaked in a brine solution,
only the root is used. It is washed, peeled, grated
sieved and packed.
and used for horseradish sauce and horseradish
Sturgeon fishing takes place in the estuaries of
cream.
rivers that run into the Caspian or Black Sea,
●● Panettone: An Italian light-textured yeast bread
therefore caviar is Russian or Iranian in origin. The
containing sultanas and candied fruit.
types normally obtainable in Britain are Beluga,
●● Pickles: These are vegetables and/or fruits
Osetrova and Sevruga. These names refer to the
preserved in vinegar or sauce and include red
type of sturgeon from which the caviar is taken.
cabbage, gherkins, olives, onions, walnuts and
Caviar is extremely expensive, and needs to be
capers. Mango chutney is a sweet chutney that is
handled with great care and understanding. It
served as an accompaniment to curried dishes.
should be kept at a temperature of 0°C but no
●● Smoked herring, anchovies and sardines: These
lower, otherwise the extreme cold will break the
are preserved in oil and used as hors d’oeuvre.
eggs down. Caviar must never be deep frozen.
●● Smoked salmon: British, Scandinavian or
A red caviar (keta) is obtained from the roe
Canadian salmon weighing between 6 and 8 kg are
of salmon. From the lumpfish a mock caviar is
used for smoking. A good-quality side of smoked
obtained. These are considerably cheaper than
salmon (see Figure 3.70) should have a bright,
genuine caviar.
deep colour and be moist when lightly pressed
●● Extracts (meat and vegetable): Extracts are
with the finger tip at the thickest part of the flesh.
highly concentrated forms of flavouring used in
A perfectly smoked side of salmon will remain in
some kitchens to strengthen stocks and sauces
good condition for not more than seven days when
(Bovril, Marmite, Maggi and Jardox are some
stored at a temperature of 18°C. This versatile food
examples).
is used for canapés, hors d’oeuvre, sandwiches, and snails are replaced in the shells with a mixture of
as a fish course for lunch, dinner or supper. butter, garlic, lemon juice and parsley, then heated
●● Snails: Edible snails are raised on the foliage of in the oven and served in special dishes. Snails
the vine. They are obtainable in boxes that include are also farmed in Britain.
the tinned snails and the cleaned shells. The
Confectionery and bakery goods

●● Cake covering: This is produced from hardened ●● Marrons glacés: Peeled and cooked chestnuts
vegetable fat with the addition of chocolate preserved in syrup. They are used in certain large
flavouring and colour. and small cakes, sweet dishes and as a variety of
●● Cape gooseberries: A tasty, yellow-berried fruit petits fours.
resembling a large cherry. Cape gooseberries are ●● Marzipan: A preparation of ground almonds,
often dipped in fondant and served as a petit four. sugar and egg yolks used in the making of petits
●● Chocolate vermicelli: A ready-made preparation fours, pastries and large cakes. Marzipan may be
of small fine chocolate pieces used in the freshly made and is also obtained as a ready-
decorating of small and large cakes and some prepared commodity.
chocolate-flavoured sweets. ●● Mincemeat: A mixture of dried fruit, fresh fruit,
●● Cocktail cherries: Bright-red cherries preserved sugar, spices, nuts, etc., chiefly used for mince
in a syrup, often flavoured with a liqueur known pies. It can also be obtained in 0.5 kg and 1 kg
as maraschino. In addition to being used for jars, and 3 kg tins.
cocktails they are also used to give colour to ●● Pastillage (gum paste): A mixture of icing sugar
grapefruit and grapefruit cocktails. and gum tragacanth, which may be moulded into
●● Fondant: A soft, white preparation of sugar shapes for set pieces for cold buffets and also for
that has many uses in pastry and confectionery making baskets, caskets, etc., for the serving of
work, chiefly for coating petits fours, pastries and petits fours.
gâteaux. ●● Piping jelly: A thick jelly of piping consistency
●● Gum tragacanth: A soluble gum used for obtainable in different colours and flavours. It is
stiffening pastillage; only a very clear white type used for decorating pastries and gâteaux and
of gum tragacanth should be used. It is obtained cold sweets. Piping jelly is obtainable in large
from the shrubs of the genus Astragalus. tins.
●● Honey: A natural sugar produced by bees ●● Redcurrant jelly: A clear preserve of redcurrants
working upon the nectar of flowers. It is generally used as a jam as an accompaniment and also in
used in the form of a preserve and in pastry the preparation of sauces.
work. ●● Rennet: A substance originally obtained from
●● Ice cream: A frozen preparation of a well- the stomachs of calves, pigs and lambs, but that
flavoured, sweetened mixture, which can be made can now be obtained in synthetic form. Rennet
in many ways and in many flavours. Ice cream is prepared in powder, extract or essence form,
may be bought ready prepared, usually in 5-litre and is used in the production of cheese and for
containers that are suitable for deep-freeze making junket. Vegetable rennet, for vegetarians,
storage. The storage temperature for ice cream is also available.
should not exceed 219°C. ●● Vanilla: This is the dried pod of an orchid used
●● Jam: A preserve of fruit and sugar obtainable for infusing mild sweet flavour into dishes. After
in 28 g, 0.5 kg and 1 kg jars, and 3 kg tins. use rinse the vanilla stick, dry and store in a
Raspberry and apricot jams are those most often sealed jar of castor sugar ready for reuse.
used in the pastry. ●● Wafers: Thin, crisp biscuits of various shapes
●● Marmalade: A preserve of citrus fruits and sugar, and sizes usually served with ice cream. They are
which is used mainly for breakfast menus and for obtainable in large tins of approximately 1000,
certain sweets. and half-tins of approximately 500 wafers.
References
Campbell, J., Foskett, D., Rippington, N. and Paskins, Some references to commodities elsewhere
P. (2011) Practical Cookery Level 3 (5th edn). in this book:
London: Hodder Education.
✎● Effects of cooking........................................................... Ch. 16
Campbell, J., Foskett, D. and Ceserani, V. (2009)
Practical Cookery (11th edn). London: Hodder ✎● Food values ................................................................................... 112
Education. ✎● Purchasing...................................................................................... 248
North American Meat Processors Association (2006) ✎● Nutrition ............................................................................................. 112
The Meat Buyer’s Guide. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
✎● Preservation .................................................................................. 140
✎● Refrigeration ................................................................................ 267

1 Factors that affect the quality of meat. 9 The importance of eggs to food production.
2 Pros and cons of using meat substitutes such 10 Compare the uses of butter, margarine or oil in
as TVP and Quorn. cooking.
3 Purchasing of meat (by carcass, joints or por- 11 What is a sensible policy for selling cheese in a
tion-controlled cuts). restaurant?
4 Much of today’s poultry lacks flavour. How can 12 Is the average caterer sufficiently knowledge-
this be remedied? able about the different types of flour and their
5 The popularity of fish compared to meat and suitability for specific purposes?
poultry. 13 Should the caterer be offering a wider range of
6 The best ways to purchase fish. choice of teas and coffees?
7 Buying policy for vegetables and fruit. 14 The value of using pulses.
8 The importance of vegetables and fruit in the 15 The value of using herbs, micro-herbs and
diet. spices.
mmodities a
co n
Basic nutrition,
4
d
d
o
nu
Part 2 Fo
trition diet and health
Food and Nutrients 112 Food Allergies and Intolerances 135

Mineral Elements 119 Healthy Eating 136
The Effects of Cooking Food Additives 138
on Nutrients 121 Food Spoilage 139
Food Requirements 122 Keeping Up to Date 140
Basal Metabolism 123 Methods of Preservation 140
Value of Foods in the Diet 123 References 147
Catering for Health 127 Topics for Discussion 148

›● Activity worksheets: nutrition; food preservation
›● Videos and worksheets: diets and food allergies
Food and nutrients

Nutrition is the science of food; it is the nutrients ●● Proteins provide 4 kcals per gram and are
in food and the way in which they react in rela- primarily responsible for growth and repair.
tion to our health. Nutrients are the substances ●● Carbohydrates provide 4 kcals per gram and are
in food that provide energy, promote growth and the primary source of our energy. They are a large
maintain the body. A diet is the selection of foods; class of nutrients, which include starch, sugars
a balanced diet provides all of the nutrients in suf- and fibre.
ficient quantities. People today are becoming more ●● Fats provide 9 kcals per gram; they are a rich
aware of food choices, therefore it is important source of energy and essential to the structure of
for those involved in planning menus, purchasing our cells.
foods, cooking and serving to have some nutri- ●● Vitamins do not provide any kcals, but are
tional knowledge. essential in small quantities for our health.
●● Minerals do not provide any energy, and can
Nutrients be classed as either major or minor minerals;
Nutrients provide energy or kilocalories (kcals), and these again are required in small amounts, but
there are around 50 nutrients which are divided into perform important roles in our health such as
six categories. ‘Macro’ nutrients such as protein, car- transporting oxygen, making our bones and teeth
bohydrates and fats provide the body with energy; strong, and regulating our heartbeat, to name
the ‘micro’ nutrients do not provide energy but are but a few.
essential for our health. ●● Water is essential for our health.
Basic nutrition, diet and health 113
Table 4.1 Foods containing the various nutrients and their use in the body
Nutrient Food in which it is found Use in body

Protein Meat, fish, poultry, game, milk, cheese, For building and repairing body tissues;
eggs, pulses, cereals some heat and energy
Fat Butter, margarine, cooking fat, oils, Provides heat and energy
cheese, fat meat, oily fish
Carbohydrate Flour, flour products and cereals, sugar, Provides heat and energy
syrup, jam, honey, fruit, vegetables
Vitamin A Oily fish, fish liver oil, dairy foods, carrots, Helps growth; resistance to disease
tomatoes, greens
Vitamin B1 – thiamin Yeast, pulses, liver, whole grain, cereals, Helps growth; strengthens nervous
meat and yeast extracts system
Vitamin B2 – riboflavin Yeast, liver, meat, meat extracts, Helps growth, and helps in the
wholegrain cereals production of energy
Nicotinic acid (niacin) Yeast, meat, liver, meat extracts, Helps growth
wholegrain cereals
Vitamin C – ascorbic acid Fruits such as strawberries, citrus fruits, Helps growth, promotes health
green vegetables, root vegetables, salad
Vitamin D (sunshine vitamin) Fish liver oils, oily fish, dairy foods Helps growth; builds bones and teeth
Iron Lean meat, offal, egg yolk, wholemeal Building up the blood
flour, green vegetables, fish
Calcium (lime) Milk and milk products, bones of fish, Building bones and teeth, clotting the
wholemeal bread blood, the working of the muscles
Phosphorus Liver and kidney, eggs, cheese, bread Building bones and teeth, regulating
body processes
Sodium (salt) Meat, eggs, fish, bacon, cheese Prevention of muscular cramp
Most foods are a combination of a number of nutri-

ents, but some foods – such as sugar – contain only Mouth
one nutrient. Alcohol provides the body with 7 kcals
per gram, but it actually has the same effect upon the
body as a drug so is not classified as a nutrient.
Digestion
Digestion is the breaking down of food with the help Liver Stomach
of enzymes. Enzymes are proteins that speed up
(catalyse) the breakdown processes. Digestion takes
place: Pancreas
●● in the mouth, where food is mixed with saliva, and Small
starch is broken down by the action of an enzyme intestine
Large
in saliva intestine
●● in the stomach, where the food is mixed and
gastric juices are added, and proteins are broken
down
●● in the small intestine, where proteins, fats and
carbohydrates are broken down further and
additional juices added Figure 4.1 The digestive tract
●● in the large intestine, where bacteria attack
undigested substances such as dietary fibre.
Table 4.2 The main functions of nutrients
Regulation
Growth and of body
Energy repair processes
Carbohydrates Proteins Vitamins
Fats Minerals Minerals
Proteins Water Water
Absorption
To enable the body to benefit from food it must
be absorbed into the bloodstream; this absorption
occurs after the food has been broken down; the
product then passes through the walls of the diges- Meat Milk, cheese
tive tract and into the bloodstream. This occurs in: Fish Potatoes, dried peas,
dried beans
●● the stomach, where simple substances, such Eggs
as alcohol and glucose, are passed through the Cereals, flour, bread
stomach lining into the bloodstream Figure 4.2 Main sources of protein in the average diet
●● the small intestine, where more of the absorption
of nutrients takes place due to a further
breakdown of the food What is protein?
●● the large intestine, where water is reabsorbed Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
from the waste. nitrogen. They are made from long chains of amino
acids, which are the building blocks of protein.
Food should smell, look and taste attractive in order
The way that these amino acids are arranged or
to stimulate the flow of saliva and digestive juices.
sequenced is how different proteins are formed,
This will help the digestive process and ensure that
which is why the protein of cheese is different to
most food is broken down and absorbed. If digestion
the protein in meat. There are 20 different amino
and absorption are not efficient this could lead to a
acids, of which eight are essential – which means
deficiency of one or more nutrients and a state of
that we have to obtain these from our diet as the
malnutrition.
body cannot make them – and there are 12 non-
essential amino acids that the body can make from
Protein other amino acids. Proteins that contain all of the
Protein is an essential part of all living matter; it is essential amino acids in the correct proportion are
therefore needed for the growth of the body and for said to have a high biological value. It is preferable
the repair of body tissues. to take both animal and vegetable forms of protein
There are two kinds of protein: so that we have a variety of the necessary amino
1 animal protein acids available to us. Protein builds and repairs the
2 vegetable protein. body; it is part of many enzymes, hormones and
antibodies. It is also involved in maintaining fluid,
Animal protein is found in meat, game, poultry, fish, clotting the blood, and maintaining our acid and
eggs, milk and cheese: myosin, collagen (meat, poul- alkaline balance.
try and fish); albumin, ovovitellin (eggs); casein (milk During digestion, protein is split into amino acids;
and cheese). these are absorbed into the bloodstream and used
Vegetable protein is found mainly in the seeds of for building body tissues and to provide some heat
vegetables. The proportion of protein in green and and energy.
root vegetables is small. Peas, beans and nuts contain Table 4.3 shows the proportion of protein in some
most protein, and the grain of cereals such as wheat common foods. It shows that there is no such thing as
has a useful amount because of the large quantity a pure protein food (i.e. one containing 100 per cent
eaten – for example, gliadin and glutenin forming protein). Foods with even the highest content do not
gluten with water (wheat and rye). contain more than 45 per cent.
It follows that, because protein is needed for growth,
Table 4.3 The proportion of protein in some common foods
Animal food Protein (%) Plant foods Protein (%)

Cheese, Cheddar 26 Soya flour, low fat 45
Bacon, lean 20 Soya flour, full fat 37
Beef, lean 20 Peanuts 24
Cod 17 Bread, wholemeal 9
Herring 17 Bread, white 8
Eggs 12 Rice 7
Beef, fat 8 Peas, fresh 6
Milk 3 Potatoes, old 2
Cheese, cream 3 Bananas 1
Butter <1 Apples <1
Tapioca <1
Source: Fox and Cameron (1995) reproduced by permission of Hodder Education
growing children and expectant and nursing moth- 2 polyunsaturated

ers will need more protein than other adults, whose 3 saturated.
requirements are mainly for repair. Any spare protein
Saturated fats are, as the name indicates, saturated
is used for producing heat and energy. In diets where
with hydrogen, which makes them straight and there-
protein intake is minimal, it is important that there is
fore heavy, so they produce solid fats such as butter
plenty of carbohydrate available so that protein is used
and lard. Monounsaturated fats have one double
for growth and repair, rather than for energy purposes.
bond, which means that they are not completely satu-
rated with hydrogen. A monounsaturated fat such as
Fats
olive oil can be liquid at room temperature but turn
What is fat? viscose when stored in the fridge. Polyunsaturated
Fats contain essential fatty acids that are essential fats have two or more points that are not saturated
to the diet. Edible fats are composed of glycerol with with hydrogen; they are found in corn, sunflower, soy-
three fatty acids attached and are therefore called bean and sesame oil.
triglycerides. These different types give different properties to
There are three types of fatty acid: different fats (e.g. butyric acid in butter, oleic acid in
most oils, and stearic acid in solid fats such as beef
1 monounsaturated suet).
Hard fats are mainly of animal origin and contain
HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH more saturated fatty acids, while, in comparison, oils
and soft fats contain more polyunsaturated acids.
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C COOH
To be useful to the body, fats have to be broken
HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH down into glycerol and fatty acids so that they can
Saturated fatty acid (stearic acid)
be absorbed; they can then provide heat and energy.
HHHHHHHH HHHHHHH The food value of the various kinds of fats is similar,
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C COOH although some animal fats contain fat-soluble vita-
mins A and D. The function of fat is to protect vital
HHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHH
Monounsaturated fatty acid (oleic acid)
organs of the body and to provide heat and energy;
certain fats also provide vitamins and add flavour and
HHHHH HH HHHHHHHH texture to food.
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C COOH There are two main groups of fats: animal and veg-
etable. Fats can be divided into:
HHHHHH HHH HHHHHHHH
Saturated fatty acid (stearic acid) ●● solid fat
Figure 4.3 Types of fatty acid ●● oils (fat that is liquid at room temperature).
Table 4.4 Percentage of saturated fat in an average diet* Fats should be eaten with other foods such as
bread, potatoes, etc., as they can then be more easily
Milk, cheese, cream 16.0 digested and utilised in the body.
Meat and meat products 25.2 Certain fish – such as herrings, mackerel, salmon
Other oils and fats 0.0 and sardines – contain oil (fat) in the flesh. A type of
Other sources, including eggs, fish, poultry 7.4 fat that is increasingly popular as a dietary supple-
Biscuits and cakes 11.4 ment is omega-3, which can be found in the flesh of
The 25.2% for meat and meat products oily fish. Other fish, such as cod and halibut, contain
splits down into: the oil in the liver.
Other meat products 9.1 Vegetables and fruit contain very little fat, but nuts
Beef 4.1 and seeds have a considerable amount.
Lamb 3.5
Pork, bacon and ham 5.8
Sausage 2.7
* A diet high in saturated fat is associated with an increased

risk of heart disease
Table 4.5 Sources of saturated and unsaturated fats
High in saturated Dairy Butter, cream, milk,

fats products cheese
Meat Liver, lamb, beef, pork
Others Coconut oil, palm
kernel oil, palm oil,
hard margarine, lard
High in Vegetable Corn (maize) oil, soya
polyunsaturated oils bean oil, safflower Butter, margarine, oil Cereals, flour
fats seed oil, sunflower Meat Eggs
seed oil Milk, cheese Fish
Nuts Most, except coconut
and cashew nuts Figure 4.4 Main sources of fat in the average diet
Margarines Many soft varieties
especially soya bean %
and sunflower seed 0 20 40 60 80 100
Source: Fox and Cameron, 1995, reproduced by permission of Lard

Hodder Education
Margarine
Fats are obtained from the following foods (see also Butter
Table 4.4): Bacon
●● animal origin – dripping, butter, suet, lard, cheese, Cheddar
cream, bacon, meat fat, oily fish Herrings
●● vegetable origin – margarine, cooking fat, nuts, Eggs
soya beans.
Milk
Oils are obtained from the following foods:
Figure 4.5 Proportion of fat in some foods
●● animal origin – halibut and cod liver oil
●● vegetable origin – from seeds or nuts.
Carbohydrates
The contribution of animal fat in the western diet is
gradually changing as healthy eating policies encour- What are carbohydrates?
age a reduction in total fat intake, particularly animal Carbohydrates are made by plants and then either
fats. There has been a move towards skimmed milk, used by plants as energy or eaten by animals or
leaner cuts of meat, cooking with vegetable oils, and a humans for energy. Carbohydrates are made up of
reduced market for eggs, high-fat cheeses and butter. sugar molecules.
There are three main types of carbohydrate:

1 sugar (saccharide)
2 starch (polysaccharide)
3 cellulose (fibre).
The function of carbohydrates is to provide the body
with most of its energy. Starch is composed of a
number of glucose molecules (particles), and during
digestion starch is broken down into glucose.
Sugar
There are several kinds of sugar:
●● glucose – found in the blood of animals and in
fruit and honey
●● fructose – found in fruit, honey and cane sugar Cereals, flour, bread Milk, cheese
●● sucrose – found in beet and cane sugar Sugar, preserves Fruit
●● lactose – found in milk
Potatoes, vegetables
●● maltose – produced naturally during the
germination of grain. Figure 4.7 Main sources of carbohydrates in the average diet
Sugars %
0 20 40 60 80 100
Simple sugars are monosaccharides made of one
unit, such as glucose, fructose and galactose. A Sugar
disaccharide contain two monosaccharides joined Cornflour
together, such as sucrose from glucose and fructose, Tapioca
maltose from glucose, and glucose and lactose from
Sago
glucose and galactose (they all contain a glucose);
Rice
they all end in ‘ose’.
Flour
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Honey

Oatmeal
Glucose Sucrose Raisins
Fructose Lactose Bread
Galactose Maltose Potatoes
Figure 4.8 Proportion of carbohydrate in some foods

Figure 4.6 Simple sugars are the building blocks: all
carbohydrates are composed of single sugars, alone or in
combination ●● cereals – cornflakes, shredded wheat, etc.
●● cooked starch – cakes, biscuits, bread
Sugars are the simplest form of carbohydrate and
●● pastas – macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, etc.
the end products of the digestion of carbohydrates.
They are absorbed in the form of glucose and simple Fibre
sugars, and used to provide heat and energy.
Fibre is found in plants, vegetables, whole grains,
Starch nuts, seeds and legumes. There are two types, which
are classed as soluble and insoluble fibre. Soluble
Starch is present in the diet through the following
fibre swells in water to form a gel-like substance
foods:
that slows digestion and helps to control the release
●● whole grains – rice, barley, tapioca of glucose into the bloodstream. It also binds with
●● powdered grains – flour, cornflour, ground rice, cholesterol in the gastrointestinal tract, so reducing
arrowroot cholesterol levels. Soluble fibres are found in fruits
●● vegetables – potatoes, parsnips, peas, beans and vegetables, and grains such as oats. Insoluble
●● unripe fruit – bananas, apples, cooking pears fibre is the more tough, indigestible fibre such as
the skin of fruits and vegetables, and the outer parts Vitamin D
of seeds, wheat bran and brown rice. Insoluble fibre Vitamin D controls the use the body makes of cal-
increases faecal weight, so assisting in the travel of cium. It is therefore necessary for healthy bones and
waste, which prevents constipation. teeth. Like vitamin A it is fat soluble.
An important source of vitamin D is from the action
Vitamins of sunlight on the deeper layers of the skin (approxi-
What are vitamins? mately 75 per cent of our vitamin D comes from this
Vitamins are chemical substances found in small source). Other sources include:
amounts in many foods. They are vital for life, and if ●● fish liver oils l oily fish
the diet is deficient in any vitamin, ill health results. As ●● egg yolk l dairy produce
they are chemical substances they can be produced ●● margarine (to which vitamin D is added).
synthetically. Vitamins can be fat soluble (A, D, E and
K) or water soluble (B and C). Vitamin B
When first discovered vitamin B was thought to be
General function of vitamins one substance only; it is now known to consist of at
Vitamins assist the regulation of the body processes: least 11 substances, the two main ones being:
●● to help the growth of children 1 thiamin (B1)
●● to protect against disease. 2 riboflavin (B2).
Vitamin A Others include folic acid and pyridoxine (B6), and
Vitamin A: cobalamin (B12). B6 and B12 aid the formation of
blood, so can prevent anaemia.
●● assists in children’s growth Vitamin B is water soluble and can be lost during
●● helps the body to resist infection cooking; it is required to:
●● enables people to see better in the dark.
●● keep the nervous system in good condition
Vitamin A is fat soluble; therefore it is to be found ●● enable the body to obtain energy from the
in fatty foods. It can be made in the body from caro- carbohydrates and amino acid metabolism
tene, the yellow substance found in many fruits and ●● encourage the growth of the body.
vegetables.
Dark-green vegetables are a good source of vita- Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
min A, the green colour masking the yellow of the Vitamin C:
carotene. Carotene is gradually destroyed by light
(hence the fading of orange-coloured spices and ●● assists in the healing of cuts and the uniting of
vegetables on prolonged storage). broken bones
At very high levels, vitamin A can be toxic. ●● prevents gums and mouth infection
Sources of vitamin A are: ●● makes collagen – a protein that makes skin and
bones strong.
●● halibut liver oil l butter
●● milk l watercress
Vitamin C is water soluble and can be lost during
●● cod liver oil l spinach
cooking or soaking in water. It is also lost through
●● herrings l tomatoes
poor storage (keeping foods for too long, bruising
●● kidney l cheese
or storing in a badly ventilated place) and by cutting
●● carrots l apricots
vegetables into small pieces.
●● liver l eggs
Table 4.6 Sources of vitamin B
●● margarine (to which vitamin A is added).
Thiamin (B1) Riboflavin (B2) Nicotinic acid
Fish liver oils have the most vitamin A. The amount
of vitamin A in dairy produce varies. Because cattle Yeast Yeast Meat extract
eat fresh grass in summer and stored feedstuffs in Bacon Liver Brewers’ yeast
winter, the dairy produce contains the highest amount Oatmeal Meat extract Liver
of vitamin A in the summer. Kidney and liver are also Peas Cheese Kidney
useful sources of vitamin A. Wholemeal bread Egg Beef
BASIC NUTRITION, DIET AND HEALTH 119
Vitamin A Vitamin D Vitamin C
Nicotinic
Thiamin Riboflavin
acid
Butter and Bread and Flour and

Vegetables Eggs Fats Milk
margarine flour cereals
Milk and Fruit and
Meat Fruit Fish Bread
cheese vegetables
Figure 4.9 Main sources of vitamins in the average diet
Sources of vitamin C include: ●● strawberries ● bananas

●● blackcurrants ● oranges ●● lemons ● fruit juices.
●● potatoes ● grapefruit
The major sources in the British diet are potatoes and
●● Brussels sprouts and other greens ● tomatoes
green vegetables.
Table 4.7 Cooking times and vitamin C retention for some common foods
Cooking time (mins) % retention of vitamin C during boiling

Brussels sprouts Cabbage Carrots Potatoes
20 49 – 35 –
30 36 70–78 22 53–56
60 – 53–58 – 40–50
90 – 13–17
Source: Fox and Cameron, 1995, reproduced by permission of Hodder Education
Mineral elements
What are mineral elements? tain mineral elements and there is a danger then of
There are 19 mineral elements, most of which are a deficiency in the diet. Calcium, iron and iodine are
required by the body in very small quantities. The those most likely to be deficient.
body has, at certain times, a greater demand for cer-
Calcium Sources of iron include:

Calcium is required for: ●● lean meat l green vegetables
●● building bones and teeth ●● wholemeal flour l egg yolk
●● muscle contraction ●● offal l fish.
●● transmission of nerve impulses. Iron is most easily absorbed from meat and offal, and
The use the body makes of calcium is dependent on its absorption is helped by the presence of vitamin C.
the presence of vitamin D. Iron may also be obtained from iron utensils in
Calcium can be found in: which food is prepared.
As the haemoglobin in the blood should be main-
●● milk and milk products tained at a constant level, the body requires more iron
●● bones of tinned oily fish at certain times than others (e.g. after loss of blood).
●● vegetables (greens)
●● tofu Sodium
●● wholemeal bread and white bread (to which Sodium is required in all body fluids, and is found in
calcium is added). salt (sodium chloride). Excess salt is continually lost
Note that it is still the practice to add calcium, iron, from the body in urine. The kidneys control this loss.
thiamin and nicotinic acid to flour despite the findings We also lose sodium in sweating, a loss over which
of DHSS Report No. 23 (1981) which recommended we have no control.
that this practice should be discontinued. Sodium levels in processed foods have been high-
Although calcium is present in certain foods (spin- lighted in recent years by the government as being
ach, cereals) the body is unable to make use of it as too high. Too much salt in the diet can lead to
it is not in a soluble form and therefore cannot be hypertension and heart disease. The Food Standards
absorbed. Agency (FSA) has now set salt targets for processed
Because of the need for growth of bones and retail foods in order to control this area of health.
teeth, infants, adolescents, expectant and nursing Many foods are cooked with salt or have salt added
mothers have a greater demand for calcium. (bacon and cheese) or contain salt (meat, eggs, fish).
Excess sodium can cause hypertension (high blood
Phosphorus pressure) in middle age.
Phosphorus is required: Iodine
●● for building bones and teeth (in conjunction with Iodine is required for the functioning of the thyroid gland
calcium and vitamin D) which regulates basal metabolism (see page 123).
●● for fluid acid balance (acts as a buffering
agent)
●● as a component of ATP, which provides energy
for our bodies.
Sources of phosphorus include:
●● liver
●● eggs
●● bread
●● kidney
●● cheese
●● tofu
●● legumes
●● nuts
●● fish.
Cereals, flour, bread Eggs Milk
Iron Meat Milk Cheese
Iron is required for building haemoglobin in the blood Vegetables
and is therefore necessary for transporting oxygen
and carbon dioxide round the body. Figure 4.10 Main sources of iron in the average diet
Sources of iodine include: ●● regulation of body temperatures by evaporation of

perspiration
●● sea foods
●● all body fluids ● excretion
●● iodised salt
●● metabolism ● absorption
●● drinking water obtained near the sea
●● digestion ● secretion.
●● vegetables grown near the sea.
Sources of water include:
Other minerals
●● drinks of all kinds
Potassium, magnesium, sulphur and copper are some
●● foods, such as fruits and vegetables, meat, eggs
of the other minerals required by the body.
●● combustion or oxidation – when fats,
Water carbohydrates and protein are used for energy,
a certain amount of water (metabolic water) is
Water is required for:
produced within the body.
The effects of cooking on nutrients

Some foods are best eaten when freshly harvested, Fat
without further preparation or cooking. Fruit such as The nutritive value of fat is not affected by cooking.
bananas, and vegetables such as tomatoes and let- During cooking processes a certain amount of fat
tuce fall into this category. Cooking and storage over may be lost from food when the fat melts, such as in
prolonged periods reduces the nutritional value of the grilling of meat.
these foods.
With the above exceptions, the digestibility of most Mineral elements
foods is enhanced through cooking.
There is a possibility of some minerals being lost in
Protein the cooking liquor, so diminishing the amount avail-
able in the food. This applies to soluble minerals, such
When protein is heated it coagulates and shrinks. as salt, but not to calcium or iron compounds, which
Too much cooking can spoil the appearance of the do not dissolve in the cooking liquor.
food, such as scrambled eggs, as well as causing
destruction of certain vitamins. On being heated, the Iron
different proteins in foods set, or coagulate, at differ- Iron may be acquired from foods cooked in iron
ent temperatures; above these temperatures shrink- utensils. The iron in foods is not affected by cooking.
age occurs; this is particularly noticeable in grilling or
roasting meat. Moderately cooked protein is the most Calcium
easy to digest: a lightly cooked egg is more easily Cooking foods in hard water may very slightly increase
digested than a raw egg or a hard-boiled egg. the amount of calcium in food.
Carbohydrate Vitamins
Unless starch is cooked thoroughly it cannot be ●● Vitamins A and D withstand cooking
digested properly (e.g. insufficiently cooked pastry or temperatures, and are not lost in the cooking.
bread). Foods containing starch have cells with starch ●● Vitamin B1 (thiamin) can be destroyed by high
granules, covered with a cellulose wall that breaks temperatures and by the use of bicarbonate of soda.
down when heated or made moist, making the starch It is soluble in water and can be lost in the cooking.
digestible (this is called gelatinisation of starch). ●● Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is not destroyed easily by
When browned – for example, the crust of bread, heat, but bright sunlight can break it down.
toast, roast potatoes or the skin of rice pudding – the ●● Vitamin C is lost by cooking and by keeping food
starch forms dextrins and these taste sweeter. This is warm in a hot place. It is also soluble in water
known as the caramelisation of sugar. (the soaking of foods for a long time and bruising
On heating with water or milk, the starch gelatinises are the causes of losing vitamin C). It is unstable
and causes the food to thicken (i.e. thickening of gravy). and therefore easily destroyed in alkaline
conditions (bicarbonate of soda must not be used
when cooking green vegetables).
Table 4.8 Reference nutrient intakes (RNIs) for protein, vitamins and minerals
Vitamin A Thiamin Riboflavin

Age Protein g/day mg/day mg/day mg/day Nia
0–3 months 12.5 350 0.2 0.4 3
4–6 months 12.7 350 0.2 0.4 3
7–9 months 13.7 350 0.2 0.4 4
10–12 months 14.9 350 0.3 0.4 5
1–3 years 14.5 400 0.5 0.6 8
4–6 years 19.7 500 0.7 0.8 11
7–10 years 28.3 500 0.7 1.0 12
Males
11–14 years 42.1 600 0.9 1.2 15
15–18 years 55.2 700 1.1 1.3 18
19–50 years 55.5 700 1.0 1.3 17
501 years 53.3 700 0.9 1.3 16
Females
11–14 years 41.2 600 0.7 1.1 12
15–18 years 45.0 600 0.8 1.1 14
19–50 years 45.0 600 0.8 1.1 13
501 years 46.5 600 0.8 1.1 12
Pregnancy 16 1100 10.1* 10.3 10
Lactation 111 1350 10.2 10.5 12
Source: Gaman and Sherrington, 1998
Food requirements
Energy is required to enable the heart to beat, for the The energy value of nutrients is as follows:
blood to circulate, the lungs and other organs of the
●● 1 g carbohydrate produces 4 Calories (16 kJ)
body to function, for every activity such as talking,
●● 1 g protein produces 4 Calories (16 kJ)
eating, standing, sitting, and for strenuous exercise
●● 1 g fat produces 9 Calories (36 kJ).
and muscular activity.
Young and active people require a different amount of The energy value of a food, diet or menu is calculated
food than those who are elderly or inactive because they from the nutrients it contains; 28 g of food containing:
expend more energy; this energy is obtained from food
●● 10 g carbohydrate will produce 10 3 4 5 40
during chemical changes that take place in the body.
Calories (160 kJ)
The energy value of a food is measured by a term
●● 2 g protein will produce 2 3 4 5 8 Calories
called a kilocalorie or Calorie (strictly speaking, this
(32 kJ)
term should be written with a capital C, although
●● 5 g fat will produce 5 3 9 5 45 Calories
popularly it is often written with a small c). This is the
(180 kJ)
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
●● total – 93 Calories (372 kJ).
1000 g of water from 15 to 16°C (59 to 61°F).
A new unit is now gradually replacing the Calorie. Foods having a high fat content will have a high
This is the joule. Since the joule is too small for practi- energy value; those containing a lot of water, a low
cal nutrition, the kilojoule (kJ) is used: energy value. All fats, cheese, bacon and other foods
with a high fat content have a high energy value.
1 Calorie54.18 kJ
Men require more Calories (kJ) than women;
(Both units will be given here and, for ease of conver- big men and women require more than small men
sion, 1 Calorie will be taken to equal 4.0 kJ.) and women; people engaged in energetic work
Foods contain certain amounts of the various nutri- require more Calories (kJ) than those with seden-
ents, which are measured in grammes. tary occupations.
Vitamin C Vitamin D Calcium

Niacin mg/day Folate mg/day mg/day mg/day mg/day Iron mg/day
3 50 25 8.5 525 1.7
3 50 25 8.5 525 4.3
4 50 25 7 525 7.8
5 50 25 7 525 7.8
8 70 30 7 350 6.9
11 100 30 – 450 6.1
12 150 30 – 550 8.7
15 200 35 – 1000 11.3

18 200 40 – 1000 11.3
17 200 40 – 700 8.7
16 200 40 ** 700 8.7
12 200 35 – 800 14.8

14 200 40 – 800 14.8
13 200 40 – 700 14.8
12 200 40 ** 700 8.7
10 1100 110 10 10 10
12 160 130 1
Basal metabolism
Basal metabolism is the term given to the amount of ties, such as getting up, dressing and walking; the
energy required to maintain the functions of the body, amount required will be closely related to a person’s
and to keep the body warm when it is still and without occupation.
food. The number of Calories (kJ) required for basal The approximate energy requirements per day for
metabolism is affected by the size, sex and general the following examples are:
condition of the body. The number of Calories (kJ)
●● clerk – 2000 Calories (8000 kJ)
required for basal metabolism is approximately 1700
●● carpenter – 3000 Calories (12,000 kJ)
per day.
●● labourer – 4000 Calories (16,000 kJ).
In addition to the energy required for basal metab-
olism, energy is also required for everyday activi-
Value of foods in the diet
Dairy products almost the perfect food for humans due to its nutri-
Dairy products are a very important group of foods. tional value.
Not only do they contain protein, carbohydrates and When milk is taken into the body it coagulates in
fat, but they are also a good source of calcium and the same way as in the making of junket. This occurs
vitamins. in the stomach, when digestive juices (containing the
enzyme rennin) are added. Souring of milk is due
Milk to the bacteria feeding on the milk sugar (lactose)
Milk is designed by nature to be a complete food and producing lactic acid from it, which brings about
for young animals and humans. Cows’ milk is curdling.
Composition of milk Like cream, it is easily digested. It is a high-energy

The approximate composition of milk is as follows: food.
●● 87 per cent water Composition of butter

●● 3–4 per cent proteins (mostly casein) The approximate composition of butter is:
●● 3–4 per cent fat
●● 4–5 per cent sugar ●● 84 per cent fat
●● 0.7 per cent minerals (particularly calcium) ●● 1 per cent salt
●● vitamins A, B and D (the vitamin content varies ●● 15 per cent water
from season to season, and according to breed of ●● vitamins A and D.
cow and preservation method). Cheese
In Channel Islands milk (Jersey and Guernsey) the Cheese is made from milk; its composition varies
percentage of fat must be 4 per cent; in all other milk according to whether the cheese has been made
the minimum is 3 per cent. from whole milk, skimmed milk or milk to which extra
Milk contains protein, milk, sugar (lactose), fat, vita- cream has been added.
mins and minerals. Because of its high water content, The composition of Cheddar cheese is approximately:
while it is a suitable food for infants, it is too bulky
to be the main source of protein and other nutrients ●● 40 per cent fat
after the first few months of life. It is also deficient ●● calcium
in iron and vitamin C. However, it may be included in ●● 30 per cent water
everyone’s diet as a drink and can be used in a variety ●● vitamins A and D
of ways. ●● 25 per cent protein.
Skimmed milk, which has had the cream layer Hard cheese is high in saturated fat and can be high
removed, is increasing in popularity. Not only does it in sodium. Cheese provides protein, fat, and some
provide a lower calorie intake for those watching their vitamins and minerals.
weight, but also the potentially harmful animal fat has The food value of cheese is exceptional because
been removed. of the concentration of the various nutrients it con-
Soya milk is a popular alternative, which is low in tains. The minerals in cheese are useful, particularly
saturated fat and cholesterol. Nut milk, made from calcium and phosphorus. Cheese is also a source of
almonds, is also available. vitamins A and D.
It is a body-building, energy-producing and protec-
Cream tive food because of its protein, fat and mineral ele-
Cream is the fat of milk; the legal minimum fat con- ments, and vitamin content.
tent of single cream is approximately 18 per cent, Cheese is easily digested, provided it is eaten with
for double cream 48 per cent and clotted cream 60 starchy foods and eaten in small pieces as when
per cent. Cream is therefore an energy-producing grated.
food, which also supplies vitamins A and D. It is easily
digested because the fat is in a highly emulsified Margarine
form (i.e. the fat globules are very small). Margarine, which is made from animal and/or veg-
etable oils, and skimmed milk, has vitamins A and D
Butter added to it. The composition and food value of mar-
Butter is made from the fat of milk and contains vita- garine are similar to those for butter.
mins A and D, the amount depending on the season.
Table 4.9 The nutrient composition of creams per 100 g
Type Energy (kJ) Protein (g) Fat (g) Carbohydrate (g) Sodium (mg) Calcium (mg)
Half cream 568 2.8 12.3 4.1 55 96
Single cream 813 2.6 19.1 3.9 50 91
Whipping cream 1536 2.0 39.3 3.0 42 62
Double cream 1847 1.7 48.0 2.6 39 50
Source: Fox and Cameron, 1995, reproduced by permission of Hodder Education

Meat, poultry and game Fruit

Meat consists of fibres, which may be short, as in a fillet The composition of different fruit varies consider-
of beef, or long, as in silverside of beef. Generally, the ably: avocado pears contain about 20 per cent fat,
shorter the fibre, the more tender and easily digested whereas most other fruits contain none. In unripe
the meat. However, it is the cooking method that fruit the carbohydrate is in the form of starch, which
makes the most difference. Meat is carved across the changes to sugar as the fruit ripens. The cellulose in
grain to assist mastication and digestion of the fibres. fruits acts as a source of dietary fibre.
Hanging the meat helps to make the flesh more Fruit is valuable because of the vitamins and
tender; this is because acids develop and soften the minerals it contains. Vitamin C is present in certain
muscle fibres. Marinating in wine or vinegar prior to fruits, particularly citrus varieties (oranges, grapefruit),
cooking also helps to tenderise meat so that it is blackcurrants and other summer fruits. Dried fruits
more digestible. Expensive cuts of meat are not nec- such as raisins and sultanas are a useful source of
essarily more nourishing than the cheaper cuts. energy because of their sugar content and fibre, but
Meat is a very good source of protein and has varia- they contain no vitamin C. The vitamin C in fruit is lost
ble amounts of fat, water, iron and thiamin, depending during storage. Frozen fruit maintains its vitamin C
on the species and cut. Bacon and pork, in general, content during freezing.
are particularly valuable because of their thiamin con-
tent. Red meat is a good source of iron, while poultry Composition of fruit
generally has a lower fat content, especially once the The approximate composition of fruit is:
skin has been removed. Meat of all kinds is therefore
●● 85 per cent water
important as a protein source.
●● 0.5 per cent minerals
●● 5–10 per cent carbohydrate
Fish
●● varying amounts of vitamin C
Fish is a good source of protein. ●● 2–5 per cent cellulose.
The amount of fat in different fish varies: oily fish
contain 5–18 per cent, white fish less than 2 per Very small amounts of fat and protein are found in
cent. most fruits. Fruit is a protective food because of its
When the bones are eaten, calcium is obtained mineral and vitamin content.
from fish (tinned sardines or salmon).
Oily fish is not so easily digested as white fish Nuts
because of the fat content. However, oily fish is the Nuts are highly nutritious because of the protein, fat
best source of omega-3 – an essential fatty acid. It and minerals they contain, but much of the fat comes
is recommended that we consume oily fish twice a in monounsaturated or polyunsaturated form.
week. Shellfish is not easily digested because of the Nuts are not easily digested because of their fat
coarseness of the fibres. and cellulose content.
Eggs Vegetables
The egg can store sufficient nutrients to supply a
developing embryo with everything required for its Green vegetables
growth. Green vegetables are particularly valuable because of
Egg white contains protein called albumin (not to their vitamin and mineral content; they are therefore
be confused with albumen, which is another name for protective foods. The most important minerals they
the white of the egg itself) and the amount of white contain are iron and calcium. Green vegetables are
is approximately twice the amount of yolk. rich in carotene, which is made into vitamin A in the
The white is approximately one-eighth protein and body.
seven-eighths water. In comparison the yolk is about The greener the vegetable, the greater its nutri-
one-third fats, half water, one-sixth protein, and a mix- tional value. Vegetables that are stored for long
ture of vitamins and minerals such as vitamins A and periods, or that are damaged or bruised, quickly lose
D, thiamin, riboflavin, calcium, iron, sulphur and phos- their vitamin C value, therefore they should be used
phorus. All these factors make eggs a body-building, as quickly as possible.
protective and energy-producing food. Eggs are also Green vegetables also act as a source of dietary
a rich source of cholesterol. fibre in the intestines. Onions and leeks are also
green vegetables, and are an excellent source of Sugar, with fat, provides the most important part of
fibre. the body’s energy requirements.
Saccharin, although sweet, is chemically produced
Root vegetables and has no food value.
Compared with green vegetables, most root vegeta-
bles contain more starch and sugar; they are there- Liquids
fore a source of energy. Swedes and turnips contain a
Water
little vitamin C, and carrots and other yellow-coloured
vegetables contain carotene, which is changed into Certain waters contain mineral salts; hard waters
vitamin A in the body. They are an excellent source contain soluble salts of calcium. Some spas are
of fibre. known for the mineral salts contained in the local
water. Bottled natural mineral waters are sold in many
Potatoes places (particularly supermarkets), and are being
Potatoes contain a large amount of starch (approxi- used more widely in the catering industry and in the
mately 20 per cent) and a small amount of protein home. Fluoride may be present naturally in some
just under the skin. Because of the large quantities waters, and makes children’s teeth more resistant to
eaten, the small amount of vitamin C they contain is decay.
of value in the diet.
Fruit juices
Onions In recent years there has been a tremendous increase
Onions are oligosaccharides and aid the good bacte- in the consumption of fruit juices sold in cartons as
ria in the gut. They are used extensively and contain a chilled drink or in ‘long life’ form, which will keep
some sugar, but their main value is to provide flavour. almost indefinitely before being opened. In addition,
freshly squeezed orange juice is a popular alternative
Peas and broad beans drink.
These vegetables contain carbohydrate, protein and The nutritional value of fruit juices is very similar to
carotene. that of whole fruit when freshly squeezed, but without
the fibre. Fruit juices are high in sugars and low in
Cereals fibre, and can dehydrate the body, so should be drunk
in moderation.
Cereals include wheat and wheat products.
Cereals contain from 60 to 80 per cent carbohy- Tea, coffee and cocoa
drate in the form of starch and are therefore energy
Tea and coffee have no food value in themselves,
foods. They also contain 7–13 per cent protein,
but the caffeine in them acts as a stimulant on the
depending on the type of cereal, and 1–8 per cent
nervous system. Herb teas, green teas and rooibos
fat.
teas are caffeine-free. Green tea is an excellent
The vitamin B content is considerable in ston-
antioxidant.
eground and wholemeal flour, and B vitamins are
Cocoa contains some fat, starch and protein, also
added to other wheat flours, as are calcium and iron
some vitamin B and mineral elements.
salts.
When tea, coffee and cocoa are served with milk
Oats contain good quantities of fat, protein and
and sugar they do have some food value.
soluble fibre.
Of all cereals in the British diet, bread is by far the Alcoholic beverages
most important. The government fortifies flour (not
Alcohol must be considered as a foodstuff because
wholemeal) with calcium, iron, thiamin and niacin to
it provides the body with energy. The energy value
improve its nutritional value. However, wholegrain
of wine is the same as that of milk, but without the
bread contains the greatest number of nutrients and
nutritional benefit. Alcohol is a drug and affects the
white bread the fewest.
central nervous system. The effect of alcohol can
range from mild stimulation to links with cancer of the
Sugar
liver, stomach and oesophagus.
There are several kinds of sugar, such as those found
in fruit (glucose), milk (lactose), cane and beet sugar
(sucrose).
Catering for health
Practical guidance on healthier ●● some milk and dairy, choosing reduced-fat

catering versions or eating smaller amounts of full-fat
versions or eating them less often
Concern that many catering courses include little
●● just a little saturated fat, salt and sugar.
information about nutrition led to the publication of
guidance by the FSA and the Department of Health: The eatwell plate (Figure 4.11) is a pictorial represen-
Catering for Health: A Guide to Teaching Healthier tation of the contribution that different food groups
Catering Practices (see the ‘References’ section for should make to the diet. This representation of food
details of how to obtain a copy). However, in the intake applies to individuals over the age of five.
newer VRQ courses, nutrition is part of the learning Caterers can assist customers to achieve a more
programme. balanced diet, within the parameters of their eating-
out experience. When the customer base is all or
A balanced diet mostly captive – in a home for the elderly, hospital,
Food intake needs to provide the vitamins, minerals, boarding school, the armed forces, workers on an oil
protein and fibre the body requires, without too much rig, and so on – there are three meals a day, and a
saturated fat, sugar and salt. The government recom- menu cycle that can be viewed over a week or fort-
mends that all individuals should consume a diet that night. So, for example, the number of red meat main
contains: courses can be limited to two or three days a week,
while fish is offered on one or two days a week, espe-
●● plenty of starchy foods such as rice, bread, pasta
cially oily fish. A variety of fruit can be included in all
and potatoes (choosing wholegrain varieties when
meals, with perhaps a glass of fruit juice or fresh fruit
possible)
at breakfast; so can starchy foods, with cereals and/or
●● plenty of fruit and vegetables – at least five
porridge at breakfast, and bread rolls. Vegetables and
portions of a variety of fruit and vegetables a day
salads can feature more prominently for midday and
●● some protein-rich foods, such as meat, fish, eggs,
evening meals. Dishes relatively high in fat and sugar
beans and non-dairy sources of protein, such as
can be limited to treats, perhaps once a week.
nuts and pulses
Figure 4.11 The eatwell plate

When the customer base is transient – as in most place of a roux; use natural fruit juice to sweeten;
restaurants, pubs, wine bars, hotels, cafés, and so on use wholemeal with white flour for pastry.
– the menu choice can be varied to offer, say, a pasta ●● Adjust preparation methods: trim visible fat,
dish, white meat and fish as well as red meat, dishes remove poultry skin; leave skin on potatoes,
that are low in fat, interesting vegetables and salads, vegetables and fruit (to increase fibre content and
and imaginative, appealing dishes based on these. reduce vitamin loss); use chunky/thick cuts (to
Alternatives might be offered to all-time favourites: a reduce fat absorption/vitamin loss).
baked jacket potato with a salad garnish as an alter- ●● Selected ingredients: lean cuts and joints of
native to French fries with the main course. meat; skinless poultry; fish rich in oils beneficial to
Healthy catering by stealth has more chance of health (e.g. salmon, mackerel, herring, trout); white
success than any attempt to corral customers into fish (very little fat); prepared dishes that can be
a better lifestyle, unless you are confident of reach- oven baked or grilled instead of fried; unsugared
ing the quite specific market segment that wants breakfast cereals; fruit juices and products in
only healthy dishes. Just as high-street retailers do their natural juices/unsweetened; oils, fats and
with sandwiches and snacks aimed at the lunchtime spreads that are high in monounsaturates or
market, it may work well to brand one or two dishes polyunsaturates; pre-prepared and convenience
as healthy choices. products that are low in salt/sugar/fat.
●● Change to low-fat cooking methods: grill,
Bear in mind your customers’ approach to bake, poach, microwave, stir-fry (quick cooking,
food minimum oil), shallow-fry in non-stick pans (to
Customers’ approach to food is through experience, use less oil), steam chips to blanch. Keeping the
education, background, sophistication, travel, and so temperature of oil low can protect its structure
on. Some people enjoy experimenting, others don’t. and therefore preserve its health properties.
Some enjoy wholegrain pastas, rice and bread, for ●● For vegetables: favour cooking methods that
example, while others won’t touch them. Healthy reduce vitamin loss – steam, microwave or stir-
catering should not be introduced in such a way that fry, cook in small batches (to reduce hot holding
it alienates people. time).
Even where there is quite strong customer resist- Marketing and presentation
ance, subtle changes can be introduced over time, if
necessary, to the content, presentation and service of Describe dishes and menu choices in ways that will
favourite dishes. appeal to your customers. Avoid terms like ‘health’,
‘low in fat’, ‘low in saturates’, especially if your cus-
Adapt recipes, preparation and cooking tomers are eating out for enjoyment. Emphasise the
methods positive: unusual flavours and combinations, freshly
cooked, tasty, satisfying, interesting textures, colour-
With thought and skill, a substantial contribution can ful garnishes, exotic ingredients, associations with
be made to a balanced diet without loss of flavour or foreign travel, ethnic cuisines, and so on.
texture, or restricting customer choice. Nor should it Feature as dishes of the day, special promotions,
jeopardise operating margins. Indeed the process, by house specialities, and in counter and buffet display
encouraging creativity, could lead to improved profits, those dishes that have been prepared and cooked
with high added value yet less expensive ingredients. according to healthy catering guidelines. Expand
There are many practical changes that can be the choice of accompaniments and sauces to give
made to the way food is prepared and cooked, which appealing, healthier alternatives to those that are high
will lead to a healthier choice for your customers. To in fat or sugar. Choose garnishes that increase the
get the best results, some trialling and experimenta- starch, fibre, vegetable and/or fruit content.
tion are recommended. Include healthy additions in the price, such as a
Possibilities include the following. granary or wholemeal roll with soup, fresh fruit with a
●● Adapt recipes: use alternative flavourings to sandwich or lunchtime snack, rice or naan bread with
salt and proprietary products high in salt; reduce a curry. Select healthy choices for promotional offers.
quantities of fat/oil; replace butter with olive oil Involve your staff: brief them on the dish content
or a mixture of butter and olive oil; thicken with so that descriptions are appealing and accurate, and
purées of vegetables/fruit/pulses, or potatoes in questions can be answered helpfully.
Take care not to use misleading or false descrip- ●● choose suppliers that provide accurate
tions, or terms that have a specific legal meaning information (e.g. ingredients labelling)
under the food labelling regulations, such as ‘low fat’, ●● choose and scrutinise the ingredients lists of
‘reduced fat’, ‘low salt’. convenience foods for any hidden components
●● train staff on the content of dishes so they
Vegetarians can provide helpful, accurate information to
Some 10 per cent of 15–18-year-old girls claim to be customers
vegetarian or vegan. Vegetarians, and vegans in par- ●● employ policies for segregation and prevention of
ticular, need to carefully balance their food intake to cross-contamination in the kitchen.
ensure that they do not go short of iron, vitamin B12,
zinc, vitamin D and calcium. The less restricted the
diet, the better. However, vegetarians have a lower
risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes, gallstones,
kidney stones and colon cancer; they are also less
likely to become overweight or to have raised cho-
lesterol levels.
To find out more, contact the British Nutrition

Foundation, High Holborn House, 52–54
High Holborn, London WC1V 6RQ (website:
www.nutrition.org.uk) or the Nutrition Society,
10 Cambridge Court, 210 Shepherd’s Bush Rd,
London W6 7NJ (website: www.nutsoc.org.uk). Figure 4.12 A basic preparation area
Overweight and obesity

Pregnant and breastfeeding women
The challenge in the future will be to change the food
Foods to avoid: pregnant and breastfeeding women
culture in the UK to one that is more geared towards
should not consume soft, mould-ripened cheese,
a healthy diet. It is now estimated that one-third of all
pâté, raw or partially raw eggs, undercooked meat
cancers are the result of poor diet.
and poultry, tuna, swordfish or marlin, liver or liver-
One of the biggest problems facing the UK and
containing foods, alcohol or more than two portions
other developed countries is obesity.
of oily fish a week.
Obesity
Special diets Obesity is a condition in which abnormal or excessive
There will be occasions when caterers will be asked fat accumulation in adipose tissue impairs health.
to provide some special diets or to cater for a guest It is defined in adults as a body mass index (BMI)
with special dietary needs. above 30. Obesity is one of the most visible and,
Table 4.10 gives examples of some of the special until recently, most neglected public health problems.
diets that a caterer may have to produce. See also the Body weight is influenced by energy intake (from
section on food allergies, below. food) and energy expenditure (needed for basal
Today there is a body of opinion within the medical metabolism such as keeping the heart beating) and
profession which suggests that a regular diet of fresh for physical activity. If a person regularly consumes
fruit and vegetables can help to eliminate a number more energy (calories) than they use, they will start
of diseases and certain types of cancers. Also it is to gain weight and eventually become overweight or
advisable to reduce saturated fat intake, eat more obese. If a person regularly consumes less energy
fish, wholegrain breads, pulses and rice. than they use they will lose weight. Extra energy is
Practical steps to consider in order to achieve this stored in the body as fat. Balancing energy intake
are: and output to maintain a healthy weight has many
●● accurate descriptions of dishes benefits.
●● avoid general statements (e.g. ‘all dishes may
contain traces of nuts’)
Table 4.10 Special diets
Diet Foods to avoid

Vegetarian Meat or fish of any type, or dishes made with or containing the products of animals
and other Check for ‘vegetarians’ who occasionally eat fish and/or meat (semi-vegetarian or
ethical diets demi-vegetarian), do not eat milk and dairy products (ovo-vegetarian), do not eat eggs (lacto-
vegetarian), do not eat any food of animal origin, including honey, dairy products, egg (vegan –
vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes, pasta made without eggs, soya products and other products of
plants are acceptable to vegans), eat only fruit, nuts and berries (fruitarian or fructarian)
Religious Muslim: pork, meat that is not halal (slaughtered according to custom), shellfish and alcohol (even
diets when used in cooking)
Hindu: meat, fish or eggs (orthodox Hindus are usually strict vegetarians); less strict Hindus may
eat lamb, poultry and fish but definitely not beef as cattle have a deep religious meaning (milk,
however, is highly regarded)
Sikh: beef, pork, lamb, poultry and fish may be acceptable to Sikh men; Sikh women tend to avoid
all meat
Jewish: pork, pork products, shellfish and eels, meat and milk served at the same time or cooked
together; strict Jews eat only kosher meat; milk and milk products are usually avoided at lunch
and dinner (but acceptable at breakfast)
Rastafarian: all processed foods, pork, fish without fins (eels), alcohol, coffee, tea
Therapeutic Diabetes: dishes that are high in sugar and/or fat (low-calorie sweeteners can be used to
diets sweeten desserts)
Low cholesterol and saturated fat: liver, egg yolks and shellfish (which are high in cholesterol),
beef, pork and lamb (which contain saturated fats), butter, cream, groundnut oil, margarine (use
oils and margarines labelled high in polyunsaturated fats)
Low fat: any food that contains fat, or has been fried or roasted
Low salt: foods and dishes that have had salt added in cooking or processing (including smoked
and cured fishes and meats, and hard cheeses), or that contain monosodium glutamate
Low residue: wholemeal bread, brown rice and pasta, fried and fatty foods
Milk-free: milk, butter, cheese, yoghurt and any pre-prepared foods that include milk products
(check label)
Nut allergy: nuts, blended cooking oils and margarine (since these may include nut oil; use pure
oils or butter), and any dishes containing these (check label)
Gluten-free: wheat, wholemeal, wholewheat and wheatmeal flour, wheat bran, rye, barley and oats
(some doctors say oats are permitted; the Coeliac Society advises against), and any dishes made
with these, including pasta, noodles, semolina, bread, pastries, some yoghurts (e.g. muesli), some
cheese spreads, barley-based drinks, malted drinks, beer, some brands of mustard, proprietary
sauces made with flour (use cornflour to thicken; rice, potato, corn and sage are also acceptable)
How common are overweight and most important dietary factor in chronic diseases
obesity? such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and type 2
diabetes. It is second only to smoking as a cause
The latest NHS statistics on obesity show that, in
of cancer. People who are overweight or obese are
2008, almost a quarter of adults (24 per cent of
more likely to suffer from coronary heart disease, type
men and 25 per cent of women aged 16 or over) in
2 diabetes, gallstones, osteoarthritis (of the knees),
England were classified as obese with a BMI of over
high blood pressure and some types of cancer. Obese
30. A total of 42 per cent of men in comparison to
women are more likely to have complications during
32 per cent of women in England were classified as
and after pregnancy. The World Health Organization
overweight with a BMI of at least 25. A total of 16.8
(WHO) has predicted that one of the consequences
per cent of boys aged 2 to 15, and 15.2 per cent of
of the global epidemic of obesity will be 300 million
girls of the same age were classed as obese, with a
people with type 2 diabetes by 2025.
steady increase since 1995. However, the overweight
It is not just a problem of excess fat, but where that
bracket remains constant.
fat is deposited. People who have extra weight (fat)
Obesity is now a worldwide public health problem,
around their middle – ‘apple shaped’ – are at greater
affecting all age and socioeconomic groups. It is the
risk of some of these diseases than those who have reduced the amount of fat, saturates and cholesterol,
most of the extra weight around their hips and thighs and increased the amount of potassium, magnesium
– ‘pear shaped’. Because the health risks of obesity and calcium. Reducing the amount of salt in the diet
are compounded by the influence of fat distribu- also had a beneficial effect. The best effect was
tion, waist-to-hip ratios or waist circumferences are achieved when both approaches were combined. This
now commonly measured. In general, men are at highlights the importance of improving the diet over-
increased risk of obesity-related diseases when their all rather than focusing on single nutrients. Eating
waist circumference reaches 94 cm (37 inches). For a healthy, balanced diet will also help to maintain a
women, risks increase at 80 cm (32 inches). The healthy body weight.
risks of disease become substantially increased at
102 cm (40 inches) for men and 88 cm (35 inches) Salt and health
for women. A recent report by the Scientific Advisory Committee
on Nutrition concluded that sodium intake is an
Obesity and diabetes important determinant of blood pressure, in part
Obese people also have a higher risk of developing influencing the rise of blood pressure with age. As
diabetes. Diabetes develops when the body cannot the main source of sodium in the diet is salt (sodium
use glucose properly. Around 1.4 million people in chloride), it has been recommended that people in
the UK have been diagnosed with diabetes, of whom the UK try to reduce their salt intake to a maximum of
around 1 million have type 2 diabetes. In addition, 6 g per day (about a teaspoon). For most people this
there are a large number of people who may have will mean reducing their current intake by one-third.
unrecognised diabetes. Salt added at the table and during cooking contrib-
Eating a healthy balanced diet, taking regular physi- utes around 10–15 per cent of our total salt intake
cal exercise, and maintaining a healthy body weight and naturally occurring salt in foods contributes
can help to prevent or delay the onset of type 2 another 10–15 per cent. Traditionally, salt has been
diabetes. People with diabetes should try to main- used as a preservative and flavour enhancer. On aver-
tain a healthy weight and eat a diet that is low in fat age around 75 per cent of the salt in our diet comes
(particularly saturated fats) and salt, but that contains from processed foods such as bread and cereal
plenty of fruit and vegetables (at least five portions a products, breakfast cereals, meat products, some
day), and starchy carbohydrate foods such as bread, ready meals, smoked fish, pickles, canned vegetables,
rice and pasta (particularly wholegrain versions). canned and packet sauces and soups, savoury snack
foods, biscuits and cakes. Spreading fats and cheese
Other health concerns also make a small contribution to intake.
Yet another future challenge for the hospitality indus- The cooperation and commitment of the food and
try is to reduce the amount of salt used in cook- hospitality industry are, therefore, required to develop
ing. It is now well recognised that there is a link lower-salt products to help people reduce their salt
between salt and hypertension (high blood pressure). intake. The Food Standards Agency (FSA) is work-
High blood pressure often causes no symptoms but ing closely with the food industry to explore ways to
increases the risk of developing conditions such as lower the sodium content of processed foods, and a
heart disease and stroke. number of manufacturers and retailers have already
Around a third of the adult population in the UK has taken action to achieve the necessary reduction.
been diagnosed with hypertension; it is most common However, such activities will be successful only if
in older people, those with a family history of the con- there is consumer acceptance of these products. The
dition and in some ethnic groups. FSA is playing its part by raising public awareness of
A number of lifestyle factors can help to prevent or the dangers of high blood pressure and the need to
treat high blood pressure – for example, not smok- reduce the amount of salt in our diets. People can do
ing, being physically active, maintaining a healthy this by using food labels to select lower-salt/sodium
body weight, drinking alcohol in moderation (if at all), products and by persevering so as to adapt their pal-
eating a balanced and varied diet that is low in fat ates to less salty tastes.
(particularly saturated fats) and sodium (salt), and
that includes low-fat dairy. A diet that is low in fat Potassium, calcium and magnesium
and includes low-fat dairy foods, and fruit and veg- An inadequate dietary intake of potassium may
etables, has been shown to lower blood pressure in increase blood pressure. A high potassium intake
people with or without high blood pressure. This diet may, therefore, protect against developing hyperten-
ARE YOU A HEALTHY

WEIGHT?
Take a straight line across from your height (without shoes)
and a line up from your weight (without clothes). Put a
mark where the two lines meet.
Your height in feet and inches (1 foot = approx 0.3 metres)
6’1
T H
6’
EIG
5’11
RW
OK
HT
DE
5’10
IG
UN
WE
5’9
ER
5’8
T
FA
OV
5’7
5’6
T
5’5
FA
5’4
RY
VE
5’3
5’2
5’1
5’
4’11
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Your weight in stones (1 pound = approx 0.45 kilograms)
UNDERWEIGHT Maybe you need to eat a bit more. But go

for well-balanced nutritious foods and don’t just fill up on fatty
and sugary foods. If you are very underweight, see your doctor
about it.
OK You’re eating the right quantity of food but you need
to be sure that you’re getting a healthy balance in your diet. If yo
u
A lose need to
OVER WEIGHT You should try to lose weight. im we
a w to lose ight
eek 1 or
FAT You need to lose weight. to th u nt 2
e ‘O il you g pounds
VERY FAT You urgently need to lose weight.You fibre K e
-rich ’ range t down
would do well to see your doctor, who might refer dow fo .G
alco n on f ods and o for
hol. a
you to a dietitian. You t,suga cut regu ’ r
lar e ll need and
xerc to
ise t take
oo.
Figure 4.13 Are you a healthy weight?
sion and improve blood pressure control in patients bread, pulses, green vegetables, dried fruit, nuts and
with hypertension. There is also evidence to suggest seeds. Foods containing magnesium include cereals
that the effect of sodium (salt) on blood pressure may and cereal products, meat, green vegetables, milk,
be related to the amount of potassium in the diet, potatoes, nuts and seeds.
and that the ratio of sodium to potassium in the diet
might be more important than the absolute amount of Diet and cancer
either. Potassium is found in meat, milk, vegetables, Approximately one-third of all cancers may be linked
potatoes, fruit (especially bananas) and fruit juices, to diet.
bread, fish, nuts and seeds.
Studies have also suggested that ensuring an ade- What research tells us
quate amount of calcium and magnesium in the diet Many of the early theories on the links between diet
is important to protect against high blood pressure, as and cancer were tested in the laboratory and on
well as for general health. Sources of calcium include animals. These provided helpful leads, but chemicals
milk and dairy products, soft bones in canned fish, often react in quite different ways in humans than
they do in animals or in a test tube. Also, it is not safe cereals, pulses and roots in our diet with white flour
to assume that links found in animals equally apply to and refined cereals and sugars.
humans. The best information comes from studying Cancers of the stomach and oesophagus are much
human beings. less common where the typical diet is high in cereals,
tubers and starchy foods – often providing half of
Types of study the dietary energy needs – but low in animal proteins
Epidemiological studies look at what people eat, (meat and dairy products). Diets in developed coun-
alongside the incidence of cancer; because dietary tries tend to be high in animal proteins, sugar and salt,
habits vary enormously these can produce a wealth of but low in starches.
information on how diet may affect health. There is a greater incidence of stomach cancer in
countries where traditionally a lot of salty foods are
●● Migrant studies provide useful information on eaten – for example, Japan, China and Portugal.
dietary and genetic factors. When Japanese In southern European countries, the consumption
people migrated to Hawaii, for example, their of fruit and vegetables is generally higher than in
dietary patterns changed – and so did their risk northern Europe, and the incidence of cancers of the
of certain cancers. As the traditional Japanese mouth and throat, oesophagus, lung and stomach is
diet has become more westernised so rates of lower in the south.
breast and colon cancer have increased.
●● Case control studies investigate the links that How can diet influence the development
can be deduced by comparing the diets of cancer of cancer?
patients with similar people who do not have A damaged cell needs to replicate in order to grow
cancer. These tend to yield the best results when into a group of cancer cells. Some substances in our
there is a big difference between the diets of diet may either encourage the replication process
those with and without cancer. and promote cancer growth or slow it down, so pro-
●● Cohort studies follow the health and diet of tecting against cancer.
healthy people over a long period of time to see if
there is any difference in the diets of those who ●● Carcinogenic agents: These agents may
develop cancer and those who don’t. directly influence DNA or protein in cells.
●● Intervention studies track results from a Examples include alfatoxins, which are found
particular diet or supplement, using a control in mouldy food, alcohol and certain compounds
group that is not given the diet or supplement. produced by some cooking and food-processing
Ethically, of course, people should not be methods.
exposed to substances thought to increase ●● Tumour promoters: Unlike carcinogens, tumour
the risk of cancer, so these studies are on promoters do not act directly on DNA, but
particular nutrients thought to protect against stimulate the genes and encourage replication.
cancer. ‘Double blind’ trials – when neither the Some hormones may act in this way, and
researchers nor the individuals know which although the body produces these hormones
group they belong to – produce the most reliable naturally, diet can affect the level of, for example,
results. oestrogens in the body. Other tumour promoters
include alcohol and a high-fat or high-energy diet,
Some research may indicate a link between diet and which may promote the production of harmful
cancer, while other research may provide more con- substances, such as free radicals. Free radicals
clusive results. Where evidence is sufficiently strong, are thought to influence DNA disorganisation.
prestigious organisations such as the World Cancer
Research Fund and the WHO publish guidance to But, just as we may introduce harmful elements into
help people make dietary changes. our bodies through our diet, there are also nutrients
that may protect us.
Dietary influences ●● Protective nutrients: Many foods contain
Studies over many years have shown a number of protective substances that may reduce damage to
interesting correlations between different diets and tissues by free radicals, or potentially reduce cell
cancers. The incidence of certain cancers, especially growth.
stomach and bowel, has increased as large-scale ●● Antioxidants: Antioxidants are important
food processing has replaced many of the wholegrain constituents of the diet and are involved in DNA
Table 4.11 Protective nutrients: their sources and functions
Vitamins and mineral Positive function Sources

Carotenoids Antioxidant Dark-green leafy vegetables, orange
These are precursors of vitamin vegetables and fruit
A; they include alpha-carotene, Lutein: kale, spinach, broccoli, corn
beta-carotene, xanthophylls (the Lycopene: tomatoes, watermelons, pink
main one is lutein), lycopene and grapefruit, guavas
cryptoxanthin Cryptoxantin: mangoes, papayas,
persimmons, red peppers, pumpkins
Folate (folic acid) Antioxidant; may affect division of Beans, green leafy vegetables, liver, nuts,
cells in the colon wholegrain cereals
Selenium Stimulation of detoxification Brazil nuts, bread, eggs, fish, meat
enzymes
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Antioxidant Broccoli, cabbage and other green
leafy vegetables, citrus fruit, mangoes,
peppers, strawberries, tomatoes
Vitamin D May control cell growth through Sunlight
its effect on calcium
Vitamin E Antioxidant Nuts, seeds, vegetables oils, wheatgerm,
whole grains
Other bioactive compounds Positive function Sources
Allium compounds (contain Stimulate detoxification enzymes Chives, garlic, onions
sulphur)
Flavonoids (e.g. quercetin) Antioxidant function within the Berries, broad beans, broccoli, onions,
plant tomatoes
Isothiocyanates Stimulate detoxifying enzymes Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage and
other brassicas
Phytoestrogens (isoflavones and May alter steroid hormone Isoflavones: beans, chickpeas, lentils,
lignans) metabolism soya
Lignans: oils seeds (e.g. flax, soya, rape),
legumes and various other vegetables
and fruit, particularly berries, whole grains
Plant sterols May bind with hormones in the Cereals, fruit, nuts, seeds, vegetables
gut and influence hormone
metabolism
Terpenoid (e.g. D-limonene) Stimulate enzyme systems Oil of lemons, oranges and other citrus
fruits
Source: Dr Clare Shaw, Royal Marsden Hospital
and cell maintenance and repair. They may They can be divided primarily into two groups:
reduce the production of free radicals, preventing isoflavones and lignans. Isoflavones are linked
early damage to cells and so reduce the chance to the protein part of food and lignans to the
that they will become cancerous. fibre. Table 4.11 includes examples of sources of
phytoestrogens.
Antioxidants in the diet may be in the form of vitamins
●● Other bioactive compounds: Many foods have
or minerals, such as vitamins C and E, beta-carotene
functions beyond the vitamins and minerals they
and selenium, or they may be found in flavonoids in
contain. Research is revealing that some of their
vegetables.
chemicals and reactions may be beneficial to
●● Phytoestrogens: Phytoestrogens have properties health. In laboratory experiments, for example,
similar to oestrogens, but they are much weaker garlic extracts have killed Heliobacter pylori, a
than the oestrogens the body itself produces. bacterium that can grow in the stomach and is
known to increase the risk of cancer. Sulphur- To find out more about catering for health, contact
containing compounds in garlic and onions the Health Development Authority, Trevelyan
may also reduce the formation of carcinogenic House, 30 Great Peter Street, London SW1P 2HW.
compounds that arise from the curing of meats.
Food allergies and intolerances

Estimates by the British Allergy Foundation and the 3 intolerance to certain chemicals – e.g. artificial
Institute for Food Research put the proportion of colours, flavourings (as discussed on page
the population with an allergy to at least one food at 108).
between 1 and 2 per cent, and the number is said
Food allergies are a type of intolerance where the
to be growing each year by 5 per cent. The FSA has
body’s immune system sees the harmless food as
recently updated the food labelling regulations to
harmful and therefore causes an allergic reaction.
incorporate more information on packaging about the
The allergic reaction that some people have to certain
type and level of allergens in supermarket foods. It is
food items can sometimes be fatal.
also strongly encouraging caterers to tell customers
Foods that may cause an allergic reaction in a
more and more about what is in their foods.
very small number of people include milk and dairy
Food intolerances can be described as an adverse
products, fish, shellfish, eggs and nuts (particularly
reaction to food. Intolerances fall into three groups:
peanuts but also cashew, pecan, Brazil and wal-
1 intolerance to certain foods that cause a reaction nuts). Peanuts are often commonly used in Bombay
– e.g. rashes, breathing difficulties and headaches mix, peanut butter, satay sauce, nut-coated cereals,
2 inability to digest certain foods – e.g. lactose groundnut and arachide oils, salted peanuts, chopped
intolerance, where there is not enough of the nuts, vegetarian dishes, and salads that are a mixture
correct enzyme to digest the lactose of, say, nuts and fresh fruit.
Table 4.12 Special diets for those with food allergies and intolerances
Type of diet Problems Foods to avoid Permitted foods

Coeliac An allergy to gluten. Results All products made from wheat, Potatoes, rice and flours
in severe inflammation of the barley or rye; this includes made from potatoes and
gastro-intestinal tract, pain and bread; always check the label rice; also cornflour, fresh
diarrhoea, and malnutrition due on all commercial products fruit and vegetables
to inability to absorb nutrients
Food allergies Individuals can suffer severe Peanuts, chopped nuts,
and rapid reactions to any food, groundnut oil, satay sauce,
which can be fatal; common arachide oil, peanut products
allergies are to peanuts and and other nut products
their derivatives, sesame seeds,
cashew nuts, pecan nuts,
walnuts, hazelnuts, milk, fish,
shellfish and eggs
Low cholesterol High levels of cholesterol Liver, kidney, egg yolks, fatty Lean meat and fish grilled
circulating in the bloodstream meats, bacon, ham, pâté, fried or poached, fresh fruit and
are associated with an foods, pastry, cream, full-fat vegetables, low-fat milk,
increased risk of cardiovascular milk, full-fat yoghurt, cheeses, low-fat yoghurt, porridge,
disease salad dressings, biscuits, cakes muesli
Diabetic The body is unable to control As above, plus high-sugar As above plus wholemeal
the level of glucose in the blood dishes; this can lead to comas bread, pasta, rice, potatoes,
and long-term problems such as pulses
increased risk of cardiovascular
disease, blindness and kidney
problems
The Anaphylaxis Campaign has warned caterers to Persons suffering an allergy to nuts need to know
be on the alert for foods containing flour made from if and where they are used.
lupin seeds as this can cause an allergic reaction
similar to that of peanuts. Lupin flour is widely used To find out more contact the British Allergy
as an ingredient in France, Holland and Italy because Foundation, St Bart’s Hospital, London EC1A 7BE
of its nutty taste, attractive yellow colour and because (website: www.allergyuk.org).
it is guaranteed GM free. Symptoms of anaphylactic See also:
shock include swelling of the throat and mouth, dif- ● HCIMA Technical Brief No. 43
ficulty in swallowing and breathing, nausea, vomit- ● www.foodallergy.com.
ing and unconsciousness. The fast administration of
adrenaline will give relief.
Healthy cooking and eating

Different types of diet have different benefits. Try to for muscle relaxation, and the antioxidants vitamin
increase the following foods in your menus, as they E, selenium and zinc to protect against furring of
are beneficial for everyone. the arteries. Provide these as snacks, or add them
to cereal, salads and smoothies.
●● Fruit and vegetables contain potassium,
●● Eggs, fish and lean poultry are good sources of
magnesium and calcium, which control the
protein, calcium and magnesium, plus B vitamins
movements of our muscles (including our
and zinc.
heart) and help us to relax. They also contain
●● Oily fish contain essential fatty acids. These
antioxidants that protect us against high
are ‘good fats’ that help lower blood pressure.
cholesterol and blocked arteries. The vitamin C
Everyone should aim to eat two to three portions
in fruit and vegetables helps to keep our arteries
of salmon, sardines, pilchards, mackerel, herrings,
supple and also regulates cholesterol levels.
fresh tuna, trout or anchovies per week. Sardines
●● Onions and garlic help to lower cholesterol and
are especially good as they reduce lipoprotein(a),
blood pressure. Serve them raw for maximum
a type of bad (LDL) cholesterol that can lead to
benefit. Try red onion in salads, garlic in dressings,
heart disease if levels of it are too high.
and add onion and garlic to soups, stews, stir-
fries and roasted vegetables. The healthy heart
●● Celery is a good source of potassium, which
helps to keep the kidneys functioning efficiently; To help customers achieve or maintain heart health,
this in turn helps to lower blood pressure. Use decrease or avoid the following foods in your menus.
it in salads, soups and stews or as crudités with ●● Salt tells the body to retain water, which means
hummus, guacamole or salsa. that the heart needs to work harder to pump
●● Cooked tomatoes provide more of the antioxidant the increased volume of water through the
lycopene than raw tomatoes. This helps to blood vessels. This raises blood pressure. Avoid
prevent furring (blocking due to cholesterol) of processed meats and cheeses, salted crisps and
the arteries. nuts, packaged foods and ready meals, and any
●● Whole grains such as oats, rye, wholemeal bread food that contains more than 0.2 g of sodium per
and pasta contain fibre to help lower cholesterol 100 g.
and improve digestion. This helps to avoid ●● Saturated fat can be found in red meat, processed
re-absorbing the saturated fats that are bad for foods, full-fat dairy products and fried foods. It can
us. They also contain folic acid. block arteries and is easily stored as fat.
●● Legumes such as beans and lentils, and pulses ●● Hydrogenated/partially hydrogenated fat is added
like chickpeas are good sources of low-fat protein to processed foods and to some margarines to
(instead of high-fat red meat) and are high in B increase their shelf life. These block arteries and
vitamins and fibre to help digestion. increase cholesterol.
●● Nuts and seeds are good sources of heart-friendly ●● Sugar can cause weight gain, and can raise blood
essential fats, which lower blood pressure and pressure if we eat too much of it.
keep arteries supple. They also contain magnesium ●● Alcohol contains a lot of calories and can
cause weight gain. We should limit our intake, bread or rye bread. These have hormone-
particularly if we need to lose weight. Choose balancing properties.
wine over spirits and beer, as evidence suggests 6 Eat eggs, whole grains and nuts and seeds as
that drinking a small amount of wine offers some these are rich in B vitamins, which again help
protection to the heart. hormone balance. This reduces the strain on
the liver as it does not have to work so hard to
People may also need to change some other aspect
regulate hormone levels.
of their lifestyles to improve the health of the heart.
7 Drink plenty of water (aim for two litres a day).
Being overweight, smoking, not taking regular exer-
Herbal teas, pure fruit juices and smoothies all
cise and suffering from stress are all major contribu-
count towards this.
tors to heart problems.
8 Chew food thoroughly to improve your digestion.
The body needs a certain amount of cholesterol
9 Get enough sleep so that your liver can get on
to function properly, for example, to make hormones.
with its essential functions while you rest.
However, high levels of LDL cholesterol have been
10 Try to relax, as stress produces hormones like
shown to increase furry deposits in the arteries,
adrenaline, which raise blood sugar levels. If this
which causes them to narrow or block, making it hard
happens, the liver has to work hard to put the
for the blood to travel through them. HDL choles-
body back into balance.
terol can remove these deposits so, ideally, we want
to raise our HDL cholesterol but reduce the total We should avoid or limit the amount we eat of the
amount of cholesterol we eat. Anyone concerned following foods as they strain the liver:
about their cholesterol should see their doctor, who
●● alcohol
can monitor cholesterol levels.
●● caffeine (in coffee, tea, cola, energy drinks and
Eating to detoxify chocolate)
●● sugar (including honey, syrup and sweeteners)
The liver is an extremely important organ. However,
●● saturated fats (red meat, fatty meat, full-fat dairy
because you cannot see or feel it, it is easy to forget
products, processed foods)
to look after it properly. One of the liver’s major func-
●● hydrogenated fats (man-made fats added to
tions is to detoxify the body, removing harmful sub-
processed food to increase their shelf life)
stances like alcohol, caffeine, sugar and waste such
●● preservatives and pesticides (in processed food
as old hormones.
and drinks, and non-organic fruit, vegetables and
The liver does have other functions, such as making
grains)
hormones and helping digestion. However, if there
●● processed meals and snacks (a toxic combination
are too many toxins in the body, the liver becomes
of sugar, saturated fat and chemical additives that
so busy trying to detoxify that it neglects these other
places great strain on the liver).
functions. Most of us could do with giving our liver a
break from the constant onslaught of caffeine, alco-
Eating to boost energy, memory and
hol, sugary and fatty foods, and too little sleep. The
following suggestions of the ‘top ten liver boosters’ concentration
could help maintain a healthy liver . What we eat can have a significant effect on your
brain function, memory, concentration and energy
1 Eat lots of garlic, onions, eggs, and vegetables levels. If you are under stress from work or exams,
like broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower and Brussels give your brain a boost by providing it with the right
sprouts. nutrients for the best performance.
2 Eat detox-friendly fennel, artichoke, beetroot,
lemon and parsley. The healthy brain
3 Eat good-quality protein (eggs, lean meat, fish,
beans and pulses, nuts and seeds).
Blood sugar balance
4 Eat brightly coloured fruits and vegetables in If your blood sugar (the amount of sugar in your blood)
a range of colours, such as peppers, berries, is not at the right level (i.e. balanced) it can affect your
squash and apples. Also eat dark-green leafy energy levels and your ability to think straight. Sugar
vegetables, which are rich in nutrients such as and caffeine make blood sugar levels rise rapidly. This
antioxidants. gives a sudden burst of energy but it does not last
5 Eat plenty of beans, pulses, lentils, and whole long as your body quickly moves the excess sugar
grains such as brown rice, oats and wholemeal out of the blood before it can cause any damage.
Removing the sugar uses up energy so you end up The human brain is up to 60 per cent fat. This is
feeling even more tired. To enjoy steady energy levels not just padding – it helps the brain to perform well.
and good concentration it is important to eat carbo- However, it is important to have the right type of fat
hydrates that release their sugar more slowly. They in the brain. Essential fats help the brain to function,
will fill you up for longer without disturbing your blood whereas hydrogenated fats and trans fats (produced
sugar levels. Slow-release carbohydrates are usually in fried food when the fat is damaged by heat) block
fibre-rich whole foods like fresh fruit and vegetables, the brain function. We need to make sure that we eat
whole grains (such as brown rice, oats and wholemeal essential fats as our body cannot make them itself.
bread), and beans and lentils. There are two types of essential fats: omega-3 fats
and omega-6 fats. Good sources of omega-3 fats
Vital vitamins and minerals include:
Vitamins and minerals do more than just ward off
●● oily fish – trout, salmon, fresh tuna (not canned),
colds – they are also important in brain chemistry.
mackerel, sardines, anchovies, herring
We need them to turn glucose (a type of sugar) into
●● pumpkin seeds, walnuts, linseeds and
energy and to turn the amino acids in protein into
flaxseeds.
neurotransmitters (the parts of the brain that send
messages to the body). Particularly important nutri- Good sources of omega-6 fats include nuts and
ents include: seeds, and their oils.
●● B vitamins in vegetables, beans and pulses, dairy The brain-boosting diet
products, fish, meat, eggs, whole grains, nuts and
The following suggestions should help to increase
seeds
your energy and concentration, and boost your
●● vitamin C in fruit and vegetables, especially
performance.
peppers, watercress, cabbage, broccoli,
cauliflower, strawberries, citrus fruit, kiwi fruit, ●● Eat more fruit and vegetables.
melon and tomatoes ●● Choose whole grains like brown rice, oats in
●● calcium in dairy products, nuts and seeds porridge, muesli, oatcakes and rye bread.
(especially almonds and pumpkin seeds), beans, ●● Eat foods that are rich in essential fats, like oily
soya, green leafy vegetables, sardines, anchovies fish, and nuts and seeds. Aim for two to three
and pilchards (fish where you are able to eat the portions of oily fish per week and a tablespoon of
bones), and prunes nuts or seeds per day as a snack or sprinkled on
●● magnesium in whole grains, nuts (especially cereal or in smoothies.
almonds, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts and pecans), ●● Avoid hydrogenated fats and partially
potato skins, green leafy vegetables, peas, raisins, hydrogenated fats. Check food labels carefully.
garlic and beans ●● Limit trans fats by avoiding fried food, and
●● zinc in lamb, haddock, shrimps, oysters, egg yolk, cooking with oils like medium (not virgin) olive oil
rye, oats, wheat, nuts (especially pecans, Brazil or coconut oil from health food stores.
nuts and almonds), peanuts, ginger, peas and ●● Drink plenty of water.
turnips.
Food additives
There is an increasing trend in the UK towards ‘clean- Additives can be divided into 12 categories and,
ing up’ recipes and using as few artificial additives except for purely ‘natural’ substances, their use is
or as many natural ingredients as possible. For this subject to certain legislation.
reason, the use of some additives (such as monoso-
1 Preservatives: natural ones include salt, sugar,
dium glutamate) is increasingly frowned upon.
alcohol and vinegar; synthetic ones are also
widely used.
To find out more about additives, contact the
2 Colouring agents: natural, including
Food Standards Agency, Room No. 213, Whitehall
cochineal, caramel and saffron, and many
Place (East Block), London SW1A 2HH (website:
synthetic ones.
www.food.gov.uk).
3 Flavouring agents: synthetic chemicals
to mimic natural flavours (e.g. monosodium 9 Humectants: to prevent food drying out, such
glutamate to give a meaty flavour to foods). as glycerine (used in some icings).
4 Sweetening: saccharin (an organic petroleum 10 Polyphosphate: injected into poultry before
compound), sorbitol and aspartame. rigor mortis develops; it binds water to the
5 Emulsifying agents (to prevent separation of muscle and thus prevents ‘drip’, giving a firmer
salad creams, ice cream, etc.); examples are structure to the meat.
lecithin and glyceryl monostearate (GMS). 11 Nutrients: vitamins and minerals added to
6 Antioxidants: to delay the onset of rancidity in breakfast cereals, vitamins A and D added to
fats due to exposure to air; examples are vitamin margarine.
E and butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT). 12 Miscellaneous: anti-caking agents added to
7 Flour improvers: to strengthen the gluten in icing sugar and salt; firming agents (calcium
flour, such as vitamin C. chloride) added to tinned fruit and vegetables to
8 Thickeners: animal (gelatine); marine (agar- prevent too much softening in the processing;
agar); vegetable (gum tragacanth – used for mineral oils added to dried fruit to prevent
pastillage – and pectin; synthetic products. stickiness.
Food spoilage
Unless foods are preserved they deteriorate; there- Yeasts
fore, to keep them in an edible condition it is neces- These are single-cell plants or organisms, larger than
sary to know what causes food spoilage. In the air bacteria, that grow on foods containing moisture and
there are certain micro-organisms called moulds, sugar. Foods containing only a small percentage of
yeasts and bacteria, which cause foods to go bad. sugar and a large percentage of liquid, such as fruit
There are two main types of spoilage: juices and syrups, are liable to ferment because of
1 chemical – i.e. over-ripening, breakdown of yeasts. Although they seldom cause disease, yeasts
protein in meat leading to oxidation and rancidity do increase food spoilage; foodstuffs should be
2 microbial – i.e. micro-organisms attack the food kept under refrigeration or they may be spoiled by
leading to spoilage and, in some cases, food yeasts. Yeasts are also destroyed by heat. The abil-
poisoning. ity of yeast to feed on sugar and produce alcohol is
the basis of the beer- and wine-making industries.
Microbial spoilage Yeasts are also used in breadmaking and other fer-
mented goods.
Moulds
These are simple plants that appear like whiskers Bacteria
on foods, particularly sweet foods, meat and cheese. Bacteria are minute plants, or organisms, that require
To grow, they require warmth, air, moisture, darkness moist, warm conditions and a suitable food to multiply.
and food; they are killed by heat and sunlight. Moulds They spoil food by attacking it, leaving waste prod-
can grow where there is too little moisture for yeasts ucts, or by producing poisons in the food.
and bacteria to grow, and will be found on jams and Their growth is checked by refrigeration and they
pickles. are killed by heat. Certain bacterial forms (spores) are
Although most of the time moulds are not harmful, more resistant to heat than others and require higher
they do cause foods to taste musty and to be wasted. temperatures to kill them.
There are a couple of types of moulds that are dan- Pressure cooking destroys heat-resistant bacterial
gerous to health, so it is best not to eat them. spores provided the food is cooked for a sufficient
Correct storage in a dry cold store prevents moulds length of time, because increased pressure increases
from forming. the temperature; therefore heat-resistant bacterial
Not all moulds are destructive. Some are used to spores do not affect canned foods as the foods are
flavour cheese (Stilton, Roquefort) or to produce anti- cooked under pressure in the cans. Acids are gener-
biotics (penicillin, streptomycin). ally capable of destroying bacteria, such as vinegar
in pickles.
Dehydrated foods and dry foods do not contain
much moisture and, provided they are kept dry, spoil- the action of enzymes; they do not remain edible
age from bacteria will not occur. If they become moist indefinitely because other enzymes cause the fruit to
then bacteria can multiply – if dried peas are soaked become over-ripe and spoil.
and not cooked, for example, the bacteria present can When meat and game are hung they become
begin to multiply. tender; this is caused by enzymes. To prevent enzyme
activity going too far, foods must be refrigerated or
Chemical spoilage heated to a temperature high enough to destroy the
Food spoilage can occur due to other causes, such enzymes. Acid retards the enzyme action: lemon juice,
as by chemical substances called enzymes, which for example, prevents the browning of bananas or
are produced by living cells. Fruits are ripened by apples when they are cut into slices.
Keeping up to date
Changes are occurring constantly regarding food recent years, the rise in fatalities from bacteria such
production and manufacture, which may affect the as BSE and E. coli has led to renewed concern and
use of foods in the kitchen. Consumers’ reaction to scrutiny of food production techniques.
reports of changes published in the press or seen or Recommendations and contradictions produced by
heard on the TV or radio may affect demand. Similarly, dietetic research can cause trends and affect con-
information about nutritional values can affect cus- sumer habits. The use of butter and margarine is one
tomers’ preferences and thus cause trends and affect such example.
menu selection. It is essential to keep up to date through the media
It is therefore essential to be aware of these reports and adopt a common-sense attitude to the comments
and when necessary to act according to government made, but to take action when serious recommenda-
recommendations. One example of research that has tions are made by valid research bodies.
affected kitchen practice has been the use of eggs. In
Methods of preservation
In order to preserve food, it is important to kill the for different types of foods) spoilage is reduced. In
micro-organisms that cause the spoilage and then the past, this was done by drying foods (e.g. fruits)
store the food in an environment where it cannot be in the sun; today many types of equipment are used,
re-infected, or in conditions where deterioration is and the food is dried by the use of air at regulated
slowed down or stopped. temperatures and humidity.
Foods may be preserved by:
Advantages of drying
●● removing the moisture from the food – drying,
●● If dried and kept dry, food keeps indefinitely.
dehydration
●● Food preserved by this method occupies less
●● making the food cold – chilling, freezing
space than food preserved by other methods.
●● applying heat – canning, bottling
Some dried foods occupy only 10 per cent of the
●● radiation, using X- or gamma-rays
space that would be required when fresh.
●● chemical means – salting, pickling, crystallising
●● Dried foods are easily transported and stored.
●● vacuum packing
●● The cost of drying and the expenses incurred
●● smoking
in storing are not as high as those for other
●● chemical
methods of preservation.
●● gas storage.
●● There is no waste after purchase, therefore
portion control and costing are simplified.
Drying or dehydration
Water is needed by micro-organisms to survive and
reproduce. Therefore, by removing the water in foods
below a critical value (this is a value that is specific
Foods preserved by drying Milk powder may be used in place of fresh milk,
●● Vegetables: peas, onions, beetroot, beans, carrots, mainly for economic purposes (especially skimmed
lentils, cabbage, mixed vegetables, potatoes. milk powder), and is used for making custard and
●● Herbs, eggs, milk, coffee. white sauce.
●● Fruits: apples, pears, plums (prunes), apricots, figs, Eggs
grapes (sultanas, raisins, currants).
●● Meat, fish. Eggs are dried in the same way as milk, and although
they have a food value similar to fresh eggs, dried
Vegetables eggs do not have the same aerating quality. When
Many vegetables are dried; those most used are the reconstituted the eggs should be used at once; if
pulse vegetables (beans, peas and lentils), which are they are left in this state in the warm atmosphere of
used for soups, vegetable purées and many vegetar- a kitchen, bacteria can multiply and food poisoning
ian dishes. Usually potatoes are cooked, mashed and may result; although pasteurised before drying, the
then dried. The other dried vegetables are used as a mixture may be contaminated in the kitchen and it is
vegetable (cabbage, onions). a very suitable food for the growth of bacteria. Dried
Pulse vegetables may be soaked in water before eggs are mainly used in the bakery trade.
use, then washed before being cooked. Vegetables Freeze drying
that are dehydrated (having a lower content of water
as more moisture has been extracted) are soaked in This is a process of dehydration whereby food
water. requires no preservation or refrigeration yet, when
Dehydrated potatoes are in powder form and are soaked in water, regains its original size and flavour.
reconstituted with water, milk, or milk and water. They It can be applied to every kind of food. The food is
often have manufactured vitamin C added as dehy- frozen in a cabinet, the air is pumped out and the
dration results in a loss of this vitamin. ice vaporised. This is called freeze drying and is the
drying of frozen foods by sublimation under condi-
Herbs tions of very low pressure. (Sublimation is the action
Fresh herbs are tied into bundles and allowed to dry of turning from solid to gas without passing through
out in a dry place. a liquid stage; in this case it is ice to steam without
first turning to water.)
Fruits When processed in this way, food does not lose
Sultanas, currants and raisins are grapes that have a great deal of its bulk, but it is very much lighter in
been dried in the sun or by hot air. Figs, plums, weight. When water is added the food gives off its
apricots, apples and pears are also dried by hot air. natural smell.
Apples are usually peeled and cut into rings or diced
and then dried. Preservation by chilling and freezing
All dried fruits must be washed before use, and At low temperatures micro-organism growth is
fruits such as prunes, figs, apricots, apples and pears much slower. Therefore, refrigeration is used not
are cooked in the water in which they are soaked. to kill micro-organisms but to slow down their
Little flavour or food value is lost when drying fruits, multiplication and their enzyme action. As a result,
with the exception of loss of vitamin C. refrigeration prolongs the life of the food but not
for long periods of time and, eventually, the food
Milk will go bad. Microbial and biochemical changes that
Milk is dried either by the roller or spray process. With affect the flavour, texture, colour and nutritional
the roller method the milk is poured onto heated roll- value of foods still take place and it is important
ers, which cause the water to evaporate; the resulting to remember that the food must not be contami-
powder is then scraped off. This method is not widely nated before chilling. Refrigerators are kept at a
used now as it damages the milk proteins and results temperature of 1–4°C.
in a less soluble dried product, which is more difficult The lower the temperature the food is stored
to reconstitute. With the spray process the milk is sent at, the longer the storage life. This is because the
through a fine jet as a spray into hot air, the water evap- micro-organisms become inactive around –10°C and
orates and the powder drops down. The temperature is enzymes become inactive around –18°C. Most frozen
controlled so that the protein in the milk is not cooked. foods can be kept at –17°C for a year and at –28°C
for two years. Foods must be kept in deep freeze until a period of several weeks. To overcome this problem
required for use. it is necessary to use wheat flour in conjunction with
Cold chilled storage of fresh foods merely retards any of a number of classically modified starches, such
the decay of the food; it does not prevent it from as tapioca starch or waxy maize starch. Many recipes
eventually going bad. The aim of chilling is to slow prove successful with a ratio of 50 per cent wheat
down the rate of spoilage; the lower the chill tem- flour to 50 per cent modified starch.
perature within the range 1°C to 5°C, the slower Rapid freezing of foodstuffs can be achieved by a
the growth of micro-organisms and the biochemical variety of methods using different types of equipment,
changes that spoil the flavour, colour, texture and for example:
nutritional value of foods. Lowering the temperature
●● plate freezer
to this range also reduces food poisoning hazards,
●● blast freezer
although it is important to remember that the food
●● low-temperature immersion freezer
must not be contaminated before chilling.
●● still-air cold room
If food is frozen slowly, large uneven crystals are
●● spray freezer (using liquid nitrogen or carbon
formed in the cells. The water in each cell contains
dioxide) – known as cryogenic freezing this is a
the minerals that give flavour and goodness to food; if
method of freezing food by very low temperature;
food is frozen slowly, the minerals are separated from
it also freezes food more quickly than any other
the ice crystals, which break through the cells; on
method; the food to be frozen is placed on a
thawing, the goodness and flavour drain away. Quick-
conveyor belt and passed into an insulated
freezing (see below) is more satisfactory because
freezing tunnel; the liquefied nitrogen or carbon
small ice crystals are formed in the cells of food; so,
dioxide is injected into the tunnel through a spray,
on thawing, the goodness and flavour are retained in
and vaporises, resulting in a very rapid freezing
the cells.
process
freeze flow – this is a system that freezes food
Meat ●●
without hardening it.
●● Chilling: meat that is chilled is kept at a
temperature just above freezing point and will Foods that are frozen
keep for up to one month; if the atmosphere is A very wide variety of foods are frozen, either cooked
controlled with carbon dioxide the time can be or in an uncooked state.
extended to ten weeks.
●● Freezing: imported lamb carcasses are frozen; ●● Cooked foods: whole cooked meals, braised
beef carcasses are not usually frozen because, meat, vol-au-vents, éclairs, cream sponges, puff
owing to the size of the carcass, it takes a long pastry items.
time to freeze and this causes ice crystals to form ●● Raw foods: fillets of fish, fish fingers, poultry,
which, when thawed, affect the texture of the peas, French beans, broad beans, spinach,
meat; frozen meat must be thawed before it is sprouts, broccoli, strawberries, raspberries,
cooked. blackcurrants.
With most frozen foods, cooking instructions are
Quick-freezing of raw foods and cooked given; these should be followed to obtain the best
foods results.
During the cooking and freezing process, foods Fillets of fish may be thawed out before cooking;
undergo physical and/or chemical changes. If it is vegetables are cooked in their frozen state. Fruit is
found that these changes are detrimental to the thawed before use and as it is usually frozen with
product, then recipe modification is required. The fol- sugar the fruit is served with the liquor.
lowing products require some modification: sauces,
casseroles, stews, cold desserts, batters, vegetables Advantages of using frozen foods
and egg dishes. ●● Frozen foods are ready prepared, therefore saving
Conventional recipes normally use wheat flour for time and labour.
thickening, but in the cook-freeze system this will not ●● Portion control and costing are easily assessed.
give an acceptable final product because separation ●● Foods are always ‘in season’.
of the solids from the liquids in the sauce will occur ●● Storage is compact.
if the product is kept in frozen storage for more than ●● Additional stocks are to hand.
●● Quality is guaranteed. The advantages of canned foods are similar to

●● Very little vitamin C is lost from fruits and those of frozen foods, but a disadvantage is that, due
vegetables even after several months in a deep to the heat processing, a proportion of the vitamin C
freeze. and B1 (thiamin) may be lost. The quality and texture
of the food may also be impaired.
Table 4.13 Storage of tinned foods
Pasteurisation
Type of tinned food Advised storage time
Pasteurisation is a mild heat treatment, mainly used
Fruit Up to 12 months with milk and fruit juices. The food is taken to at least
Milk Up to 12 months 72°C for a minimum of 15 seconds and then cooled
Vegetables Up to 2 years rapidly.
Meat Up to 5 years In milk, over 99 per cent of the micro-organisms
Fish in oil Up to 5 years are killed and the rest are inactivated due to the rapid
Fish in tomato sauce Up to 1 year cooling and refrigerated conditions the produce is
held in.
The loss in nutrients and effects on flavour and
Table 4.14 Tin sizes the quality of the products are minimal because the
temperatures reached are not very high and are
Size Approx. weight Use
maintained for only a short period of time.
142 g Baked beans, peas
227 g Fruits, meats, vegetables Sterilisation
A1 284 g Baked beans, soups, This heat-treatment method employs much higher
vegetables, meats, temperatures for a much longer period of time. The
pilchards product is then packed in sterile containers. As a
14Z 397 g Fruits, vegetables result, the product has a much longer shelf-life
A2 567 g Fruits, vegetables, fruit than its pasteurised counterpart and the cartons
and vegetable juices can be stored at ambient temperatures rather than
A2½ 795 g Fruits, vegetables chilled.
A10 3079 g Fruits, vegetables, UHT (ultra heat treated) milk is an example of this
tongues and there is a more noticeable change in the flavour
and quality of the finished product.
Preservation by heating Preservation by salting and smoking

Canning and bottling Salting
Bottled and canned food are sealed in airtight bottles Micro-organisms cannot grow in high concentrations
or tins, and heated at a high enough temperature for of salt. This method of preservation is used mainly to
a sufficient period of time to destroy harmful organ- preserve meat and fish, and its advantage lies chiefly
isms. Spoilage does not occur over life because no in the fact that a wider variety of dishes with different
micro-organisms can gain access to the food. Almost flavours can be put on the menu.
any type of food can be canned. The salt added to butter and margarine, and also to
Dented cans that do not leak are safe to use, but cheese, acts as a preservative.
blown cans – that is, those with bulges at either end
– must not be used. Meats
Some tinned hams are canned at a low tempera- Meats that are salted or ‘pickled’ in a salt solution
ture in order to retain their flavour and avoid exces- (brine) include brisket, silverside of beef, ox tongues
sive shrinkage in the can, and therefore should be and legs of pork.
stored in a refrigerator and consumed soon after
purchase. Check the information on the can. Other Fish
tinned foods are kept in a dry, cool place; Table 4.13 Fish are usually smoked as well as being salted
indicates the recommended storage time. and include salmon, trout, haddock and herring. The
Foods are canned in tins of various sizes (see amount of salting varies. Bloaters are salted more
Table 4.14). than kippers, and red herrings more than bloaters.
Smoking ●● Mesquite: great for grilling because it burns very

There are two types of smoking: hot, but below average for barbecuing for the
same reason. Also, the smoke taste turns from
1 hot smoking tangy to bitter over an extended cooking time.
2 cold smoking. ●● Oak: if hickory is the king of barbecue woods, oak
Smoking is mainly used nowadays to enhance the is the queen. The most versatile of hardwoods,
flavour and colour of the product, as its preservation blending well with a wide range of flavours.
effect is mainly limited to the surface of the product. ●● Pecan: burns cool and offers a subtle richness of
Smoking does not allow long-term storage. character.
Smoke is a very complex material, with upward of ●● Grapevines: very distinctive aroma, ideal for
200 components that include alcohols, acids, phe- grilling food.
nolic compounds and various toxic, sometimes carci-
nogenic, substances. The toxic substances inhibit the The smoking process
growth of microbes, and the phenolics retard fat oxida- Before smoking commences, the raw meat or fish is
tion, and the whole complex imparts the characteristic either dry salted or soaked in brine. In hot countries
flavour of burning wood to the meat, fish or vegetables. salting is still used for the purpose of preservation,
Smoke substitutes are sometimes used in prefer- but in more temperate climates the salt is used only
ence to real smoke to give the flavour and charac- as a seasoning.
teristics of traditionally smoked food. One smoke During smoking, weight loss occurs in the product,
substitute is known as liquid smoke and does not due to evaporation of water content from within the
contain carcinogenic substances. flesh of the meat or fish. This weight loss is essential
to successful smoking. It follows that the greater the
The difference between smoke cooking and weight loss the greater the keeping qualities. Today,
curing flavour tends to be more important than keeping
Smoke cooking is done at higher temperatures in qualities so it is better to create humid conditions to
order to cook the meat. Smoke curing is really just produce a succulent product.
smoking cured meat or sausage. Although smoking
meat does provide some preservative effect, this Hot and cold smoking
alone is not sufficient to allow long-term storage. Cold smoking flavours but does not cook the product.
It is usually carried out at a temperature of between
The temperature of smoke when cooking 10°C and 29°C. Some cold smoked products are
meat eaten without further cooking (e.g. salmon, beef
The temperature is very important. There are a variety fillet, halibut and cod roe), whereas others – such as
of different smokes on the market, all with tempera- haddock, herring (kippers) and cod fillets – require a
ture guides; some recommend 93°C–104°C for hot further period of cooking, although obviously not so
smoking. much as a completely raw product as the cooking
Temperature control is very important as excess process has already been started.
heat will melt the fat and leave a dry product. Hot smoked products, after salting or brining, are
first cold smoked to partially dry them out and to
Examples of woods used for smoking impart a smoked flavour. In the case of fish the tem-
●● Alder: the traditional wood for smoking salmon in perature is then raised to 93–104°C and the fish are
the Pacific north-west, alder also works well with then cooked. Care must be taken during the initial
other fish. It has a light, delicate flavour. cold smoking to see that the temperature does not
●● Apple and cherry: both woods produce a exceed 26°C as this will harden the outside and stop
slightly sweet, fruity smoke that is mild enough further smoke penetration. Again, during hot smoking,
for chicken or turkey, but capable of favouring a temperatures must be monitored to see that the fish
ham. do not become overcooked. Herbs and spices may be
●● Hickory: the king of the woods. The strong, incorporated into the smoking process.
hearty taste is perfect for pork shoulder and ribs,
but also enhances any red meat or poultry. Preservation by sugar
●● Maple: mildly smoky and sweet, maple mates A high concentration of sugar prevents the growth of
well with poultry, ham and vegetables. moulds, yeasts and bacteria. This method of preser-
Acid Alkaline
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Strong Medium Weak Weak Medium Strong

acid acid acid alkali alkali alkali
Lemons Pear Some Egg white

Vinegar Bananas mineral Bicarbonate
waters of soda
Rhubarb Carrots
Tomatoes Hard water
Figure 4.14 The pH range of some foods
vation is applied to fruits in a variety of forms: jams, too acidic (less than pH1.5) for any micro-organisms
marmalades, jellies, candied, glacé and crystallised. to grow, such as the use of vinegar in pickling. In the
manufacture of yoghurt and cheese, bacteria produce
●● Jams are prepared by cooking fruit and sugar
lactic acid; this lowers the pH, and retards the growth
together in the correct quantities to prevent the
of food poisoning and spoilage organisms.
jam from spoiling. Too little sugar means the jam
Foods may be preserved in vinegar, which is acetic
will not keep.
acid (ethanoic acid) diluted with water. In the UK, malt
●● Jellies, such as redcurrant jelly, are prepared by
vinegar is most frequently used, although distilled or
cooking the juice of the fruit with the sugar.
white wine vinegar is used for pickling white vegetables
●● Marmalade is similar to jam in preparation and
such as cocktail onions and also for rollmops (herrings).
preservation, citrus fruits being used in place of
Foods usually pickled in vinegar include gherkins,
other fruits.
capers, onions, shallots, walnuts, red cabbage, mixed
●● Candied fruit is made when the peel of such fruit
pickles and chutneys.
as orange, lemon, grapefruit and lime, and also
the flesh of pineapple, are covered with hot syrup;
Preservation by chemicals
the syrup’s sugar content is increased each day
until the fruit is saturated in a very heavy syrup, A number of chemicals in certain foods, such as sau-
then it is allowed to dry slowly. sages, meats and jams, are permitted by law, but their
●● Crystallised fruit is made following candying. use is strictly controlled. (Campden preserving tablets
It is left in fresh syrup for 24 hours and then can be used for domestic fruit bottling.)
allowed to dry slowly until crystals form on the Some of the more popular ones are:
fruit. Angelica, ginger, violet and rose petals are ●● sulphur dioxide and sulphites – use in dried
prepared in this way. fruit and vegetables, sausages, fruit-based dairy
●● Glacé fruit, usually cherries, is first candied, then products, cider, beer and wine, biscuit dough
dipped in fresh syrup to give a clear finish. ●● sorbic acid – soft drinks, fruit yoghurt, processed
cheese
Preservation by acids ●● sodium and potassium nitrite/nitrate – bacon,
ham, cured meats, corn beef and some cheeses.
The acidity and alkalinity of foods
The level of acidity or alkalinity of a food is measured Preservation by radiation
by its pH value. The pH can range from 1 to 14, with
pH7 denoting neutral (neither acid nor alkaline). What is irradiation?
Most micro-organisms grow best at near neutral Foods are exposed to ionising radiation, which trans-
pH. Bacteria (particularly harmful ones) are less acid- fers some of its energy as it passes through the
tolerant than fungi, and no bacteria will grow at a pH food, killing the pathogenic bacteria, which would
of less than 3.5. Spoilage of high-acid foods, such as otherwise make the food unsafe to eat, or, at lower
fruit, is usually caused by yeasts and moulds. Meat doses the spoilage bacteria, which cause food to
and fish are more susceptible to bacterial spoilage, rot. Ionising radiation is electromagnetic, like radio
since their pH is closer to neutral. waves, infra-red light or ultraviolet light. It is similar
The pH may be lowered so that the food becomes to ultraviolet radiation but has a higher frequency
and much greater energy. This is sufficient to pro- vacuum packed, and when this also cuts out the
tect food effectively, but not enough to make it need to trim, financial benefits are significant.
radioactive. ●● Increased storage life: ‘use by’ times can be
Irradiation methods have other key advantages over extended on chilled items (3–5°C).
heating, chilling and chemical preservation methods. ●● Increased hygiene and reduced cross-
contamination: vacuum pouches provide external
●● Irradiation works well with frozen or heat-sensitive
barriers and will ensure food is protected in a
products, as it does not cause any significant
hygienic condition, unaffected by any cross-
increase in temperature.
contamination after packaging.
●● Packaged products can be sterilised in the final
●● Improved workflow: in any restaurant, there
pack, thus preventing contamination.
will inevitably be periods of time that are quiet.
●● Irradiation has a minimal impact on the nutritional
To spend that time vacuum packaging is not only
value of the food. Proteins and carbohydrates are
an excellent use of your staff but also helps to
unaffected.
relieve the workload when staff are busy. Vacuum
●● Irradiation processing is a clean technology.
packaging will make optimum use of all available
No chemical additives are used or residues left
time by helping to even out the workload.
behind in the food, and the process does not
●● Pre-packaging: food may be pre-portioned and
contaminate or damage the environment.
vacuum packed without the pressure of time;
●● The chemical changes caused in the food by the
accurate weights and a reduction of waste should
ionising radiation are in general much less severe
be obtained. The food can be kept chilled until
than those arising from other food-processing
needed. This also allows planning to take place
methods such as cooling and heating.
for banquets, and can help overcome labour
At present, 36 countries allow irradiation of about 30 shortages at weekends and during holiday
individually specified foods. In 21 of these countries periods.
there are active commercial food irradiative plants. ●● Reduced wastage: vacuum packaging in
The Food Labelling (Amendment) (Irradiated Food) advance can help minimise waste.
Regulations 1990 came into force on 1 January ●● Satellite kitchens: these can readily be supplied
1991 in parallel with those regulations setting out with vacuum-packed portions, eliminating the
the controls on irradiation. The regulations require all need for preparation in several areas.
foods that have been irradiated to carry an indication ●● Bulk buying: many foods, like meat and fish, are
of treatment using the specified words ‘irradiated’ or affected by burn or dehydration in the freezer.
‘treated with ionising radiation’. The protective qualities of a vacuum pouch
ensure this problem is eliminated.
Preservation by gas storage
Precautions
Gas storage is used in conjunction with refrigera-
tion to preserve meat, eggs and fruit. Varying the There are certain precautions that the chef has to be
gas composition surrounding the food increases the aware of when using vacuum packaging. The shelf-
length of time it can be stored. life of cooked foods should be kept to a minimum
under chilled conditions. Cooked meats and fish
Vacuum packaging should not be packed unless sous-vide techniques
are used. Stock rotation must be strictly observed. All
There are two distinct methods in which vacuum
packs must be clearly labelled with the description
packaging can be incorporated into kitchen proce-
of the contents, weight, date and ‘use by’ date. In the
dures. The first process relates to preparation and
event of any pack becoming blown or leaking, the
preservation. The second is a process of cooking
contents should immediately be opened, examined
‘sous-vide’: a process of preparation, sealing inside a
and repacked only if satisfactory. Strict hygiene, the
pouch or bag, cooking at a low temperature, followed
immediate packing of foodstuffs, and accurate chill
by rapid chilling and storage at no more than 2°C.
conditions are vital parts of the process.
(There is more on this in Chapter 6.)
Benefits to the caterer Modified atmosphere packaging

●● Reduced dehydration and drip loss: weight (MAP)
loss can be considerably reduced when meat is This is a flexible way of extending the shelf-life of
many kinds of fresh foods up to two to three times and is used in 100 per cent strength for dried
the normal levels. The method involves replacing and roasted foods, dairy cakes, cream and milk
the normal surrounding or ‘dead space’ atmosphere powders. The gas is also used in conjunction with
within food packages with specific mixtures of gases CO2 as a support gas.
or single gases. Its objectives are to inhibit the growth ●● Oxygen sustains basic metabolism and prevents
of pathogenic bacteria and moulds, and to extend the spoilage caused by anaerobic bacteria. It is also
shelf-life of chilled and certain ambient food products. used in MAP gas mixtures for packaging red
Originally the system was known as controlled meats, where it preserves the red colour of the
atmosphere packaging, and was used for the retail meat.
portioning and packaging of red meat. The method
MAP effectively increases the length of time certain
was based on what is now known as the ‘date of
foods can be stored in the refrigerator. The gas
packaging 1 five days’ system, using an 80 per cent
mixtures used vary according to the product being
oxygen/20 per cent carbon dioxide gas mixture. The
packaged. MAP is particularly successful with bakery
gases used are carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen.
products where elevated CO2 content permits high
They are natural gases like those present in the air,
relative humidities with negligible mould growth.
but for MAP they are supplied purified and free of
Chefs employed in large food production opera-
bacteria.
tions and those employed as development chefs use
●● Carbon dioxide (CO2) inhibits the growth MAP to aid food preparation and quality. Over the
of pathogenic bacteria at temperatures not next few years we are likely to see further develop-
exceeding 8°C for a restricted period. CO2 does ments in this area as the catering industry becomes
not kill the bacteria but will restrict mould growth more involved in using gases to aid preservation of
over long periods. ingredients.
●● Nitrogen has a neutral effect on foodstuffs
Table 4.15 Recommended gas mixture percentages (%) for MAP (based on refrigeration storage)
Product Oxygen (%) Nitrogen (%) Carbon dioxide (%) Shelf-life

Red meat 80 – 20 5–8 days
White fish 30 30 40 5–6 days
Fatty fish – 40 60 5–6 days
Salmon 20 20 60 5–6 days
Poultry – 75 25 17–18 days
Hard cheese – – 100 3 weeks
Bacon, cooked meats – 65–80 20–35 3–4 days
Bread – 30–40 60–70 3 weeks
Dairy cakes – 100 – 3 weeks
References
Catering for Health: A Guide to Teaching Healthier Some references to nutrition elsewhere in
Catering Practices is available from Food the book:
Standards Agency Publications, PO Box 367,
✎● Dietary analysis .................................................................. Ch. 17
Hayes, Middlesex UB3 1UT.
Fox, B.A. and Cameron, A.G. (1995) Food Science, ✎● Each commodity........................................................................... 48
Nutrition and Health (6th edn). Hodder Arnold. ✎● Hospital catering ......................................................................... 16
Gaman, P.M. and Sherrington, K.B. ✎● Molecular gastronomy ................................................ Ch. 16
(1998) The Science of Food (4th edn).
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Henderson, L., Irving, K., Gregory, J. et al. (2003) The
National Diet and Nutrition Survey. London: TSO.
For further information on methods of l Manual of Nutrition (HMSO).

preservation refer to the following sources. l McCance and Widdowson’s The Composition of
l Eating for Health (HMSO). Foods (HMSO).
l Food (Control of Irradiation) Regulations 1990 l Education Department, Unilever Ltd, Unilever
(HMSO). House, Blackfriars, London EC4
l Gaman, P.M. and Sherrington, K.B. (1996) The l Health Education Authority, Trevelyan
Science of Food. Pergamon. House, 30 Great Peter Street, London
l Guidelines on Pre-cooked Chilled Foods SW1P 2HW
(HMSO). l Nutrition Society, 10 Cambridge Court,
l Kilgour, O.F.G. (1976) An Introduction to 210 Shepherd’s Bush Road, London
Science for Catering and Homecraft Students. W6 7NJ
Heinemann.

1 Why is a balanced diet desirable? What do you 5 For what reasons may the nutritional value of
consider to be necessary to provide a balanced foods be affected? Discuss examples of how
diet? this may occur and how such effects may be
2 Why do you think trends, fads and fashions occur prevented.
in our eating? Discuss how you could encour- 6 What are the main sources of nutritional
age a positive approach to having healthy eating information?
habits. 7 Do you consider TV adverts and/or programmes
3 How has presentation of foods changed and why affect people’s diets?
have these changes come about? 8 Why do caterers need a good knowledge of
4 What problems are associated with certain peo- nutrition and special diets?
ple’s diets? What specific considerations are
there for the diets of children, the elderly, nursing
mothers and teenagers?
, production
Kitchen planning,
ng
equipment, services and
ni a
5 nd
an
Part 3 Pl
ser
energy conservation
vice
Influencing Factors on Design 149 Food-Processing Equipment 184

Front-of-House Design 150 Boilers 186
Kitchen Design 152 Refrigerators, Cold Rooms,
Linking Equipment to Chill Rooms, Deep-Freeze
Computers 160 Cabinets and Compartments 187
Water Management 160 Basic Operation of the
Equipment Design 160 Dishwasher 189
Kitchen Organisation 161 The Servery Area 190
Working Methods 162 Miscellaneous Equipment 194
Kitchen Supervision/ Small Equipment and Utensils 194
Management 163 Energy Conservation and
Kitchen Equipment 169 Efficiency 198
Large Equipment 171 References 202
Mechanical Equipment 182 Topics for Discussion 203

›● Activity worksheets: kitchen design; equipment
›● Videos and worksheets: kitchen planning
Influencing factors on design

Factors that influence kitchen planning and design The size and extent of the menu
include: Before a kitchen is planned, the management must
●● the size and extent of the menu and the market know its goals and objectives in relation to market
it serves strategy. In other words, what markets are you aiming
●● services – gas, electricity and water at and what style of operation are you going to
●● labour, skill level of staff operate? The menu will then determine the type of
●● amount of capital expenditure, costs equipment you will require in order to produce the
●● use of prepared convenience foods products that you know from the market research the
●● types of equipment available customer is going to buy. You also need to know the
●● hygiene and the Food Safety Act 2005/2006 target numbers you intend to service.
●● design and decor
●● multi-usage requirements.
150 PLANNING, PRODUCTION AND SERVICE
Services Hygiene and the Food Safety Act

The designer must know where the services are 2005/2006
located and how efficient use can be made of them. The design and construction of the kitchen must
comply with the Food Safety Act 2005/2006. The
Labour and skill level basic layout and construction should enable ade-
What kind of people does the company intend to quate space to be provided in all food-handling and
employ? This will have an effect on the technology and associated areas for equipment as well as working
equipment to be installed. The more prepared food practices, and frequent cleaning to be carried out.
used, the more this will affect the overall kitchen design.
Design and decor
Amount of capital expenditure The trend towards provision of more attractive eating
Most design has to work with a detailed capital places, carried to its utmost perhaps by the chain and
budget. Often it is not always possible to design, then franchise operators, has not been without its effect
worry about the cost afterwards. Finance will very on kitchen planning and design. One trend has been
often determine the overall design and acceptability. that of bringing the kitchen area totally or partially into
Because space is at a premium, kitchens are gener- view, with the development of back-bar type of equip-
ally becoming smaller. Equipment is therefore being ment – for example, where grills or griddles are in full
designed to cater for this trend, becoming more modular public view and food is prepared on them to order.
and streamlined and generally able to fit into less space. While there will be a continuing demand for the tra-
This is seen as a cost-reduction exercise. Labour is a ditional heavy-duty type of equipment found in larger
significant cost factor, so equipment is being designed hotels and restaurant kitchens, the constant need to
for ease of operation, maintenance and cleaning. change and update the design and decor of modern
restaurants means that the equipment’s life is gen-
Use of prepared convenience foods erally shorter – reduced perhaps from ten years to
A fast-food menu using prepared convenience food seven or five, or even less – to cope with the demand
will influence the planning and equipping very dif- for change and redevelopment.
ferently than for an à la carte or cook-chill kitchen. This has resulted in the generally improved design
Certain factors will have to be determined. of catering equipment with the introduction of modu-
lar units.
●● Will sweets and pastries be made on the
premises? Multi-usage requirements
●● Will there be a need for larder or butcher?
Round-the-clock requirements such as in hospitals,
●● Will fresh or frozen food, or a combination of both
factories where shift work takes place, the police and
be used?
armed forces, have also encouraged kitchen planners
to consider the design of kitchens with a view to their
Types of equipment available partial use outside peak times. To this end kitchen
The type, amount and size of the equipment will equipment is being made more adaptable and flex-
depend on the type of menu being provided. The ible, so that whole sections can be closed down when
equipment must be suitably sited. When planning a not in use, in order to maximise savings on heating,
kitchen, standard symbols are used that can be pro- lighting and maintenance.
duced on squared paper to provide a scale design.
Computer-aided design (CAD) is now often used to
do this.
Front-of-house design
The ‘front of house’, better known by customers as is the showroom where ‘food meets customer’. The
the dining room, is one of the most critical compo- dining area is the ‘stage’ where good food, personal
nents of any commercial food service operation. If service and atmosphere come together to deliver a
the kitchen is the manufacturing plant, the dining area memorable dining experience.
Kitchen planning, equipment, services and energy conservation 151
Customer expectations of their ‘dining experience’ ●● How many customers will need service at any
vary greatly by the type of restaurant. In the case of one time?
most restaurants and some venues, the customer ●● What different types of food are to be offered
has made a personal choice about the type and and what kind of preparation methods will be
level of service desired, as well as the atmosphere in used in the dining area, if any?
which they wish to dine. Sometimes speed of service ●● What kind of service will be provided and on what
is paramount. Sometimes they want a friendly sports schedule?
bar with plenty of noise and lots of comfort food. On ●● What type and amount of storage space will be
special occasions, they may want an intimate booth needed?
or table, a great wine list, impeccable service and ●● What are the space requirements for
classic cuisine. Regardless of the dining experience maintenance, offices, employee facilities, toilets,
desired, there are base-level customer expecta- etc.?
tions for a clean dining area, with adequate seating, ●● Is there enough space allocated or left over for
appropriate heating, air conditioning and lighting, checkout, waiting, a cloakroom and service areas?
plus clean plates and cutlery or service-appropriate
Dining room space requirements are usually based
disposables.
on the number of metres per person seated, multi-
There are many factors that come into play when
plied by the number of persons seated at any one
one is considering the design, equipment, furniture
time. Space requirements should take into considera-
and supply items associated with any dining area. The
tion the customers’ size, comfort, and the type and
following sections cover all the major factors critical
quality of service. The amount of serving equipment
to good front-of-house or dining room design. One of
to be used in the dining area, and in the case of a
the most important elements is space.
cafeteria the queuing space, will impact the space
allocated for each seat. Space used for other than
Space considerations
seating requirements is also included in the dining
Space allocation in any food service facility requires area requirements. This does not include waiting
consideration of not only the building and construc- areas, cloakrooms, toilets and other on-service areas.
tion costs but also the resulting operational costs. Table 5.1 provides some generally accepted ‘space
While smaller space allocations for some areas may allowances per seat’ for various types of food service
reduce building costs, insufficient space can increase operation.
operating costs, impact efficient operations and hurt Some of the other factors that should be taken into
profitability. consideration when evaluating dining space require-
Total space requirements are based on many fac- ments include those listed below.
tors. Some of the major decision criteria that any
facilities designer or end-user/operator should con- ●● The use of service stations: service stations
sider include the following. can be estimated based on one small unit
for every 20 seats or a large central service
●● How many individual customers are to be served, station for every 50–60 seats. The advisability
and over what period of time? of having a central service station is influenced
●● What are the typical food requirements of these by the distance from the dining room to the
customers? service area. Service stations are important
Table 5.1 ‘Space allowances per seat’ for various types of food service operation
Type of operation Space allowance per seat (square metres)

Commercial cafeteria 1.5–1.7
College 1.1–1.4
School cafeteria 0.8–1.1
Counter service restaurant 1.7–1.9
Table service at a hotel, club or restaurant 1.4–1.7
Table service (minimum) 1.0–1.3
Banquet room 0.9–1.0
when the production area or kitchen and dining These five principles apply to the three general types
areas are on different floors or located at some of illumination found in all food service facilities.
distance.
1 Overall general illumination: general lighting
●● Table size: the size of tables and/or booths used
is designed to perform and function for both day
will obviously have an influence on the comfort of
and night time activity. It must achieve a perfect
the patron, as well as on the efficient utilisation
balance. If it doesn’t, ‘dark spots’ or ‘dead spots’
of space. For example, in a cafeteria where
will occur, creating a ‘misreading’ of the space.
patrons are more likely to dine directly off the
Sufficient general lighting/illumination is required
trays, it is important that tables are large enough
so employees and patrons alike can see all the
to accommodate the size and number of trays
materials, furniture, etc., as well as the desired
expected.
traffic patterns.
●● Aisle space: carefully calculate the aisle space
2 Sparkle and excitement: a burst of colour or a
between tables and chairs to include passage
strategically placed light can enhance an otherwise
area, plus the area occupied by the individuals
monotonous lighting plan. Once the general
seated at the tables. The size and configuration
illumination level has been established, these
of the dining room or rooms will have a major
bursts of light can force certain areas to stand
impact on the room atmosphere and, ultimately,
out. This kind of lighting treatment is appropriate
the dining experience. New facilities offer the
for reception areas, windows, cathedral ceilings,
maximum opportunity for control and creativity
partitions, special flooring or changes in flooring.
in the execution of the room layout. Existing
3 Specific focal points: the subtleties of light
buildings and room layouts are more of a
placement can direct the patron’s eyes away from
challenge and often place fundamental limitations
‘trouble spots’ or create an illusion of extra space.
on seating capacity, seating type and room
Special-effect spots, uprights, indirect lights,
configuration. However, a good consultant or
etc., can be used for accenting artwork, a table,
interior designer can often generate very creative
the patrons, a bar, a stairway, plants or the food.
solutions.
The repetition of focal lighting creates a general
Lighting considerations illumination and can create a visual relationship
between specific focal areas as well. The various
Lighting is a very important component of the overall
methods of achieving these qualities include:
dining room design. The amount of light required
– silhouetting – objects having interesting or
is dictated by the area and the activity that occurs
unusual lines or form can be emphasised
there. Any design approach to lighting in a restaurant
– grazing light – is used to emphasise various
or commercial dining facility should encompass five
textural qualities
basic principles, which are:
– modelling – this is designed to give depth and
1 space relationships three-dimensional character to objects.
2 perspective
3 contour
4 special details of intrinsic beauty
5 imaginative and subtle qualities.
Kitchen design
Kitchens must be designed so that they can be easily for example, staff working in dirty areas (areas of
managed. Managers must have easy access to the contamination) should not enter areas of finished
areas under their control and good visibility in the product, or where blast-chilling is taking place.
areas that have to be supervised. Large operations ●● containers/equipment/utensils – equipment
should work on separate work flows, for reasons of should, where possible, be separated out into
efficiency and hygiene: specific process areas
●● refuse – refuse must be kept separated and
●● product – raw materials to finished product should not pass into other areas in order to get to
●● personnel – how people move within the kitchen; its storage destination.
Pastry Cold
Pastry storage
finishing
Dry
store
Larder
Cold
Still store
room
Fish fridge
Cold Larder
Out Potwash
Restaurant Vegetable
store
In
Saucier
Crockery
storage
Hot
Bulk/
Banquet Veg
Glasswash prep
Veg
Dishwash
Hot
Goods in
Banquet
Raw → Storage Dirties

Stores → Prep Cook → Services
Prep → Cook Service
Figure 5.1 Kitchen design
Product flows the premises from the point of delivery to the point
Each section should be subdivided into high-risk of sale or service, with the minimum of obstruction.
and contaminated sections. High-risk food is that The various processes should be separated as far as
which, during processing, is likely to be easily possible, and food intended for sale should not cross
contaminated. paths with waste food or refuse. Staff time is valuable,
Contaminated food is that which is contaminated and a design that reduces wasteful journeys is both
on arrival before processing – for example, unpre- efficient and cost-effective.
pared vegetables, raw meat. The overall sequence of receiving, storing, prepar-
Back-tracking or cross-over of materials and prod- ing, holding, serving and clearing is achieved by:
uct must be avoided. ●● minimum movement
●● minimal back-tracking
Work flow ●● maximum use of space
Food preparation rooms should be planned to allow ●● maximum use of equipment with minimum
a ‘work flow’ whereby food is processed through expenditure of time and effort.
154 Planning, production and service
Work space the dining area can be cleared, cleaned and stored.
Approximately 4.2 m is required per person; too little
2 Still room facilities may also be required.
space can cause staff to work in close proximity to
stoves, steamers, cutting blades, mixers, and so on, Equipment
thus causing accidents. A space of 1.37 m from The type, amount and size of equipment will
equipment is desirable, and aisles must be of ade- depend on the type of menu being provided. Not
quate size to enable staff to move safely. The working only should the equipment be suitably situated but
area must be suitably lit, and ventilated with extractor the working weight is very important to enable
fans to remove heat, fumes and smells. the equipment to be used without excess fatigue.
When a kitchen is being planned, standard symbols
Working sections are used that can be produced on squared paper
The size and style of the menu and the ability of the to provide a scale design. Hand-washing facilities
staff will determine the number of sections and layout and storage of cleaning equipment should not be
that is necessary. A straight-line layout would be suit- omitted.
able for a snack bar, while an island layout would be Kitchen equipment manufacturers and gas and
more suitable for a hotel restaurant. electricity suppliers can provide details of equipment
relating to output and size.
Access to ancillary areas The various preparation processes require differ-
A good receiving area needs to be designed for easy ent areas depending on what food is involved. In a
receipt of supplies with nearby storage facilities suit- vegetable preparation area, water from the sinks and
ably sited for distribution of foods to preparation and dirt from the vegetables are going to accumulate,
production areas. and therefore adequate facilities for drainage should
Hygiene must be considered so that kitchen equip- be provided. Pastry preparation, on the other hand,
ment can be cleaned, and all used equipment from entails mainly dry processes.
Entrance and
goods in
Staff
accommodation Kitchen waste
and offices Empties store
Cold store Dry goods store

Vegetable store
Equipment store Cleaning store
Food preparation
Meat and
fish Vegetables
General Pastry and salad
Waste food
Cooking
Pot wash
Roasting
Frying Baking Steaming Boiling
Grilling
Wash up
Dishing up
Dirties
Service
return
Dining area
Figure 5.2 Work flow

Whatever the processes, there are certain basic Size of kitchen and food preparation areas
rules that can be applied that not only make for easier Size is determined also by purpose and function.
working conditions but help to ensure that food
hygiene regulations are complied with. ●● The operation is based on the menu and the
market it is to serve.
Food preparation areas ●● The design and equipment are based on the
Proper design and layout of the preparation area market the operation is to serve.
can make a major contribution to good food hygiene. ●● Consideration must be given to the management
Staff generally respond to good working conditions policy on buying raw materials. Choice will
by taking more of a pride in themselves, in their work determine kitchen plans on handling raw
and in their working environment. materials.
Adequate work space must be provided for each ●● Prepared food will require different types of
process and every effort must be made to sepa- equipment and labour requirements compared to
rate dirty and clean processes. Vegetable prepara- part-prepared food or raw-state ingredients.
tion and wash-up areas should be separate from ●● Prepared food examples are sous-vide products,
the actual food preparation and service areas. The cook-chill, cook-freeze and prepared sweets.
layout must ensure a continuous work flow in one Part-prepared food examples are peeled and
direction in order that cross-over of foods and any cut vegetables, convenience sauces and soups,
cross-contamination is avoided. The staff should not portioned fish/meat. Raw-state food examples
hamper each other by having to cross each other’s are unprepared vegetables, meat that requires
paths more than is absolutely necessary. butchering, and fish requiring filleting and
Actual worktop areas should be adequate in size portioning.
for the preparation processes necessary, and should Consideration must also be given to the service
be so designed that the food handler has all required policy on using all-plate service or a mixture of plate
equipment and utensils close to hand. and silver service or self-service, and how all this will
Accommodation must be based on operational affect the volume and type of dishwashing required.
need. The layout of the kitchen must focus on the
working and stores area, and the equipment to be Planning and layout of the cooking area
employed. These areas must be designed and based Because ‘raw materials’ enter the cooking section
on the specification of the operation. from the main preparation areas (vegetables, meat
Kitchens can be divided into sections; these must and fish, dry goods), this section will be designed
be based on the process. For example: with a view to continuing the flow movement through
●● dry areas – for storage to the servery. To this end, roasting ovens, for exam-
●● wet areas – for fish preparation, vegetable ple, are best sited close to the meat preparation
preparation, butchery, cold preparation area, and steamers adjacent to the vegetable prepa-
●● hot wet areas – for boiling, poaching, steaming; ration area.
equipment needed will include atmospheric Layout is not, however, just a question of equipment
steamers, bratt pans, pressure steamers, steam siting and selection; much depends on the type of
jacketed boilers, combination oven management policy on use of prepared foods and the
●● hot dry areas – for frying, roasting, grilling; operating cycle. Clearly the cooking section should
equipment needed will include cool zone fryers, contain no through traffic lanes (used by other staff
salamanders, pressure fryers, induction cookers, to travel from one section to another). The layout
bratt pans, halogen cookers, roasting ovens, should be planned so that raw foodstuffs arrive at
microwave, charcoal grills, cook and hold ovens one point, are processed in the cooking section and
●● dirty areas – for refuse, pot wash areas, plate then despatched to the servery. There should be a
wash; equipment needed will include compactors, distinct progression in one direction.
dishwashers, refuse storage units, glass washers, As with other areas, the cooking section should
pot wash machines. be designed with a view to making maximum use of
the available area and providing economy of effort
in use.
Island groupings Hand basins must be sited strategically to encour-

In an island arrangement, equipment is placed back age frequent hand washing in all food preparation
to back in the centre of the cooking area. There will areas. One should be in evidence at each workstation.
need to be sufficient space to allow for this, including
adequate gangways around the equipment and space The kitchen environment
to place other items along the walls. ●● Space: The Office, Shop and Railway Premises
Act 1963 stipulates 11.32 cubic metres (400
Wall siting cubic feet) per person, discounting height in
An alternative arrangement involves siting equipment excess of 3 m.
along walls. This arrangement is possible where travel ●● Humidity: A humid atmosphere creates side
distances are reduced, and normally occurs in smaller effects such as food deterioration, infestation
premises (or sections thereof). risk, condensation on walls and slippery floors.
Anything higher than 60 per cent humidity lowers
L- or U-shaped layouts productivity. Provision for the replacement of
L- or U-shaped arrangements create self-contained extracted air with fresh air is essential.
sections that discourage entry by non-authorised ●● Temperature: No higher than 20–26°C is
staff; they can promote efficient working, with dis- desirable for maximum working efficiency and
tances reduced between work centres. comfort, with 16–18°C in preparation areas.
When planning the layout of the cooking sec- ●● Noise: Conversation should be possible within
tion the need to allow sufficient space for access 4 m.
to equipment such as ovens should be borne in ●● Light: The minimum legal level in preparation
mind. Opening doors creates an arc that cannot be areas is 20 lumens per square foot with up to 38
reduced, and the operator must have sufficient room lumens preferable in all areas.
for comfortable and safe access. It is also likely that
trolleys will be used for loading and unloading ovens, Ventilation systems
or rolling tables drawn into position in front of the There are three basic types of ventilation system.
oven.
1 Extract: this system only removes air, thereby
The choice of layout creating a negative pressure in the space.
Selection of equipment will be made after detailed Outside air will come into the space wherever it
consideration of the functions that will be carried out can, usually through doorways, window areas or
within the cooking area of the kitchen. The amount specially prepared openings. It can be used to
of equipment required will depend upon the com- avoid contaminants spreading to other areas, as
plexity of the menus offered, the quantity of meals a negative pressure is created within the space in
served, and the policy of use of materials – from the which the system operates
traditional kitchen organisation using only fresh veg- 2 Inlet: this system is concerned only with the
etables and totally unprepared items, to the use of supply of outside air. In this case, the space
prepared foods, chilled items and frozen foods, where is under positive pressure, with the air leaving
the kitchen consists of a regeneration unit only. through doorways or windows. This system is
Given, however, that a certain amount of equipment used mostly in clean spaces, thus preventing
is required, the planner has the choice of a number of contaminants coming in from other areas. It
possible layouts, within the constraints of the building is not a suitable system for a catering kitchen
shape and size, and the location of services. The most but may prove useful in areas such as storage
common are the island groupings, wall siting and the rooms and larders, where it is desirable to
use of an L- or U-shaped layout and variations upon prevent contaminants from reaching the foods
these basic themes. stored.
3 Combined: this balances the flow of air into and
Siting of equipment out of the space.
The kitchen operation must work as a system. It is All these systems use mechanical means of moving
advisable to site items of equipment used for specific the air – that is, by electrically driven fans. In the
functions together. This will help increase efficiency first two cases, the replacement and displacement
and avoid shortcuts. air, respectively, is virtually impossible to control, and
there will always be draughts, particularly when the Table 5.2 Air volumes for the different types of equipment
outside air is cold.
The ideal system, although more expensive, is the Cubic metres
combined system, where the extract and supply of air Equipment per second
can be controlled. It is especially suitable for kitchen Ranges (unit type) approx. 1 m2 0.3
ventilation, where large quantities of air are required Pastry ovens 0.3
to be removed from relatively small spaces. Fish friers 0.45
The best and most effective way of removing con- Grills 0.25–0.3
taminants is at source. This is normally by means of Boiling pans (90–135 litres) 0.3
a purpose-made hood over the equipment that is
Steamers 0.3
producing heat, grease, smells, and so on. The follow-
Sinks (sterilising) 0.25
ing conditions relating to the hood must be satisfied:
Bains-marie 0.2
●● the hood should be made of non-corrosive Stills boilers 0.15–0.25
material and so designed that it can be cleaned
easily
●● it must have a condensate channel around its possible) be constructed without sharp bends or long
bottom edge horizontal runs.
●● it must overhang the equipment underneath by Special filters should be installed within the extract
230–300 mm hood to collect contaminants, otherwise grease could
●● it must allow a sufficient velocity of air to pass build up and become a fire hazard.
over the edge of the hood.
Self-cleaning kitchen extracts
Ventilation requirements for kitchens
A system of self-cleaning ventilation equipment is
There are three basic ways of determining these available that can be adapted to operate either as a
requirements. full extract system over kitchen equipment or be spe-
1 Air changes: this method involves specifying cially designed as part of individual items of equip-
an air change rate throughout the area. This ment such as grills, deep-fat fryers and ovens.
is usually between 20 and 35 air changes per The cleaning cycle is normally operated each day
hour, but this method is only an approximation and requires that a supply of hot water is available to
and, should there be more than one hood, then it the ventilator, together with a facility for dosing with a
would be difficult to apportion. suitable detergent. The extract fan must be switched
2 Air velocity: this system involves knowing off, an operation that, in itself, can be adapted to
the size of the hood over the equipment and begin the cleaning operation.
allowing a certain velocity of air over the face Hot water, together with detergent, is then released
area. Although this is a better method than the into the ventilator for a predetermined period, con-
previous one, it is very difficult to obtain the trolled by an automatic timer. The deposits of grease
correct velocity and reliance on experience is and lint are washed out of the ventilator into drainage
necessary. Velocity is usually between 0.3 and gutters, which need to be connected to the drainage
0.8 mm per second. system.
3 Air volume: the most useful method is to allow a This timer shuts off the water supply at the end
specific volume of air for each particular piece of of the cleaning cycle and the ventilator is ready for
equipment. Table 5.2 shows the air volumes that reuse.
can be used for the different types of equipment. The ventilators can be fitted with automatic fire
protection, which will result in baffles closing over the
For further information, consult HCIMA Technical air inlet, shutting off the fan and operating the water
Brief No. 30: Kitchen Ventilation. supply to smother any fire.
It is important to note that the system will not nec- Consultants

essarily function properly just by having the correct There are a number of specialist consultants involved
volume of air. Close attention must be paid to the in kitchen design. Consultants are often used by com-
design and installation of the hood, as indicated panies to provide independent advice and specialist
above, and, in addition, the trunking must (as far as knowledge. Their expertise should cover:
●● equipment ●● Theme restaurants: will continue to improve and

●● mechanical and electrical services multiply.
●● food service systems and methods ●● Hospitals: greater emphasis on bought-in freezer
●● drainage and chilled foods; steam cuisine; reduced amount
●● architectural elements of on-site preparation and cooking; satellite
●● ventilation/air conditioning kitchens; cook-chill; cook-freeze.
●● statutory legislation (Food Act, Health and Safety ●● Industrial: more zero-subsidy staff restaurants,
Act, fire regulations) increased self-service for all items; introduction of
●● energy conservation cashless systems will enable multi-tenant office
●● recycling buildings to offer varying subsidy levels.
●● green issues/legislation (waste management) ●● Prisons, institutions: little if any change; may
●● refrigeration. follow hospitals by buying in more pre-prepared
food; may receive foods from multi-outlet central
Consultants should provide the client with unbiased
production units, tied in with schools, meals on
opinions and expertise not available in their company.
wheels provision, etc.
Their aim should be to raise the standards of provi-
●● University/colleges: greater move towards
sion and equipment installation, while providing an
providing food courts; more snack bars and
efficient and effective food production operation that
coffee shops.
also takes into account staff welfare.
Chefs and managers are often asked to assist in
Maintenance the design of food service systems. In these circum-
Planning and equipping a kitchen are an expensive stances there are various issues that need to be
investment. Therefore, to avoid any action by the taken into account. If possible, all designs should be
Environmental Health Officer, efficient, regular clean- market-led in the first place.
ing and maintenance are essential. (The kitchens at ●● Market expectations: type of customer demand
the Dorchester hotel, Park Lane, London, are swept (including price), type of menu, type of meal, type
during the day, given soap/detergent and water of establishment, ‘product life’ and possibility of
treatment after service, and any spillages cleaned up ‘product’ changes, customer participation.
immediately. At night, contractors clean the ceilings, ●● Operational needs: amount of space available,
floors and walls.) expected throughput/seat turnover, type of
operation (e.g. call order, traditional).
Kitchen design: industry trends ●● Amount of basic preparation: amount of
In most cases, throughout the industry, companies regeneration, storage needs, flows of materials,
are looking to reduce labour costs while maintaining people and equipment, availability of supplies,
or enhancing the meal experience for the customer. frequency of delivery, need for storage, availability
Some trends in various situations are as follows. of services – gas, electricity, water, waste
disposal, energy costs, ventilation, extraction and
●● Hotels: greater use of buffet and self-assisted
induction systems.
service units.
●● Type and quantity of labour to be employed: e.g.
●● Banqueting: move towards plated service, less
unspecialised staff using pre-prepared materials,
traditional silver service.
traditional ‘partie’ system using basic ingredients,
●● Fast food: new concepts coming onto the market,
room for future expansion.
more specialised chicken and seafood courts,
●● Finance: objective (e.g. to make a profit, to
more choices in ethnic food.
provide a service), cost of space (£s per
●● Roadside provision: increase in number of
square metre), amount and type of finance (e.g.
operations, partnerships with oil companies, basic
purchase, leasing, hire purchase), whether to use
grill menus now enhanced via factory-produced à
second-hand equipment, depreciation policy, life
la carte items.
of investment.
●● Food courts: development has slowed down;
minor changes all the time; most food courts offer
an ‘all day’ menu.
Towards the greener kitchen
●● Restaurants/hotels: less emphasis on luxury-end, Restaurants use about two to five times more energy
five-star experience. per square foot than other commercial buildings.
Energy costs continue to rise. Investing in energy mounted in the cabinet interior rather than the
efficiency is therefore the best way to protect the wall, giving faster production and recovery.
business from rising energy costs. ●● Waste management: many local authorities
and water companies record the use of water
Reducing energy costs disposal units as this passes the problem down
Sourced from Caterer and Hotelkeeper (October the line.
2010), listed below are some ideas of ways to reduce ●● Mechline GohBio: this is a high-speed, high-
energy costs. volume food waste decomposition system, which
introduces natural enzymes into a decomposition
●● The stores area: use PIR (passive infrared) low-
machine where organic waste is reduced to grey
energy lighting. This reduces the risk of lighting
water that is safe for drains.
being left on when the areas are not in use.
●● Bio-enzymatic fluid systems: these break down
●● Hand wash facilities: use sensor taps.
fats, oils, and grease and starch, which can block
●● Refrigeration: use drawer units in refrigerators
kitchen drains. There are cost-effective solutions
– these can reduce the work of compressors
available to meet legislative demands.
and glass doors in upright cabinets as doors
are opened less frequently. All refrigeration Kitchen and restaurant areas
equipment should be checked against the Energy
The calculation of the amount of space required is
Technology List (ETL), which lists models that are
very complex as it is dependent on a mixture of influ-
30 per cent more energy efficient than standard
encing factors, including:
industry models.
●● Preparation sinks: use pressure-reducing ●● volume of meals served, average time to consume
valves in taps, with inbuilt flow-limiting devices or a meal/product, seat turnover
aerators to reduce the volume of water used. ●● time over which the meals will be served
●● Cooking: some ranges use pan sensors, which ●● size of menu
provide energy efficiencies, although energy is ●● complexity of individual menu items
lost around the edge of the pan. ●● style of service (e.g. counter/plate/guéridon)
●● Fryers: these burners only work when the range ●● mix of fresh and convenience food production
is being used. When the pan is removed from the ●● number and type and size of dining facilities
cooking surface the flame is extinguished, leaving served by the kitchen (e.g. restaurants, floors)
just the pilot light on, so no energy is used. ●● type of cooking methods to be used
●● Induction hobs: these also provide energy- ●● structural features of the building
saving benefits. Induction hobs are 50 per cent ●● cost of floor space in the planned facility.
more efficient than halogen hobs, and 86 per
cent more efficient than gas hobs. Kitchen equipment trends
●● Microwaves: a combination of convection heat, ●● Refrigeration: more concentration on providing
impingement pressure and electromagnetic energy CFC-free equipment.
allows typical cook times from 15–90 seconds. A ●● Environmental: with an environmentally conscious
built-in catalytic converter eliminates the need for society, energy conservation will feature higher
a ventilation hood so the oven can operate in any in the development agenda; this will include
environment. This results in energy saving. heat recovery systems, recirculated air systems,
●● Combinations: combinations of steam and improved working conditions and lighting
convection can reduce energy costs by 50 per systems.
cent. A triple-glazed viewing door will save up ●● Cooking: more use of induction units, combination
to 40 per cent of energy compared to a single- ovens, microwave and tunnel ovens.
glazed door. ●● Servery counters: more decorative units being
●● Service pass: use drawer warmers that have used.
separate compartments, thermostat and humidity ●● Dishwasher/potwash: greater economy of
control to ensure food is held at the correct water, more mechanised and automated use of
temperature and does not deteriorate. Each combination machines.
drawer is in its own separate compartment so ●● Ventilation: moves towards integrated wash
when the drawer is open the temperature in the systems, recirculated air systems, integral air
other drawers is not affected, and elements are supply, integral fire suppression.
The general trend will be towards self-diagnostic use of replacement components, there is less empha-
equipment and automated service call-out. With the sis on repairs.
Linking equipment to computers

Head chefs and food and beverage managers will extra hardware and software to permit continuous
have PCs in their offices for jobs like recipe devel- monitoring of the main equipment functions. Some
opment, accounts, inventory and email. Electronic appliances can also be specified with a two-way
point of sale (EPOS) terminals in restaurant bars interactive link, enabling programs subject to frequent
can interface directly with back-of-house computers. change (such as recipes) to be downloaded to the
Some EPOS systems with kitchen monitor hook-ups appliance from a computer directly via cable or wire-
can optimise meal preparation by telling chefs when less hook-up, or via modem connection to the Internet.
to start cooking particular components, thus allowing The temperature monitoring of all refrigerators and
all the items that make up an order to be completed freezers within an establishment can be linked to
at exactly the same time. a computer system. Several temperature readings
A growing range of kitchen equipment, from cook- are sent to the computer each day and it can also
ers and refrigerated storage to large ware-washing record temperature highs and lows, and any unusual
systems, come with on-board computer control, and trends. Temperatures outside the specified limits will
several products can additionally be specified with be highlighted.
Water management
Legislation ●● overflows from storage and WC cisterns dripping

Each country has its own laws governing the use of ●● water leaks not repaired.
water. In the UK these include the Water Industry Act There is evidence to show that the undertaking of a
1991, the Health & Safety at Work Act 1974 and the water-management audit can save money. Such an
Water Supply Bylaw 1989. audit examines and quantifies possible savings.
The purpose of water law is to:
●● discourage undue consumption of water Immediate practical action
●● prevent contamination of the water supply. ●● Water metering.
●● Tap flow regulator – flow control.
Substantial savings in water can be made through the ●● Urinals using less water.
renewal and replacement of wasteful, older water- ●● Shut-off devices and self-closing taps.
using equipment. Self-closing taps, for example, ●● Automatic or programmed mains shut-off device
reduce water consumption by as much as 55 per cent. when buildings are not in use.
In many countries it is an offence for the owners or ●● Low-flow shower heads.
occupiers of buildings to intentionally or negligently
allow any ‘fitting to waste’, or to unduly consume To find out more about water management,
water. Examples: contact Water Training International, Burn Hall,
●● taps constantly dripping or left running Tollerton Road, Huby, Yorkshire YO6 1JB.
Equipment design
The Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) Regulations condition and repair as to minimise risk of contami-
1995, and subsequent regulations, 2006, require nation, and to enable thorough cleaning and, where
all articles, fittings and equipment with which food necessary, disinfection. Equipment must also be
comes into contact to be kept clean and to be con- installed in such a way that the surrounding area is
structed of such materials and maintained in such able to be cleaned.
KITCHEN PLANNING, EQUIPMENT, SERVICES AND ENERGY CONSERVATION 161
Recommendations for equipment Appearances can be deceptive. Two researchers at

The following equipment is preferable: the University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA, set out
ways of decontaminating wooden kitchen surfaces
●● tubular machinery frames and ended up finding that such surfaces are pretty
●● stainless steel table legs good at decontaminating themselves. When working
●● drain cocks and holes instead of pockets and with wood from nine different species of tree and four
crevices that could trap liquid sorts of plastic, the results were always the same.
●● dials fitted to machines having adequate The researchers spread salmonella, listeria and E.
clearance to facilitate cleaning. coli bacteria over the various samples and left them
for three minutes. The level of bacteria on the plas-
Preparation surfaces tic remained the same, while the level on the wood
The choice of surfaces on which food is to be plummeted, often by as much as 99.9 per cent. Left
prepared is vitally important. Failure to ensure a overnight at room temperature the bacteria on the
suitable material may provide a dangerous breeding plastic actually multiplied, while the wooden surfaces
ground for bacteria. Stainless steel tables are best as cleaned themselves so thoroughly that the research-
they do not rust, and their welded seams eliminate ers could not record anything from them. This is
unwanted cracks and open joints. Sealed tubular legs because of the porous structure of wood – previously
are preferable to angular ones because, again, they thought to be a disadvantage in soaking up fluid with
eliminate the corners in which dirt collects. Tubular bacteria in it. Once inside, however, the bacteria stick
legs have often been found to provide a harbourage to the wood’s fibres and are ‘strangled’ by one of the
for pests. many noxious anti-microbial chemicals with which
Preparation surfaces should be jointless, durable, living trees protect themselves.
impervious, of the correct height and firm-based. They
must withstand repeated cleaning at the required Colour coding
temperature without premature deterioration through To avoid cross-contamination, it is important that the
pitting and corrosion. same equipment is not to be used for handling raw
and high-risk products without being disinfected. To
Choosing cutting boards prevent the inadvertent use of equipment for both
Bear in mind the following aspects when choosing raw and high-risk foods, it is recommended that,
cutting boards: where possible, different colours and shapes are
used to identify products or raw materials used.
●● water absorbency – soft woods draw fluids into
them and, with the fluids, bacteria are also drawn Fixing and siting of equipment
in Where practicable, equipment should be mobile to
●● wooden cutting boards made of hard wood, if facilitate its removal for cleaning – that is, castor
cleaned and sterilised, are perfectly acceptable in mounted and with brakes on all the wheels.
catering premises
●● resistance to stains, cleaning chemicals, heat and A guide for stationary equipment
food acids To allow for the cleaning of wall and floor surfaces,
●● toxicity – the cutting board must not give off toxic stationary equipment must be positioned:
substances
●● durability – the cutting board must withstand ●● 500 mm from the walls
wear and tear ●● with 250 mm clearance between the floor and
●● cutting boards must not split or warp. underside of the equipment.
Kitchen organisation
The purpose of efficient kitchen organisation is to Kitchen design and work flow
produce the required quantity of food, of the best The kitchen should be designed not only to be
possible standard for the required number of people suitable for the proposed menu(s), but also to be
– on time, and by the most effective use of staff, flexible enough to cope with any menu changes
equipment and materials. that may occur. (See also the section on kitchen
design, pages 152–160.) To get ideas on effective ●● ask staff for comments on the suitability, or
kitchen design: otherwise, of layout, and its practicality
●● seek professional advice from a number of
●● visit existing kitchens with a critical eye
manufacturers.
Working methods
Time and motion studies are essential for all tasks. in proper sequence without back-tracking or criss-
Working in a hot environment – possibly against the crossing. Work tables, sinks and stores, and refrigera-
clock, possibly leading to stress – it is necessary tors should be within easy reach in order to eliminate
to conserve energy. A skilled craftsperson is one unnecessary walking. Equipment should be easily
who completes the task in the minimum time, to the available during all working times.
required standard and with the minimum effort. The storage, handling of foods, tools and utensils,
and the movement of food in various stages of pro-
Simplifying an operation duction needs careful study. Many people carry out
The objective is to make work easier; this can be practical work by instinct and often evolve the most
achieved by simplifying the operation, eliminating efficient method instinctively. Nevertheless careful
unnecessary movements, combining two operations observation of numerous practical workers will show
into one or improving old methods. For example, if a great deal of time and effort wasted through bad
you are peeling potatoes and you allow the peel- working methods. It is necessary to arrange work so
ings to drop into the container in the first place, the that the shortest possible distance exists between
action of moving the peelings into the bowl and the storage and the place where the items are to be
need to clean the table could have been eliminated. used.
This operation is simplified if, instead of a blunt When arranging storage see that the most fre-
knife, a good hand potato peeler is used, because quently used items are nearest to hand. Place heavy
it is simple and safe to use, requires less effort, items where the minimum of body strain is required
can be used more quickly and requires less skill to to move them. Keep all items in established places
produce a better result. If the quantity of potatoes is so that time is not lost in hunting and searching for
sufficient, then a mechanical peeler could be used, them. Adjustable shelving can be a help in organis-
but it would be necessary to remember that the ing different storage requirements. Only after all the
electricity used would add to the cost and that the pre-planning of the job is complete comes the actual
time needed to clean a mechanical aid may lessen work itself.
its work-saving value. If it takes 25 minutes to clean Careful preparation of foods and equipment (a
a potato-mashing machine that has been used to good mise-en-place) is essential if a busy service
mash potatoes for 500 meals, it could be time well is to follow and is to be operated efficiently so that
spent in view of the time and energy saved mashing orders move out methodically without confusion.
the potatoes. It may not be considered worthwhile The work to be done must be planned carefully so
using the machine to mash potatoes for 20 meals, that the items requiring long preparation or cooking
however. Factors such as this need to be taken into are started first. Where fast production is required
account. lining up will assist efficiency. Work carried out hap-
hazardly, without plan or organisation, obviously takes
Equipment and layout longer to do than work done according to plan. There
is a sequence to work that leads to high productivity
Properly planned layouts with adequate equipment,
and an efficient worker should learn this sequence
tools and materials to do the job are essential if prac-
quickly.
tical work is to be carried out efficiently. If equipment
is correctly placed then work will proceed smoothly
Kitchen supervision/management
The organisation under different industries varies Those under supervision should expect from the
according to their specific requirements, and the supervisor:
names given to people doing similar jobs may also
●● consideration ● respect
vary. Some companies or organisations will require
●● understanding ● consistency.
operatives, technicians and technologists; others
need craftspeople, supervisors and managers. The In return the supervisor can expect:
supervisory function of the technician, chef de partie
●● loyalty ● cooperation.
or supervisor may be similar.
●● respect
The hospitality and catering industry is made up of
people with craft skills. The craftsperson is involved The good supervisor is able to obtain the best from
with food production, the chef de partie may be the those for whom he or she has responsibility, and can
supervisor, supervising a section or sections of the also completely satisfy the management of the estab-
food production system. The head chef will have both lishment that a good job is being done.
managerial and supervisory skills and he/she will The job of the supervisor is essentially to be an
determine kitchen policies. overseer. In the catering industry the name given to
Supervisors are involved with the successful deploy- the supervisor may vary: sous-chef, chef de partie,
ment of money, material and people. The primary role kitchen supervisor or section chef. In hospital cater-
of the supervisor is to ensure that a group of people ing the name would be sous-chef, chef de partie or
work together to achieve the goals set by the busi- kitchen supervisor. The kitchen supervisor will be
ness. Managing physical and human resources to responsible to the catering manager, while in hotels
achieve customer service goals requires planning, and restaurants a chef de partie will be responsible
organising, staffing, directing and controlling. to the head chef. The exact details of the job will
Supervisors and head chefs need to motivate vary according to the different areas of the industry
people, to persuade them to act in certain ways. In the and the size of the various units, but generally the
kitchen/restaurant, as in any other department, staff supervisory role involves three functions: technical,
must first be motivated to follow procedures. This can administrative and social.
be done in a positive way by offering rewards, or in a
negative way with catering staff who do not comply Technical function
with requirements. Both methods can be effective, Culinary skills and the ability to use kitchen equip-
and can be used by supervisors to achieve their goals. ment are essential for the kitchen supervisor. Most
One of the most effective ways is for a supervisor kitchen supervisors will have worked their way up
to build a team and offer incentives for good per- through the section or sections before reaching
formance. However, staff can become indifferent to supervisory responsibility. The supervisor needs to be
repeated schemes such as ‘employee of the month’. A able ‘to do’ as well as knowing ‘what to do’ and ‘how
good supervisor will attempt to introduce novelty and to do it’. It is also necessary to be able to do it well and
fun into the reward system. to be able to impart some of these skills to others.
The supervisory function Administrative function

Certain leadership qualities are needed to enable The supervisor or chef de partie will, in many kitchens,
the supervisor to carry out his or her role effectively. be involved with the menu planning, sometimes with
These qualities include the ability to: complete responsibility for the whole menu but more
usually for part of the menu, as happens with the
●● communicate ● mediate larder chef and pastry chef. This includes the order-
●● initiate ● motivate ing of foodstuffs (which is an important aspect of the
●● make decisions ● inspire supervisor’s job in a catering establishment) and, of
●● coordinate ● organise. course, accounting for and recording materials used.
The administrative function includes the allocation of
duties and, in all instances, basic work-study knowl-
edge is needed to enable the supervisor to operate
effectively. The supervisor’s job may also include the Planning

writing of reports, particularly in situations where it From the forecasting comes the planning: how many
is necessary to make comparisons and when new meals to prepare; how much to have in stock (should
developments are being tried. the forecast not have been completely accurate); how
Social function many staff will be needed; which staff and when. Are
the staff capable of what is required of them? If not,
The role of the supervisor is perhaps most clearly the supervisor needs to plan some training. This, of
seen in staff relationships because the supervisor course, is particularly important if new equipment is
has to motivate the staff under his or her responsibil- installed. Imagine an expensive item, such as a new
ity. ‘To motivate’ could be described as the initiation type of oven, ruined on the day it is installed because
of movement and action, and having got the staff the staff have not been instructed in its proper use;
moving the supervisor needs to exert control. Then, or, more likely, equipment lying idle because the
in order to achieve the required result, the staff need supervisor may not like it, may consider it is sited
to be organised. wrongly, does not train staff to use it, or for some
Thus the supervisor has a threefold function similar reason.
regarding the handling of staff – namely to organise, As can be seen from these examples it is neces-
to motivate and to control. This is the essence of staff sary for forecasting to precede planning, and from
supervision. planning we now move to organising.
Elements of supervision Organising

The accepted areas of supervision include: In the catering industry organisational skills are
applied to food, to equipment and to staff. Organising
●● forecasting and planning l coordinating
in this context consists of ensuring that what is
●● organising l controlling.
wanted is where it is wanted, when it is wanted, in the
●● commanding
right amount and at the right time.
Each of these will be considered within the sphere Such organisation involves the supervisor in the
of catering. production of duty rotas, maybe training programmes
and also cleaning schedules. Consider the supervi-
Forecasting sor’s part in organising an outdoor function where
Before making plans it is necessary to look ahead, to a wedding reception is to be held in a church hall:
foresee possible and probable outcomes, and to allow 250 guests require a hot meal to be served at 2 pm
for them. For example, if the chef de partie knows that and in the evening a dance will be held for the guests,
the following day is her/his assistant’s day off, s/he during which a buffet will be provided at 9 pm. The
looks ahead and plans accordingly; when the catering supervisor would need to organise staff to be avail-
supervisor in the hospital knows that there is a flu epi- able when required, to have their own meals and
demic and two cooks are feeling below par, he or she maybe to see that they have got their transport home.
plans for their possible absence; if there is a spell of Calor gas stoves may be needed, and the supervi-
fine, hot weather and the cook in charge of the larder sor would have to arrange for these to be serviced
foresees a continued demand for cold foods, or when and for the equipment used to be cleaned after the
an end to the hot spell is anticipated, then the plans function. The food would need to be ordered so that
are modified. For the supervisor, forecasting is the good it arrived in time to be prepared. If decorated hams
use of judgement acquired from previous knowledge were to be used on the buffet then they would need
and experience. For example, because many people to be ordered in time so that they could be prepared,
are on holiday in August fewer meals will be needed cooked and decorated over the required period of
in the office restaurant; no students are in residence at time. If the staff have never carved hams before,
the college hostel, but a conference is being held and instruction would need to be given; this entails organ-
60 meals are required. A motor show, bank holidays, ising training. Needless to say, the correct quantities
the effects of a rail strike or a wet day, as well as less of food, equipment and cleaning materials would also
predictable situations, such as the number of custom- have to be at the right place when wanted; and if all
ers anticipated on the opening day of a new restaurant, the details of the situation were not organised prop-
all need to be anticipated and planned for. erly problems could occur.
Commanding by effective control, which is the function of the

The supervisor has to give instructions to staff on supervisor.
how, what, when and where; this means that orders
have to be given and a certain degree of order and Responsibilities of the supervisor
discipline maintained. The successful supervisor is Delegation
able to do this effectively, having made certain deci- It is recognised that delegation is the root of suc-
sions and, usually, having established the basic pri- cessful supervision; in other words, by giving a certain
orities. Explanations of why a food is prepared in a amount of responsibility to others, the supervisor can
certain manner, why this amount of time is needed to be more effective.
dress up food, say for a buffet, why this decision is The supervisor needs to be able to judge the person
taken and not that decision, and how these explana- capable of responsibility before any delegation can
tions and orders are given, determine the effective- take place. But then, having recognised the abilities of
ness of the supervisor. an employee, the supervisor who wants to develop the
potential of those under his or her control must allow
Coordinating the person entrusted with the job to get on with it.
Coordinating is the skill required to get staff to
cooperate and work together. To achieve this, the Motivation
supervisor has to be interested in the staff, to deal Since not everyone is capable of, or wants, responsibil-
with their queries, to listen to their problems and to ity, the supervisor still needs to motivate those who are
be helpful. Particular attention should be paid to new less ambitious. Most people are prepared to work so
staff, easing them into the work situation so that they as to improve their standard of living, but there is also
quickly become part of the team or partie. The other another very important motivating factor: most people
area of coordination for which the supervisor has par- wish to get satisfaction from the work they do. The
ticular responsibility is in maintaining good relations supervisor must be aware of why people work and how
with other departments. However, the important per- different people achieve job satisfaction, and then be
sons to consider will always be the customers – for able to act upon this knowledge. A supervisor should
example, the patients, the schoolchildren – who are have been on a training course to attempt to under-
to receive the service, and good service is dependent stand what motivates people as there are a number of
on cooperation between waiters and cooks, nurses theories that s/he can use to stimulate ideas.
and catering staff, stores staff, caretakers, teachers,
suppliers, and so on. The supervisor has a crucial role Symptoms of poor motivation
to play here. There are many symptoms of poor motivation. In
general terms it reveals itself as a lack of interest in
Controlling getting the job done correctly and within the required
This includes the controlling of people and products, time. Although they may be indicators of poor motiva-
preventing pilfering as well as improving performance; tion, lack of efficiency and effectiveness could also be
checking that staff arrive on time, do not leave before a result of the staff overworking, personal problems,
time and do not misuse time in between; checking poor work design, repetitive work, lack of discipline,
that the product, in this case the food, is of the right interpersonal conflict, lack of training or failure of
standard – that is to say, of the correct quantity and the organisation to value its staff. An employee may
quality; checking to prevent waste, and also to ensure be highly motivated but may find the work physically
that staff operate the portion control system correctly. impossible.
This aspect of the supervisor’s function involves
inspecting and requires tact; controlling may include Welfare
the inspecting of the bin to observe the amount of People always work best in good working condi-
waste, checking the disappearance of a quantity of tions and these include freedom from fear: fear of
food, supervising the cooking of the meat so that becoming unemployed, fear of failure at work, fear
shrinkage is minimised and reprimanding an unpunc- of discrimination. Job security and incentives, such
tual member of the team. as opportunities for promotion, bonuses, profit shar-
The standards of any catering establishment are ing and time for further study, encourage a good
dependent on the supervisor doing his or her job attitude to work; but as well as these tangible factors
efficiently, and standards are set and maintained people need to feel wanted and that what they do is
important. The supervisor is in an excellent position Technical skills

to ensure that this happens. Personal worries affect These are the skills chefs, restaurant managers and
individuals’ performance and can have a very strong the like need in order to do the job. The supervisor must
influence on how well or how badly they work. The be skilled in the area they are supervising because they
physical environment will naturally cause problems will be required in most cases to train other staff under
if, for example, the atmosphere is humid, the working them. Supervisors who do not have the required skills
situation ill-lit, too hot or too noisy, and there is con- will find it hard to gain credibility with the staff.
stant rush and tear, and frequent major problems to
be overcome. In these circumstances staff are more People skills
liable to be quick-tempered, angry and aggressive, Supervisors are team leaders, therefore they must be
and the supervisor needs to consider how these fac- sensitive to the needs of others. They must be able to
tors might be dealt with. communicate effectively and be able to build a team
Understanding to achieve the agreed goals – listening, questioning,
communicating clearly, handling conflicts, and provid-
The supervisor needs to try to understand both men ing support and praise when praise is due.
and women (and to deal with both sexes fairly), to
anticipate problems and build up a team spirit so as to Conceptual skills
overcome the problems. This entails always being fair A supervisor must be able to think things through,
when dealing with staff, and giving them encourage- especially when planning or analysing why they are
ment. It also means that work needs to be allocated not going as expected. A supervisor must be able to
according to each individual’s ability; everyone should solve problems and make decisions. For supervisors,
be kept fully occupied and the working environment conceptual skills are necessary for reasonably short-
must be conducive to producing their best work. term planning. Head chefs and hospitality manag-
Communication ers require conceptual skills for long-term strategic
planning.
Finally, and most important of all, the supervisor must Henry Mintzberg (1975) suggested that the super-
be able to communicate effectively. To convey orders, visor has three broad roles:
instructions, information and manual skills requires
the supervisor to possess the right attitude to those 1 interpersonal – people skills
with whom he or she needs to communicate. The abil- 2 informational – people and technical skills
ity to convey orders and instructions in a manner that 3 decision making – conceptual skills.
is acceptable to the one receiving them is dependent
not only on the words but on the emphasis given to Supervisors and ethical issues
the words, the tone of voice, the time selected to give A supervisor must be consistent when handling staff,
them and on who is present when they are given. This avoiding favouritism and perceived inequity. Such
is a skill that supervisors need to develop. Instructions inequity can rise from the amount of training or per-
and orders can be given with authority without being formance counselling given, from the promotion of
authoritative. certain employees, and from the way in which shifts
Thus the supervisor needs technical knowledge and are allocated. Supervisors should engage in con-
the ability to direct staff and to carry responsibility versation with all staff, not just a selected few, and
so as to achieve the specified targets and standards should not single out some staff for special attention.
required by the organisation; this he or she is able to Ethical treatment of staff is fair treatment of staff.
do by organising, coordinating, controlling and plan- A good supervisor will gain respect if they are ethical.
ning but, most of all, through effective communication. Confidentiality is an important issue for the super-
visor. Employees or customers may wish to take the
Skills for effective supervision supervisor into their confidence, and the supervisor
Robert L. Katz (1974) has suggested that there must not betray this.
are three types of skills required for effective
management: Micromanagement
1 technical In business management, micromanagement is a
2 people management style where a manager closely observes
3 conceptual. or controls the work of his/her employees, generally
used as a pejorative term. In contrast to giving gen- visor must therefore ensure adequate staffing at the
eral instructions on smaller tasks while supervising lowest possible cost.
larger concerns, the micromanager monitors and An important aspect is to be able to carefully ana-
assesses every step. lyse projected business in order to adopt the best
Micromanagement may arise from internal sources, staffing mix.
such as concern for details, increased performance Job design and the allocation of duties also have
pressure, or insecurity. It can also be seen as a tactic to be considered; where jobs are simple and require
used by managers to eliminate unwanted employees, little training, employment of casual labour can be
either by creating standards they cannot meet, leading justified. For more skilled staff, full-time employment
to termination of employment, or by creating a stress- has to be considered with investment in staff devel-
ful workplace and thus causing the employee to leave. opment and training.
Regardless of the motivation, the effect may be Often the supervisor has to write job descriptions.
to demotivate employees, create resentment and These documents are used for a number of purposes,
damage trust. which include:
Micromanagement can also be distinguished from
●● deciding on the knowledge, experience and skills
management by worker-to-boss ratio. At any time
required to carry out the duties specified
when there is one worker being given orders by
●● allowing new staff to understand the
one boss, both people are rendered useless. When
requirements of their jobs
a boss can do a worker’s job with more efficiency
●● allowing new staff to develop accurate
than giving the orders to do the same job, this is
expectation of the jobs
micromanagement.
●● identifying training needs
Micromanagement is a counterproductive approach
●● assisting in the development of recruitment
to dealing with the workforce and can be costly in
strategies.
many areas of the business.
Job descriptions allow supervisors and managers to
Identifying recruitment needs monitor performance, and to manage discipline when
A supervisor must be able to identify what staff are performance is below standard. Job descriptions
required and where they are required in order to assist in allowing everyone to focus on the precise
cope with the level of business. At the same time requirements of the job and ensure that everyone is
labour costs must be kept to a minimum. The super- clear about their expectations.
An example of a job description: ●● Chair of the Kitchen Health and Safety

Senior Sous Chef Committee.
●● Develop new menus and concepts together
Reporting to Head Chef with senior management.
The Senior Sous Chef position reports to the Head ●● Schedule and roster all kitchen staff.
Chef and is responsible for the day-to-day kitchen ●● Maintain accurate records of staff absences.
operation, overseeing the stores, preparation and ●● Maintain accurate kitchen records.
production areas. The position involves supervis- ●● Responsible for the overall cleanliness of the
ing and managing the kitchen staff, with direct kitchen operation.
responsibility for rostering and scheduling produc- ●● Assist in the production of management
tion. In the absence of the Head Chef, the Senior reports.
Sous Chef will be required to take on the duties of ●● Establish an effective and efficient team.
the Head Chef and to attend Senior Management ●● Assist with the overall establishment and
meetings in his/her absence. monitoring of budgets.
Duties Conditions
●● Monitor and check stores operation. ●● Grade 3 management spine.

●● Train new and existing staff in health and safety, ●● Private health insurance.
HACCP (hazard analysis critical and control ●● 5-day week.
point), etc. ●● 28 days’ holiday.
●● Profit-share scheme after one year’s service. (iii) HACCP

(iv) Risk assessment
Personal specification: Senior Sous Chef
(v) Production systems
●● Qualifications (vi) Current technology
(i) Level 3 or 4 Professional Cookery
●● Other attributes
●● Experience (i) Honesty
(i) Five years’ experience in 4- and 5-star (ii) Reliability
hotel kitchens; restaurant and banqueting (iii) Attention to detail
experience (iv) Initiative
(v) Accuracy
●● Skills
(i) Proficiency in culinary arts ●● Essential
(ii) Microsoft Excel, Access, Word (i) Basic computer skills
(iii) Operation of inventory control software (ii) High degree of culinary skills
(iv) Written and oral communication skills (iii) Good communication skills
(v) Team-building skills (iv) Supervisory and leadership skills
●● Knowledge ●● Desirable
(i) Current legislation on health and safety (i) Knowledge of employment law
(ii) Food hygiene (ii) Public relations profile
Induction programmes ●● Equal opportunities.

●● Accident reporting.
Why induction? ●● Dismissal procedures.
Every establishment should have a detailed induction
system. The induction process settles new employ- During the first few weeks of employment the follow-
ees into their new positions. It is important for the ing topics need to be explained to the new employee:
●● organisational aims and objectives
company to make a good impression as this will
●● occupational health and safety
influence the person’s attitude to the job. The new
●● performance appraisal
employee needs to be aware of their responsibilities.
●● job description explained
This will include not just their day-to-day procedures
●● grievance procedures
but also their role in legislation, food hygiene, health
●● quality standards
and safety.
●● staff development.
Topics for induction Where possible, new employees should be issued
●● Company procedures, policies. with an employee handbook with information on the
●● Tour of establishment and facilities. company. The supervisor should take time to explain
●● Fire drill procedures, health and safety the contents of this handbook. Staff retention is an
procedures. important issue in the hospitality and catering indus-
●● Reporting procedures. try. Supervisors have a key role in developing teams
●● Job description explained. to achieve effective working relationships that value
●● Conditions of employment. people. These can help to reduce turnover. Staff
●● Emergency procedures. turnover is extremely costly and every attempt should
●● Where to go for advice or assistance. be made to reduce unnecessary turnover.
The cost of staff turnover to an ●● Agency costs.

establishment ●● Payroll and administration costs.
●● Replacement costs – advertising, training, etc. ●● Loss of business due to insufficient staff on
●● Overtime to existing staff. duty to supply the required level of service.
●● Extra pressure on existing staff. ●● Loss of business through damage to
●● Time taken to recruit staff. reputation.
The supervisor and performance the job description criteria may also be included
appraisal in the form. Focusing on the job description pro-
motes discussion about what is happening in the
Supervisors manage performance informally through
workplace and how hurdles to ineffective perfor-
instructions and advice, and by providing construc-
mance can be overcome. Performance objectives
tive feedback. The supervisor should give praise
and training plans should also relate to the job
when it is due and reprimand an employee if neces-
requirements.
sary. Informal feedback takes place on a day-to-day
When a supervisor conducts a performance
basis but most large organisations operate a formal
appraisal s/he should advise the employee in advance,
appraisal system. This involves the supervisor or
explaining the purpose of the appraisal. In addition,
the manager conducting a formal interview with the
sufficient time must be allocated to the process. The
employee, examining past performance and assess-
following should also be taken into account:
ing opportunities for the future. Overall performance
may be ranked on a performance scale. During the ●● creating an appropriate climate for the interview
interview, training needs and career development are ●● reviewing specific job performances against
analysed to establish the employee’s performance specific job targets
objectives and plans for achievement. ●● openly discussing issues that may have an impact
Performance appraisal forms may cover effi- on performance
ciency, reliability, teamwork and working rela- ●● agreeing on new performance targets
tionships. In service organisations this may also ●● giving positive constructive feedback.
include customer relations. To be more specific
Kitchen equipment
Cooking equipment provides the backbone of any ●● Attachments – is it necessary to use additional
busy catering operation. It is the key to catering suc- equipment or attachments?
cess and quality. In terms of food safety it controls ●● Extraction – does it require extraction facilities for
the most critical step in the food production process. fumes or steam?
A mistake at the cooking stage by undercooking of ●● Noise – does it have an acceptable noise level?
raw food is likely to result in a mass food-poisoning ●● Construction – is it well made, safe, hygienic and
incident. energy efficient, and are all handles, knobs and
Kitchen equipment is expensive so initial selection switches sturdy and heat resistant?
is important, and the following points should be con- ●● Appearance – if equipment is to be on view to
sidered before each item is purchased or hired. customers does it look good and fit in with the
overall design?
●● Overall dimensions (in relation to available space).
●● Spare parts – are they and replacement parts
●● Weight – can the floor support the weight?
easily obtainable?
●● Fuel supply – is the existing fuel supply sufficient
to take the increase? Kitchen equipment may be divided into three
●● Drainage – where necessary, are there adequate categories:
facilities?
1 large equipment – ranges, steamers, boiling pans,
●● Water – where necessary, is it to hand?
fish-fryers, sinks, tables
●● Use – if it is a specialist piece of equipment for
2 mechanical equipment – peelers, mincers, mixers,
certain foods or products, will there be sufficient
refrigerators, dishwashers
use to justify the expense and investment?
3 utensils and small equipment – pots, pans,
●● Capacity – can it cook the quantities of food
whisks, bowls, spoons.
required efficiently?
●● Time – can it cook the given quantities of food in Manufacturers of all kitchen equipment issue instruc-
the time available? tions on how to clean and keep their apparatus in
●● Ease – is it easy for staff to handle, control and efficient working order, and it is the responsibility of
use properly? everyone using the equipment to follow these instruc-
●● Maintenance – is it easy for staff to clean and tions (which should be displayed in a prominent place
maintain? near the machines).
The regulation recognises that many kitchens have

well-manufactured old equipment that predates the
introduction of CE marking. That is why the legal
requirement for kitchen equipment to be CE marked
applies only to equipment manufactured after 1995.
When manufacturers sell kitchen equipment and
offer a guarantee, it comes with conditions of servic-
ing. Kitchen equipment is very technical, and needs a
trained and accredited service engineer to keep it in
working order and comply with the terms of the guar-
antee. If equipment breaks down and a chef calls on
the guarantee for cost-free repairs, without evidence
of accredited servicing the guarantee could be invalid.
When it comes to servicing and repairing kitchen
equipment the law is clear. The only people who can
install and maintain a gas-powered piece of kitchen
Figure 5.3 Prover equipment must be registered with the Gas Safe
Register and be qualified to work with gas. They must
Arrangements should be made with the local carry a Register ID card. There are several levels of
gas board for regular checks and servicing of gas- accreditation that an engineer can have. For example,
operated equipment; similar arrangements should be a person working on a combination oven needs a dif-
made with the electricity supplier. It is a good plan ferent assessment from that needed to install a fryer;
to keep a log book of all equipment, showing where it is important to check that anyone servicing gas-
each item is located when servicing takes place, powered equipment has the right accreditation for the
noting any defects that arise, and instructing the fitter equipment that they will be working on. The Gas Safe
to sign the log book and to indicate exactly what has Register replaced the CORGI registration system.
been done.
For more information visit www.gassaferegister.
To find out more, see HCIMA Technical Brief No. co.uk.
28, Purchasing Catering Equipment, or visit the
website of the Catering Equipment Suppliers’ Health and safety regulations
Association (CESA): www.cesa.org.uk.
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) makes
the rules covering the safety of kitchen staff using
Legislation affecting equipment in the machines or equipment. Some are guidance notes;
professional kitchen some are law; but to go against either can result in
(This section is adapted from ‘The law in your kitchen’, both prosecution and compensation claims.
Caterer and Hotelkeeper, 19 April 2006.) The regulations are complex, but no chef can
There is a large amount of legislation being imposed ignore them.
on professional kitchens. A great deal is concerned
To find out more, see HCIMA Technical Brief No.
with how kitchen equipment is bought, operated and
28, Purchasing Catering Equipment, or visit the
disposed of.
website of the Catering Equipment Suppliers’
CE marking Association (CESA): www.cesa.org.uk.
All powered catering equipment sold in the UK and
Europe must carry a small ‘CE’ badge. This means Regulations affecting ventilation systems
that the manufacturer has certified that it meets The important issue here is interlocking. This means
European Union safety, and in some cases perfor- that, where there is a ventilation hood over the cook-
mance, standards. The EU standards are among the ing area, there is a gas supply cut-out mechanism
strictest in the world and are drawn up to ensure that between the cooking equipment and the ventilation
kitchen staff have the least possible risk of injury. hood. If the extraction fan should fail, the gas supply
Reputable brands of catering equipment bought from to the kitchen equipment will automatically be turned
reputable dealers should always have the CE mark. off.
Interlocking regulations are not retrospective, with catering equipment, recycling has not been a
meaning that in most existing kitchens they are problem due to the high value of the scrap materials
strongly recommended, but not mandatory. – mainly stainless steel – which means the equip-
Any new kitchen using a fan-assisted extrac- ment has a history of being recycled responsibly.
tion system must have this interlocking gas cut-out
system. If more than half the appliances are replaced To find out more, visit www.netregs.gov.uk/
in existing kitchens then an interlocking gas cut-out netregs/legislation/380525/.
system must be fitted.
WRAS
PUWER
The aim of the Water Regulations Advisory Scheme is
PUWER stands for the Provision and Use of Work
to ensure that fittings, equipment or products that are
Equipment Regulations. These regulations cover
connected to the mains supply, do not contaminate
how chefs use kitchen equipment and are part of
water.
a European Directive that supplements regulations
Although WRAS regulations cover every industry, in
under the Health and Safety at Work Act. The aim is
commercial kitchens the main concern is the risk of
for kitchen management to accept responsibility for
contamination of pure drinking water through back-
the use of equipment.
flow. This is where dirty water, for whatever reason,
PUWER regulations say that, where there is
accidentally passes back into the main water supply
machinery in the kitchen, management should have
rather than going out to the drains. Every item of
a risk assessment carried out, provide written instruc-
kitchen equipment that is connected to the mains
tions for operating it and provide adequate training to
must comply with the Water Supply (Water Fittings)
all staff that are going to use it. Under PUWER there
Regulations.
is a legal obligation to maintain machinery properly,
Where badly contaminated water is discharged
and if there is a service log book with the equipment,
from an item of kitchen equipment, such as a dish-
it has to be filled in.
washer, the protection will be provided by an anti-
WEEE syphonic backflow-preventing device or an air gap.
Most new equipment will come with the necessary
This is the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
fitting to comply with WRAS. Only engineers with
Directive. This EU legislation’s first aim is to achieve
a qualification to connect equipment to the water
a sustainable Europe through recycling electrical
supply should fit kitchen equipment that needs a
equipment. Its second is to reduce the amount of
supply of water.
waste material that goes into landfill. Historically
Large equipment
Ranges and ovens air is rapidly forced around the inside of the oven by a
A large variety of ranges is available operated by gas, motorised fan or blower. As a result, a more even and
electricity, solid fuel, oil, microwave or microwave plus constant temperature is created, which allows food to
convection. be cooked successfully in any part of the oven. This
Oven doors should not be slammed as this is liable means that the heat is used more efficiently, cooking
to cause damage. temperatures can be lower, cooking times shortened
The unnecessary or premature lighting of ovens can and overall fuel economy achieved.
cause wastage of fuel, which is needless expense. Forced air convection can be described as fast con-
This is a bad habit common in many kitchens. ventional cooking: conventional in that heat is applied
When a solid-top gas range is lit, the centre ring to the surface of the food, but fast since moving air
should be removed to reduce the risk of blowback, transfers its heat more rapidly than does static air. In
but it should be replaced after approximately five a sealed oven, fast hot air circulation reduces evapo-
minutes, otherwise unnecessary heat is lost. ration loss, keeping shrinkage to a minimum, and
gives the rapid change of surface texture and colour
Convection ovens that are traditionally associated with certain cooking
These are ovens in which a circulating current of hot processes.
There are four types of convection oven.

1 Where forced air circulation within the oven
is accomplished by means of a motor-driven
fan, the rapid air circulation ensures even
temperature distribution to all parts of the
oven.
2 Where low-velocity, high-volume air movement is
provided by a power blower and duct system.
3 A combination of a standard oven and a forced
convection oven designed to operate as either by
the flick of a switch.
4 A single roll-in rack convection oven with heating
element and fan housed outside the cooking
area. An 18-shelf mobile oven rack makes it Figure 5.5 Forced air convection oven
possible to roll the filled rack directly from the
preparation area into the oven. ●● a combination oven system will allow more food
to be produced in less space
Combination ovens ●● energy efficiency
Combination ovens (combi-ovens) have brought ●● increased productivity.
about a revolution in baking, roasting and steaming.
A new type of combination oven has now been man-
There are now many varieties of combination ovens
ufactured – it is a hybrid of fridge and oven, designed
available on the market, fuelled by gas or electric-
for use in cook-chill food systems for banqueting or
ity, and they are widely used in most sectors of the
industrial catering. The chilled food is held in chill
catering industry. They are especially used in large
until the predetermined moment when the chilling
banqueting operations.
unit switches off and the oven facility kicks in, bring-
Ovens can be programmed easily to produce exact
ing the food safely up to eating temperature.
cooking times and the regeneration of chilled food,
allowing chefs to produce consistent products every Rotary rack ovens
time.
Rotary rack ovens resemble larger roll-in convec-
The special features of combination ovens are:
tion or combi-ovens, but they operate on a different
●● they reduce cooking times principle and deliver even more production capacity.
●● they are fully automatic – enable desired These ovens accept one or two full racks loaded with
browning levels and exact core temperatures to bake pans, which are rolled in to the oven compart-
be achieved ment. Rather than relying on blowers to circulate hot
●● they are self-cleaning air to even out browning, these ovens have either
a mechanical lift system that suspends and rotates
the rack during the cook cycle, or a floor-mounted
platform that provides the rotation. Rack ovens are
also equipped with a steam system, which provides
the nice sheen to the crust required by many bread
products.
Rotary rack ovens are available in both gas and
electric heated models. Because of their size, they
typically have a ventilation hood system integrated
with the oven package. They are typically used
in large institutional kitchens, hotels and banquet
operations.
Mechanical ovens
Large mechanical ovens with trays evolved from con-
Figure 5.4 Deck oven ventional bake and roast ovens. Rather than having to
Oven light
Vapour condenser
Fan wheel
Door seal
Air baffles
with pan slides
Timer, 0–120 min.
Door latch
Thermostat
Humidifier
Switch heat input-fan speed
Heat-sensing probe control Cavity

drain
Door catch
Heat sensing probe
Door safety switch
Fat collector
Figure 5.6 Hot air convection oven
Oven light
Safety valve Vapour condenser
Fan wheel
Door seal
Steam generator
Air baffles
with pan slides
Timer, 0–120 min.
Door latch
Thermostat
Humidifier
Switch heat input-fan speed
Heat-sensing probe control Cavity

drain
Door catch
Heat sensing probe
Door safety switch Drain
Fat collector
valve
Figure 5.7 Hot air steamer oven
travel between ovens to load and unload product or

check product being cooked, the chef or baker can
do it all at one location. A convection oven has many
operational and performance advantages, but it must
be kept relatively small to control air movement. They
are by design a batch production method. The moving
tray oven has many of the benefits of a convection
oven, but it is a continuous production method, with
much higher production capabilities.
The revolving tray or reel oven (also known as the
‘Ferris wheel’ oven) has been the mainstay of many
bakeries for more than 50 years. Like a Ferris wheel,
pans are suspended from double wheels that revolve
in a gas or electrically heated chamber. The pans
are pivoted so that they remain level at all times, no
matter what their position on the wheel. This type of
oven has the reputation of turning out remarkably
Figure 5.8 A combination oven
good products at relatively low labour and energy for cooking different meats – in particular for roasts
costs. such as leg of lamb and roast pork. The special fea-
For greater capacity in a mechanical oven, trays are ture of these intelligent profiles is that they detect
attached to chains that move from the front to the automatically the size of the meat and the volume
rear, horizontally. They then circle around the wheel of the food in the cooking cabinet. In addition, with
or transfer arm, to a lower level. From there they the assistance of the internal quality temperature
return to the loading area at the front of the oven. In (IQT) sensor, they also determine the exact core
some ovens, the product being baked merely goes temperature of the food, the remaining cooking time
from one end of the oven to the other, where it is and the current level of browning. The profiles are
unloaded. Then the tray or belt returns to the front for self-regulating – that is, they adjust the cooking pro-
product reloading. At the front of the oven, the tray is cesses to the size of the meat and the load of food in
raised to the unload-load position. An item that is to the cooking cabinet.
be baked may take several trips through this style of
oven before it has finished baking. Other mechanical IQT sensor: rationale
ovens move in a circular, horizontal path up to three The sensor is inserted into the food to facilitate the
and five levels. These types of oven are known as detection of the core temperature. This prevents
rotary ovens. overcooking of joints and reduces weight loss.
Although all of the ovens mentioned were originally
designed for baking, they can be used for roasting Alto-shaam cook and hold ovens
as well. They are typically found in large institutional These ovens reduce labour and product shrinkage,
kitchens or commissaries, commercial and wholesale provide product consistency and increase holding life
bakeries, and large restaurants that have separate for banqueting service. Two items are available, one for
baking areas. holding and serve, the other for regeneration and serve.
The cooking process management system Smoking ovens

This links the combi-oven to a PC, which monitors the Smoking certain foods is a means of cooking, inject-
cooking process to help with HACCP. The computer ing different flavours and preserving (there is more
software monitors not just the combi-ovens, but other on the use of smoking as a method of preservation
items of cooking equipment in the kitchen, such as in Chapter 4). Smoking ovens or cabinets are well
pressure bratt pans, steamers and boiling kettles. insulated with controlled heating elements on which
The chef inputs into the software what the day’s food wood chips are placed (different types of wood chips
production is to be, and the computer will work out give differing flavours). As the wood chips burn, the
the order in which the food should be cooked and in heated smoke permeates the food (fish, chicken, sau-
what pieces of equipment, to deliver the food just in sages, etc.) that is suspended in the cabinet.
time for freshness.
The HACCP management part of this system can The microwave oven
track food from goods delivery to the plate by using Microwaves are common in most commercial kitch-
probes – for example, a chilled or frozen chicken can ens, handling everything from defrosting to self-
be probed to monitor and record temperatures before steaming and rapid rethermalisation. Solid-state
the cooking process so that if a problem occurs in the programmable controls make them easy to use, and
food cycle, the kitchen manager can check to see if today’s microwave ovens offer more power, better
there were any discrepancies in the goods storage warranties and greater durability.
procedures.
During the cooking the probes will record any vari- How do microwave ovens work?
ations to the pre-set cooking programme. This means A microwave is an invisible electromagnetic wave,
the software system can alert the kitchen manage- which travels at the speed of light. That, by the way,
ment team not just that a problem has occurred happens to be 186,282 miles per second or, in terms
during the cooking procedure, but where it occurred. of kilometres, almost 300,000 per second.
Microwave ovens operate in the 2450 megahertz
Combination ovens: cooking profile frequency which is the only frequency currently used
in microwave ovens. The microwaves are developed
Example: rationale and introduced into the oven’s cooking compart-
These are pre-programmed, offering ideal procedures ment by magnetron tubes. These tubes are designed
a) b) c)
Figure 5.9 (a) Microwave energy being reflected off cooking cavity walls; (b) microwave energy being absorbed by food; (c)
microwave energy passing through cooking container material
s pecifically to convert electricity into microwaves. The Metal dishes or aluminium foil should not be used
microwaves, which themselves are not hot, leave the in a microwave oven for exactly the same reason.
oven cool. The water and fat molecules that are found The metal deflects the microwaves away from the
in food absorb the microwave energy. This energy food, preventing cooking and possibly overheat-
causes these molecules to vibrate against each other ing the magnetron. Paper, plastic, china, glass and
(about 2.5 billion times per second), creating friction, ceramic are acceptable materials for use inside a
which in turn creates heat, which in turn warms or microwave.
cooks the food. The technology that makes microwave ovens pos-
Microwave energy penetrates the food to a depth sible also creates a few disadvantages. For instance,
of 12.0 to 20.0 mm in most food products. The standard microwave ovens do not brown foods. Food
exception to this would be bread and pastry prod- browns when amino acids and certain sugars are
ucts, where the energy may go all the way through, brought together under dry heat, at least 90°C, for
because of the product’s low density. a sustained period of time. Microwave cooking just
The reason that microwave energy cooks faster does not create these conditions.
than conventional cooking is that a greater amount of To solve this problem, combination convection/
heat is created in the outside portion of the food (the microwave ovens have been introduced to the com-
area 12.0 to 20.0 mm deep, which is penetrated by mercial and consumer markets. These combination
the microwave) so that the heat is transferred faster units introduce the dry heat and air movement of a
to the inside of the food. convection oven, plus the speed of a microwave oven.
A good example of how this works is the baked The result is a cooking device with the advantages of
potato. In a conventional oven, the heat has to be both. This combination unit cooks up to 80 per cent
passed on molecule by molecule, from the outside of faster than a standard convection oven, can accom-
the product to the centre. In a microwave oven, the modate metal cookware and delivers a fully browned
outer ‘sphere’, which is approximately 20.0 mm deep, product that looks good on the plate.
is penetrated by the microwave energy and cooked. Microwave ovens have as many as four magne-
From that point on, the potato cooks normally. The trons, offering more cooking power. The magnetrons,
centre of a potato cooked in a microwave oven is which are air cooled and release a small amount of
cooked by conduction, the same as a convention- heat into the kitchen, use a transmitter or wave guide
ally cooked potato. The difference in speed occurs to direct the microwaves to the oven cavity. Wave stir-
because the microwave energy cooks the outside rers are located at the point where the waves enter
20.0 mm faster, allowing the heat to reach the centre the oven cavity. They are designed to evenly distrib-
of the potato faster. ute the waves throughout the cooking cavity, greatly
Metal reflects microwave energy, which is why the reducing the hot spots and uneven cooking common
sides of a microwave oven cavity are always made in earlier microwave ovens.
of metal. Microwave energy does not go through the A microwave oven’s power input will determine
oven’s door screen because the holes in the screen what function it will have in a food service opera-
are too small. The holes allow the light to go through, tion. The following is a brief description of the four
but not the much longer wavelength that is used for basic types of commercial microwave ovens and their
heating. intended uses.
1 Light-duty microwaves: these units are Combination convection and microwave

generally rated in the 700- to 800-watt range. cooker
They are small and compact, and are most
This cooker combines forced air convection and
often used for quick point-of-service heating
microwave, either of which can be used separately
applications such as a food service station. They
but that are normally used simultaneously, thereby
are also used in many low-volume restaurants
giving the advantages of both systems: speed, col-
where speed is not a critical factor.
oration and texture of food. Traditional metal cooking
2 Heavy-duty microwaves: most of these units
pans may also be used without fear of damage to the
are rated in the 900- to 2200-watt range.
cooker.
They all come with a stainless steel cavity and
most, but not all, have a stainless steel exterior Induction cooking
(dependent on the manufacturer). Most are also
compact in their overall size. Advantages of induction cooking hobs
3 Bulk cookers and microwave steamers: ●● Power savings: the induction hob has a very
these large microwaves operate in the 2400- to high energy efficiency and only draws power
3700-watt range. Some of these units have been when a pan is on the ring. Energy costs are
positioned to compete with countertop convection substantially reduced.
steamers. They rely on the water content of the ●● Safety: only the pan gets hot, therefore you
food itself to generate some steam when heated cannot burn yourself on this type of hob.
by the magnetrons. These larger units are not ●● Cool working environment: as virtually all
normally used for single or small portion heating. the energy is developed as heat directly in the
However, they do work well for bulk applications, pan, very little heat escapes to the atmosphere,
such as reheating and cooking products in therefore providing a cool working environment.
cafeterias and other institutions. ●● Less extraction: because of the cool working
4 Convection microwave ovens: these units environment the kitchen needs much less
are actually small convection ovens with built-in extraction, further reducing energy bills.
microwave assistance. They have now been ●● Hygiene: the flat ceramic top provides a
available for quite a few years. Newer models are wipe-clean hygienic surface that remains cool,
not as expensive as the first models introduced. therefore spillage will not burn onto the cooking
They are also more versatile and require less surface.
space than the previous models. ●● No combustion gases: unlike gas hobs,
induction hobs do not emit any combustion gases
To find out more, contact the Microwave and are environmentally friendly.
Association (website: www.microwaveassociation. ●● Speed of cooking: modern induction hob
org.uk). designs are faster than gas hobs.
History
Traditional ranges and ovens work because the energy
source – for example, electricity – causes the burners
to heat up. That heat is then transferred to the pan or
pot placed upon the heated surface. In this method of
creating heat, it is the burner that actually cooks the
food. Conversely, an induction cooktop holds a series
of burners called induction coils, which are based on
magnetic principles. These coils generate magnetic
fields that induct a warming reaction in steel-based
pots or pans; it is the cooking vessels themselves
Figure 5.10 A microwave oven that heat the food, not the stove elements. Because
of this form of heat generation, the cooktops may feel
slightly warm to the touch after they are turned off,
but they remain relatively cool – and thus much safer.
Temperature, speed and control are additional ben-
efits with an induction cooktop. This type of stove
heats up faster than an electric range, allowing for To find out more, contact Induced Energy
faster cooking times – water will boil at half the Limited, New Building, Westminster Road,
time as on an electric cooking surface. Because of Northamptonshire NN13 7EB (website: www.
this reduced cooking time, energy savings can be inducedenergy.com).
substantial. Induction cooktops are 85–90 per cent
more energy efficient than electricity-powered stoves
and ovens, and use approximately half the energy of Halogen hob
gas-sourced models. This runs on electricity, and comprises five individually
Cleaning an induction cooktop is a breeze because controlled heat zones, each of which has four tung-
the surface is flat and continuous; there are no nooks sten halogen lamps located under a smooth ceramic
or crannies where food particles or spillovers can glass surface. The heat source glows red, when
collect. Range-top mess is also reduced because the switched on, getting brighter as the temperature
induction cooktops offer convenient safeguards; they increases.
turn themselves off if a pot has gone dry and, if there When the hob is switched on, 70 per cent of the
is a spillover, the cooking surface prevents the burn- heat is transmitted as infra-red light directly into the
ing on and hardening of spilled food. base of the cooking pan, the rest is from conducted
While induction cooktops will save money in the heat via the ceramic glass. Ordinary pots and pans
long run, there are some costly initial investments. may be used on the halogen hob, but those with a flat,
The cooktops themselves, which range from a one- dark or black base absorb the heat most efficiently.
unit hotplate type to the traditional four-burner size, The halogen range includes a convection oven, and
range in price from several hundred to several thou- the halogen hob unit is also available mounted on a
sand pounds. stand.
An additional expense can arise if you need to
replace your current cookware. Induction cooktops Further information can be obtained by visiting
induct energy only into ferrous metal-based pots and the website of the Catering Equipment Suppliers’
pans. If you are currently using cast iron, steel-plated Association (CESA): www.cesa.org.uk.
or certain types of stainless steel pans, you should
be able to continue to use the cookware you already Steam cooking equipment
own. However, you cannot cook with materials such Steam cooking equipment comprises many differ-
as copper, aluminium or glass. Some makes of stain- ent and varied pieces of cooking equipment. Some
less steel pots and pans are conducive to cooking on of the major items that fall under this rather general
an induction cooktop while others are not. If in doubt, category include compartment steam cookers (both
test your present cookware with a magnet – if the pressure and pressureless steamers), combination
magnet sticks to the pot, the pot will work with an oven steamers, boiling kettles/steam-jacketed ket-
induction cooktop. tles, and tilting braising pans or bratt pans. Under
Try to find an induction hob that works using normal each of these general categories, there are numerous
pans. Beware of induction hobs that need special types, styles, models, power inputs, etc.
pans or do not give constant performance pan to pan.
What is steam?
Steam is odourless, colourless, tasteless and invis-
ible. It is water converted to the gas state. So why is
it we think we can ‘see’ steam? What you are actu-
ally seeing when you think you are seeing steam is
water vapour, which is very small droplets of water
carried or entrained with the steam. Occasionally you
will hear the terms ‘dry steam’ or ‘wet steam’ used in
the kitchen. Wet steam is carrying significant water
vapour. True dry steam carries little water vapour.
What makes steam so special? The secret to steam
Figure 5.11 An induction wok cooking is its efficiency as a heat transfer medium
and its ability to give up that heat energy on contact
with a cooler surface. In addition, steam expands in
energy is typically measured in British thermal units

(BTUs). A BTU is defined as the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water
by 1 degree Fahrenheit, at sea level.
Water vapour It takes only .05 kW/180 BTUs to raise the tem-
perature of .45 kilograms/1 pound of water from 0°C
to 100°C, the point at which it starts to boil. However,
to evaporate and convert that same pound of water
into steam requires .28 kW/970 BTUs. When water
boils at 100°C and absorbs heat, the process is
Steam
called the ‘latent heat of vaporisation’. As a result,
steam carries many times the energy of boiling water
– six times as much, in fact.
Steam readily gives up that energy load when it
Boiling water
condenses back into water (condensate) upon con-
tact with food or any cooler surface. In the case of
kettle cooking, that heat is transferred into the food
by conduction, through the kettle wall.
Heat source
(electricity or gas) Steamers
Steamers have been one of the fastest-growing
Figure 5.12 What is steam? equipment categories, driven by menu trends and the
desire for healthier foods. There is a growing list of
different models, sizes and steam-generation meth-
volume more than 30 times when it is converted from
ods available in today’s market. Here is a breakdown
its liquid (water) state, which helps it move into and fill
of the major categories and the key sub-categories:
compartments, jackets and places where heat transfer
can take place. These unique properties make steam ●● pressureless steamers (also known as
an excellent medium for cooking and warming foods. convection or atmospheric steamers) – traditional
First steam was used within the confines of a convection steamers, connectionless steamers,
(kettle) jacket, for the efficient conduction heating ‘boilerless’ steamers
of products within a vessel. This method of indirectly ●● pressure steamers – high-pressure steamers,
cooking with steam is a refinement of the double low-pressure steamers
boiler principle. ●● pressure/pressureless steamers
In addition, steam was introduced into a closed ●● speciality steamers.
compartment, in direct contact with the food, resulting
in the heating and cooking of those foods. Pressureless steamers
In pressureless steamers, the heat transfer from
How steam cooking works steam to food is accomplished by forced convection,
Steam is water that has been converted to its gase- creating turbulence that reduces the insulating bar-
ous state by the application of heat energy. Heat rier of condensation on food. This ‘forced convection’
is achieved by using a fan wheel, steam ports or dis-
tribution manifolds to concentrate and accelerate the
steam coming out of the boiler or steam generator.
When steam contacts the food’s cooler surface,
the steam transfers its energy load directly into
the food. Because air and water diminish this heat
transfer, a continuous venting system in pressureless
steamers eliminates virtually all of the air from the
cooking compartment, as steam expands and fills the
compartment. This results in fast, gentle cooking at a
relatively low temperature of 100°C, in a steamer at
Figure 5.13 A pressureless steamer sea level.
Pressureless steamers are well suited to a wide ‘Boilerless’ steamers do require water and drain
variety of foods, including fresh or frozen seafood connections but eliminate the need for operators to
and vegetables, including loose individually quick manually fill the compartment with water or deal with
frozen (IQF) pack frozen or frozen block vegetables. hot, nutrient-rich waste water, which must be drained
Because the cavity is continuously vented and con- from connectionless steamers at close of day. In addi-
densate drained, unwanted flavour transfer from one tion, they employ the same non-immersion heating
food product to another is eliminated. Perforated elements or under-fired gas burner designs, which
gastronorm pans are recommended for cooking most reduce water-related component failure and the need
food items, but some foods, such as rice, scrambled for heavy and frequent deliming or descaling.
eggs, certain kinds of beef and pasta, are prepared Regardless of the type or style of pressureless
in solid pans or a perforated pan nested in a deeper steamers desired, proper sizing is important for timely
solid pan. These steamers are also effective for and efficient food preparation and production. Actual
reheating vendor-prepared or cook-chill product. requirements will depend on the menu, customer
Traditional cabinet base convection steamers can count and the availability of alternative equipment
operate with direct steam from a central steam such as steam combination ovens. While most steam-
supply, a steam boiler that is remotely located or ers accept 65–200 mm deep 1/1 gastronorm pans,
its own boiler mounted in the cabinet below the 65 mm deep pans are most typically used. Here are
steamer compartments. Cabinet base boilers are some tips to convert pan capacity into menu portions.
most typical, and available in either gas or electric
●● A 1/1, 65 mm deep gastronorm pan holds (72)
heated models.
115 gram, (48) 170 gram or (36) 225 gram
Countertop units are most popular for their com-
portions.
pact size and smaller power requirements. They typi-
●● A 1/1, 65 mm deep gastronorm pan is 2.54 cm
cally have their own self-contained steam generators,
full with 2.8 litres, 3.2 cm deep with 3.8 litres and
and can be stacked or banked for additional capacity
500 mm deep with 5.7 litres of liquid.
and cooking flexibility in the same footprint or hood
●● A 1/1, 65 mm deep gastronorm pan comfortably
space. The original models all had three-pan capacity
holds 2.3 kg to 2.5 kg of frozen cut vegetables.
but today are available with three-, four- or five-pan
capacity. Traditional countertop steamers are electric Large pans, boilers and fryers
or gas powered; they also require a water line and
drain line connection. Bratt pan
The bratt pan is one of the most versatile pieces
Connectionless steamers of cooking equipment in the kitchen because it
The amount of steam generated by countertop is possible to use it for shallow-frying, deep-fry-
models makes them especially prone to hard water ing, stewing, braising and boiling. A bratt pan can
service problems and failures, unless regular deliming cook many items of food at one time because of
(descaling) and comprehensive water treatment and its large surface area. A further advantage is that
system maintenance is practised. In the mid-1990s it can be tilted so that the contents can, quickly
a manufacturer introduced the first so-called ‘con- and efficiently, be poured out on completion of the
nectionless’ steamer and, by the end of the twentieth cooking process. Bratt pans are heated by gas
century, virtually all steam equipment manufacturers or electricity; several models are available incorpo-
offered a version of a connectionless steamer. rating various features to meet differing catering
Connectionless steamers don’t have water or drain requirements.
lines. They all generate steam inside, on the bottom
of the steam compartment. The operator must pour Boiling pans
7–15 litres of water into the cook compartment. Many types are available in different metals – alu-
These units heat the compartment bottom or an minium, stainless steel, etc. – in various sizes (10-,
adjacent open reservoir to generate steam in the 15-, 20-, 30- and 40-litre capacity) and they may
cavity. These (all electric) models have heating ele- be heated by gas or electricity. As they are used
ments clamped to the bottom of the compartment or for boiling or stewing large quantities of food, it is
reservoir and not immersed in the water. This design important that they do not allow the food to burn; for
eliminates most water-related element failures, and this reason the steam-jacket type boiler is the most
the need for water treatment and regular deliming suitable. Many of these are fitted with a tilting device
with caustic chemicals. to facilitate the emptying of the contents.
After use, the boiling pan and lid should be thor- Air and speciality fryers
oughly washed with mild detergent solution and then An air fryer is a small countertop unit that uses a
rinsed well. The tilting apparatus should be greased small amount of oil in a rotating drum mounted inside
occasionally and checked to see that it tilts easily. If a closed compartment to ‘fry’ single portions or small
gas fired, the gas jets and pilot should be inspected batches of product. They primarily use hot air convec-
to ensure correct working. If a pressure gauge and tion heat transfer to cook fries and other fairly durable
safety valve are fitted these should also be checked. frozen product.
Pasta cooker An advantage of these smaller units is that they
typically don’t require placement under a grease rated
This equipment is fitted with water delivery and drain hood. They don’t use or release significant amounts
taps, and can be used for the cooking of several types of grease-laden vapour, so they can be used in bars,
of pasta simultaneously. It is electrically operated. snack shops, bowling alleys and other places without
Deep-fat fryers heavy-duty utilities and ventilation.
A deep-fat fryer is one of the most extensively used Hot cupboards
items of equipment in many catering establishments. Commonly referred to in the trade as the hotplate,
The careless worker who misuses a deep-fat fryer hot cupboards are used for heating plates and serv-
and spills food or fat can cause accidents and waste ing dishes, and for keeping food hot. Care should be
money. taken to see that the amount of heat fed into the hot
Fryers are heated by gas or electricity and incor- cupboard is controlled at a reasonable temperature.
porate a thermostatic control in order to save fuel This is important, otherwise the plates and food will
and prevent overheating. There is a cool zone below either be too hot or too cold, and this could obviously
the source of heat into which food particles can sink affect the efficiency of the service. A temperature of
without burning, thus preventing spoiling of other 60–76°C is suitable for hot cupboards and a thermo-
foods being cooked. This form of heating also saves stat is a help in maintaining this.
fat. Hot cupboards may be heated by steam, gas or
Pressure fryers electricity. The doors should slide easily, and occa-
sional greasing may be necessary. The tops of most
Food is cooked in an airtight frying vat, thus enabling hot cupboards are used as serving counters and
it to be fried a lot faster and at a lower oil temperature. should be heated to a higher temperature than the
Conveyor fryers inside. These tops are usually made of stainless steel
and should be cleaned thoroughly after each service.
Conveyor fryers are an excellent way to solve the high
volume requirements of some commercial operations. Bains-marie
They permit the operator to place the product in Bains-marie are open wells of water used for keeping
one end, typically in individual baskets attached to a foods hot; they are available in many designs, some
conveyor system. The product is then carried through of which are incorporated into hot cupboards, some
the oil-filled tank and dumped from the baskets at a
collection station, after it has completed the cooking
cycle. The conveyor holding the now empty fry bas-
kets rotates back, in a continuous loop, for reloading.
The speed of the conveyor can be increased or
decreased, permitting the operator to control the
cooking process. As with the previous fryers covered,
proper frying results depend on the temperature of
the oil, the condition of the oil and the amount of time
food is immersed in the oil.
Conveyor fryers are excellent units to have for high
volume sites, such as theme parks, where concession
stands need to produce a lot of product in a short
period of time. Some conveyor fryers are capable
of producing 45 kg of French fries per hour, from a
compact countertop unit. Figure 5.14 A waiter at the hotplate
in serving counters, and there is a type that is fitted

at the end of a cooking range. They may be heated
by steam, gas or electricity, and sufficient heat to boil
the water in the bain-marie should be available. Care
should be taken to see that a bain-marie is never
allowed to burn dry when the heat is turned on. After
use the heat should be turned off, the water drained
and the bain-marie cleaned inside and outside with
hot detergent water, rinsed and dried. Any drain-off
tap should then be closed.
Food distribution equipment

In situations requiring mobile equipment (e.g. hos-
Figure 5.15 A water bath
pitals, banqueting) wheeled items are essential to
facilitate service, particularly of hot foods.
Contact grills
Grills and salamanders
These are sometimes referred to as double-sided or
The salamander or grill heated from above by gas infragrills and have two heating surfaces arranged
or electricity probably causes more wastage of fuel facing each other. The food to be cooked is placed
than any other item of kitchen equipment through on one surface and is then covered by the second.
being allowed to burn unnecessarily for long periods These grills are electrically heated and are capable
unused. Most salamanders have more than one set of of cooking certain foods very quickly, so extra care is
heating elements or jets and it is not always neces- needed, particularly when cooks are using this type of
sary to have them all turned on fully. grill for the first time.
Salamander bars and draining trays should be
cleaned regularly with hot water containing a grease Fry plates, griddle plates
solvent such as soda. After rinsing they should be These are solid metal plates heated from below, and
replaced and the salamander lit for a few minutes to are used for cooking individual portions of meat,
dry the bars. hamburgers, eggs, bacon, etc. They can be heated
For under-fired grills (see Figure 5.18) to work effi- quickly to a high temperature and are suitable for
ciently they must be capable of cooking food quickly rapid and continuous cooking. Before cooking on
and should reach a high temperature 15–20 minutes a griddle plate a light film of oil should be applied
after lighting; the heat should be turned off immedi- to the food and the griddle plate to prevent stick-
ately after use. When the bars are cool they should ing. To clean griddle plates, warm them and scrape
be removed and washed in hot water containing a off any loose food particles; rub the metal with
grease solvent, rinsed, dried and replaced on the grill. pumice stone or griddle stone, following the grain
Care should be taken with the fire bricks if they are of the metal; clean with hot detergent water, rinse
used for lining the grill as they are easily broken. with clean hot water and wipe dry. Finally re-season
(prove) the surface by lightly oiling with vegetable
oil.
Figure 5.16 An under-fired grill Figure 5.17 A bar grill

Griddles with zone heating are useful when demand water and rinsed. All excess moisture should be
varies during the day. These reduce energy consump- removed with a clean, dry cloth.
tion in quiet periods while allowing service to be ●● No cutting or chopping should be allowed on
maintained. table tops; cutting boards should be used.
Mirror chromed griddles have a polished surface ●● Hot pans should not be put on tables; triangles
that gives off less radiated heat, which saves energy must be used to protect the table surface.
and makes for a more pleasant working environment. ●● The legs and racks or shelves of tables are
cleaned with hot detergent water and then dried.
Barbecues Wooden table legs require scrubbing.
Barbecues are becoming increasingly popular
because it is easy to cook and serve quick, tasty Butcher’s or chopping block
food on them, and the outdoor location, smell and A scraper should be used to keep the block clean.
sizzle develop an atmosphere that many customers After scraping, the block should be sprinkled with
enjoy. a few handfuls of common salt in order to absorb
There are three main types of barbecue: tradi- any moisture that may have penetrated during the
tional charcoal, gas (propane or butane) and electric. day.
Remember that the charcoal-fired type takes about Do not use water or liquids for cleaning unless
an hour before the surface is ready. With gas and absolutely necessary as water will be absorbed into
electricity the barbecue is ready to cook on almost the wood and cause swelling.
immediately.
Gas is more flexible and controllable than electric- Storage racks
ity. Propane gas is recommended because it can be
All types of racks should be emptied and scrubbed or
used at any time of the year. Butane does not work
washed periodically.
when it is cold. Propane is, however, highly flammable
and safety precautions are essential. Anyone con-
necting the gas container must be competent in the
use of bottled gas. The supply pipe must be guarded
to avoid accidental interference, and the cylinder
must be placed away from the barbecue. The cylinder
must be upright and stable, with the valve uppermost
and securely held in position. Connections must be
checked for leaks.
Sinks
Stainless steel is generally used for all purposes.
Tables
●● Formica- or stainless steel-topped tables should
be washed with hot detergent water then rinsed
with hot water containing a sterilising agent –
alternatively, some modern chemicals act as both
detergent and sterilising agents. Wooden tables
should not be used.
●● Marble slabs should be scrubbed with hot Figure 5.18 Storage rack
Mechanical equipment
(The Health and Safety Executive offers two publica- If a piece of mechanical equipment can save time
tions on catering machinery, both obtainable from and physical effort and still produce a good end result
HMSO.) then it should be considered for purchase or hire.
–– dough mixers
–– food mixing machines when used with
attachments for mincing, slicing, chipping and
any other cutting operation, or for crumbling
–– pie and tart making machines
–– vegetable slicing machines.
2 Potato peelers:
–– potatoes should be free of earth and stones
before loading into the machine
–– before any potatoes are loaded, the water
spray should be turned on and the abrasive
plate set in motion
–– the interior should be cleaned out daily and the
abrasive plate removed to ensure that small
particles are not lodged below
–– the peel trap should be emptied as frequently
as required.
–– the waste outlet should be kept free from
Figure 5.19 A hand-held liquidiser obstruction.
(‘blitzer’)
3 Machines, whether power-driven or not:
The performance of most machines can be closely –– circular knife slicing machines used for cutting
controlled and is not subject to human variations, so bacon and other foods (whether similar to
it should be easier to obtain uniformity of production bacon or not)
over a period of time. –– potato chipping machines.
The caterer is faced with two considerations:
Dough preparation equipment
1 the cost of the machine – installation,
With the variety of baked goods produced today, it
maintenance, depreciation and running cost
stands to reason that there are pieces of special-
2 the possibility of increased production and a
ity equipment that have been designed to help the
saving of labour costs.
pastry chef/baker with all the repetitive but critical
The mechanical performance must be carefully tasks.
assessed and all the manufacturer’s claims as to the
●● Dough extruder: a dough extruder is designed
machine’s efficiency checked thoroughly. The design
to dispense dough that has been prepared in
should be foolproof, easy to clean and operated
bulk, into predetermined sizes and/or shapes.
with minimum effort. Before cleaning, all machines
The dough is rammed or forced through die or
should be switched off and the plug removed from
openings of the desired shape and size.
the socket.
●● Dough divider: this piece of equipment is used
When a new item of equipment is installed it should
to equally portion dough by size and weight. It can
be tested by a qualified fitter before being used by
be either manually or hydraulically operated.
catering staff. The manufacturer’s instructions must
●● Dough divider/rounder: similar to the dough
be displayed in a prominent place near the machine.
divider, the dough divider/rounder is designed
The manufacturer’s advice regarding servicing should
to divide and then shape bulk dough into equal
be followed and a record book kept, showing what
portion-sized balls.
kind of maintenance the machine is receiving and
●● Dough/butter press: a dough/butter press is
when. The following list includes machines typically
a hydraulically run machine that is used to press
found in catering premises, which are classified as
and form bulk dough and/or butter into a shape
dangerous under the Provision and Use of Work
that is suitable for use in sheeters, cutters and
Equipment Regulations 1998 (PUWER).
formers.
1 Power-driven machines: ●● Former: a former is a mechanical device that is
–– worm-type mincing machines designed to give a final length, size and/or shape
–– rotary knife, bowl-type chopping machines to yeasted dough, before it is placed in pans.
●● Moulder: a moulder, which is similar to a former, in volume than the raw ingredients, with flavour
is a mechanical device that is designed to give characteristics that are superior to the same
a specific length and shape to yeasted dough ingredients baked without leavening. Typical
before panning takes place. prover box temperatures range from 29°C to
●● Depositor: a depositor is a machine that is 46°C, with humidity levels ranging from 70 to 95
designed to place pre-measured pieces of dough per cent. Provers are available in many sizes and
on or in bake pans. often match the pan capacity of convection, rack
●● Sheeter: a sheeter is a machine that is used to and combi-ovens. Small provers are available for
flatten dough to the desired/required thickness mounting below a half- or full-size convection
and shape. It is also used to remove the gas from oven, providing a compact baking centre in a
yeasted dough. small footprint. Large roll-in provers are sized by
●● Sheeter/moulder: this particular device is rack capacity, and can vary from one to 20 racks
designed to sheet and mould dough pieces in or more, depending on the size and number of
one, simple process. ovens served.
●● Sheeter/reversible sheeter: a sheeter/ ●● Prover/retarder: retarders are multi-function
reversible sheeter is a mechanical device that is units. They are used to initially retard the rising
used for rolling and layering dough into specific of dough, then later prove the product, prior to
shapes and thicknesses. It is primarily used in the bake-off.
production of pastries and sweet goods. ●● Prover/quick thaw: a prover/quick thaw is
●● Prover: a prover is a very important piece of a prover that decreases the normal dough
equipment found in every bakery. In essence, thawing time through the introduction of heat,
a prover is a cabinet that allows yeasted then continues with the standard proving cycle.
dough products to leaven (ferment) in an Obviously, it is used when frozen dough is
ideal temperature- and humidity-controlled employed.
environment, until the desired product volume ●● Retarder: a retarder is another important piece
is achieved. This process ensures the desired of equipment found in most bakery operations.
appearance and quality of the finished baked In essence, a retarder is a speciality refrigeration
product. Leavening is a raising action that unit that is designed to maintain a high level of
aerates dough or batters during mixing and humidity.
baking, so that the finished product is greater
Food-processing equipment
Food mixer should be thoroughly washed and dried. Care

This is an important labour-saving, electrically oper- should be taken to see that no rust occurs on any
ated piece of equipment used for many purposes: part. The mincer attachment knife and plates will
mixing pastry, cakes, mashing potatoes, beating egg rust if not given sufficient care.
whites, mayonnaise, cream, mincing or chopping meat
and vegetables. Food-processing machines
Food processors are generally similar to vertical,
●● It should be lubricated frequently in accordance high-speed cutters except that they tend to be
with manufacturer’s instructions. smaller and to have a larger range of attachments.
●● The motor should not be overloaded, which They can be used for a large number of mixing and
can be caused by obstruction to the rotary chopping jobs but they cannot whisk or incorporate
components. For example, if dried bread is being air to mixes.
passed through the mincer attachment without
sufficient care the rotary cog can become so Liquidiser or blender
clogged with bread that it is unable to move.
If the motor is allowed to run, damage can be This is a versatile, labour-saving piece of kitchen
caused to the machine. machinery that uses a high-speed motor to drive spe-
●● All components, as well as the main machine, cially designed stainless steel blades to chop, purée
or blend foods efficiently and very quickly. It is also
useful for making breadcrumbs. As a safety precau- ●● The blade or blades should be sharpened
tion food must be cooled before being liquidised. regularly.
●● Moving parts should be lubricated, but oil must
Food slicers not come into contact with the food.
Food slicers are obtainable both in manually and ●● Extra care must be taken when blades are
electrically operated versions. They are labour-saving exposed.
devices, but can be dangerous if not used with care, ●● No one under 18 should complete these tasks.
so working instructions should be placed in a promi-
nent position near the machine. Chipper
The electric chipper should be thoroughly cleaned
●● Care should be taken that no material likely to
and dried after use, particular attention being paid to
damage the blades is included in the food to be
those parts that come into contact with food. Care
sliced. It is easy for a careless worker to overlook
should be taken that no obstruction prevents the
a piece of bone that, if allowed to come into
motor from operating at its normal speed. Moving
contact with the cutting blade, could cause severe
parts should be lubricated according to the maker’s
damage.
instructions.
●● Each section in contact with food should be
cleaned and dried carefully after use.
Figure 5.20 A gravity slicer Figure 5.21 A vertical, variable-

speed mixer
Feed tube
Controls Lid
Electric Mixing container

motor
Egg whisk attachment

fitted on to central spindle
Belt
Central spindle
Stand and base
Figure 5.22 A belt-driven food processor

in season or frozen and canned fruits at all times of

the year.
Juicers and mixers can provide freshly made fruit
and vegetable juices, milk shakes and cocktails.
Figure 5.23 A high-speed food

processor
Masher (hand or electric) Figure 5.24 An ice cream machine

The hand type should be washed immediately after
use, then rinsed and dried.
The electric masher should have the removable sec-
tions and the main machine washed and dried after use,
extra care being taken over those parts that come into
contact with food. The same care should be taken as with
electric chippers regarding obstruction and lubrication.
Ice cream makers, juicers and mixers

Ice cream and sorbet machines are available from
1-litre capacity and enable establishments to produce
home-made ice cream and sorbet using fresh fruit Figure 5.25 A portable ice cream machine
Boilers
Water boiling appliances for tea and Automatic boilers

coffee making These boilers have automatic waterfeeds and can
There are two main groups of water boilers: bulk boil- give freshly boiled water at intervals. It is important
ers from which boiling water can only be drawn when that the water supply is maintained efficiently, other-
all the contents have boiled, and automatic boilers, wise there is a danger of the boiler burning dry and
which provide a continuous flow of boiling water. being damaged.
Bulk boilers Pressure boilers

These are generally used when large quantities of This is the type that operates many still sets, con-
boiling water are required at a given time. They should sisting of steam heating milk boilers and a pressure
be kept scrupulously clean, covered with the correct boiler providing boiling water. Care should be taken
lid to prevent anything falling in, and when not used with the pilot light to see that it is working efficiently.
for some time should be left filled with clean, cold As with all gas-fired equipment it is essential that
water. regular inspection and maintenance are carried out
by registered gas fitters.
Coffee and milk heaters important that the storage chambers are thoroughly
Water-jacket boilers are made for the storage of hot cleaned with hot water after each use and then left
coffee and hot milk, with draw-off taps from the stor- full of clean, cold water. The draw-off taps should be
age chamber. Inner linings may be of glazed earthen- cleaned regularly with a special brush.
ware, stainless steel or heat-resistant glass. It is very
Refrigerators, cold rooms, chill rooms, deep-freeze cabinets

and compartments
Location
As adequate ventilation is vital, locate refrigeration
equipment in a well-ventilated room away from:
●● sources of intense heat – cookers, ovens,
radiators, boilers, etc.
●● direct sunlight – from window or skylights
●● barriers to adequate air circulation.
In large establishments it is necessary to have
refrigerated space at different temperatures. The
cold rooms may be divided into separate rooms:
one at a chill temperature for storing salads, fruits
and certain cheeses; one for meats, poultry, game Figure 5.26 Refrigerated food to go
and tinned food, which have to be refrigerated; and
one for deep-frozen foods. Frequently, the cold room
storage is designed so that the chill room, the cold
room and the deep-freeze compartment lead on from
each other. Refrigerated cabinets, thermo-statically
controlled to various desired temperatures, are also
used in large larders. Deep-freeze cabinets are used
where a walk-in, deep-freeze section is not required:
they maintain a temperature of 218°C. Chest-type
deep-freeze cabinets require defrosting twice a year.
It is important to close all refrigerator doors as quickly
Figure 5.27 A refrigerated gastronorm
as possible to contain the cold air.
counter
Hygiene precautions
●● do not store foods for long periods in a good,
Refrigeration cannot improve the quality of food-
general-purpose refrigerator because a single
stuffs; it can only retard the natural process of dete-
temperature is not suitable for keeping all types
rioration. For maximum storage of food and minimum
of food safely and at peak condition
health risk:
●● never keep uncooked meat, poultry or fish in the
●● select the appropriate refrigerator equipment for same refrigerator, or any other food that is not in
the temperature requirement of the food its own sealed, airtight container
●● always ensure refrigerators maintain the correct ●● never refreeze foods that have been thawed out
temperature for the food stored from frozen
●● keep unwrapped foods, vulnerable to ●● always rotate stock in refrigerator space
contamination, and flavour and odour transfer, in ●● clean equipment regularly and thoroughly, inside
separate refrigerators or in airtight containers and and out.
away from products such as cream, other dairy
products, partly cooked pastry, cooked meat and
delicatessen foods
Loading performance. Never use a hammer or any sharp

●● Ensure that there is adequate capacity for instrument that could perforate cabinet linings – a
maximum stock. plastic spatula can be used to remove stubborn ice.
●● Check that perishable goods are delivered in a
refrigerated vehicle.
Emergency measures
●● Only fill frozen food storage cabinets with pre- Signs of imminent breakdown include: unusual
frozen food. noises, fluctuating temperatures, frequent stopping
●● Never put hot or warm food in a refrigerator and starting of the compressor, excessive frost build-
unless it is specially designed for rapid chilling. up, absence of normal frost.
●● Ensure that no damage is caused to inner linings Prepare to call a competent refrigeration service
and insulation by staples or nails in packaging. engineer, but first check that:
●● Air must be allowed to circulate within a ●● the power supply has not been accidentally
refrigerator to maintain the cooling effect – do switched off
not obstruct any airways. ●● the electrical circuit has not been broken by a
blown fuse or the triggering of an automatic
Cleaning circuit breaker
●● Clean thoroughly inside and out at least every two ●● there has been no unauthorised tampering with
months as blocked drain lines, drip trays and air the temperature control device
ducts will eventually lead to a breakdown. ●● any temperature higher than recommended is not
●● Switch off power. due solely to routine automatic defrosting, to the
●● If possible, transfer stock to available alternative refrigerator door being left open, to overloading
storage. the equipment or to any blockage of internal
●● Clean interior surfaces with lukewarm water and passage of air
a mild detergent. Do not use abrasives or strongly ●● there is no blockage of air to the condenser by
scented cleaning agents. rubbish, crates, cartons, etc.
●● Clean exterior and dry all surfaces inside and out. If you still suspect a fault, call the engineer and be
●● Clear away any external dirt, dust or rubbish that prepared to give brief details of the equipment and
might restrict the circulation of air around the the fault. Keep the door of the defective cold cabinet
condenser. closed as much as possible to retain cold air. Destroy
●● Switch on power, check when the correct working any spoilt food.
temperature is reached, refill with stock.
Monitoring refrigeration efficiency
Further information can be obtained from the
The Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU) esti-
British Refrigeration Association, Henley Road,
mates that businesses could save 20–25 per cent
Medmanham, Marlow, Buckinghamshire SL7
of the energy currently consumed by refrigeration
2ER (website: www.feta.co.uk/bra/) and the
plants. Your local energy efficiency advice centre may
Federation of Environmental Trade Associations
be able to provide consultancy services at subsidised
Ltd, www.feta.co.uk.
or no cost.
All types of refrigerators – walk-in, cabinet, with
Defrosting or without forced air circulation – should be fitted
This is important as it helps equipment perform effi- with display thermometers or chart recorders that will
ciently and prevents a potentially damaging build-up enable daily monitoring to check that the equipment
of ice. Presence of ice on the evaporator or internal is working correctly. Sensors that can set off avail-
surfaces indicates the need for urgent defrosting; if able alarms must be placed in the warmest part of the
the equipment is designed to defrost automatically cabinet.
this also indicates a fault. Chilled display units include:
Automatic defrosting may lead to a temporary rise ●● multi-deck cabinets with closed doors, used for
in air temperature; this is normal and will not put food dispensing sandwiches, drinks and other foods;
at risk. used if food needs to be displayed for more than
For manual defrosting of chest freezers always four hours
follow the supplier’s instructions to obtain optimum ●● open and semi-open display cabinets where food
is presented on the base of the unit and cooled why these units should never be used to store food
by circulating cooled air other than for display periods of not more than four
●● gastronorm counters (see Figure 5.27). hours.
Maintenance and servicing should be carried out
Because of surrounding conditions it is unsafe to
regularly by qualified personnel.
assume that refrigerated display cabinets will main-
tain the temperature of the food below 5°C, which is
Basic operation of the dishwasher

The effective operation of the dishwasher plays a critical either fixed or whirling arms above and below the
role in food service sanitation by providing the operator dishes in racks or on conveyor belts. This solution
with visibly clean, sanitised and attractive tableware. A is forced out of orifices in a heavy spray that has
basic understanding of dishwasher operation will help a flushing action, which first loosens the soil,
ensure that clean and attractive tableware is always then washes it down over perforated scrap trays
available. Most machines clean in a four-step process. designed to remove the gross soil. The water and
detergent solution then returns to the wash tank.
1 Prewash stage: in the prewash chamber of a
As it comes in contact with the tableware, the
dishwasher (not all dishwashers are built with
wash water should be a solid sheet, since drops
prewash chambers), hot water sprays of around
of water in a spray do a poor job of soil removal.
45°C remove most of the ‘easy’ soil from the
The temperature of the wash water should be
tableware. This soil is usually greasy and can’t
in the 60°C to 65°C range. Temperatures in this
be effectively removed if the water is too cool.
range soften soils and melt greases so they can be
However, if the water is too hot, it may have a
effectively removed.
tendency to bake on other soils. For example,
3 Rinse stage: during this cycle, hot water at 65°C
milk and fruit juice glasses should be prewashed
to 75°C removes the detergent solution and any
in cold water. Dairy products bake on at high
residual soils from the tableware. The action is
temperatures. A cool prewash is also necessary to
similar to that described in the wash tank, using
remove fruit juice residues. If not properly removed,
the same type of pump and spray assemblies,
they may react with metal protecting agents in the
without the addition of detergent.
wash water detergents, to form an insoluble film.
4 Final rinse stage: in the final rinse stage, all
2 Wash stage: the heart of the dishwasher is the
trace of the wash solution is removed. The
washing section. A solution of hot water of around
water temperature should be 82°C to allow the
55°C and detergent is drawn into a powerful pump
sanitising action to take place. Fast surface
and then forced under pressure into pipes and
drying will also occur at these temperatures. A
Racking
Pre-washing 45˚C
Scrapping
Washing 55˚C
Bussing
Dining area Rinse 65–75˚C
Final rinse/
Ready supply of clean sanitisation 82˚C
dishes for reuse
Drying
Figure 5.28 The dishwashing continuum

rinse additive is also injected into the final rinse Further information can be obtained from
water, to facilitate ‘sheeting’ and to prevent water www.powersourcing.com/se/
spotting during this quick-dry stage. dishwashingequipment.htm.
The servery area

There are several factors that affect the shape and ●● the ability to protect the quality of the food
size of serving lines: ●● the ease and speed of supplying the food and
dishes to various serving points
●● the volume or anticipated volume of sales
●● the dishes that are to be promoted
●● the variety or complexity of the menu
●● the selection habits of the customer base
●● the size and shape of the available space, and
●● how to handle delay or back-up points in the
●● the flow of traffic.
service area
Simple, limited-choice menus may be served from ●● the flow of traffic
either a permanently installed, continuous line cafete- ●● minimising hazards that could cause accidents
ria or one that is made up of mobile, modular units. ●● the location of items that customers return for
This style of cafeteria is often referred to as an ‘in- in the service area (e.g. sandwich condiments,
line’ cafeteria. flatware)
Where there is a large number of people to be ●● the cost of labour
served within a relatively short period of time, or when ●● the menu offerings – is it a simple, limited menu
there is a wide variety of food choices, a cafeteria or is it complex, offering a wide variety of food?
with multiple counters and points of service may be ●● any service time limitations.
the best layout. Cafeterias designed around these
Achieving a smooth flow of cafeteria traffic requires
operating premises are referred to as a hollow square
anticipating the key items that will be sought by cus-
or scrambled service cafeteria.
tomers, then placing them at various stations within
The next stage in the evolution of cafeteria or
the cafeteria to achieve a good balanced flow. This is
buffet service layout was the scatter system. A scat-
easier said than done. Food service design consult-
ter system provides multiple serving stations, easy
ants can tap experience from previous cafeteria ser-
access to beverages and condiments, and the group-
vice operations and recommend alternative layouts. If
ing and physical separation of popular menu options,
fixed serving lines and service stations are to be used,
to reduce queues and hold-ups. This system lends
a good people-flow plan is critical and subsequent
itself to demonstration cooking areas, themed dining
changes costly.
areas and more flexibility in changing menus to meet
The service-related equipment used in cafeterias is
changing tastes.
as varied as the food items offered. Some equipment
Scrambled cafeteria plans and scatter systems
needs are directly dependent on the type of cafeteria
are designed to speed up service by reducing the
design being used (straight line vs scramble service),
amount of time spent standing in line. Customers
the complexity of the menu, anticipated traffic flow
can pass others or go directly to the station that has
and the amount of available space. Some of the gen-
their choice of food or beverage. During peak periods,
eral service equipment categories frequently found in
short lines may form at some of the more popular ser-
cafeteria line-ups include:
vice areas. Space allowance should be made for the
movement of people passing each other with loaded ●● sandwich prep tables
trays. The layout should allow for easy re-supply of ●● salad bars
service stations with food and tableware. When a ●● dessert display case
traffic area becomes crowded, it is difficult to supply ●● cold food tables
food and replenish plates, flatware and disposables to ●● hot food tables
centrally located stations. ●● bains-marie
Some key considerations when planning a scram- ●● beverage stations
ble cafeteria layout include: ●● milk dispenser
●● soft drink dispenser
●● what features would appeal to customers
●● cup dispenser
●● flatware dispenser
Entrance
●● grilled food unit
●● menu boards Tray stand
●● cashier stand
●● plate dispensers
●● tray stands
●● mobile dish racks
●● sneeze guards
●● heat lamps
●● ice cream cabinets 1-metre tables
●● condiment stands Service
●● tray rails. area
Design of servery areas

Hygiene and food holding
Hygiene is a major issue in the design and opera-
tion of all cafeterias. The selection of appropriate
equipment can certainly help. For example, the use
of sneeze screens where foods are openly displayed
is one method of promoting hygiene. Another is the
use of serving utensils to discourage any hand con- Condiment stand
Cashier
tact with the food. However, one of the most critical
hygiene issues is ensuring that proper food-holding
temperatures are maintained. Proper food holding
temperatures retard the growth of micro-organisms.
Hot food being held for service must be kept at or Figure 5.29 ‘In line’ cafeteria service – a simple layout
above 63°C; this is a legal requirement. Monitor and
record the temperature of the food. Hot food that has important nutrients. When designing the service area,
been held below this temperature for two hours or flexibility in holding capacity is desirable because dif-
more must be thrown away. ferent food items may be held in the serving area at
Chilled food that is on display or being held for different times. Different day-parts offering planned
service should be kept at between 1°C and 4°C, menu cycles and daily specials will require different
although the legal requirement is to keep it below holding times and conditions.
8°C. Chilled food that has been held at 8°C or above Larger kitchen operations often require advanced
for four hours or more must be thrown away. production and large batch production to even out
The service area of any food service facility should the workflow, and to optimise the use of key cooking
be designed with the following aims in mind: equipment such as ovens, steamers and steam-jack-
eted kettles. When key menu items are prepared far
●● maintaining the quality and temperature of the
in advance of plating and service, safe and effective
food being served
means of holding that production become critical.
●● ensuring the microbial safety of the food
Maintaining acceptable food quality and ensur-
●● presenting the food so that it is satisfying and
ing food safety require holding food at the proper
attractive to the customers, and
temperature and humidity level. This will obviously
●● providing fast and efficient service.
vary, depending on the specific food item(s). Various
In typical cook-serve operations, maintaining the qual- methods and technologies are needed to maintain
ity of cooked foods calls for limiting holding time prior the desired holding environment. For example, infra-
to being served to the customer. Equipment capacity red heaters may be used for a prime rib carving sta-
needs to be planned around peak demand and how tion, while soup may require a heated food well or
quickly food quality deteriorates for the various menu self-serve display kettle that will maintain a higher
items being served. For example, meats are best temperature.
served immediately after cooking. Vegetables under Some foods call for a fresh, moist appearance for
prolonged holding can lose their flavour, texture and presentation. In many cases this requires sufficient
Tray
Flow of traffic
stand
Service Service
area area Condiment
stand
Service Service
area area
Cold
beverage
stand
Flow of traffic
Cashier
stand
Service Service
area area
Figure 5.30 ‘Hollow square’ or ‘scrambled’ cafeteria service
humidity in the holding and serving equipment to pre- sized to hold steam table pans and other pan shapes.
vent drying and loss or change of colour. Vegetables Typically a hot water reservoir is located under the
should have a bright, natural colour while other items pans. Electric heating elements or gas burners heat
such as bread and rolls, should always have that ‘just the water and provide the heat necessary to maintain
baked’ texture and taste. Some items need moist air, a safe food serving temperature. For some products
while other items, such as fried foods, should be kept heat lamps or strip heaters are added above the food
as dry as possible. Dry heat from an infrared heat lamp pans to provide additional dry heat, where needed.
is best suited for these items. Many newer holding Cold food tables and salad bars use a small,
cabinets allow the humidity level inside the cabinet to integrated refrigeration system or ice to maintain
be adjusted, to match the food being held. cold foods and salad components at safe holding
temperatures.
Hot and cold food tables, salad bars and
bains-marie The kitchen pass
This holding and serving equipment is designed One of the most popular pieces of equipment found
to merchandise and display food and ingredients, in the service area of a table service restaurant is the
maintain safe holding temperatures, and provide easy kitchen pass, sometimes referred to as the hotplate.
access for both patrons and the cafeteria employees After the preparation and cooking of the food, the
that replenish them. The design and heating or chill- next stop is normally the pass. A kitchen pass can
ing methods vary, depending on whether the product be as simple as a standard bain-marie unit with an
is pre-plated or held in bulk containers for portioning attached worktable, or a large custom fabricated unit.
and plating by staff or the customer. Most kitchen passes are outfitted with some equip-
Hot food tables and bains-marie are rectangular ment. The equipment included is directly related to
tables designed with heat wells or support frames the type of food service operation and the operational
Important features of a food service costs and provide a higher-quality food

area product. It also reduces staff fatigue, which
●● Properly trained personnel: the waiting improves their attitude and the impression
staff have the primary contact with the dining they make on the customer. A greater
public. Through their actions, responsiveness, distance between these functional areas
knowledge of the menu, ‘sales’ ability and increases the cost of labour and makes it
general demeanour, they leave a certain more difficult to deliver foods at an optimum
impression on the customer. The impression serving temperature.
gained through personal contact with the ●● Proper equipment to maintain quality
waiting staff will colour the overall impression and temperature of food, and to ensure
of the food service operation. A properly trained microbial safety: as detailed in the text,
and empathetic waiter/waitress contributes both hot and cold foods must be held for
significantly to the operational and financial service at the correct temperatures. In a
success of a food service establishment. properly designed and functioning service
●● Proximity of the service and kitchen areas area, appropriate holding equipment should be
to the dining room: a shorter distance used to ensure that these temperatures are
between these two functional areas (service maintained. Temperatures should be monitored
area and kitchen area) can reduce labour and recorded.
needs of their service area. The type and placement They may be installed above pass-through windows
of equipment provided on a kitchen pass are critical between the kitchen and service area or incorporated
for effective table service. into the kitchen pass. These heaters have elements
Equipment that may be found in a kitchen pass or lamps mounted directly above a shelf or plate
area includes: landing area and typically are kept on. They provide
instant radiated heat when a plate is placed under the
●● refrigerated storage base
warmer. They are available in a range of heat patterns,
●● ice bins lengths and configurations designed to support all
●● refrigerated drawers types of service method.
●● refrigerated display case The use of refrigerated drawers and hot food
●● hot food drawers drawers in both the service area and in the produc-
●● plate storage cabinets tion kitchen is common. While a reach-in refrigerator
●● self-levelling plate racks is often just steps away, those steps add up and
slow down meal component assembly. Locating small
●● hot food wells
under-counter refrigerators or refrigerated drawers
●● server call systems at the workstation below work/chef tables, and even
●● order holders under cooking equipment such as ranges and grid-
●● soup warmers dles, can speed up production, reduce staff fatigue,
●● roll warmers and help ensure safe holding of cooked product and
●● toaster raw ingredient storage.
●● microwave oven The type of food service operation and the type of
service offered will determine which beverages are
●● heat lamps
offered and how those beverages are delivered to the
●● cutting/carving boards customer. The availability of water, coffee, milk and
●● tray storage carbonated beverages is almost universal. The ser-
●● bread dispensers vice of wine, beer and spirits (straight and mixed drink
●● beverage dispensing equipment service of whiskies, gin, vodka, tequila, etc.) requires
●● pan storage an alcohol licence and operating decisions related
to the importance of bar service and the target cus-
●● coffee makers/warmers.
tomer base desired.
Infrared strip heaters and heat lamps are commonly While there are some equipment and supply items
used for keeping plated meals hot for short periods. used in fine wine table service (racking, wine chillers,
decanting gadgets, etc.) as well as full bar service they require water service. This step can also reduce
(glass washers, refrigeration, bar sinks, glasses, mugs dishwashing and glass inventory requirements. If
and more), the main focus in designing a bever- water is desired, a source of ice and clean, clear
age system is very often the provision of water, tea, water is needed in the primary (table) service area
coffee, other hot drinks and cold drinks. and/or remote wait-stations located closer to the
customer/tables.
Water service When bottled water is offered to customers, the
Water is fundamental to life on earth and is often only equipment required will be the necessary refrig-
automatically set at the table, along with eating uten- erated storage space, if that water will be served
sils, plates and the menu. The general environmental chilled.
sensitivity has made it common to ask customers if
Miscellaneous equipment
Food waste disposers are operated by electricity Care should be taken by handlers not to push waste
and take all manner of rubbish, including bones, fat, into the machine with a metal object as this can
scraps and vegetable refuse. Almost every type of cause damage.
rubbish and swill, with the exception of rags and tins, Other pieces of equipment that may be found in a
is finely ground, then rinsed down the drain. It is the busy kitchen include an automatic pastry roller (see
most modern and hygienic method of waste disposal. Figure 5.31) and toasters.
Figure 5.31 Automatic pastry roller (dough brake) Figure 5.32 Sieve (left) and colander
Small equipment and utensils

Small equipment and utensils are made from a vari- ●● frying pans ● pancake pans.
ety of materials such as non-stick coated metal, iron,
Baking sheets are made in various sizes, of black
steel, copper, aluminium and wood.
wrought steel. The less they are washed the less
likely they are to cause food to stick. New baking
Iron
sheets should be well heated in a hot oven, thor-
Items of equipment used for frying, such as movable oughly wiped with a clean cloth and then lightly oiled.
fritures and frying pans of all types, are usually made Before being used, baking trays should be lightly
of heavy, black, wrought iron. greased with a pure fat or oil. Immediately after
Frying pans are available in several shapes and use and while still warm they should be cleaned by
many sizes. For example: scraping and dry wiping. Hot soda or detergent water
●● omelette pans ● oval fish-frying pans should be used for washing.
Figure 5.33 Clockwise from top left: egg slice, lemon Figure 5.34 Potato ricer, potato masher, pestle, mortar
squeezer, garlic press, cheese slice
Tartlet and barquette moulds and cake tins should in aluminium pans as they will take on a dark colour,
be cared for in the same way as baking sheets. caused by a chemical reaction. Acid foods react with
aluminium pans, so avoid using them to cook foods
Tinned steel such as rhubarb or Bramley apples.
A number of items are made from this metal:
Stainless steel
●● conical strainer (chinois), used for passing sauces
and gravies Heavy-duty stainless steel pans, incorporating an
●● fine conical strainer, used for passing sauces and extra thick aluminium base that gives excellent heat
gravies diffusion, are available. They are suitable for all sur-
●● colander, used for draining vegetables faces except induction hobs. Stainless steel is also
●● vegetable reheating container used for many items of small equipment.
●● soup machine and mouli strainer, used for passing
thick soups, sauces and potatoes for mash All-Clad cooking pans
●● sieves. All-Clad is a brand of cooking pan using a combina-
tion of materials designed to make the best use of
Aluminium the properties of them all. Each All-Clad pan is made
(Note: minimum use of aluminium is recommended – of several layers of different metals and alloys (see
stainless steel (see below) is to be preferred.) Figure 5.35), permanently bonded together (clad). The
Saucepans, stockpots, sauteuses, sauté pans, brais- designers paid attention to the thickness of each layer,
ing pans, fish kettles and large, round, deep pans and and the order of the layers, with the goal of maximising:
dishes of all sizes are made in cast aluminium. They are
●● conductivity l consistency
expensive, but one advantage is that the pans do not
●● responsiveness l practicality
tarnish; also because of their strong, heavy construc-
●● non-reactivity l durability.
tion they are suitable for many cooking processes.
A disadvantage is that in the manufacture of alu- The pans are designed to:
minium, which is a soft metal, other metals are added
●● heat evenly, with no hotspots, at a consistent rate
to make pans stronger. As a result certain foods can
●● cool evenly at a consistent rate
become discoloured (care should be taken when
●● be responsive to temperature changes
mixing white sauces and white soups). A wooden
●● not react with any foodstuffs or cleaning agents
spoon should be used for mixing, then there should
●● work equally well on any cooker type or in the
be no discoloration. The use of metal whisks or
oven.
spoons must be avoided.
Water boiled in aluminium pans is unsuitable for No single metal or alloy meets these criteria, so the
tea making as it gives the tea an unpleasant colour. best cookware has always used layers of different
Red cabbage and artichokes should not be cooked metals.
Stainless steel
cooking surface
Figure 5.36 Non-stick pans
Aluminium layer using non-stick pans so that contact is not made
to the surface with metal
Thick copper core ●● extra care is needed when cleaning non-stick
Aluminium layer
surfaces; the use of cloth or paper is most
suitable.
Stainless steel exterior There are many small pieces of equipment made from
metal of all types (see Figures 5.33 and 5.34).
Figure 5.35 Diagram of a layered pan
Wood and compound materials

All-Clad pans are used in a number of high-quality Cutting boards
restaurants. They are available in several retail These are an important item of kitchen equipment,
stores. which should be kept in use on all table surfaces to
protect the table and the edges of cutting knives.
Stainless steel
The All-Clad Stainless range (an example of using Wooden chopping boards
layers of different metals) features a magnetic grade To comply with current regulations, wooden boards
of stainless steel on the exterior for induction com- should not splinter or leak preservatives. They should
patibility. It has an aluminium core and the same be of close-grained hardwood, either in a thick, solid
high-quality stainless interior layer as all of the other slab or separate pieces with close-fitting joints.
All-Clad products. The total thickness is 2.7 mm
with 0.38 mm interior stainless and 0.38 mm exterior ●● Before using a new board, wash to remove any
stainless. wood dust.
●● After use, scrub with hot detergent water, rinse
Copper Core with clean water, dry as much as possible and
The All-Clad Copper Core range is made of 60 per stand on its longest end to prevent warping.
cent copper bonded with both aluminium and stain- ●● Do not use for heavy chopping; use a chopping
less steel, with the conductivity and heat retention of block instead.
copper and aluminium.
Cutting boards of compound materials
Non-stick metal There are several types available. When selecting
compound cutting boards it is essential to purchase
An ever-increasing variety of kitchen utensils (sauce-
those with a non-slip surface.
pans, frying pans, baking and roasting tins) are avail-
One material used to make cutting boards is
able, and are suitable for certain types of kitchen
polyethylene.
operation, such as small scale or à la carte. Particular
Cutting boards are also made of hard rubber and
attention should be paid to the following points, oth-
rubber compounds (rubber, polystyrene and clay).
erwise the non-stick properties of the equipment will
These are hygienic because they are solid, in one
be affected:
piece and should not warp, crack or absorb flavours.
●● excessive heat should be avoided They are cleaned by scrubbing with hot water and
●● use plastic or wooden spatulas or spoons when then drying or passing through a dishwasher.
Plastic cutting boards

Plastic is the most popular material for cutting boards.
It has the advantage of being able to be put through a
dishwasher to clean and sterilise it, and can be colour
coded so that high-risk foods are prepared only on
the one cutting board, thereby reducing the risk of
cross-contamination.
The accepted UK system is:
●● yellow for cooked meats
●● red for raw meats
●● white for bread and dairy products (e.g. cheese)
●● blue for raw fish
●● green for salad and fruit
Figure 5.38 A vegetable slicer (mandolin)
●● brown for raw vegetables grown within the soil.
China and earthenware
Bowls and dishes in china and earthenware are useful
for serving a variety of foods, and for microwaved
dishes. They should be cleaned in a dishwasher with
mild detergent and rinse aid, or by hand, using the
appropriate detergent for hand washing.
Materials (cloths, etc.)

All materials should be washed in hot detergent water
Figure 5.37 Modern cutting boards immediately after use, rinsed in hot, clean water and
then dried. Tammy cloths, muslins and linen piping
Rolling pins, wooden spoons and bags must be boiled periodically in detergent water.
spatulas Kitchen cloths should be washed or changed fre-
These items should be scrubbed in hot detergent quently, otherwise accumulating dirt and food stains
water, rinsed in clean water and dried. Rolling pins may cause cross-contamination of harmful bacteria/
should not be scraped with a knife as this can cause germs on to clean food.
the wood to splinter. Adhering paste can be removed Muslin may be used for straining soups and sauces.
with a cloth. Wooden spoons and spatulas are being Piping bags are made from disposable plastic and
replaced by a high-density plastic capable of with- are used for piping preparations of all kinds. Plastic
standing very high temperatures. Wooden spoons/ piping bags are the most hygienic.
spatulas are considered unhygienic unless washed
in a suitable sterilising solution such as sodium
hypochloride solution (bleach) or a solution of Milton.
Metal piping tubes are being replaced by plastic;
these can be boiled and do not rust.
Wooden sieves and mandolins

When these are being cleaned, care of the wooden
frame should be considered, taking into account the
previous remarks. The blades of the mandolin should
be kept lightly greased to prevent rust (stainless steel
mandolins with protective guards are available).
Figure 5.39 Examples of

flameproof china dishes
Kitchen cloths: ●● Kitchen: white absorbent paper for absorbing

grease from deep-fried foods and for lining trays
●● general purpose – for washing-up and cleaning
on which cold foods are kept.
surfaces
●● General purpose: thick, absorbent paper for
●● tea towel (teacloth) – for drying up and general-
wiping and drying equipment, surfaces, food, etc.
purpose hand cloths
●● Towels: disposable, for drying the hands.
●● bactericide wiping cloths – impregnated with
bactericide to disinfect work surfaces; these
Foils
cloths have a coloured pattern that fades and
disappears when the bactericide is no longer ●● Clingfilm: a thin, transparent material for wrapping
effective; they should then be discarded sandwiches, snacks, hot and cold foods; clingfilm
●● oven cloths – thick cloths designed to protect the has the advantage of being very flexible and easy
hands when removing hot items from the oven; to handle and seal; due to risk of contamination,
oven cloths must only be used dry, never damp or it is advisable to use a clingfilm that does not
wet, otherwise the user is likely to be burned. contain PVC or is plasticiser-free.
●● Metal foil: a thin, pliable, silver-coloured material
Papers for wrapping and covering foods and for
protecting oven-roasted joints during cooking.
●● Greaseproof or silicone: for lining cake-tins,
making piping bags and wrapping greasy items of
food.
Energy conservation and efficiency

The emphasis in coming years for chefs and manag- Energy consumption in the hospitality
ers will be to save energy. With the rising cost of fuel, industry
pressure will be on all operations to look at efficient
Statistics issued by the Building Research
ways of saving money on fuel.
Establishment (BRE) indicate that the UK’s hospital-
ity sector remains a major consumer of fossil fuels,
Climate change
accounting for 16 per cent of all energy used in
Scientists predict that global warming will cause the the service sector. Its consumption of electricity and
earth’s temperature to rise by between 1.5 and 5.8°C, fossil fuels is greater than that in education, govern-
and sea levels by between 10 and 90 cm over the ment or the health service. The major cost sectors for
coming 100 years. This will have severe implications, energy use are heating, air conditioning, cooking and
such as increased rainfall and more ‘severe weather refrigeration, lighting and production of hot water. It
events’, such as storms and flooding, worldwide. is estimated that most hospitality businesses could,
Although the climate has always changed naturally, however, save between 20 and 40 per cent of energy.
science shows that human activity is now the cause of The main uses of energy are for providing catering
major change: global temperatures have risen 0.6°C services and hot water.
over the last 140 years (since the start of the Industrial Chefs and managers have to take responsibil-
Revolution), and the rate of warming is greater than ity for energy management. Fuel tariffs have to be
at any time since the last Ice Age. Economic ‘growth’ checked to ensure the most competitive rates are
and development remain dependent on the burning of achieved. Assess the current fuel costs and identify
fossil fuels, whose by-products (known as ‘greenhouse any wastage. All staff should be trained to save fuel
gases’) act as insulators in the atmosphere, inhibiting and monitor use.
the earth’s natural cooling mechanism.
However, if the world reduces its dependency on Energy and the environment
the use of fossil fuels then it is possible to ensure that
The burning of fossil fuels to generate energy
the rise in the earth’s temperature will be minimised.
releases gases into the atmosphere. These include
sulphur dioxide, which gives rise to acid rain, and
carbon dioxide, which is the main contributor to the
threat of global warming.
Table 5.3 Energy efficiency measures and percentage savings
Fossil Fossil
Boilers, controls and hot saving Electricity Lighting, catering and saving Electricity
water % saving % other services % saving %
No Ensure systems come on 1 2 Switch off lights and other 0 0.5
cost only when, where and to the equipment whenever
extent they are needed possible
Label light switches
Establish a daily routine for 1 1 Make maximum use of 0 0.5
checking control settings, daylight
especially where they may Place lights where they will
have been overridden in be most effective
response to unexpected Clean light fittings and use
circumstances translucent shades
Improve the reflection of
light from walls and ceilings
by using pale colours
Use your existing equipment 3 1 Set illumination levels to 0 0.5
effectively the type of activity
Check that timers, Reduce lighting levels
programmers, optimum where possible and remove
start controls and weather surplus lamps (but do not
compensation controls compromise safety)
are set up and operating
correctly
Isolate parts of systems that 1 0 Provide training for 0.2 0.2
are not in use – for example, catering staff about energy
seasonally costs and correct use of
Remove redundant pipework equipment
during refurbishment Set energy targets for
meals, monitor consumption
and give feedback to staff
Ensure plant is regularly and 0.5 0.5 Ensure regular maintenance 0.2
correctly maintained of cooking utensils, all
appliances, burners, timers,
controls and taps
Badly maintained
equipment wastes energy
Review hot water thermostat 1 0 Ensure optimum use of 0.2 0.2
accuracy and temperature hot water, ventilation and
settings periodically lighting in the kitchen for
Reducing temperatures various times of day and
will save energy – but take night
precautions to avoid the risk Do not use hobs or ovens
of legionnaires’ disease for space heating
Run dishwashers only on
full loads
Low Fit draught stripping around 1 0 Where fittings allow, replace 0 0.5
cost windows and doors 38 mm fluorescent light
Fit heavy curtains to guest tubes by 26 mm type, and
and public rooms install electronic starters
and ballasts
Fossil Fossil
Boilers, controls and hot saving Electricity Lighting, catering and saving Electricity
water % saving % other services % saving %
Check boiler efficiency 2 0 Consider replacement of 0 6
periodically and make tungsten lamps (including
improvements as required light fittings where
necessary) by compact
fluorescent types
Provide temperature and 1 0 Consider installation of 0 1
time controls for domestic timers, dimmers, photocells
hot water and sensors so lighting
operates only when, where
and to the extent needed
Install showers and flow 2 1 Consider installation of 0 1
restrictors where possible bedroom key fobs so lights
Reduce standing losses and other electrical items
from hot water storage by operate only when rooms
lagging pipes and tanks are occupied
Consider direct fired water 3 0 When replacing catering 1 1
heaters for hot water in equipment, review current
place of boiler serving developments in appliance
calorifier design to select the most
energy efficient
Establish a system for 1 2 If you have a swimming 0.5 0
setting targets for energy pool, provide and use a
consumption, monitoring cover to reduce heat losses
actual consumption and at night
assessing performance
Modernise heating and 6 1 Ensure enough linen is 0.5 0
ventilation plant controls available so that laundry
equipment is run at full load
Provide power factor 6 1 Use high-efficiency lights 0 0.5
correction, and consider for all external lights,
load shedding to reduce including car parking areas,
maximum demand charges controlled by timers and/or
This will not save fuel photocells
but will reduce electricity
charges
Factors to convert consumption of fuels to emis- square metre of floor area annually, equivalent to
sions of carbon dioxide, in kg of carbon dioxide pro- about 10 tonnes per bedroom.
duced per kWh of fuel used, are:
●● gas – 0.21 Who benefits from energy efficiency?
●● oil – 0.29 ●● Hotel owners and management benefit because
●● electricity – 0.72. efficiently run buildings cost less to operate.
●● Guests benefit because an efficiently controlled
See HCIMA Technical Brief No. 36, or contact hotel satisfies their needs and leads to repeat
the Department for Environment, Food and Rural business.
Affairs (Defra) for information about energy ●● Staff benefit through improved morale and better
efficiency (see www.defra.gov.uk). motivation, which in turn increase productivity.
●● The environment benefits because using
A typical hotel releases about 160 kg of CO2 per energy efficiently reduces adverse effects on
the environment and preserves non-renewable Comparison of fuels

resources for future generations. Electricity and mains gas are most generally used in
catering. Bottled gas (e.g. Calor) is also used in some
Energy efficiency measures and catering operations. Before deciding on the fuel to
percentage savings use (if there is a choice) the following factors should
The savings quoted in Table 5.3 are the minimum you be considered:
can expect to achieve. Small percentage savings can
●● safety
mean appreciable cash benefits.
●● constancy of supply
●● cost
Services and energy ●● cleanliness and need for ventilation
The supply of gas, electricity and water are of vital ●● efficiency
importance to the caterer. Any information required ●● cost of equipment, installation and maintenance.
is best obtained from the appropriate local board so ●● storage requirements.
that it will be up to date.
Energy conservation
Water
The costs of energy use in hotel and catering estab-
Water authorities are required, by law, to provide a
lishments vary widely according to the type of fuel
supply of clean, wholesome water, free from sus-
used, the type and age of equipment, the way in
pended matter, odour and taste, all bacteria that are
which it is used and the tariff paid.
likely to cause disease, and mineral matter injurious
The basic principles of energy management are:
to health.
●● obtain the best tariff available
Electrical safety ●● purchase the most suitable energy-efficient
All electrical products must meet safety criteria laid equipment
out in European and national regulations. ●● reduce heat loss to a minimum
●● match heat and cooling loads on environmental
Gas systems whenever possible to the demands
Gas is a safe fuel, but like all fuels it must be treated ●● maintain all equipment to optimum efficiency
with respect in order to remain safe. ●● ensure that the operating periods of systems and
equipment are set correctly
What to do if you smell gas: ●● use heat recovery systems
●● Open all doors and windows. ●● monitor energy consumption
●● Check whether a gas tap has been left on, or ●● train staff to be energy efficient.
if a pilot light has gone out. If so, turn off the
appliance.
●● If in doubt, turn off the gas supply at the meter
and phone for emergency service.
Electricity
Electricity cannot be heard, tasted or smelled. Installed
and used correctly, it is a very safe source of energy,
but misused it can kill or cause serious injury. It is
therefore essential that any electrical installation is
undertaken by qualified engineers in accordance with
British Standard 7671, and carried out by registered
contractors of the National Inspection Council for
Electrical Installation Contracting (NICIEC). A tech-
nical brief, ‘Guide to Electric Lighting, No. 7/97’, is
available from HCIMA. Figure 5.40 A bank of modern equipment, with induction hobs
built in
Table 5.4 Comparison of electricity and gas
Advantages Disadvantages
Electricity
Clean to use, low maintenance Time taken to heat up in a few
Easily controlled, labour saving instances
Good working atmosphere Particular utensils are required for some hobs, e.g.
Little heat loss, no storage space induction
required More expensive than gas
Low ventilation requirements
Gas
Convenient, labour saving, no smoke Some heat is lost in the kitchen
or dirt Regular cleaning required for efficient working
Special utensils not required For gas to produce heat it must burn; this requires
No fuel storage required oxygen, which is contained in the air, and as a result
Easily controllable with immediate full heat and the carbon dioxide and water are produced
flames are visible As a result, adequate ventilation must be provided
Cheaper than electricity for combustion and to ensure a satisfactory working
environment
Some factors to be considered in or omitted, or can alternative procedures be

energy conservation used?
●● Check all pre-heating of equipment – overlong
●● Always replace equipment with low-energy rating
pre-heating wastes fuel.
equipment, by referring to wattage and running
●● Constantly review all heating and cooking
costs.
procedures.
●● Ensure that all machinery is maintained at its
●● Is it possible to reduce operating hours?
optimum efficiency and that equipment needing
●● Regularly check ventilation systems.
regular cleaning is serviced in accordance
●● Regularly check that storage temperatures for hot
with maintenance manual requirements. This
water systems are not more than 65°C for central
particularly applies to filters on ventilation and
systems and 55°C for local units. Also ensure
on conditioning systems, refrigeration plant
that this temperature is not less than 55°Cto
condensers, cooking equipment and dishwashing
avoid the risk of legionnaires’ disease.
machines.
●● Regularly check all lighting systems; where
●● When replacing equipment, it is an opportune
possible use energy-efficient compact fluorescent
time to review the contents of the menu, the
bulbs.
cooking and storage methods that the menu
●● Train staff not to waste lighting or use lighting
requires. Can certain procedures be scaled down
unnecessarily.
References
CESA, An Introduction to the Food Service Industry Some references to planning and
(hand-out to CFSP course delegates) equipment elsewhere in this book:
Katz, R.L. (1974) ‘Skills of the effective
✎● Automatic vending................................................................. 320
administrator’, Harvard Business Review 52(1).
Mintzberg, H. (1975) ‘The manager’s job: folklore ✎● Dishwashing systems ........................................................ 279
and fact’, Harvard Business Review 74. ✎● Kitchen hygiene........................................................................ 412
✎● Planning a function............................................................... 244
✎● Restaurant planning ............................................................ 287
✎● Safety ................................................................................................... 367

1 Who should be responsible for planning a 14 Discuss the respective advantages of a con-
kitchen? ventional oven, convection oven and a combi-
2 Discuss the worst organised kitchen that you nation convection/steaming oven.
have seen and how it could be improved. 15 Compare induction cooking plates, halogen
3 Give good and bad examples of working hobs and conventional cooking tops.
methods. 16 What are the advantages of pans made up of
4 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages layers of different metals?
of the straight-shift and split-shift systems 17 What are the benefits of the bratt pan?
from the point of view of the staff and the 18 What essential items of mechanical equipment
employer. are needed?
5 Compile a list of all the factors that affect the 19 Discuss the importance of sufficient
good design of a kitchen. Discuss why they are refrigeration.
necessary to enable efficiency. 20 What are the benefits of the food waste dis-
6 Poor design may cause accidents in the poser or the advantages of a food compactor?
kitchen. Discuss the ways in which accidents 21 What is the argument for maintaining wooden
can be prevented. chopping boards?
7 Discuss the reasons why organisation of staff 22 Discuss the design of equipment in relation to
needs to be considered in relation to a specific maintaining high standards of hygiene.
menu and the factors that influence the com- 23 What factors should be considered by those
position of the menu. designing kitchen equipment?
8 Discuss the qualities that go towards being a 24 What faults, if any, do you wish to be remedied
good (a) head chef, (b) chef de partie. in any items of equipment?
9 Organisational ability is a quality that is often 25 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
quoted as an essential element to being suc- induction equipment?
cessful in the kitchen. Discuss, with examples if 26 The advantages of gas or electricity for kitchen
possible, your understanding of organisational equipment.
ability regarding (a) resources, (b) staff, (c) 27 How to effect economy in the consumption of
yourself. energy by catering equipment.
10 Discuss the role of supervision and relate this, 28 Why maintenance of all services is essential.
if possible, to an establishment you know. 29 How water conservation can be achieved.
11 As an employee, how do you like to be 30 Why hot water is more costly than cold water,
supervised? and how these costs can be reduced.
12 What are the characteristics of a good 31 How could the sun and wind be used to reduce
supervisor? costs in small establishments?
13 List the essential requirements of kitchen 32 Discuss how training could reduce wastage of
equipment. water, gas and electricity.
, production
ng a
ni
6 nd
an
Part 3 Pl
ser Production systems

vice
A Strategic and Methodical Cook-Freeze 215

Approach to Food Production Overall Benefits of Cook-Chill/
and Service 204 Cook-Freeze 220
Quality in the Management of Vacuum Cooking (Sous-Vide) 221
Food and Beverage Production Centralised Production 222
Systems 205
The Assembly Kitchen Concept 225
Problems 206
References 226
Production 207
Cook-Chill 208

›● Activity worksheets: production systems; hygiene
A strategic and methodical approach to food production and

service
Every chef’s challenge is to ensure that the produc- The ‘progressive approach’ is to establish a level
tion of food (mise-en-place) is as safe, efficient, cost of consistency in the building of knowledge where
effective and consistent as possible. This is only the trainee starts with the basics and progresses
possible when the chef can analyse the full process methodically, learning all areas of their craft. For
using a critical path and identify all areas of work. example:
There is more evidence that today’s young chef
●● health and safety
has the desire to achieve great things, which in itself
●● communication with others
is very admirable; however, this approach, if not tem-
●● personnel legislation
pered, is flawed and could cause frustrations when
●● delegation
you are in a senior post within an organisation. The
●● understanding facilities in the kitchen
current desire to achieve, have the highest accolades
environment
with the biggest salary, and the best and most original
●● the welfare of others
food, detracts from the very foundation that supports
●● conceptual skills
the product that is so important to the organisation.
●● self-motivation
This approach is partly driven by the media promot-
●● recruitment and training
ing the ‘celebrity chef’ and sometimes endorsing the
●● working with others
taking of an ‘unethical’ approach in order to achieve
●● understanding the market
stardom.
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 205
●● financial acumen Areas of ‘risk’

●● understanding suppliers and their relationships Areas of risk include:
●● making effective decisions
●● kitchen administration and organisation. ●● heath and safety
●● incorrect convergence of facilities
This list identifies most of the areas that will support ●● financial loss
the food and beverage product, making it consistent ●● suppliers
and able to achieve longevity, with the capacity to ●● the market
maintain growth and gain the market edge. The list ●● cooking consistency
does not include food production and food styles, ●● the workforce
however, nor does it cover the scientific ‘wow!’ and ●● non-compliance with food safety legislation.
bafflement factor.
However, the list is the essential foundation on All these areas hold potential risks that could devalue
which the food and beverage product should be the product/brand by making the end result incon-
based; without this foundation the product itself is sistent, which will lead to a fall in profits and perhaps
prone to collapse, leading to heightened risk and ulti- increase staff turnover. In extreme cases, businesses
mately placing the product/brand at risk. in hospitality that fail do so due to one or more of the
above areas not being properly managed.
Quality in the management of food and beverage production

systems
European Foundation for Quality with the aim of providing a method for organisations
Management Excellence Model (1999) to assess the suitability of their suppliers’ products.
The scheme aimed to rationalise the many schemes
The European Foundation for Quality Management
of supplier assessment used by various purchasing
Excellence Model is a non-prescriptive framework,
firms and organisations.
which recognises that there are many approaches
The British Standard Quality Award BS EN ISO
to achieving sustainable excellence in all aspects
9002: 1994, is a quality kitemark (standard or bench-
of performance. The model is based on nine crite-
mark) in the fitness for purpose and safety in use
ria. It emphasises that results for customers, people
sense, in the service provided and/or the products
(employees) and society are achieved through leader-
designed and constructed to satisfy the customer’s
ship driving policy and strategy, people management,
needs. It is concerned primarily with evidence of
partnership and resources, and processes leading to
systematic processes that are employed within an
business results.
operation and which can demonstrate that there is a
Each of the nine elements shown in the model
link between customer demand and the services and
(Figure 6.1) is a criterion that can be used to appraise
products on offer.
an organisation’s progress towards total quality man-
BS EN ISO 9002 identifies the systems, proce-
agement. The four results criteria are concerned with
dures and criteria that ensure that a product or service
what the organisation has achieved and is achieving.
meets a customer’s requirements. The key elements
The five enablers criteria are concerned with how
in quality management for most organisations in the
results are being achieved. The arrows shown are
hotel and catering (hospitality) industry include:
intended to emphasise the dynamic nature of the
model. They indicate that innovation and learning help ●● management responsibility – policy, objectives,
to improve the enablers and that this in turn leads to identification of key personnel
improved results. The overall objective of comprehen- ●● quality system procedures – all functions must be
sive self-appraisal and self-improvement is to regu- covered
larly review each of the nine criteria and, thereafter, ●● auditing the system – it must be audited internally
to adopt relevant improvement strategies. ●● quality in marketing – honest promotional activities
●● material control and traceability – supplies must
be traceable
British Standard EN ISO 9002: 1994 ●● non-conformity – ensuring that faulty products/
The British Standard scheme was introduced in 1979 service do not reach the customer
Enablers Results
People People results
Leadership Policy and Key

Processes Customer results performance
strategy
results
Partnership
Society results
and resources
Innovation and learning
Figure 6.1 European Foundation for Quality Management Excellence Model
●● corrective action – identifying reasons for faults, increasing uniformity between operations, the level
and subsequently implementing measures to of service provided and its quality become ever more
correct them and records of the faults and important. It is the front-line members of staff that offer
measures, written and kept this service – their training and development are crucial
●● after-sales service – procedures for monitoring to the successful running of an operation. Total qual-
quality of after-sales service ity management (TQM) offers a framework by which
●● documentation and records – records of checks members of staff are given the scope to treat guests as
and inspections, action taken, audit reports individuals, and thereby offer superior service.
●● personnel and training – identification of needs, However, the costs involved in attaining the stand-
provision and verification of training ard can be high, and therefore the introduction of
●● product safety and liability – procedures for BS EN ISO 9002 needs to be carefully assessed
handling, storing and processing materials (for before implementation takes place. On the other
example, foods). hand, the reviews from many of the organisations
moving towards BS EN ISO 9002 have suggested
BS EN ISO 9002 can be important to food service
that it is cost-effective.
operations for two reasons. First, when purchasing
goods and services, BS EN ISO 9002 indicates that
Further information on quality matters can be
a supplier operates a quality system of a high stand-
obtained from the following sources.
ard. Second, food service operators, such as contract
● European Foundation for Quality Management,
caterers, may find that they will not be considered as
Brussels Representative Office, Avenue des
potential tenderers if they have not achieved BS EN
Pleiades 15, 1200 Brussels, Belgium (website:
ISO 9002. Additionally, BS EN ISO 9002 may even
www.efqm.org).
provide useful evidence that due diligence had been
● The complete documents on BS EN ISO 9002:
exercised – for example, in the event of a food service
1994 are available from the British Standards
operation being prosecuted under the Food Safety
Institution, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes MK14
Act 1990/95.
6LE (website: www.bsi-global.com).
In an increasingly competitive marketplace, and with
Problems
Food production systems, such as cook-chill, cook- ●● Staff: unattractive work conditions, limited
freeze and sous-vide, have been introduced into cer- numbers of skilled staff, mobility of labour.
tain areas of catering in order to increase efficiency ●● Food: high cost, wastage.
and productivity; changes have been made to maxim- ●● Equipment: high cost of replacement and
ise the utilisation of equipment and to maintain high maintenance, under-usage.
levels of output and viability. ●● Energy: wasteful high-cost traditional systems,
The particular problems of the catering industry are availability.
as follows. ●● Overheads: wage increases, payments to
National Insurance.
●● Space: most kitchens and services must be Sous-vide, which is a method of working under vacuum-
adequate for comfortable working while using sealing, ice-water bath chilling and chilled storage, has
space efficiently; space is very costly. also been developed as a production system.
Many catering operations face problems because
The solution to these problems comes in the form
of the growing shortage of skilled catering staff and
of centralisation of production, using the skilled staff
the ever-increasing turnover of employees:
available to prepare and cook in bulk and then to dis-
tribute to finishing kitchens, which are smaller in size, ●● It is essential that skilled staff are more fully
employing semi-skilled and unskilled labour. utilised and given improved working conditions.
Cook-freeze and cook-chill systems have been ●● Certain catering tasks require deskilling so as to
developed to meet these requirements, each system be carried out by a greater proportion of unskilled
having advantages over the other depending on the staff.
size and nature of the overall operation. For example, ●● Better benefits and conditions of employment must
cook-freeze is not adaptable to very small units or be provided for fewer key staff in order to reduce
to haute cuisine. Cook-chill can be adapted to any levels of staff turnover and enhance job satisfaction.
type of unit but cannot take advantage of seasonal,
cheaper commodities.
Production
In order to ensure that high-quality, palatable food ●● separation of raw and cooked foods at all times
is produced at all times it is essential that working ●● strict control of cooking times and temperatures
conditions are maintained to the highest possible ●● staff training in food hygiene
standards, as laid down in the HMSO publica- ●● consultation with medical and public health
tion Clean Catering (ISBN 011 320 4833). For officers when planning food production
example: systems.
●● stringent personal hygiene precautions against Equipment
infection of the food
The equipment used will vary according to the size of
●● all working surfaces and utensils thoroughly
the operation, but if food is batch-cooked then con-
cleaned to minimise spread of bacteria
vection ovens, steaming ovens, bratt pans, jacketed
●● clean equipment and utensils separated from
boiling pans, tilting kettles, and so on, may be used.
used items awaiting cleaning
Certain oven models are available in which a set of
Food Preparation Cooking Holding Regeneration Presentation

Fresh Weigh/measure Blanch Chill Regithermic Bain-marie
Fresh cooked Clean/open Warm Sous-vide Microwave Service flats
Fresh prepared Chop/cut Simmer Freeze Convection Plates
Canned Combine/mix Boil Tray Traditional Trays
Frozen Blend Steam Hot cupboard Vending
Chilled Shape/coat Grill Cold cupboard Buffet
Vacuum Form Sauté Trolley
Dehydrated Brown Dishes
Smoked Bake
Salted Roast
Crystallised Fry
Acidified Microwave
Pasteurised
Bottled
UHT
Foods in Process Output
Figure 6.2 Elements of production

racks can be assembled with food and wheeled in the information given in this chapter relates to
for cooking. both systems. (For details of cook-freeze, see page
The main difference between cook-freeze and 215.)
cook-chill is the degree of refrigeration and the We will now take a closer look at some of the meth-
length of storage life. Other than these differences ods of food production highlighted in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Methods of food production
No Method Description
1 Conventional Term used to describe production utilising mainly fresh foods and traditional cooking
methods
2 Convenience Method of production utilising mainly convenience foods
3 Call order Method where food is cooked to order either from customer (as in cafeterias) or from
waiter; production area often open to customer area
4 Continuous flow Method involving production-line approach where different parts of the production
process may be separated (e.g. fast food)
5 Centralised Production not directly linked to service; foods are ‘held’ and distributed to separate
service areas
6 Cook-chill Food production storage and regeneration method utilising principle of low
temperature control to preserve the qualities of processed foods
7 Cook-freeze Production, storage and regeneration method utilising principle of freezing to control
and preserve the qualities of processed foods; requires special processes to assist
freezing
8 Sous-vide Method of production, storage and regeneration utilising principle of sealed vacuum
to control and preserve the quality of processed foods
9 Assembly kitchen A system based on accepting and incorporating the latest technological development
in the manufacturing and conservation of food products
Cook-chill
Cook-chill is a catering system based on the normal
preparation and cooking of food followed by rapid
chilling storage in controlled low-temperature condi-
tions above freezing point – 0–3°C – and subse-
quently reheating immediately before consumption.
The chilled food is regenerated in finishing kitchens,
which require low capital investment and minimum
staff. Almost any food can be cook-chilled pro-
vided that the correct methods are used during the
preparation.
The cook-chill system is used in volume cater-
ing, in hospitals, schools and in social services. It is
also used for banquets, in conference and exhibition
catering, in vending machines where meals are dis- Figure 6.3 A selection of temperature measuring devices
pensed to the customer, and in factories, hospitals
and services outside of main meal times.
Production systems 209
Foods suitable for the cook-chill The purpose of chilling food

process The purpose of chilling food is to prolong its storage
●● Meats: All meat, poultry, game and offal can be life. Under normal temperature conditions, food dete-
cook-chilled. Meat dishes that need to be sliced, riorates rapidly through the action of micro-organisms
such as striploin of beef, are cooked, rapidly and enzymic and chemical reactions. A reduction in
chilled, sliced and packaged for storage. The the storage temperature inhibits the multiplication of
regeneration temperature must reach 70°C in the bacteria and other micro-organisms, and slows down
centre of the produce for two minutes. Therefore, the chemical and enzymic reactions. At normal refrig-
it is not possible to serve undercooked meats. eration temperatures reactions are still taking place
●● Fish: All precooked fish dishes are suitable for but at a much slower rate, and at frozen food storage
cook-chilling. temperatures (220°C approximately) all reactions
●● Egg dishes: Omelettes and scrambled eggs are now nearly cease. A temperature of 0–3°C does not give
commonly used in this process, especially on airlines. a storage life comparable to frozen food, but it does
Omelettes are now manufactured by companies that produce a good product.
are able to supply the airline with the chilled product. It is generally accepted that, even where high
The quality of the end product has greatly improved standards of fast chilling practice are used and con-
and continues to do so as more and more money is sistent refrigerated storage maintained, product qual-
invested in product development. ity may be acceptable for only a few days (including
●● Soups and sauces: Most soups and sauces can the day of production and consumption). The storage
now be chilled successfully. Those with a high fat temperature of 0–3°C is of extreme importance to
or egg yolk content do need a certain amount ensure both full protection of the food from micro-
of recipe modification to prevent separation on biological growth and the maintenance of maximum
regeneration. nutritional values in the food. It is generally accepted
●● Desserts: There is a large number of desserts that a temperature of 10°C should be regarded as
that chill well, especially the cold variety. the critical safety limit for the storage of refriger-
Developments continue with hot sweets, ated food. Above that temperature, growth of micro-
especially those that require a hot base and a organisms may render the food dangerous to health.
separate topping. In a properly designed and operated cook-chill
system, cooked and prepared food will be rapidly
Recipe modification cooled down to 0–3°C as soon as possible after
Successful production of chilled food does require a cooking and portioning, and then stored between
certain amount of recipe modification. These modifi- these temperatures throughout storage and distribu-
cations may have to be introduced during the prepa- tion until required for reheating and service. Food
ration or cooking or both. prepared through the cook-chill system should be
portioned and transferred to a blast chiller unit within
●● Battered fish: The batter should be made thicker, 30 minutes. This will reduce the risk of the food
using a mixture with a higher fat content. This remaining at warm incubation temperatures, and pre-
type of batter does not easily break away from vent the risk of contamination and loss of food quality.
the fish and will give a crisper end product.
●● Stewed/braised items: Cut meat into smaller The cook-chill process
portions to avoid undue thickness. Flour-based ●● The food should be cooked sufficiently to ensure
sauces must be thoroughly cooked otherwise destruction of any pathogenic micro-organisms.
they will continue to thicken during regeneration. ●● The chilling process must begin as soon as
●● Scrambled eggs: Cook until the egg begins to possible after completion of the cooking and
scramble, remove from heat and allow the product portioning processes, within 30 minutes of
to continue to cook to a soft consistency. Chill leaving the cooker. The food should be chilled
immediately in shallow dishes and stir during chilling. to 3°C within a period of 90 minutes. Most
●● Creamed and mashed potatoes: More liquid is pathogenic organisms will not grow below 7°C,
added than normal, giving a loose and less dense while a temperature below 3°C is required to
product. This assists the chilling and regeneration reduce growth of spoilage organisms and to
stages as the potato absorbs more liquid when achieve the required storage life. However, slow
chilled. growth of spoilage organisms does take place at
these temperatures and for this reason storage Distribution of cook-chill

life cannot be greater than five days. Distribution of the chilled food is an important part
●● The food should be stored at a temperature of of the cook-chill operation. Fluctuations in storage
0–3°C. temperature can affect the palatability and texture
●● The chilled food should be distributed under such of food, and lead to microbiological dangers that
controlled conditions that any rise in temperature require the food to be discarded. The distribution
of the food during distribution is kept to a method chosen must ensure that the required tem-
minimum. perature of below 3°C is maintained throughout the
●● For both safety and palatability the reheating period of transport. Should the temperature of the
(regeneration) of the food should follow food exceed 5°C during distribution the food ought
immediately upon the removal of the food to be consumed within 12 hours; if the temperature
from chilled conditions and should raise the exceeds 10°C it should be discarded (Department
temperature to a level of at least 70°C. of Health guidelines). Because of this, refrigeration
●● The food should be consumed as soon as during distribution is to be encouraged in many
possible and not more than two hours after circumstances.
reheating. Food not intended for reheating should In some cases the cook-chill production unit can
be consumed as soon as convenient and within also act as a centralised kitchen and distribution
two hours of removal from storage. It is essential point. Food is regenerated in an area adjacent to the
that unconsumed reheated food is discarded. cook-chill production area, and heat retention or insu-
●● A temperature of 10°C should be regarded as lated boxes are used for distribution. During transpor-
the critical safety limit for chilled food. Should tation and service the food must not be allowed to fall
the temperature of the chilled food rise above below 63°C.
this level during storage or distribution, the food
concerned should be discarded.
Know the legal requirements
Cook-chill is generally planned within a purpose- Contravention of the Food Safety Act 1990/95, the
designed, comprehensive, new central production amendment regulations, and lack of due diligence
unit to give small-, medium- or large-scale production can be very costly if legal action is taken and proved
along predefined flow lines, incorporating traditional against the caterer or food manufacturer. The label-
catering/chilling/post-chilling packaging and storage ling of food products, recording of temperatures,
for delivery to finishing kitchens. Within an existing maintenance of hygiene standards and promotion
kitchen, where existing equipment is retained with of staff training is essential in defence of due dili-
possible minor additions and modifications, chilling/ gence. For this defence to be successful, the caterer
post-chilling packaging and additional storage for must convince the court that all the requirements
cooked chilled food are added. under the law have been complied with and that the
accepted customs and practices of the profession
Finishing kitchens have been carried out. It is also of paramount impor-
These can consist of purpose-built regeneration tance that a caterer records that these systems have
equipment plus refrigerated storage. Additional equip- been adhered to by the submission of documentary
ment, such as a chip fryer, boiling table and pressure evidence.
steamer for chips, sauces, custard, vegetables, and so
on, can be added if required, to give greater flexibility. Avoiding the dangers of cook-chill
Where chilled food is produced to supply a service
It is essential to:
on the same premises, it is recommended that the
meals should be supplied, stored and regenerated ●● maintain and record the correct temperatures
by exactly the same method as used for operations ●● maintain high standards of hygiene
where the production unit and finishing kitchens are ●● use fresh, high-quality ingredients, avoiding raw
separated by some distance. materials that may contain excessive numbers of
Failure to adhere to just one procedure could result micro-organisms.
in disorganised production and reduced productivity.
Once a decision is taken to sever production from Deliveries
service this method should be followed throughout All food purchased must be of prime quality and
the system. stored correctly under the required temperatures.
Meat
Veg
store
Blast chiller
Packaging
Despatch
Chill store
Portioning
Fish
Dry
Preparation
store
Veg
Cold
store Sweets
Figure 6.4 Production unit: planning for cook-chill
Preparation Reheating
All food must be prepared quickly under the appropri- All cook-chill food must be reheated as quickly as
ate conditions avoiding any possible cross-contami- possible to a minimum temperature of 70°C, ideally
nation and at the correct temperature. 75°C but preferably 80°C.
Initial cooking and processing Storage and quality of cook-chill

During the cooking process the centre of the food foods
must reach a temperature of at least 70°C; preferably It has been found that, during the storage period
this temperature should reach 75°C or even 80°C to before reheating and consumption, certain products
achieve a greater safety margin. deteriorate in quality.
Portioning ●● The flavour of certain meat dishes – in particular
This should take place under appropriate conditions white meats, veal and poultry – deteriorates after
in a controlled environment, which is maintained to three days.
the highest hygiene standards. The depth of the food ●● Chilled meats without sauces can develop acidic
should be no more than approximately 5 cm. The tastes.
containers must be labelled with the date of cooking, ●● Fatty foods tend to develop ‘off’ flavours due to
number of portions and reheating instructions. the fat oxidising.
●● Fish dishes deteriorate more rapidly than meat
Chilling dishes.
All food must be chilled within 30 minutes of cooking ●● Dishes containing meat tend to develop a ‘flat’
and reduced to a temperature of 0–3°C within 90 taste, and if spices have been used these can
minutes. dominate the flavour of the meat by the end of
the chilled storage period.
Portioning after chilling ●● Vegetables in general may discolour and develop
In some cook-chill systems the food is chilled in a strong flavour.
multi-portion containers then plated before reheat- ●● Dishes that contain large amounts of starch may
ing. The portioning process should be carried out in taste stale after the chilled storage time.
a controlled environment within 30 minutes of the
food leaving the chilled store and before reheating Containers
commences at a temperature of 10°C. It is then The choice of containers must protect and in some
transported under chilled conditions to the desired cases enhance the quality of the product at all stages,
location – for example, the hospital ward – where it is it must assist in the rapid chilling, safe storage and
reheated to at least 70°C but preferably 80°C on the effective reheating. Therefore the container must be:
plate on which it is to be served. ●● sturdy – to withstand chilling, handling and reheating
Storage ●● safe – not made of a substance that will cause
harmful substances to develop in the food, nor react
All chilled cooked food must be stored in its own spe-
with the food to cause discolouring or spoilage
cial refrigeration area. Never store cooked chilled food ●● have an easy-to-remove lid – without damaging
under the same conditions as fresh products. Always contents or causing spillage
monitor the temperature of the product regularly. ●● attractive – to enhance the appearance of the
product
Labelling
Labels must stick securely to containers and be easy
to apply, clearly identifying the product. Colour coding
is sometimes used to help identify the different day
of production. For example:
●● Sunday – white l Thursday – orange
●● Monday – red l Friday – green
●● Tuesday – yellow l Saturday – purple.
●● Wednesday – blue
Chilling equipment
Figure 6.5 Testing food with a Only specially purpose-built and designed equipment
hand-held thermometer
can take the temperature of cooked food down to
safe levels fast enough.
●● airtight and watertight – so that moisture, flavours
or odours do not penetrate the food or escape Blast chillers or air blast chillers
during storage and transportation.
These use rapidly moving cold air to chill the food
There are various types of container available. evenly and rapidly. Some models have temperature
probes so that the temperature of the food being
Single-portion containers chilled can be checked without opening the door.
These can be of cardboard laminated with plastic,
aluminium foil (unsuitable for microwave heating), Cryogenic batch chillers
plastic compounds or stainless steel and ceramic, These use liquid nitrogen at a temperature of –196°C;
which are durable and reusable (stainless steel is, this is sprayed into the chilling cabinet containing the
however, unsuitable for microwave ovens). warm food. In the warmer temperature of the cabinet,
the liquid nitrogen turns to super-cold gas, absorbing
Multi-portion containers the heat from the food as it does so. Fans move the
These can be of strong plastic compounds, stainless cold gas over and around the food. Once the gas has
steel, ceramic or aluminium foil. Gastronorm contain- become warm it is removed from the cabinet. Some
ers are shown in Figure 6.7. equipment uses carbon dioxide instead of nitrogen.
Channel 1
dairy display
Channel 2 Channel 3
delicatessen display delicatessen display
Channel 4
SHOP holding
Central fridge
alarm
AREA unit
KITCHEN
Channel 5
holding freezer
Figure 6.6 A central monitoring alarm unit and an example of the area it covers
650mm = 2 325m 325mm
530mm
530mm
2/1 1/1
162mm162mm 325mm
176mm 176mm 176mm
265mm
1/6 1/6
354mm
1/2
2/3
1/ 9
1/ 9
1/ 9
265mm
176mm 1/4 1/4
1/ 9
1/ 9
1/ 9
1/3
108 108 108 325mm 162mm 162mm

mm mm mm
Figure 6.7 Module sizes for gastronorm containers
Figure 6.8 Labelling system
Reheating equipment
The caterer has the following choice of equipment for
regenerating cook-chill products.
●● Combination ovens: These are ideally suited for
Figure 6.9 A blast chiller
bulk production and can be used with steam,
which is very effective in producing quality
products.
Points to remember to ensure a
●● Steamers: These may be used for certain foods, satisfactory product
especially vegetables. ●● Time and temperature are crucial.
●● Microwave ovens: These are used for small ●● The food should not wait longer than 30 minutes
amounts of food. to be chilled.
●● Infra-red ovens: These may be used for small or ●● The food should not be above 3°C at the end of
large quantities of food. the chilling time. A higher temperature may be
due to the food being packed too deep in the the lid being taken off when it should have been
containers; the food may have been covered; left on; faulty equipment. If the food temperature
there may be a malfunction in the equipment. is unsafe, throw it away.
●● Food should not be stored beyond its ‘use by’ date. ●● Avoid damaged containers. This may be due to:
●● The temperature of the food rising above 3°C mishandling during transportation; badly stacked
during transportation should be avoided. This storage containers.
may be due to: the journey taking too long using ●● Observe high standards of personal hygiene and
unrefrigerated transport; the refrigerated van not kitchen hygiene, to avoid product contamination
operating correctly; the insulated box (if used) or cross-contamination.
not being precooled, or the lid not properly fitted. ●● Portions must be controlled when filling packages
Whatever the cause, it must be recorded and the in order to: ensure efficient stock control; control
appropriate persons informed. If the temperature costs; ensure that sufficient food is delivered to
has not risen above 10°C and the food is going regenerating/finishing kitchens. Check that the
to be served within 12 hours, the food may be standard regeneration procedures are safe to
allowed through. This will obviously depend on use.
the type of food. Outside these limits it should be ●● Food containers must be sealed correctly before
discarded. If in doubt, throw it out. storage in order to: protect the food from airborne
●● Food should not be overcooked after reheating. contamination; enhance the presentation of
This may be due to the food being heated too dishes; prevent the evaporation of moisture when
long or the temperature being too high, or faulty heated; reduce the dehydration effects chilling
equipment being used. has on food; avoid finishing products being
●● Avoid food not reaching 70°C within the 30 tampered with.
minutes allowed for reheating. This may be ●● All food products must be labelled correctly
due to: the label information not being followed before storage to: identify the product and the
correctly; the label information not being correct; day of production by the colour coding and ‘use
by’ date; facilitate stock control; maintain stock
Incoming produce rotation; enable visitors such as environmental
health officers to check that the food safety laws
Refrigeration storage
have been and are being complied with; ensure
that quality tracking can be carried out.
–1.4°C 0.2°C 1.1°C 18.21°C ●● Ensure that older stock is consumed before the
new.
Food preparation Rapid thaw
●● Ensure the security of storage areas against
(10°C)
unauthorised access in order to: prevent pilferage
Cooking or damage by unauthorised persons; prevent
unnecessary opening of store doors, which could
Blast chilling destabilise storage temperature and thus may
Immersion chill affect the temperature of the product, rendering
(vegetables) it unsafe.
Central store For further information, contact the Chilled Food

Association, PO Box 14811 London NW10 9ZR
Labelling/portioning
(website: www.chilledfood.org).
(10°C)
Distribution
Comparison of cook-chill and
fast-food systems
‘Satellite’ store The characteristics of each system are listed in
Regeneration
Table 6.2.
Service
Figure 6.10 Refrigeration for cook-chill catering

Table 6.2 Characteristics of cook-chill and fast-food systems
Cook-chill Fast food

Types of equipment Flexible, general purpose Single purpose
Single function
Design of process Functional Product flow
Set-up time Variable Long
Workers Variously skilled, partie system, Low skill
limited flexibility Flexible
Inventories for start of process Vary, depending on ‘foods in’ High to meet potential demand
required
Limited in time by planning and
forecasting
Limited by preplanning and
forecasting
Holding inventory Five days max. Ten mins max.
Level forecasted Level controlled
Lot sizes Small to large (multiples of ten) Individual
Production time Variable depending on menu Short or constant
requirements
Product range Fairly wide but within constraints of Very restricted
three- or four-course meals, lunch
or dinner
System structure Stock/customer/operation Stock/queue/operation
Capacity Variable Highly variable
Scheduling Externally orientated Externally orientated
Cook-freeze
Cook-freeze is a specialised food production and dis- chillers. The freezing must be carried out very rapidly
tribution system that allows caterers to take advan- to retain freshness and to accelerate temperature
tage of the longer life through blast freezing at loss through the latent heat barrier, thus preventing
–18 to –20°C and storage at that temperature until the formation of large ice crystals and rupturing of
required for resale or consumption for up to three the cells.
to six months. Blast freezers have increasingly been Blast freezing takes place when low-temperature
introduced with success into catering operations. air is passed over food at high speed, reducing food
The ability to freeze cooked dishes and prepared in batches to a temperature of at least –20°C within
foods, as distinct from the storage of chilled foods 90 minutes. Blast freezers can hold from 20 to
in a refrigerator or already frozen commodities in a 400 kg per batch, the larger models being designed
deep-freeze, allows a caterer to make more produc- for trolley operation.
tive use of kitchen staff. It also enables economies to
be introduced into the staffing of dining rooms and Preparation of food
restaurants. The production menu for a month is drawn up and the
total quantities of different foods required calculated.
The cook-freeze process Supplies are then ordered, with special attention
Cook-freeze uses a production system similar to given to their being:
that used in cook-chill. The recipes used have to ●● of high quality
be modified, enabling products to be freezer-stable, ●● delivered so that they can immediately be
and modified starches are used in sauces so that, prepared and cooked without any possibility of
on reheating and regeneration, the sauce does not deteriorating during an enforced period of storage
separate. Blast freezers are used in place of blast before being processed.
The dishes included in the menu must be cooked to until immediately prior to its being served. It should
the highest standards, with rigid attention to quality therefore be transported in insulated containers to
control and to hygiene. Deep-freeze temperatures peripheral or finishing kitchens, if such are to be used,
prevent the multiplication of micro-organisms but where it will be reheated.
do not destroy them. If, therefore, a dish were con- If frozen dishes are to be used in outside catering,
taminated before being frozen, consumers would be provision should be available for transporting them in
put at risk months later when the food was prepared refrigerated transport and, if necessary, a subsidiary
for consumption. The exact adjustment of recipes deep-freeze store should be provided for them on
to produce the best result when the food is subse- arrival.
quently thawed and reheated is still in process of
being worked out by chefs, using numerous variations The reheating of frozen cooked portions
of the basic system. The single change needed in In any catering system in which a blast-freezing
cookery recipes involving sauces is the selection of tunnel has been installed to freeze pre-cooked food,
an appropriate type of starch capable of resisting the previously portioned and packed in metal foil or other
effect of freezing. Normal starches will produce a cur- individual containers, it is obviously rational to install
dled effect when subsequently thawed and reheated. equipment that is particularly designed for the pur-
In order to achieve rapid freezing with a quick pose of reheating the items ready to be served. The
reduction of temperature to –18°C or below, the blast-freezing system is effective because it is, in
cooked food must be carefully portioned (close design, an especially powerful form of forced convec-
attention being paid to the attainment of uniform tion heat exchanger arranged to extract heat. It fol-
portion size). Portions, each placed into a dispos- lows that an equally appropriate system for replacing
able aluminium foil container, may conveniently be heat is the use of a forced convection oven, especially
placed into aluminium foil trays holding from six for the reception of trays of frozen portions. Where
to ten portions each, sealed and carefully labelled such an oven is equipped with an efficient thermostat
with their description and date of preparation. and adequate control of the air circulation system,
standardised setting times for the controls can be
Freezing laid down for the regeneration of the various types of
The food thus divided into portions and arranged in dishes that need to be reheated.
trays is immediately frozen. An effective procedure
is to place the trays on racks in a blast-freezing Quality control
tunnel and expose them to a vigorous flow of cold Adequate control of bacterial contamination and
air until the cooked items are frozen solid and the growth, which are hazards in any kitchen, can be
temperature reduced to at least –5°C. The quality of achieved by a survey of the initial installation by a
the final product is to a significant degree depend- qualified analyst, and regular checks taken on every
ent on the rapidity with which the temperature of batch of food cooked. Very large kitchens employ a
hot cooked food at, say, 80°C is reduced to below full-time food technologist/microbiologist. In smaller
freezing. The capacity of the blast freezer should be operations the occasional services of a microbiologist
designed to achieve this reduction in temperature from the public health authority should be used.
within a period of 60–90 minutes.
How freezing affects different foods
Storage of frozen items
Once the food items are frozen they must at once be Meat, poultry and fish
put into a deep-freeze store maintained at –18°C. For The tendency for the fat in meat to oxidise and go
a catering operation involving several dining rooms rancid, even in frozen storage, means that lean meat
and cafeterias, some of which may be situated at is better than fatty meat for freezing. Chicken fat
some distance from the kitchen and frozen store, four contains a natural antioxidant (vitamin E), and this will
weeks’ supply of cooked dishes held at low tempera- react to prevent rancidity occurring.
ture allows full use to be made of the facilities. Fresh meat must always be used for cook-freeze
dishes. Never use meat that has previously been
Transport of frozen items to the point of frozen. This is because each time meat is thawed,
service even in cool conditions, there is a chance for food-
If satisfactory quality is to be maintained, it is impor- poisoning bacteria to multiply.
tant to keep food, frozen in the cooked state, frozen Some loss of flavour in fish is unavoid-
able and any surfaces left exposed can suffer Packaging

from oxidation, thus producing a rancid taste. Packaging is a very important consideration as it
Deep-fried fish in batter has to be modified so that affects the storage and regeneration of the product.
the batter does not peel off as a result of the freezing Containers must protect the food against oxidation
process. The batter should be made thicker or with a during storage and allow for freezing and reheating.
higher fat content. The containers must be:
Freezing does not stop the enzyme activity in the
meat, poultry or fish that makes the fat present in the ●● watertight
flesh go rancid. This particularly affects the unsatu- ●● non-tainting
rated fats that are present in pork, poultry and fish. ●● disposable or reusable
These items should therefore not be stored frozen for ●● equipped with tight-fitting lids.
longer than two to three months. It is advisable there-
fore to trim off all fat before processing these items. Packaging materials
There are a number of packaging materials available,
Fruit and vegetables which include plastic compounds, aluminium foil and
When fruit and vegetables turn brown, it is because of cardboard plastic laminates. These are available as
the action of enzymes present. These enzymes cause single-portion packs, complete meal packs and bulk
discoloration and gradually destroy the nutritive value packs.
of the fruit. Refrigeration slows this process down,
and freezing will further slow it down but not stop Choosing the container
it completely. Therefore, fruit and vegetables should Various factors affect your choice of container.
be blanched or completely cooked prior to freezing, ●● Menu choice: single packs provide the greatest
which will stop the enzymic processes. flexibility.
The freezing process also has a softening effect on ●● Food value: the overheating of complete meal
the texture of fruit and vegetables. This is acceptable packs, or the edges of bulk packs, will damage
for hard fruits such as apples, unripened pears and so the nutritional value.
on; it is not, however, suitable for soft fruits such as ●● Storage space: large bulk packs make the best
strawberries. Fruits like these are suitable for freez- use of space.
ing only if they are later to be used as a filling or in a ●● Handling time: after cooking, bulk packs are the
sauce, but not for decorative purposes. quickest and easiest to fill, whereas complete
Only exceptionally fresh vegetables should be used packs are more difficult to fill. Bulk packs do,
for freezing. Avoid bruised vegetables, which may however, have to be portioned at the time of
produce the development of ‘off’ flavours. Blanch service and are therefore more time-consuming
the vegetables to inactivate the enzymes, but avoid than if single packs are used.
over-blanching, otherwise the vegetables will be over- ●● Quality of the food: freezing time is obviously
cooked. Blanch if possible in high-pressure steamers affected by the depth of the food; therefore bulk
as this will help reduce vitamin C loss. packs, where the food is relatively deep, may not
survive the freezing process as well as single-
Recipe modification portion packs. Bulk packs also rely on trained
Generally, recipes have to be modified for the cook- service staff to present the food attractively and
freeze process. portion it accurately. Regeneration instructions
Sauces, batters, thickened soups, stews and gra- can be complex if complete meal packs contain
vies will break down and separate unless the flour different food components that, in theory, may
used in the recipes has an addition of waxy starch. require different lengths of reheating time.
Colflo and Purity 69 are two commercially manufac-
tured starches used in cook-freeze recipes. Freezing equipment
Jellies and other products containing gelatine are Specialist equipment is required in order to reduce
unsuitable because they develop a granular structure the temperature of the food to the required storage
in the cook-freeze process, unless the recipe is modi- temperature of –18°C.
fied with stabilisers.
●● Air blast freezers or blast freezers: these take
approximately 75–90 minutes to freeze food,
depending on how it is packaged. Extremely
cold air – between –32°C and –40°C – is blown Preparation

by fans over the cooked food. The warm air is ●● Make sure that all preparation and cooking areas
constantly removed and recirculated through the are clean and that the equipment is in working
heat exchange unit to lower its temperature. In order.
the larger cook-freeze units the food is pushed in ●● Never use previously frozen food.
on a trolley at one end and then wheeled out at ●● Avoid any delay between preparation and
the other end frozen. cooking.
●● Cryogenic freezers: these use liquid nitrogen with
the freezing time taking on average 25 minutes, Cooking
depending on the food being frozen, provided ●● Check on the cooking process for the food to
the food is left uncovered. Liquid nitrogen at ensure that it takes account of the overall effect
–196°C is sprayed into the freezing chamber. on flavour, texture and nutritional value.
Fans circulate the nitrogen so that the foods ●● Always use temperature probes to check that
freeze evenly. The warm gas is pumped out of the centre of the food has reached a safe
the cabinet as more cold nitrogen is pumped in. temperature before the final cooking is complete.
Some freezers used liquid carbon dioxide.
●● Plate freezers and tunnel freezers: these are used Portioning and packaging
in food manufacturing and are less likely to be ●● Make sure all areas are clean and hygienically
used in catering. safe.
●● Ensure that all packaging is ready and that it is of
Transportation and distribution the correct size and material.
Cook-freeze meals have to be delivered to finishing ●● All reusable containers must be cleaned and
kitchens at the same temperature as they were held sterilised thoroughly.
in storage. For short distances, insulated contain- ●● Make sure that all assistants who portion and
ers are used. These are cooled down before use. package wear food-handling gloves.
However, it is safer and more efficient to use refriger- ●● Make sure that all general equipment used in this
ated vans. area is sterilised.
●● Accurately portion the food according to the
Finishing kitchen equipment recipe.
Thawing cabinets are similar to a forced air convec- ●● Do not pack the food to a depth greater
tion oven, but use a temperature of 10°C. than 5 cm (2 inches). For food that is to be
microwaved the depth should be less.
●● Rapid thawing cabinet: These are used to defrost ●● Portions must be controlled when filling in order
containers of frozen meals before they are placed to: standardise costs, control costs, facilitate
in the oven; this has the effect of halving the stores control, assist in food service, standardise
reheating time. The temperature of the food is the thawing and reheating process, allow the
brought from –20°C to 3°C in approximately four sealing to be properly completed.
hours, under safe conditions. Warming is kept at a ●● Food containers must be sealed correctly before
steady controlled rate by a process of alternating storage in order to: prevent spoilage due to
low-volume heat with refrigeration. contact with the cold air, prevent spillage prior
●● Combination ovens: These are suitable for large to freezing, allow for safe stacking, helping to
quantities of food. prevent damage to containers.
●● Microwave ovens: These are suitable only for ●● Cover the food before blast freezing.
small amounts of food. ●● Check and record the temperature of the food.
●● Dual-purpose ovens: These are microwave ovens
that have a second heat source – for example, Labelling
an infra-red grill – and a defrost control that ●● Label all food correctly.
switches the microwave power on and off. ●● Ensure labels have the right information,
Forced air convection ovens which should include: production date, ‘use by’
date, name of dish, description of contents,
These are suitable for large quantities of food. storage life, number of portions, instructions for
reheating/regenerating – including type of oven,
20
15
10
Degrees Celcius
5
Ordinary
freezing
0
–5
Quick
–10 freezing
–15
–20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hours freezing time
Figure 6.11 Speed of freezing and crystal formation
temperature, time, and whether lid should be on ●● Always wear protective clothing when entering
or off. the deep-freeze store.
●● Correct labelling will: accurately identify the ●● Destroy any foods that have passed their ‘use by’
contents of the container; enable quick and date.
efficient stock-taking; indicate important ●● It is important to monitor and record food
information regarding the packaging, date and the temperatures regularly in order to prevent
‘use by’ date; give information on the number of contamination from incorrect storage conditions,
portions contained in the package. and ensure flavour and texture is maintained.
●● Stock rotation procedures must be followed
Freezing in order to prevent damage or decay to stock,
●● Check all fast freezers are ready for use. ensure that older stock is used before new stock.
●● Freezing should be done immediately after ●● Storage areas must be secured from
cooking. unauthorised access in order to prevent pilferage
●● The foods must be frozen below –5°C within 90 or damage by unauthorised persons, prevent
minutes. injury to unauthorised persons, and prevent
●● There must be at least 2 cm air space between unnecessary opening of store doors, which would
layers of containers in the freezer. destabilise the temperature.
●● Immediately after freezing the food must be
transported to the deep-freeze storage. Distribution
●● Maintain freezer temperatures during
Storing distribution.
●● Store the food at the correct deep-freeze storage ●● DHSS guidelines state that if the food is going to
temperature of –20°C to –30°C and at least be regenerated within 24 hours, the permissible
below –18°C. temperature range is between 0 and –18°C.
●● Monitor deep-freezer temperatures at all times Otherwise the temperature must be kept below
and keep accurate records. –18°C.
●● Maintain the stock control rotation; keep all stock ●● All documentation and control systems for
record systems up to date. checking delivery should be followed and
●● Store the food in the accepted manner on implemented carefully.
shelves and racks above the floor, away from the
door and with enough space around to allow the Regeneration
cold air to circulate. ●● Check that the work area is ready for operation.
●● Remove products from deep-freeze for General

regeneration; check the labels. ●● To avoid separated sauces, the recipe must be
●● Make sure equipment is at the correct modified correctly using the appropriate starches.
temperature and in working order. ●● Meat and fish will taste rancid if badly prepared
●● Follow the regeneration instructions on the label. or kept for too long a storage period.
●● The foods must be reheated to at least 70°C ●● Soggy, coated food will occur if the lid is not
but to 75–80°C immediately before service. removed when regenerating.
Check temperature has been reached by using a ●● A backlog of food for freezing will occur with poor
sterilised calibrated temperature probe. production planning.
●● Serve the food as soon as possible after ●● Freezer burn occurs due to badly packaged food
regeneration. or when food is stored for too long.
●● Food that has not been eaten within two hours ●● Standards of personal hygiene and kitchen
should be thrown away. Food that has been temperature are of paramount importance to
allowed to cool must never be reheated. maintain a clean and safe product.
Overall benefits of cook-chill/cook-freeze

To the employer: ●● Delivery to units will be far less frequent.
●● Long-term planning of production and menus
●● portion control and reduced waste
becomes possible.
●● no over-production
●● Less dependence on price fluctuations.
●● central purchasing with bulk-buying discounts
●● More suitable for vending machines incorporating
●● full utilisation of equipment
microwave.
●● full utilisation of staff time
●● overall savings in staff
Advantages of cook-chill over
●● savings on equipment, space and fuel
●● fewer staff with better conditions – no unsociable cook-freeze
hours, no weekend work, no overtime ●● Regeneration systems are simpler – infra-red
●● simplified, less frequent delivery to units and steam convection ovens are mostly used and
●● solves problem of moving hot foods (EC only 12 minutes are required to reheat all foods
regulations forbid the movement of hot foods perfectly.
unless the temperature is maintained over 65°C; ●● Thawing time is eliminated.
maintaining 65°C is regarded as very difficult to ●● Smaller capacity storage is required: three to four
achieve and high temperatures inevitably will be days’ supply as opposed to up to 120 days’.
harmful to foods). ●● Chiller storage is cheaper to install and run than
freezer storage.
To the customer: ●● Blast chillers are cheaper to install and run than
●● increased variety and selection blast freezers.
●● improved quality, with standards maintained ●● Cooking techniques are unaltered (additives and
●● more nutritious foods revised recipes are needed for freezing).
●● services can be maintained at all times, ●● All foods can be chilled so the range of dishes
regardless of staff absences. is wider (some foods cannot be frozen). Cooked
eggs, steaks and sauces such as hollandaise can
Advantages of cook-freeze over cook- be chilled (after some recipe modification where
chill necessary).
●● No system is too small to adapt to cook-chill.
●● Seasonal purchasing provides considerable
savings.
Vacuum cooking (sous-vide)

This is a form of cook-chill, using a combination of combination oven until the required temperature
vacuum sealing in plastic pouches, cooking by steam is reached, then cut open and the food presented.
and then rapidly chilling in an ice-water bath, as this
Vacuum pressures are as important as the cooking
most effective way of chilling. The objective is to
temperatures with regard to weight loss and heat
rationalise kitchen procedures without having a det-
absorption. The highest temperature used in sous-
rimental effect on the quality of the individual dishes.
vide cooking is 100°C and 1000 millibars is the mini-
mum amount of vacuum pressure used.
To find out more, visit www.julabo-sous-vide.de.
As there is no oxidation or discoloration involved,
this method is ideal for conserving fruits, such as
The process apples and pears (e.g. pears in red wine, fruits in
●● Individual portions of prepared food are first syrup). When preparing meats in sauces the meat
placed in special plastic pouches. The food can is pre-blanched then added to the completed sauce.
be fish, poultry, meats, vegetables and so on, to Sous-vide is a combination of vacuum sealing, tightly
which seasoning, a garnish, sauce, stock, wine, controlled en papillotte cooking and rapid chilling, which
flavouring, vegetables, herbs and/or spices can can be used by almost any type of catering operation.
be added.
●● The pouches of food are then placed in a Advantages
vacuum-packaging machine, which evacuates all ●● Long shelf-life, up to 21 days, refrigerated.
the air and tightly seals the pouch. ●● Ability to produce meals in advance means better
●● The pouches are next cooked by steam. This is deployment of staff and skills.
usually in a special oven equipped with a steam ●● Vacuum-packed foods can be mixed in cold store
control programme, which controls the injection of without risk of cross-contamination.
steam into the oven, to give steam cooking at an ●● Reduced labour costs at point of service.
oven temperature below 100°C. Each food item ●● Beneficial cooking effects on certain foods,
has its own ideal cooking time and temperature. especially moulded items and pâtés. Reduces
●● When cooked, the pouches are rapidly cooled weight loss on meat joints.
down to 3°C, usually in an iced water chiller, or an ●● Full flavour and texture are retained as food
air blast chiller for larger operations. cooks in its own juices.
●● The pouches are then labelled and stored in a ●● Economises on ingredients (less butter, marinade,
holding refrigerator at an optimum temperature of etc.).
3°C. ●● Makes pre-cooking a possibility for à la carte
●● When required for service the pouches are menus.
regenerated in boiling water or a steam ●● Inexpensive regeneration.
●● Allows a small operation to set up bulk production.
●● Facilitates portion control and uniformity of
standards.
●● Has a tenderising effect on tougher cuts of meat
and matures game without dehydration.
Disadvantages
●● Extra cost of vacuum pouches and vacuum-
packing machine.
●● Unsuitable for meats (e.g. fillet steak) and
vegetables that absorb colour.
●● All portions in a batch must be identically sized to
ensure even results.
●● Most dishes require twice the conventional
Figure 6.12 Vacuum packer cooking time.
●● Unsuitable for large joints as chilling time Points to remember

exceeds 90 minutes. ●● High standards of kitchen hygiene and personnel
●● Complete meals (meat and two vegetables) not hygiene must be observed.
feasible; meat component needs to be cooked ●● Prime-quality ingredients should be used.
and stored in separate bags. ●● All aspects of the Food Safety Act 1990/95
●● Extremely tight management and hygienic must be adhered to.
controls are imperative. ●● Where possible, sous-vide should operate in a
●● Potentially adverse customer reaction (‘boil-in- temperature-controlled environment.
the-bag’ syndrome). ●● All the basic principles of cook-chill apply to
sous-vide.
Centralised production
Why centralise? 1 units preparing fresh cooked foods, which are

Reasons for considering centralised production units then despatched
are as follows. 2 cook-freeze – food is partly prepared or cooked,
then frozen and regenerated when required
●● Labour: reduction of kitchen preparation staff in 3 cook-chill – food is cooked, then chilled and
end units. regenerated when required
●● Food cost: greater control over waste and 4 sous-vide – food is sealed in a special casing,
portion sizes; competitive purchasing through bulk vacuum-sealed, cooked and chilled.
buying.
●● Equipment: intensive central use of heavy Food production and preparation
equipment reduces commitment in individual The profitability of the production system depends
units. largely upon the content of the end-unit menus.
●● Product: more control on product quality.
●● Labour strategy: staff are employed at regular Meat
times (9 am to 5 pm), which can eliminate or Careful purchasing is essential and the menu must be
lessen the difficulty of obtaining staff who will planned carefully.
work shifts.
●● The cut of meat required must be clearly
When considering a centralised production system it specified in order to produce the exact dishes.
is essential that a detailed financial appraisal is pro- ●● Strict portion control must be adhered to.
duced and then looked at carefully, as each establish- ●● Trimmings/by-products must be fully utilised:
ment has its own considerations. No general rule can meat trimmings for cottage/shepherd’s pie, bones
be given as profitability depends on the product, the for stock.
size of each unit, the number of units and the method
of preserving food. Vegetable preparation
Because of increasing labour costs and difficulty
Design in obtaining staff, a number of establishments now
Centralised production systems can be designed in purchase prepared potatoes, that are washed, peeled
two ways: and in some cases shaped; prepared root vegetables;
1 using existing catering (operations) unit and topped and tailed French beans; and ready-prepared
modifying, etc. salads.
2 purpose-built.
Reception and delivery
Types of unit It is desirable to have two loading bays: one for
Centralised production units are grouped into four receiving and one for delivery. They should be adja-
types: cent to the relevant store to facilitate loading. The
receiving bay should be adjacent to the prime goods
store for purchased meat, vegetables, and so on, and
the delivery bay near to the finished goods stores economics of bulk purchasing must pay particular
that contain items ready to go out to their end units. attention to the process of buying.
The following are the main objectives of the buyer.
Staff
●● Quality and price of goods must be equalled with
Apart from a butcher, some of the staff may not be the size of purchase order.
highly skilled. The various processes involved in meat ●● All purchase specifications must be met.
production can be divided as follows and staff trained ●● Buying practice must supplement a policy of
for each procedure. minimum stock holding.
●● Machine operators: staff operating dicing
machines, mincing machines, hamburger Transport
machines, to a strict procedure. The distribution of goods, routing and the mainte-
●● Trimmers: staff who are taught to trim carcasses nance of vehicles are very important to a centralised
and prime cuts. production operation. The usual practice is for trans-
●● Packers: pack goods into foil cans, operate port to be under the control of a senior manager, who
vacuum-packing machines, and label or pack also has the complicated job of batching up deliveries
finished goods into containers; caterers will have (normally weekly or bi-weekly). It is important that the
to consider if it is economically viable to have a senior manager has considerable administrative skill
butchery or whether to buy in prepared meats in order to prevent errors occurring.
(this very much depends upon the range of Centralised production very often means that pro-
menu). duction is separated from the food service by dis-
tance, time, or both. An example is in hospital wards;
Frequently, staff who are employed to carry out spe-
here there are satellite kitchens or regeneration
cific functions within a centralised kitchen may not
kitchens. Other examples exist in aircraft catering and
have catering qualifications but will be trained by the
banqueting. Banqueting houses that use cook-chill
organisation.
purchase from either their own production unit or an
independent company.
Method of operation
There are two types of operation: Fast food
1 weekly production Fast food is characterised by a smooth operation. The
2 daily total run. principal control adopted is ‘door time’: 3½ minutes
is the control average, 1½ minutes queuing and 1
Forecasts obtained from the end unit determine the minute serving. Capital costs are high for production
quantity of the production run. This prepares items of equipment. The menu range is narrow, with the equip-
a particular type on one occasion only. As soon as the ment often being specially developed to do one job.
run is completed the next run is then scheduled. The This is essentially one cell or family of related parts
main advantage of this type of production is in the of one product.
comparative ease with which a control system may Increases in volume required are met by increas-
be installed and operated. ing the speed of foods through the system. This is
A disadvantage is that, in the event of an error in achieved by increasing labour and by duplicating
production scheduling, it is wasteful and costly to the same cell. Workers are multi-functional but often
organise a further production run of small volume. of low skill. Staffing can be applied to a number of
Another disadvantage is that the method leads parts, depending on volume of throughput. This type
to the building-up of stocks, both finished and of staffing can give high job satisfaction (although
unfinished, thereby affecting the profitability of the short term), similar to the rotation of chefs through
operation. the partie system.
A daily total run is based upon the needs or items This operation comes nearer to the continuous flow
required by the end unit. A disadvantage is that the ideal and is often quoted as a classic just-in-time
forecast gap is shorter, so the end units are not able (JIT) system.
to provide accurate requisitions. The principles of manufacturing exist in both fast-
food and cook-chill systems. Other systems, such as
Purchasing cook-freeze and sous-vide, will take on a variety of
Any organisation depending for its existence on the cells relating to different parts of the meal. The fast-
food system is primarily based upon one-cell systems. Microsteam technology

All systems use variations in the number of workers Used for food production in hospitals and schools,
to control costs. microsteam is a fast, healthy cooking system, which
maintains the freshness of food using steam cooking.
Small centralised operations It enables nutritious meals to be available in minutes
There are some very good examples of smaller without the need for full kitchen back-up.
centralised operations to be seen now in the cater- It works with a broad range of raw ingredients,
ing industry. The purpose of installation is to provide from fresh vegetables to chicken and seafood. The
ready-prepared goods that may be served to ban- vacuum-packed polymer packaging allows cooking
quets or supplied to grills/coffee shops. to near perfection, resulting in maximum flavour and
The preparation of the food takes place during the minimal nutritional loss.
kitchen ‘slack’ period, principally after the luncheon Microsteam is a unique value-control system that
service. The made-up items are put into polythene regulates the pressure throughout the cooking pro-
bags, which contain from one to six portions. The cess. As soon as the pack goes into the microwave,
packed items are marked with the date of packing, energy waves create steam from the water in the raw
and the name of the item, and then blast frozen ingredients, which gradually builds up in the container.
prior to storage. They are kept in store from three to The pack expands as it cooks, which is where the
six months, and moved on a first-in, first-out basis. smart valve comes in – releasing the pressure gradu-
Some items have limited storage time so careful ally so that it stays at just the right level to cook the
checking of dates is an important factor to consider. food perfectly. Each dish is ready in just a few min-
Refrigerators in the outlets are stocked up daily from utes, with no preparation time involved.
the central code store. The most important point about microsteaming is
When an item is ordered it is reheated by a simple that it’s not about reheating pre-cooked food: it’s
boiling process operated by a timer. The cooked about cooking the freshest ingredients from raw –
items are placed on the plate, with the garnish and from chicken to couscous, fish to fresh vegetables.
vegetables being added separately. There are also, of Steam cooking has long been recognised as one of
course, many other refinements: carefully calculated the healthiest ways to prepare food, keeping nutri-
production schedules and coloured photographs of tional loss to a minimum, and retaining much more
the dishes to guide presentation, for example. vitamin C and chlorophyll than traditional or cook-chill
methods.
Ganymede dri-heat The microsteam system is space saving. It reduces
This is a method of keeping foods either hot or cold. the need for bulky equipment. It allows kitchen sys-
It is used in some hospitals as it ensures that the food tems to be simplified. If packages are kept sealed
that reaches the patients is in the same fresh condi- they will retain their heat at 75°C for 20 minutes.
tion as it was when it left the kitchens. With this system it is easier to manage the bulk
A metal disc or pellet is electrically heated or production and cooking of fresh vegetables and
cooled, and placed in a special container under the other items for large-scale banqueting and industry
plate. The container is designed to allow air to circu- events. The technology can also be used for vending
late round the pellet so that the food is maintained at machines, is suitable for people working off-peak
the correct service temperature. hours, for airports, call centres, trains and any environ-
This is used in conjunction with conveyor belts and ment where it’s difficult to have full kitchen back-up.
special service counters, and helps to provide a better The scheme has been trialled by the NHS Better
and quicker food service. Hospital Food Programme, with favourable results –
not just in terms of health benefits but also because
it means patients and doctors are no longer restricted
to set meal times.
The assembly kitchen concept

Research – quality – production – tradition – innova- types’ (see the accompanying box) what is best for
tion. This is a system based on accepting and incor- him or her by asking the following questions.
porating the latest technological developments in the
●● Which fresh produce will I use?
manufacturing and conservation of food products.
●● Which semi-prepared food bases will I use?
In the modern assembly kitchen, the chef does not
●● Which finished products will I use?
automatically buy his or her ingredients. On the con-
trary, he will carefully choose from the ‘five product
The five product types 3 Frozen

1 Fresh (raw product) ●● meat, fish, vegetables, potatoes, fruits
●● meat with bones ●● pastry products, ice cream
●● vegetables, potatoes, fruits, unpeeled 4 Chilled (‘fresh’ products, partly prepared)
●● whole fish ●● meat or fish, boned, cut into pieces or
●● milk portioned
2 Shelf-stable ●● washed, peeled and cut vegetables, potatoes,
●● sterilised, pasteurised – vegetables, potatoes, fruits, etc.
fruits; dairy products, meat products 5 Chilled (products, normally cooked and
●● dehydrated products, partly elaborated – packed or sous-vide)
stocks, sauces; mousses, creams, custards; ●● meat, fish, vegetables, desserts (with or
bouillons, soups, purées; culinary aids without sauce)
The assembly kitchen still relies on skilled personnel. ●● different types of plate can be regenerated at the
It requires a thorough understanding of how to switch same time
over from the traditional labour-intensive production ●● hygiene, and consequently safety, is guaranteed
method to a more industrial type of production, with ●● storage rooms needed for only five types of
some of the principles of the cook-chill, cook-freeze product (see above)
or sous-vide production systems taken on board. ●● large preparation areas disappear
It realises the existence and availability of modern ●● smaller equipment is needed.
kitchen equipment and new generations of high- Inconveniences include:
quality convenience orientated food bases. ●● very hot plates
Thus, the concept includes: ●● some additional investments required (trolleys,
●● preparing the food component in an appropriate etc.)
kitchen, respecting legislation ●● some products cannot be prepared (French fries,
●● arranging everything cold (even raw) on the etc.).
plate
A planning schedule would envisage:
●● regenerating (even cooking) on the same plate as
●● 2 days – cooking and chilling
served
– storing at 3°C in labelled, dated
●● if necessary, serving the sauce.
gastronorm containers
Success requires: ●● 12 hours – arrange food on to plates
●● appropriate material and equipment – storage at 3°C on trolley
●● very precise preliminary preparations ●● 30 mins – taking the trolley out of storage
(mise-en-place) – setting of regeneration equipment
●● support from a well-trained team (kitchen and – regeneration
service staff). ●● 2 mins – taking out and finishing of plates
Advantages include: – sauce, garnish
●● fewer staff needed for arranging – serving
●● the regeneration can be done near the – cleaning of equipment.
consumer
The principal investments will be for: ●● equipment to regenerate on plates, gastronorm

●● multi-purpose equipment, covering most of the pans.
cooking methods
The new-generation equipment must be:
●● storage for dry, chilled, frozen products
●● easy to handle ● easy to clean
●● equipment to chill or freeze
●● gastronorm ● easy to service.
References
The following sources were used as the basis for this Some references to production systems
chapter. elsewhere in this book:
Food Standards Agency publications: Safer Food ✎● Equipment ....................................................................................... 149
Better Business (England); Safe Catering ✎● Food hygiene ............................................................................... 391
(Northern Ireland); CookSafe (Scotland).
✎● Food preservation................................................................... 140
Visit www.food.gov.uk for advice and information.
✎● Hospitals, NHS.............................................................................. 16
✎● Kitchen hygiene........................................................................ 412

1 The advantages and disadvantages of the cook- 5 For and against a centralised production system,
chill and cook-freeze systems. with examples.
2 Essential hygiene and food safety requirements 6 The food production system and its main
for cook-chill and cook-freeze systems. advantages.
3 The reason for quality control, temperature con- 7 Discuss the importance of detailed specifica-
trol and microbiological control when producing tions and traceability for cook-freeze and cook-
cook-chill and cook-freeze foods. chill products.
4 Types of operation suitable for using cook-chill
and cook-freeze foods.
, production
Menu planning,
ng
development
ni a
7 nd
an
Part 3 Pl
ser
and structure
vice
Evolution 227 Menu Flexibility 233

Essential Considerations Examples of Different Menus 236
Prior to Planning a Menu 228 Managing a Function 242
Types of Menu 228 Planning a Function 244
The Structure of Menus 229 Reference 247
Consumer Protection 231 Topics for Discussion 247
Menu Copy 232

›● Activity worksheets: menu planning
Evolution
Initially, menus were lists of food, in seemingly random As the twentieth century advanced, and people
fashion with the food being raw, prepared or cooked. moved and settled around the world more, so began
Individual menus came into use early in the nine- the introduction of styles of food and service from
teenth century, and courses began to be formulated. a wide variety of nations, resulting in the number of
For special occasions seven or so courses might be ethnic dishes and ethnic restaurants that abound
served, e.g. hors d’oeuvre, soup, fish, entrée, sorbet, today.
roast, sweet, savoury. Eating at work, at school, in hospitals and institu-
With the formulation of menus, artistry and flair tions led to a need for healthy, budget-conscious
began to influence the various ways of cooking, food.
and dishes were created after ‘the style of’ (e.g. à Rapid air transport made it possible for foods from
la Française) and/or given the names of important all corners of the globe to be available which in the
people for whom they had been created (e.g. peach UK, together with domestic and European produce,
Melba, a simple dish of poached fresh peach, vanilla gives those who compose menus a tremendous
ice cream and fresh raspberry purée created by range of choice.
Escoffier at the Savoy for Dame Nellie Melba, the
famous opera singer).
Essential considerations prior to planning a menu

●● Competition: be aware of any competition in ●● Decide the range of dishes to be offered and
the locality, including prices and quality. It may be the pricing structure. Price each dish separately?
wiser to produce a menu that is quite different. Or offer set two- or three-course menus? Or a
●● Location: study the area in which your combination of both?
establishment is situated and the potential target ●● Space and equipment in the kitchens
market of customers. will influence the composition of the menu
●● Analyse: the type of people you are planning to (e.g. avoiding overloading of deep-frying pan,
cater for (e.g. office workers in the city requiring salamanders and steamers).
quick service). ●● Number and capability of staff: overstretched
●● Outdoor catering: are there opportunities for staff can easily reduce the standard of production
outdoor catering or takeaway food? envisaged.
●● Estimated customer spend per head: ●● Availability of supplies and reliability of
important when catering, for example, for hospital suppliers: seasonal foods and storage space.
staff and patients, children in schools, workers in ●● Food allergies (see page 135).
industry. Whatever level of catering, a golden rule ●● Cost factor: crucial if an establishment is to be
should be ‘offer value for money’. profitable. Costing is essential for the success
●● Modern trends in food fashions: these should of compiling any menu. Modern computer
be considered alongside popular traditional techniques can analyse costs swiftly and on a
dishes. daily basis.
Types of menu
The main types of menu in use are as follows. in standard and extent from one employer to
another due to company policy on the welfare of
●● Table d’hôte or set-price menu: a menu
their staff and workforce. There may also be a
forming a meal, usually of two or three courses at
call-order à la carte selection charged at a higher
a set price. A choice of dishes may be offered at
price. The food will usually be mainly British with
all courses.
some ethnic and vegetarian dishes. Menus may
●● À la carte: a menu with all the dishes individually
consist of soup, main course with vegetables,
priced. Customers can therefore compile their own
followed by sweets, cheese and yoghurts.
menu, which may be one, two or more courses. A
According to the policy of the management and
true à la carte dish should be cooked to order and
employee requirements, there will very often be a
the customer should be prepared to wait.
salad bar and healthy-eating dishes included on
●● Special party or function menus: menus for
the menu. When there is a captive clientele who
banquets or functions of all kinds.
face the same surroundings daily and meet the
●● Ethnic or speciality menus: these can be set-
same people, then no matter how long the menu
price menus or with dishes individually priced,
cycle or how pleasant the people, or how nice the
specialising in the food (or religion) of a particular
decor, boredom is bound to set in and staff then
country or in a specialised food itself – e.g. ethnic
long for a change of scene. So, a chef or manager
(Chinese, Indian, kosher, African-Caribbean, Greek),
needs to vary the menu constantly to encourage
speciality (steak, fish, pasta, vegetarian, pancakes).
customers to patronise the establishment rather
●● Hospital menus: these usually take the form of
than going off the premises to eat. The decor
a menu card given to the patient the day before
and layout of the staff restaurant plays a very
service so that his or her preferences can be
important part in satisfying the customer’s needs.
ticked. Both National Health Service and private
The facilities should be relaxing and comfortable
hospitals cater for vegetarians and also for
so that he or she feels that the restaurant is not a
religious requirements.
continuation of the workplace. Employees who are
●● Menus for people at work: such menus vary
MENU PLANNING, DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE 229
happy, well nourished and know that the company ●● They can cut down on the number of
has their interests and welfare at heart will tend to commodities held in stock, and can assist in
be well motivated and work better. planning storage requirements.
●● Menus for children: in schools there is an
emphasis on healthy eating and a balanced diet, Disadvantages
particularly in boarding schools. Those areas ●● When used in establishments with a captive
with children of various cultural and religious clientele, the cycle has to be long enough so that
backgrounds have appropriate items available on customers do not get bored with the repetition of
the menu. Many establishments provide special dishes.
children’s menus that concentrate on favourite ●● The caterer cannot easily take advantage of ‘good
foods and offer suitably sized portions. buys’ offered by suppliers on a daily or weekly
basis, unless such items are required for the
Cyclical menus cyclical menu.
These are menus that are compiled to cover a given
period of time: one month, three months, etc. They Pre-planned and pre-designed menus
consist of a number of set menus for a particular Advantages
establishment, such as an industrial catering restau-
●● Pre-planned or pre-designed menus enable the
rant, cafeteria, canteen, directors’ dining room, hospi-
caterer to ensure that good menu planning is
tal or college refectory. At the end of each period the
practised.
menus can be used again, thus overcoming the need
●● Before selecting the dishes that he or she
to keep compiling new ones. The length of the cycle
prefers, the caterer should consider what the
is determined by management policy, by the time of
customer likes, and the effect of these dishes
the year and by the different foods available. These
upon the meal as a whole.
menus must be monitored carefully to take account of
●● Menus that are planned and costed in advance
changes in customer requirements and any variations
allow banqueting managers to quote prices
in weather conditions that are likely to affect demand
instantly to a customer.
for certain dishes. If cyclical menus are designed to
●● Menus can be planned to take into account the
remain in operation for long periods of time, then they
availability of kitchen and service equipment,
must be carefully compiled so that they do not have to
without placing unnecessary strain upon such
be changed too drastically during operation.
equipment.
Advantages ●● The quality of food is likely to be higher if kitchen
staff are preparing dishes they are familiar with
●● Cyclical menus save time by removing the daily
and have prepared a number of times before.
or weekly task of compiling menus, although they
may require slight alterations for the next period. Disadvantages
●● When used in association with cook-freeze
●● Pre-planned and pre-designed menus may be too
operations, it is possible to produce the entire
limited to appeal to a wide range of customers.
number of portions of each item to last the whole
●● They may reduce job satisfaction for staff who
cycle, having determined that the standardised
have to prepare the same menus repetitively.
recipes are correct.
●● They may limit the chef’s creativity and originality.
●● They give greater efficiency in time and labour.
The structure of menus
Length Design
The number of dishes on a menu should offer the This should complement the image of the dining
customer an interesting and varied choice. In general, room and be designed to allow for changes (total or
it is better to offer fewer dishes of good standard partial), which may be daily, weekly, monthly, etc. An
than a long list of mediocre quality. inset for dishes of the day or of the week gives the
customer added interest.
Language Menu policy: summary

Accuracy in dish description helps the customer to ●● Provide a means of communication.
identify the food they wish to choose. Avoid over- ●● Establish the essential and social needs of the
elaboration and flowery choice of words. Wherever customer.
possible, use English language. If a foreign dish name ●● Accurately predict what the customer is likely to
is used then follow it with a simple, clear English buy and how much he or she is going to spend.
version. ●● Purchase and prepare raw materials to pre-set
standards in accordance with predictions and
Presentation purchasing specifications.
Ensure the menu is presented in a sensible and wel- ●● Skilfully portion and cost the product in order to
coming way so that the customer is put at ease and keep within company profitability policy.
relaxed. An offhand, brusque presentation (written ●● Effectively control the complete operation from
or oral) can be off-putting and lower expectations of purchase to service on the plate.
the meal. ●● Customer satisfaction is all-important: remember
who pays the bill.
Planning
Consider the following:
Profitable menus
How chefs can make menus more
●● type and size of establishment – pub, school,
hospital, restaurant, etc. profitable
●● customer profile – different kinds of people have Chefs must know the market and their customers.
differing likes and dislikes They must research the market for the best quality
●● special requirements – kosher, Muslim, vegetarian and the best price. Do not rule out part-prepared and
●● time of the year – certain dishes acceptable in fully prepared products – it is about creating a menu
summer may not be so in winter that appeals to customers at a price they are prepared
●● foods in season – are usually in good supply and to pay and that will give a good return. The right com-
reasonable in price bination will vary from restaurant to restaurant, opera-
●● special days – Christmas, Hogmanay, Shrove tion to operation, depending on the following.
Tuesday, Eid, Chinese New Year, etc.
●● Style of operation: a fine-dining restaurant will use
●● time of day – breakfast, brunch, lunch, tea, high
little in the way of convenience foods. Fine dining
tea, dinner, supper, snack, special function
is often marked by skill in the variety of cooking,
●● price range – charge a fair price and ensure good
whereas a less skilled operation will very often use
value for money; customer satisfaction can lead
a high proportion of ready-prepared foods; this
to recommendation and repeat business
ensures a constant delivery of standards.
●● number of courses
●● Volume: where a chef is preparing for large
●● sequence of courses
numbers and with staff with limited skills, there
●● use menu language that customers understand
is often a reliance on pre-prepared and fully
●● sensible nutritional balance
prepared food.
●● no unnecessary repetition of ingredients from
●● Type of customer: the market for food prepared
dish to dish
fully from new materials is small– for the mass
●● no unnecessary repetition of flavours and colours
market, expectations are driven by the different
●● be aware of the Trade Descriptions Act 1968
situations in which they find themselves. Those
(see below) – ‘Any person who in the course
dining at their place of work are not necessarily
of a trade or business: applies a false trade
concerned if all the food is not prepared on site.
description to any goods or supplies or offers
However, when they are dining out for a special
to supply any goods to which a false trade
occasion they will probably expect something
description is applied shall be guilty of an offence'
quite different.
●● be aware of food allergies – provide useful
●● Price: customers have a sense of what they
information on the menu, and make sure staff are
are willing to pay. This often depends on the
informed about the ingredients of each dish.
occasion and the type of operation. For example,
some people are prepared to spend more on a
celebration dinner than a casual meal at the local
gastropub. The price must cover the costs of food on the small size for the number of customers
and be calculated to take into account all the to be served, there may be very little space to
other variable and fixed costs. prepare food from new materials. Therefore there
●● Staff skills: profitability will also depend on how may be much more of a reliance on pre-prepared
you balance the level of skill in the kitchen, and the and fully prepared foods. Likewise there will not
use of pre-prepared and fully prepared products. be such a need for highly skilled staff requiring
●● Facilities – kitchen design: where kitchens are such high salaries.
Consumer protection
There is a comprehensive set of legislation con- Sale of Goods and Services Act 1982
cerned with protecting the consumer. This can be This act aims to ensure that goods sold are of satis-
divided into that which is concerned with health and factory quality and fit for the purpose intended. This
safety, economic protection such as weights and would especially apply to equipment as well as com-
measures, and others that deal with unfair contract modities. It applies to the sale of goods and services
terms. Fundamentally, however, all consumer protec- only. From the caterer’s viewpoint this act works
tion starts with the basic contract. If a supplier fails to mainly to his or her advantage, whereas the Supply
supply what a consumer has contracted to purchase, of Goods and Services Act 1982 (see below) works
the supplier may be in breach of contract. However, mainly to the customer’s advantage. In essence,
because breach of contract cases can be difficult to the act is concerned with ensuring that customers
prove and expensive, the government over the years receive goods that are of satisfactory quality and are
has introduced legislation to improve protection for fit for the purpose.
the consumer. Goods may be defined as of satisfactory quality ‘if
they are as fit for the purpose or purposes for which
The main consumer protection acts goods of that kind are commonly bought as it is
Price Marking (Food and Drink on reasonable to expect having regard to any descrip-
Premises) Order 1979 tion applied to them, the price (if relevant) and all the
other circumstances’.
The wording and pricing of food and drink on menus
In addition to goods being of satisfactory quality
and wine lists must comply with the law and be
they must also be fit for the purpose. This means that,
accurate. However, by offering dishes on the menu
if a purchaser makes known a specific purpose for
there is no legal obligation to serve the customer if
their goods, then the goods should be able to satisfy
he or she may cause a nuisance to other customers
that purpose.
or because, due to demand, the dish has sold out
and is ‘off’ the menu. But for establishments provid- Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982
ing accommodation there is an obligation to provide
This act is concerned with ‘implied’ terms in a contract.
refreshment providing the customer is able to pay
and is in an acceptable state (e.g. sober). Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994
Trade Descriptions Act 1968/1972 This is an amending act that mainly amends the Sale
of Goods Act 1979.
This act makes it a criminal offence to falsely describe
goods or services, or to supply or offer for sale any Consumer Protection Act 1987
goods or services to which a false description applies.
This act deals with three main areas: liability for
It is also an offence to make reckless statements (i.e.
defective products; consumer safety; misleading
statements without the knowledge to support the
price indications. It contains recommendations in
claims made about the goods or services). Examples
the form of a code of practice regarding a service
of offences include describing pork as veal or frozen
charge. This should be incorporated in the inclusive
foods as fresh.
price where practicable and indicated (e.g. ‘price
There are also offences under the Food and Safety
includes service’). Non-optional charges (e.g. cover
Act 1990.
charges or minimum charges) should be prominently
displayed.
Code of Practice on Price Indications stances enforcement notices, deregistration notices

The Code of Practice for Traders on Price Indication and transfer prohibition notices may be enforced.
contains recommendations on service, cover and Data protection principles
minimum charges in hotels, restaurants and similar
establishments. It states: The data protection principles referred to above are
as follows.
If your customers in hotels, restaurants or similar
places must pay a non-optional charge e.g. a ‘ser- ●● The information to be contained in personal data
vice charge’: shall be obtained and personal data shall be
processed fairly and lawfully.
1 incorporate the charge within the fully inclusive ●● Personal data shall be held only for one or more
prices wherever practicable specified and lawful purposes.
2 display the fact clearly on any price list or ●● Personal data held for any purpose or purposes
priced menu whether displayed inside or shall not be used or disclosed in any manner
outside (e.g. by using statements like ‘all prices incompatible with that purpose or those purposes.
include service’). ●● Personal data held for any purpose or purposes
Do not include suggested optional sums, whether for shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in
service or any other item, in the bill presented to the relation to that purpose or those purposes.
customer. ●● Personal data shall be accurate and, where
The code concedes that it is not practical to include necessary, kept up to date.
some non-optional extra charges – for example, cover ●● Personal data held for any purposes shall not be
charges or minimum charges – in a quoted price. In kept for longer than is necessary for that purpose
these cases the charge should be shown as promi- or those purposes.
nently as other prices on any list or menu, whether ●● An individual shall be entitled at reasonable
displayed inside or outside. intervals and without undue delay or expense:
– to be informed by any data user whether he
Data Protection Act 1998 holds personal data of which that individual is
This act imposes specific duties on data users, and the subject
gives certain rights to individuals including employees – to access any such data held by a data user,
on whom personal data is held. Subject to limited and
exceptions, data users must be registered with the – where appropriate, to have such data corrected
Data Protection Registrar. The Registrar is empow- or erased.
ered to refuse applications for registration if he/ ●● Appropriate security measures shall be taken
she has reason to believe data users will not abide against unauthorised access to or alteration,
by the data protection principles. In such circum- disclosure or destruction of personal data, and
against their accidental loss.
Menu copy
Items or groups of items should bear names people tive copy featuring the history of the establishment or
recognise and understand. If a name does not give the local area in which the establishment is located.
the right description, additional copy may be neces- Descriptive copy can alternatively be based on a
sary. Descriptions can be produced carefully, helping speciality dish that has significant cultural importance
to promote the dish and the menu. However, the to the area or the establishment. In doing so the
description should describe the item realistically description may wish to feature the person responsi-
and not mislead the customer. Creating interesting ble for creating and preparing the dish, especially if
descriptive copy is a skill; a good menu designer is the chef is reasonably well known and has appeared
able to illuminate menu terms and specific culinary on national or local television or radio. The chef may
terms, and in doing so is able to draw attention to also have had his/her recipes featured in the local
them. Simplicity creates better understanding and press. This too may be included in the menu to further
endorses the communication process. create interest.
Some menus can be built around general descrip- Menu copy should be set in a style of print that is
easily legible and well spaced. Mixing typefaces is paper chosen must be of good quality, heavy, durable
often done to achieve emphasis; if overdone, how- and grease-resistant.
ever, the overall concept is likely to look a mess and
therefore unattractive to the eye. Accurate food descriptions
Emphasis may easily be achieved by using boxes In terms of the provision of accurate information on
on the menu. Also the paper used and the colour of menus, it is important to be aware of the sort of prob-
the print can be chosen with care to make certain lems that may be encountered with food descriptions.
dishes stand out. Some examples are listed below.
Some common mistakes in menu copy are:
●● Scampi: refers to products made from complete
●● Descriptive copy is left out when it is required scampi. When using products which are made
(confusing to the customer). from pure scampi but using off-cuts of scampi,
●● The wrong emphasis is given. the products must be advertised as 'reformed
●● Emphasis is lost because print size and style are scampi', as they are not of the same high quality.
not correctly used. ●● King prawn: king prawns can be called king prawns
●● The menu lacks creativity (boring). only where the prawns are of one of three specific
●● The menu is designed for the wrong market. species of prawn and are of the correct size.
●● Much-needed information is omitted. ●● Tiger prawn: tiger prawns can be called tiger
●● Pricing is unclear. prawns only when they are of this species.
●● The menu sequence is wrong. ●● Chicken fillet and breast: this term can be
●● Customers do not see valuable copy because used only where the chicken is chicken flesh not
added sheets such as ‘dish of the day’ or ‘today’s chopped, shaped and reformed.
specials’ cover up other parts of the menu, or ●● Smoked: this means that the food must have
obscure essential information. been through a smoking process. If smoke flavour
is used, it must state ‘smoke flavoured’.
Menu cover ●● Fresh: ‘fresh’ can be used only for fresh food, not
The cover of the menu should reflect the identity or canned or frozen.
decor of the operation, and should ideally pick up the ●● Vegetarian dishes: can be labelled vegetarian
theme of the restaurant. A theme can be effective in only when they have been produced without
creating the right image of the restaurant. The cover any contact or contamination with meat, fish or
design must therefore reflect this overall image. The shellfish.
Menu flexibility
In times of inflation and recession, when prices Nothing becomes obsolete faster to the regular
rise or the amount of disposable income decreases, customer than the same menu. Menu fatigue sets
customer demands change and therefore menus in and you begin to lose customers. Even fast-food
become outdated and obsolete. establishments, which have a basic menu on offer
Some operations use the menu of the day on a year in year out, still have to create interest by adding
wall board or chalk board to provide flexibility in items certain new products or new recipes to existing prod-
offered and pricing. This custom started in Paris. ucts in order to keep interest alive. Menus should
A neatly written wall board told customers as they change at least every three months.
entered the restaurant what was on offer that day.
Some establishments change part of their menus daily Menu engineering
or weekly, while the main core of the menu remains the One approach to sales analysis that has gained some
same. Changes can be made on a paper insert and this popularity is ‘menu engineering’. This is a technique
can be added to the printed menu. Hors d’oeuvre, side of menu analysis that uses two key factors of per-
dishes, salads, desserts and beverages do not change formance in the sales of individual menu items: the
frequently; these dishes are printed on the main copy, popularity and the gross profit contribution of each
while the speciality dishes, which do change more fre- item. The analysis results in each menu item being
quently, are placed on the paper insert. assigned to one of four categories (see Figure 7.1).
The sales percentage category for an item is deter-

High
Horse Stars
mined in relation to the menu average, taking into
account an additional factor. With a menu consisting
Percentage of total sales
of ten items one might expect, all other things being

equal, that each item would account for 10 per cent
of the menu mix. Any item that reached at least 10
per cent of the total menu items sold would therefore
Dogs Puzzles
be classified as enjoying high popularity. Similarly, any
item that did not achieve the rightful share of 10 per
cent would be categorised as having a low popularity.
With this approach, half the menu items would tend
to be shown as being below average in terms of their
Low
Low Gross profit contribution High

popularity. This would potentially result in frequent revi-
sion of the composition of the menu. It is for this reason
Figure 7.1 Menu engineering matrix (based on Kasavana and that Kasavana and Smith (1982) have recommended
Smith, 1982) the use of a 70 per cent formula. Under this approach,
all items that reach at least 70 per cent of their right-
1 Items of high popularity and high cash gross ful share of the menu mix are categorised as enjoying
profit contributions. These are known as Stars. high popularity. For example, where a menu consists
2 Items of high popularity but with low cash gross of, say, 20 items, any item that reached 3.5 per cent or
profit contribution. These are known as Plough more of the menu mix (70 per cent of 5 per cent) would
horses. be regarded as enjoying high popularity. While there
3 Items of low popularity but with high cash gross is no convincing theoretical support for choosing the
profit contributions. These are known as Puzzles. 70 per cent figure rather than some other percentage,
4 Items of low popularity and low cash gross profit common sense and experience tend to suggest that
contribution. These are the worst items on the there is some merit in this approach.
menu, and are known as Dogs.
Interpreting the categories
Chefs and food and beverage managers operating
There is a different basic strategy that can be consid-
in a competitive environment require a knowledge
ered for items that fall into each of the four catego-
of menu engineering in order to maximise business
ries of the matrix.
potential. The advantage of this approach is that it
provides a simple way of graphically indicating the ●● Stars: these are the most popular items,
relative cash contribution position of individual items which may be able to yield even higher gross
on a matrix, as in Figure 7.1. profit contributions by careful price increases
There is a variety of computer-based packages that or through cost reduction. High visibility is
will automatically generate the categorisation, usu- maintained on the menu, and standards for these
ally directly using data from electronic point of sale dishes should be strictly controlled.
(EPOS) control systems. The basis for the calcula- ●● Plough horses: these, again, are solid sellers,
tions is as follows. which may also be able to yield greater cash
In order to determine the position of an item on the profit contributions through marginal cost
matrix, two things need to be calculated. These are: reduction. Lower menu visibility than Stars is
usually recommended.
1 the cash gross profit
●● Puzzles: these are exactly that – puzzles. Items
2 the sales percentage category.
such as flambé dishes or a particular speciality
The cash gross profit category for any menu item is can add an attraction in terms of drawing
calculated by reference to the weighted average cash customers, even though the sales of these items
gross profit. Menu items with a cash gross profit that may be low. Depending on the particular item,
is the same as or higher than the average are classi- different strategies might be considered, ranging
fied as high. Those with lower than the average are from accepting the current position because
classified as low cash gross profit items. The average of the added attraction that they provide, to
also provides the axis separating Plough horses and increasing the price further.
Dogs from Stars and Puzzles. ●● Dogs: these are the worst items on a menu
Menu planning, development and structure 235
and the first reaction is to remove them. An as a whole. There is an additional problem of
alternative, however, is to consider adding them cross-elasticity of demand, where the change in
to another item as part of a special deal. For demand for one commodity is directly affected
instance, adding them in a meal package to a by a change in the price of another. Even less is
Star may have the effect of lifting the sales of the known about the cross-elasticity of demand for
Dog item and may provide a relatively low-cost individual menu items than is known about the
way of adding special promotions to the menu. elasticity of demand for the menu as a whole. Any
benefit arising from an adjustment in the price
The menu engineering methodology is designed to
of one item may therefore be offset by resultant
categorise dishes into good and poor performers.
changes in the demand for another item. Price-
For dishes with high popularity and high contribution
level adjustments must therefore be underpinned
(Stars):
by a good deal of common sense, experience and
●● do nothing knowledge of the particular circumstances of the
●● modify price slightly – up or down operation.
●● promote through personal selling or menu ●● Labour intensity: in menu engineering the most
positioning. critical element is cash gross profit. While this
may be important, the aspect of labour intensity
For dishes with high popularity and low contribution
cannot be ignored. The cash gross profit on a
(Plough horses):
flambé dish, for example, may be higher than on
●● do nothing a more simple sweet; however, when the costs of
●● increase price labour are taken into account – especially at peak
●● reduce dish cost – modify recipe by using periods – it may well be that the more simple
cheaper commodities or reducing the portion sweet is the more profitable overall.
size. ●● Shelf-life: the food cost of an item used to
determine the cash gross profit may not take
For dishes with low popularity and high contributions
account of cost increases that are the result of
(Puzzles):
food wastage through spoilage, especially at
●● do nothing l reposition dish on menu slack times.
●● reduce price l promote through personal selling ●● Fluctuations in demand: another factor is the
●● rename dish l remove from menu. consistency of the buying of the consumer. The
approach assumes that changes can be made
For dishes with low popularity and low contribution
to promote various items and that this will be
(Dogs):
reflected in the buying behaviour of the customer.
●● do nothing l redesign dish The approach will work well where the potential
●● replace dish l remove dish from menu. buying pattern of the consumer is fairly similar
over long periods. However, where customers
Some potential limitations are continually changing, as for instance in the
●● Elasticity of demand:* one of the practical restaurant of a hotel, popularity and profitability
difficulties with price-level adjustment is not can be affected more by changes in the nature of
knowing enough about the elasticity of demand. the customer and the resultant change in demand
The effect of demand (number of covers) of than as a result of the operation’s attempting to
any one change in the general level of menu manipulate the sales mix.
prices is usually uncertain. Also, what applies * Price elasticity of demand: this concept is explained on page 244.
to one menu item applies equally to the menu
Examples of different menus

self-serve the main items they require with assistance
Fruit Juice – Orange, Grapefruit or Tomato from counter hands. Ideally, eggs should be freshly
Fresh Grapefruit or Orange Segments
cooked to order.
Stewed Fruits – Prunes, Figs or Apricots
Fresh Fruit Selection, Fresh Fruit Salad ●● Fruits, fruit juices, stewed fruit, yoghurts, cereals:
Yoghurts porridge, etc.
Choice of Cereals, Porridge or Mix your own Muesli ●● Eggs: fried, boiled, poached, scrambled; omelettes
Baker’ s Selection with bacon or tomatoes, mushrooms or sauté
Croissant, White and Wholemeal Rolls, Continental potatoes.
Pastry ●● Fish: kippers, smoked haddock, kedgeree.
Your choice of White or Brown Toast ●● Meats (hot): fried or grilled bacon, sausages,
Marmalade, Preserve, Honey, Country Butter or Flora kidneys, with tomatoes, mushrooms or sauté
Margarine
potatoes, potato cakes.
Assorted Cold Meats and Cheese
●● Meats (cold): ham, bacon, pressed beef with
English Breakfast Tea with Milk or Lemon
sauté potatoes.
Coffee – Freshly Brewed or Decaffeinated
with Milk or Cream
●● Preserves: marmalade (orange, lemon, grapefruit,
Hot Chocolate, Cold Milk
ginger), jams, honey.
Chilled Ashbourne Water
●● Beverages: tea, coffee, chocolate.
●● Bread: rolls, croissants, brioche, toast, pancakes,
waffles.
Figure 7.2 Sample continental breakfast menu
Points to consider when compiling a
À LA CAR TE breakfast menu
FRUITS & JUICES
●● It is usual to offer three of the courses previously
Fresh Orange or Grapefruit Juice £.... Large £....
mentioned: fruit, yoghurt or cereals; fish, eggs or
Pineapple, Tomato or Prune Juice £.... Large £....
meat; preserves, bread, coffee or tea.
Chilled Melon £.... Stewed Prunes £.... Half
Grapefruit £.... ●● As large a choice as possible should be offered,
Stewed Figs £.... Fresh fruit in Season £.... depending on the size of the establishment,
BREAKF AST FAVOURITES bearing in mind that it is better to offer a smaller
Porridge or Cereal £.... number of well-prepared dishes than a large
Eggs, any style: One £..... Two £.... number of hurriedly prepared ones.
Ham, Bacon, Chipolata Sausages or Grilled Tomato £.... ●● A choice of plain foods, such as boiled eggs or
Omelette, Plain £.... with Ham or Cheese £.... poached haddock, should be available for the
Grilled Gammon Ham £.... Breakfast Sirloin Steak £.... person who may not require a fried breakfast.
A Pair of Kippers £.... Smoked Haddock with a Poached
Egg £.... Buffet breakfast – offers a choice of as many break-
Pancakes with Maple Syrup £.... fast foods as is both practical and economic. Can be
FROM OUR BAKER Y planned on a self-service basis or part self-service
Croissants or Breakfast Rolls £.... Brioche £.... and assisted service (e.g. hot drinks and freshly
Assorted Danish Pastries £.... Toast £....
cooked eggs).
BEVERAGES
Tea, Coffee, Sanka, Chocolate or Milk £....
Luncheon and dinner menus
Service Charge 15%
Types of menu
Figure 7.3 Sample English à la carte breakfast menu ●● A set-price one-, two- or three-course menu with
ideally a choice at each course.
●● A list of well-varied dishes, each priced individually
Breakfast menu so that the customer can make up his/her own
Breakfast menus can be compiled from the following menu of whatever number of dishes they require.
foods and can be offered as continental, table d’hôte, ●● Buffet, which may be all cold or hot dishes, or
à la carte or buffet. For buffet service customers can a combination of both, either to be served or
MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY
Soup of the day Mushroom and Roasted pepper Parsnip and apple Chilli and sweet Leek and potato
chive (V) (L) (V) (L) (V) (L) potato (V) (L) (V) (L)
Main meal 1 Aromatic chicken Toad in the hole Roast turkey Poached lemon Breaded hake
korma served accompanied with bread sauce and bay leaf with chips and
with rice and with onion and cranberry chicken breast lemon (H)
poppadom (H) gravy (H) (M) (L)
Main meal 2 Boiled ham on Jambalaya with Beef and hoi sin Pan-fried lambs’ Hot chilli con
the bone with a chorizo, prawns, with green livers with carne with rice
creamy parsley rice and sweet peppers and redcurrant and sour cream
velouté (M) peppers (M) noodles (M) jus (M) (H)
Vegetarian meal Vegetarian Pesto roasted Lightly spiced Vegetable balti Sweet potato
cottage pie with vegetables with bean and tomato with coriander, and mushroom
garden vegetables chick pea bruschetta (M) cumin, mango pavé with tomato
and a crusted couscous and turmeric chutney (M)
potato topping (M) (N) (M)
(M)
Potatoes and Rice or baby Mashed potato Roast potatoes Parmentier Chips or new
vegetables jackets Sauté Vichy carrots potatoes potatoes
Green bean courgettes Buttered cabbage Mushy peas
Provençale
Hot dessert Bread and butter Banana sponge Apple and Pineapple upside Orange sponge
pudding with with toffee cinnamon down cake with with chocolate
custard sauce sauce (H) crumble with custard sauce (H)
(H) custard sauce (H) sauce (H)
Some of our foods may contain GM soya or maize; please ask our staff for details. N Contains Nuts,
L low fat content, M medium fat content, H high fat content, V vegetarian
Figure 7.4 Luncheon menu: staff restaurant
organised on a self-service basis. Depending on ●● tea (Indian, China, iced, fruit, herb).
the time of year and location, barbecue dishes
The commercial hotels, tea rooms, public restaurants
can be considered.
and staff dining rooms may offer simple snacks,
●● Special party, which may be either: set menu with
cooked meals and high teas. For example:
no choice; set menu with a limited choice, such
as soup or melon, main course, choice of two ●● assorted sandwiches
sweets; served or self-service buffet. ●● buttered buns, scones, cakes Scotch pancakes,
waffles, sausage rolls, assorted bread and butter,
Only offer the number of courses and number of
various jams, toasted teacakes, scones, crumpets,
dishes within each course that can be satisfactorily
buns
prepared, cooked and served.
●● eggs (boiled, poached, fried, omelettes)
A vegetarian menu may be offered as an alternative
●● fried fish, grilled meats, roast poultry
to or as part of the à la carte or table d’hôte menus
●● cold meats and salads
(see Figure 7.7 for an example).
●● assorted pastries, gâteaux
Tea menus ●● various ices, coupes, sundaes
These vary considerably, depending on the type of ●● tea, orange and lemon squash.
establishment, and could include, for example:
Light buffets (including cocktail parties)
●● assorted sandwiches Light buffets can include:
●● bread and butter (white, brown, fruit loaf)
●● assorted jams ●● hot savoury pastry patties of, for example, lobster,
●● scones with clotted cream, pastries, gâteaux chicken, crab, salmon, mushrooms, ham
LUNCH
Galvin
Bistrot de Luxe
Entrées
Steak tartare
Soupe de poissons, rouille & croûtons
Salad of endive with Roquefort, chives & walnuts
Matjes Harengs marines, pommes à l’huile
Oak smoked salmon, fromage blanc & blini
Salad of Dorset crab, apple dressing
Half dozen Fines de Claire oysters
Salad of buffalo mozzarella & caponata
Escargots bourguignon
Parfait of foie gras & duck liver
Rillette of black boar
Plats Principles
Grilled Crottin de Chavignol, morels, peas & asparagus
Confit of organic salmon, Bayonne ham, beurre de tomate
Roast tranche of cod, crushed Jersey Royals, étuvée of leeks
Pot roast Landaise chicken, tagliatelle of asparagus & morels
Grilled calf’s liver, shallots aigre-doux, lardoons & flat leaf parsley
Roast pork fillet, Bayonne ham, black pudding & caramelised apples
Roast rump of lamb, broad bean risotto
Braised veal’s cheek, fresh pasta, baby spinach & Madeira sauce
Tête de Veau, sauce Ravigote
Desserts
Oeuf à la neige
Délice of milk and dark Valhrona chocolate
Crème brûlée, coconut mousseline
Gariguette strawberries, crème Chantilly
Apricot & chocolate soufflé
Prune & Armagnac parfait
Baba au rhum
Tarte au citron
Assiette de fromages with walnut & raisin loaf
Menu Prix Fixé

Gravadlax of organic salmon or velouté of broad beans
Grilled sea trout, petits pois à la Française or Confit duck, honey & rosemary
spring cabbage
Chocolate mousse, orange jelly or Brie de Meaux & walnut bread
Figure 7.5 Sample luncheon menu

DINNER
The Grill Room at The Dorchester
Appetisers
Oak-smoked wild Scottish salmon
Lobster soup with flamed Scottish lobster
Squab pigeon and spring vegetable consommé with black truffles
Crisp red mullet and spring vegetable salad with sundried tomato cream
Seared scallops with cauliflower purée, citrus vinaigrette and mimolette crisps
Foie gras and duck confit terrine with onion marmalade and toasted brioche
Caramelised endive with goats’ cheese, honey and winter truffles
Ham hock ravioli with white beans, trompettes and parsley
Denham Estate venison burger with quail’s egg, griottine cherries, parsnips and Port
Warm Gressingham duck salad with glazed root vegetables, chestnuts and meat juices
Baby spinach salad with cashel blue, spiced pears and walnuts
Main Courses
Roast sea bass fillet with olive oil mash, red pepper relish and aged balsamic vinegar
Dover sole grilled or pan fried with brown butter and capers
Seared tuna with fennel, cherry tomatoes and Jersey Royals
Ragoût of John Dory, lobster and mussels with crème fraîche and chives
Free-range chicken breast with creamed morels, asparagus and tarragon
New season rack of lamb with aubergine caviar, couscous and confit garlic
Roast rib of Aberdeen Angus beef with Yorkshire pudding and roast potatoes
Rabbit leg with calf’s sweetbread, ceps, smoked bacon and Lyonnaise potatoes
Saffron risotto cake with stuffed tomato, grilled vegetables and Parmesan
Specialities from The Grill

Served with either hand-cut chips or olive mash, sauce béarnaise, sauce bordelaise, green
peppercorn sauce or rosemary butter
Veal chop
Rib eye steak
Calf’s liver and bacon
Lobster (1 kg)
Desserts
Crisp apple tart with clotted cream and calvados
Lemon and blueberry millefeuille with blood orange sorbet
Hot ginger pudding with plums and crème fraîche sorbet
A plate of Valrhona chocolate desserts
Home-made vanilla and rhubarb yoghurt with churros
Strawberry ripple ice cream or mango sorbet
Honey roast pear with caramel sauce and cardamom custard
Iced passion fruit and bitter chocolate délice with chilli and coriander
Selection of Cheeses from the Board
***
Coffee and Petits Fours
Figure 7.6 Sample dinner menu

dip; smoked salmon pin wheels; choux puffs with

VEGETARIAN MENU
Camembert
Iced Cucumber Soup ●● sweets (e.g. trifles, charlottes, bavarois, fruit salad,
Flavoured with mint gâteaux).
Avocado Waldorf
Filled with celery and apple bound in mayonnaise,
Fork buffets
garnished with walnuts All food for a fork buffet must be prepared in a way
*** that enables it to be eaten with a fork or spoon.
Vegetable Lasagne
Fast-food menus
Layers of pasta and vegetables with melted cheese,
served with salad Although some people are scornful of the items on
Mushroom Stroganoff this type of menu, calling them ‘junk food’, neverthe-
Flamed in brandy, simmered in cream with paprika
less their popularity and success are proven by the
and mustard, served with rice fact that, starting with the original McDonald’s, which
Chilli con Elote opened in Chicago in 1955, there are now many
thousands of outlets worldwide. McDonald’s offers
Seasonal fresh vegetables in a chilli and tomato
fondue, served with rice customers a nutrition guide to its products, as well as
Poached egg Elizabeth
information for diabetes sufferers.
(Set on buttered spinach, coated in a rich cream sauce)
Banquet menus
Figure 7.7 Sample vegetarian menu When compiling banquet menus, consider the follow-
ing points.
●● The food, which will possibly be for a large
number of people, must be dressed in such a
way that it can be served fairly quickly. Heavily
garnished dishes should be avoided.
●● If a large number of dishes have to be dressed at
the same time, certain foods deteriorate quickly
and will not stand storage, even for a short time,
in a hot place.
A normal menu is used, bearing in mind the number
of people involved. It is not usual to serve farinaceous
dishes, eggs, stews or savouries. A luncheon menu
could be drawn from the following and would usually
Figure 7.8 Afternoon tea table consist of three courses. Dinner menus, depending
on the occasion, generally consist of three to five
courses.
●● hot chipolatas; chicken livers, wrapped in bacon
●● First course: soup, cocktail (fruit or shellfish),
and skewered
hors d’oeuvre, assorted or single item, a small
●● bite-sized items – quiche and pizza, hamburgers,
salad.
meatballs with savoury sauce or dip, scampi, fried
●● Second course: fish, usually poached, steamed,
fish en goujons, tartare sauce
roasted or grilled fillets with a sauce.
●● savoury finger toast to include any of the cold
●● Third course: meat, poultry or game, hot or cold,
canapés; these may also be prepared on biscuits
but not a stew or made-up dish; vegetables and
or shaped pieces of pastry
potatoes or a salad would be served.
●● game chips, gaufrette potatoes, fried fish balls,
●● Fourth course: sweet, hot or cold.
celery stalks spread with cheese
●● sandwiches; bridge rolls, open or closed but Cheese may be served as an extra course.
always small
●● fresh dates stuffed with cream cheese; crudités The meal experience
with mayonnaise and cardamom dip; tuna and If people have decided to eat out then it follows
chive Catherine wheels; crab claws with garlic that there has been a conscious choice to do this in
to the whole population, and customers are attracted

Avocado filled with cream cheese and two fruit sauces depending on their needs at the time.
*** The decision to eat out may also be split into two
parts: first, the decision to do so for the reasons given
Seafood-filled fish mousse with crayfish sauce
above, and then the decision as to what type of expe-
*** rience is sought. It is generally agreed that there are
Butter-cooked fillet of beef with sliced mushrooms and a number of factors influencing this latter decision.
tongue in Madeira sauce The factors that affect the meal experience may be
A selection of market vegetables summarised as follows.
Potatoes garnished with cream cheese ●● Food and drink on offer: this covers the range
of foods, choice, availability, flexibility for special
***
orders, and the quality of the food and drink.
Light soft meringue topped with fruit ●● Level of service: depending on the needs
*** people have at the time, the level of service
sought should be appropriate to these needs. For
Coffee
example, a romantic night out may call for a quiet
Sweetmeats table in a top-end restaurant, whereas a group
of young friends might be seeking more informal
Figure 7.9 Sample banquet menu (note: sweetmeats may also service. This factor also takes into account
be called petits fours)
services such as booking and account facilities,
acceptance of credit cards and the reliability of
preference to some other course of action. In other the operation’s product.
words, the food service operator has attracted the ●● Level of cleanliness and hygiene: this relates
customer to buy their produce instead of another to the premises, equipment and staff. Over
product – for example, the theatre, cinema or simply the past decade this factor has increased in
staying at home. The reasons for eating out may be importance in customers’ minds. The recent
summarised under seven headings. media focus on food production and the risks
involved in buying food have heightened public
1 Convenience: for example, being unable to awareness of health and hygiene aspects. Scores
return home, as in the case of shoppers, people on the Doors and similar schemes have also
at work or those involved in some leisure activity. increased awarness of hygiene standards.
2 Variety: for example, trying new experiences or ●● Perceived value for money and price:
as a break from home cooking. customers have perceptions of the amount
3 Labour: for example, getting someone else to they are prepared to spend and relate these to
prepare and serve food, and wash up, or simply differing types of establishment and operation.
the impracticality of housing special events at However, many people will spend more if the
home.
4 Status: for example, business lunches or
people eating out because others of their socio-
economic group do so.
5 Culture/tradition: for example, special events
or because it is a way of getting to know
people.
6 Impulse: a spur-of-the-moment decision.
7 No choice: for example, those in welfare,
hospitals or other forms of semi- or captive
markets.
People are, however, a collection of different types,
as any demographic breakdown will show. While it is
true that some types of food service operation might
attract certain types of customer, this is by no means
true all the time; for example, McDonald’s is marketed Figure 7.10 Taking orders
value gained is perceived to be greater than that customer. All too often, food service operators can
obtained by spending slightly less. get caught up in the provision of food and drink,
●● Atmosphere of the establishment: composed spend several thousand pounds on design, decor
of a number of factors, such as design, decor, and equipment, but ignore the actual experience the
lighting, heating, furnishings, acoustics and noise customer might have. Untrained service staff are a
levels, other customers, staff and the attitude of good example of this problem. Operations can tend to
staff. concentrate on the core product and forget the total
package. A better understanding of the customer’s
Identifying these factors is important because it
viewpoint or the nature of customer demand leads to
considers the product from the point of view of the
a better product being developed to meet it.
Managing a function
A function can be described as the service of food A considerable amount of information is available to
and drink at a specific time and place, for a given the caterer in advance of the function. This includes:
number of people at a known price.
●● number of guests ● drink required
Examples of hospitality functions include:
●● price per head or cover ● type of menu.
●● social functions – weddings, anniversaries, dinner ●● menu requirement
dances
This information allows the manager to assess the
●● business functions – conferences, meetings,
resource requirement. For example:
working lunches, working dinners
●● social and business functions – corporate ●● staffing ● food and drink
entertaining.
●● linen ● equipment.
Sometimes functions are called banquets; however,
The manager is then also able to assess the profit
the word banquet is normally used to describe a large,
margins to be achieved. This will aid the control proce-
formal occasion.
dures and help to establish yardsticks against which
The variety of function events ranges from simply
the performance of a function may be measured.
providing bar facilities in a conference reception area
before a meeting, to the more formal occasion cater-
ing for 1500 to 2000 people. Many establishments Financial considerations
concentrate and market themselves as specialist Function catering is most commonly associated with
function caterers. The function business may be the the commercially orientated sector of the hospitality
company’s sole business; on the other hand, it may industry. Gross profit margins in function catering
be part of the product range – for example, in a hotel, tend to be higher than those achieved in hotel res-
you may well find rooms, restaurants, conferences taurants and coffee shops.
facilities and banqueting. An average gross profit percentage of 65–75 per
The type of function facilities found in an establish- cent is usually required in function catering, depend-
ment will also depend on the level of market for which ing on the type of establishment, types of customers,
it is catering. Function catering is found in the com- level of service, and so on.
mercial and public sector of the hospitality industry. The types of customers and their spending power
The types of function suites and variety of functions on can in most cases be determined in advance. The
offer in all establishments will often differ considerably. average spending power will comprise the cost of the
Policy decisions relating to function catering are meal and will generally include the beverages served
determined by a number of characteristics inherent during the function. Items that may not be included in
to this type of catering. First, depending on where the price of the meal are pre-dinner drinks, liqueurs
the establishment is located there will be a ban- and such like.
queting season; this is where the main business is The financial policy will also determine the pricing
concentrated – for example, from May to September structures of the different types of functions and dif-
(depending on the location) is known as the ‘wedding ferent menus on offer. Some establishments will also
season’. make a separate charge for room hire.
The pricing structure for an establishment’s func- development or concept; the launch of new
tion catering will be determined by its cost struc- conference/seminar rooms.
ture, with reference to its semi-fixed and variable ●● New product lines: launch of weekend breaks
costs. There are a variety of pricing structures that for clubs, groups, etc., with special rates.
may be used for costing functions, the adoption ●● Research: ongoing market research, project
of any one being determined by such factors as research, etc.
the type of establishment, the food and beverage
Every organisation needs to advertise and promote
product on offer, and the cost structure of the
its functions. There are a number of ways in which an
establishment.
organisation can promote the business:
Banquets and functions may generate addi-
tional income such as extra bar sales and overnight ●● special brochures
accommodations. ●● photographs
●● press releases about functions sent to local
Marketing considerations newspapers, magazines, etc.
The marketing policy of a function establishment will Brochures have to be designed carefully using pro-
focus on the market the business aims to capture, fessional designers, printers, and so on. The menus
and how best to promote the special characteristics should be clear and easily understood, with the prices
of the establishment. Different marketing techniques stated. All photographs must be clear and accurate;
will be used to ‘sell’ the establishment. they should be in no way misleading.
An establishment’s marketing policy should contain Brochures or folders should ideally contain the
a review relating to the competition in the area in company logo. The pack should also contain the
order to keep abreast of fashions and trends in the following:
function market. To assist in this review it is important
that information and quotations are obtained from ●● a letter from the banqueting manager to the client
other establishments. A manager must be constantly ●● rates and prices
aware of the types of products and services on offer ●● wine lists
in the marketplace. Every consideration must be ●● details of all function rooms, with size and
given to customers’ needs and matching these needs facilities on offer
to the establishment’s facilities. ●● maps
In the marketing of an operation’s function facili- ●● sample menus.
ties the function manager should be aware of who is Any menus included will have been carefully con-
buying the ‘product’ in a particular organisation being structed by the chef, with predetermined gross profits,
contracted. Arrangements should be made to show recipe specifications and purchasing specifications in
the client the facilities, and every effort should be mind.
made to create a good impression.
The function manager should devise a marketing Pricing
plan based on the marketing policy for a given period.
Function menus are usually pre-listed with the
This plan should take into account the following
desired profit margins added to them. These menus
factors.
will generally have a standard set of purchasing and
●● Finance: targets of turnover, profit for a given operational specifications added to them. However,
period. there is normally a flexible element added to it. It is
●● Productivity: targets of productivity and not unusual for a banqueting manager to offer addi-
performance of the banqueting function tions to the menu at no additional cost to the client
department. in order to capture the business in a competitive
●● Promotions: general – how to increase business environment.
and how this is to be achieved; special – The relationship between price and value for
specially devised promotions to be launched in money is an important aspect of pricing. Value for
a given period, often aimed at different groups, money extends far beyond the food to be served. It
clubs, etc. takes into account the whole environment in which
●● Facilities: focused on selling certain facilities – the food is consumed: the atmosphere, decor and
for example, recently refurbished. surroundings of the establishment, and the level of
●● Development: the promotion of a new service.
In order to be successful and to obtain a satisfac- about examining price, however, but also the facilities,
tory volume of sales, pricing has to consider three decor, services, and so on.
basic factors. The specific method of pricing used by an estab-
lishment will depend on the exact market in which it
The nature of demand for the product is operating. The price itself can be a valuable selling
First, we have to think of the elasticity of tool and a great aid to achieving the desired volume
demand (this means how sensitive demand is to of sales.
the effects of pricing). Menus are said to have an Every business, whatever its size, can choose to
elastic demand when a small decrease in the price set its prices above its proper costs or at, or below,
brings about a significant increase in sales, and the prices of its competitors. More often establish-
alternatively if an increase in price brings about a ments are forced to fix their price by the competi-
decrease in sales. Menus with an inelastic demand tion. This is the discipline of the marketplace. The
mean that a small increase or decrease in price challenge then is to get the costs below the price
does not bring about any significant increase or that has to be set. The danger here is that man-
decrease in sales. agers tend to subconsciously alter the costs. This
happens when fixed costs such as wages, heating,
The level of demand for the product and so on, are split over all the sales to arrive at
the unit cost. It is always tempting then to over-
Most catering operations experience fluctuations in estimate the sales, thereby reducing the unit cost.
demand for their products. The change in demand No one should attempt to sell anything until they
affects the volume of sales, which results in the have calculated the break-even point. This is the point
under-utilisation of premises and staff. Fluctuation the amount of sales (menus, portions) at a certain
in demand makes it necessary to take a flexible price have to reach to cover their variable costs and
approach to pricing in order to increase sales. For all the fixed costs. Profit only starts when the break-
example, at certain times of the year it may be pos- even point has been reached.
sible to obtain deals on functions. Pricing is as much about psychology as accounting.
Establishments also need to market research price.
The level of competition for the product Too low a price, although enabling them to produce
Competition is an important factor in pricing. profit on paper, may fail as customers may perceive
Establishments commonly monitor the prices in com- the product to be cheap and of poor quality. Some
petitors’ establishments, recognising that customers people expect to pay high prices for some goods and
have a choice. Monitoring competition is not just services.
Planning a function
Collecting the function details The customer requirements are then summarised
Customers are usually invited for a detailed view of on a function sheet and divided into departmental
the venue; in some establishments this will include a responsibilities. The function sheet may be issued to
menu tasting. During the menu tasting the customer the customer one week before the function.
is encouraged to discuss their requirements; the food Ideally, function sheets should be colour-coded for
and beverage manager will gather this information. each department one week before the function. The
The customer will also be advised of the different date for confirmation of the final catering numbers is
options available. For example: noted on the function sheet.
●● different room layouts Internal communication procedures

●● choice of menu, vegetarian or allergy Internal communication is especially important within
requirements any organisation. Frequent meetings are essential to
●● order of service inform staff of forthcoming events and the expected
●● flowers working hours for the following week. Often, more
●● cloakroom requirements detailed and user-friendly internal function sheets
●● technical requirements, overhead projectors, are compiled so that the key people are aware of
public address system, etc. customer requirements.
Internal function sheets should be given to the rel- ●● In high-quality banqueting houses much of the
evant staff at least one week in advance of the func- service and presentation is finished at the last
tion. It is then up to each department to assess its minute.
own responsibilities and needs relating to the event ●● Any delays in the function will result in hourly
so that the work can be planned in advance. These paid staff being paid extra time, thus pushing up
sheets will determine the amount of staff required costs.
for the function, and how much linen, crockery, glass- ●● Timing can affect the smooth running of the
ware, and so on, is required. function, and whether it is possible to turn
Such decisions will have to be made taking account the room around in enough time for a second
of the price the customer is paying and the overall function (e.g. lunch, then dinner).
budget. Final attendance numbers should be con-
firmed with the client at least 48 hours before the The importance of communication and
event. information
Communication and flow of information in any organi-
An example of costs and resources sation is of paramount importance to a successful
Different services provided may be priced separately organisation.
(e.g. menu price may comprise internal costs). For Information needs to be broken down and allocated
example: to the appropriate departments, and it is vital that
●● 30 per cent – food cost there is two-way communication between depart-
●● 30 per cent – labour ments. Any changes to the function must be commu-
●● 30 per cent – operational costs (e.g. linen, nicated to all those concerned immediately.
cleaning, etc.) Information, first, is obtained by the first point
●● 10 per cent – profit. of customer contact (i.e. the event organiser, the
food and beverage manager, conference and func-
Usually each department has its own budget to reach. tion organisation). At a later stage more specialist
Resources for each department must be deployed information is gathered by the individual department
and used effectively in order to maximise profitability. heads, using various means of communication:
All revenue earned and costs are summarised on a
weekly basis in the form of a weekly cost-breakdown ●● telephone l fax
report. This is then passed on to the control office, ●● email l meetings.
manager or director. This information is recorded in different stages:
Expenditure for each function is usually controlled
on a daily basis. The head chef must be aware of the ●● telephone enquiry l invoice
total food expenditure target for each function. All ●● bookings diary l feedback form
costs must be controlled through the careful man- ●● hire contract l weekly report
agement of resources. Staffing needs to be kept to a ●● function sheet l thank you letter.
minimum without compromising quality. ●● internal function sheet
Information may be presented in different ways,
The importance of timing either formally or informally.
The accurate timing of functions is vital, for the fol-
lowing reasons. Formal correspondence
Information relating to a client’s function must be
●● Each department needs time to prepare for the
professionally presented, accurate and reflect the
function. Some departments will require more
company’s image.
time than others. For example, the kitchen needs
the most time to prepare the menu, while a Internal information
technician requires only a few minutes to prepare
This must also be accurate and well presented so that
the video playback machine.
staff are able to understand clearly what is expected
●● The timing of deliveries is most important as late
of them. All instructions should be in detail, leaving
deliveries can cause severe problems for the
nothing to chance or guesswork.
kitchen. It is also important that deliveries meet
the required specification.
Customer information The event

All information relating to the needs of the customers Staff are required to familiarise themselves with the
must be recorded throughout the booking process function sheets, identifying any special requirements
using appropriate documentation: that are needed by the organiser. Staff also require a
full briefing so that they understand exactly what is
●● hire contract
required of them and to reconfirm the function details.
●● function sheets, and so on.
It is important that the client feels that they are being
Special requirements looked after and that they can feel at ease. The func-
tion must be executed as planned, in line with the
In small establishments the services on offer can be
client’s needs.
tailored to the needs of the customer.
At the end of the function it is essential to gain
●● Dietary needs must be catered for. feedback from the client to ensure that, if the client
●● It is important that, if wheelchair access is was not satisfied, a follow-up letter apologising or
required, it is made available. offering some compensation can be sent. This client
●● Where it is difficult to accommodate certain evaluation should then be passed on to the staff.
special requirements, the customer should be A final calculation of the costs incurred by each
given alternatives, where possible. department needs to be done to check the efficiency
of the budget management. Invoices are then raised.
Food allergies Some companies will contact the client one to
When planning menus for a large function the chef three days after the function to obtain constructive
must think of the danger of any food allergies. All feedback, using a standard evaluation form for them
waiting staff must be informed of the contents of the to fill in.
dishes (e.g. shellfish, gluten, peanuts). Well-organised functions that give customer satis-
faction can not only be profitable but may also lead
Legal requirements to repeat business.
All functions must be planned within the legal frame-
work. Consideration must be given to the welfare of
staff. Provide training in health, safety and hygiene.
Employees must understand the fire regulations and
evacuation procedures. Training is particularly impor-
tant in risk assessment, handling dangerous equip-
ment and handling chemical products.
Companies have a legal responsibility to the cus-
tomer – for example, the customer needs to be aware
of the maximum number of guests permitted in the
building due to fire regulations and, similarly, whether
or not a licence extension or evacuation procedures
in the event of a fire or bomb threat are in place.
The issuing of a contract forms a legal bond Figure 7.11 Briefing staff on the menu
between the customer and the venue.
Some references to menus elsewhere in this

book:
✎✎ Allergies............................................................................................. 135
✎✎ Healthier catering.. .................................................................. 127
✎✎ Menu engineering. . .......................................................... Ch. 17
✎✎ School meals.................................................................................... 18
✎✎ Speciality restaurants.. ............................................................ 13
✎✎ Transport catering....................................................................... 22
Reference
Kasavana, M.L. and Smith, D.I. (1982) Menu
Engineering. Haworth Press.

1 A sensible menu policy. small, medium and large hotels, and restau-
2 The advantages and disadvantages of a cycli- rants) for discussion and critique.
cal menu. 9 How have menus changed over the last 20
3 The advantages of using the English language years? Discuss why they have changed.
in menus. When would you consider using 10 What future menu changes do you envisage?
another language? Explain why you think they will occur.
4 The essentials of menu design and construction. 11 Specify the essential menu requirements, and
5 The various styles of buffet menus. state your reasons, for children, teenagers and
6 The implications of menu fatigue. senior citizens.
7 How would you promote your menu for a 12 The importance of using local produce on a
50-seater high-street bistro in the centre of menu.
town? 13 How important to the customer is the trace-
8 Each member of the group to obtain a number ability of the ingredients in the dishes?
of differing menus (e.g. breakfast, lunch, dinner, 14 Should a chef consider sustainability when
special party) from different types of catering planning a menu?
area (e.g. school meals, industrial catering,
, production
ng
Food purchasing,
ni a
8 nd
an
Part 3 Pl
ser storage and control

vice
Liaising with Food Suppliers 248 Organisation of Control 261

Food Purchasing 248 Introduction to the
Portion Control 251 Organisation of Resources 263
Methods of Purchasing 253 Storekeeping 265
The Standard Recipe 254 Sustainability 275
Cost Control 255 References 276
Food Cost and Operational Topics for Discussion 276
Control 259

›● Activity worksheets: purchasing; costing and control
›● Video and worksheet: wholesale market
Liaising with food suppliers

There are certain important factors involved in a suc- Suppliers must be aware of what is expected of the
cessful working relationship with food suppliers. Both product. They must also make sure that the caterer is
parties have responsibilities that must be carried out aware of any food safety limitations associated with the
to ensure proper food safety and quality. Food-borne product. These are usually stated on all labelling. Such
illness incidents, regardless of their cause, have an statements may simply say ‘keep refrigerated’ or ‘keep
impact on the reputation of caterers, and suppliers’ frozen’, others may well include a graph or chart of the
business will be lost. A good working relationship and projected shelf-life at different storage temperatures.
knowledge of each other’s responsibilities is a major The responsibility for meeting these specifications is
help in avoiding such incidents. an important factor in a successful catering operation.
Food purchasing
The purchasing cycle is pivotal to overall business most important stages is to purchase and receive
performance, and a firm purchasing policy is the initial the materials needed to produce the menu items.
control point of the catering business. Skilful purchasing with good receiving can do much
Once a menu is planned, a number of activities to maximise the results of a good menu. There are six
must occur to bring it into reality. One of the first and important steps to remember:
Food purchasing, storage and control 249
1 Know the market. The buyer

2 Design the purchase procedures. This is the key person who makes decisions regard-
3 Determine purchasing needs. ing quality, amounts, price and what will satisfy the
4 Receive and check the goods. customers but also make a profit. The wisdom of the
5 Establish and use specifications. buyer’s decisions will be reflected in the success or
6 Evaluate the purchasing task. failure of the operation. The buyer must not only be
knowledgeable about the products, but must have the
Need necessary skills required in dealing with sales people,
suppliers and other market agents. The buyer must be
Payment
prepared for hard and often aggressive negotiations.
The responsibility for buying varies from com-
Purchase specification pany to company according to size and management
policy. Buying may be the responsibility of the chef,
manager, storekeeper, buyer or buying department.
Invoice checking
A buyer must have knowledge of the internal
Select supplier
organisation of the company, especially the opera-
tional needs, and be able to obtain the products
needed at a competitive price. Buyers must also
Into stock
acquaint themselves with the procedures of produc-
tion and how these items are going to be used in the
Negotiate
production operations, in order that the right item is
purchased. For example, the item required may not
Inspection
always have to be of prime quality – for example,
tomatoes for use in soups and sauces.
Purchase order
A buyer must also be able to make good use of
market conditions. For example, if there is a glut of
Delivery
fresh salmon at low cost, has the organisation the
Figure 8.1 The purchasing cycle facility to make use of extra salmon purchases? Is
Source: Drummond, 1998, reproduced by permission of there sufficient freezer space? Can the chef make
Hodder Education use of salmon by creating a demand on the menu?
Knowing the market Buying methods

These depend on the type of market and the kind of
Since markets vary considerably, to do a good job of
operation. Purchasing procedures are usually formal
purchasing a buyer must know the characteristics of
or informal. Both have advantages and disadvantages.
each market.
Informal methods are suitable for casual buying,
A market is a place in which ownership of a com-
where the amount involved is not large, and speed and
modity changes from one person to another. This
simplicity are desirable. Formal contracts are best for
could occur using the telephone, on a street corner, in
large contracts for commodities purchased over a long
a retail or wholesale establishment, or at an auction.
period of time; prices do not vary much during a year
It is important that a food and beverage purchaser
once the basic price has been established. Prices and
has knowledge of the items to be purchased, such as:
supply tend to fluctuate more with informal methods.
●● where they are grown
●● seasons of production Informal buying
●● approximate costs This usually involves oral negotiations, talking directly
●● conditions of supply and demand to sales people, face to face or using the telephone.
●● laws and regulations governing the market and Informal methods vary according to market conditions.
the products
●● marketing agents and their services Formal buying
●● processing Known as competitive buying, formal buying involves
●● storage requirements giving suppliers written specifications and quantity
●● commodity and product, class and grade. needs. Negotiations are normally written.
Selecting suppliers 3 Daily use needs: daily use or contract items are
The selecting of suppliers is an important part of the delivered frequently on par stock basis; stocks
purchasing process. First, consider how a supplier are kept up to the desired level and supply is
will be able to meet the needs of your operation. automatic; supplies may arrive daily, several
Consider: times a week, weekly or less often; most items
are perishable, therefore supplies must not be
●● price excessive but only sufficient to get through to the
●● delivery next delivery.
●● quality/standards.
Information on suppliers can be obtained from other What quantity and quality?
purchasers. Visits to suppliers’ establishments are to Determining the quantity and quality of items to be
be encouraged. When interviewing prospective sup- purchased is important. This is based on operational
pliers, you need to question how reliable a supplier needs. The buyer must be informed by the chef or
will be under competition and how stable under vary- other members of the production team of the products
ing market conditions. needed. The chef and his or her team must establish
the quality and they should be required to inspect the
Principles of purchasing goods on arrival. The buyer with this information then
A menu dictates an operation’s needs. Based on this checks out the market and looks for the best quality
the buyer searches for a market that can supply the and best price. Delivery arrangements and other fac-
company. After the right market is located, the vari- tors will be handled by the buyer. In smaller establish-
ous products available that may meet the needs are ments the chef may also be the buyer.
then investigated. The right product must be obtained When considering the quantity needed, the follow-
to meet the need and give the right quality desired ing factors should be borne in mind:
by the establishment. Other factors that might affect ●● the number of people to be served in a given
production needs include: period
●● type and image of the establishment ●● the sales history
●● style of operation and system of service ●● portion sizes (this is determined from yield testing
●● occasion for which the item is needed a standard portion-control list drawn up by the
●● amount of storage available (dry, refrigerated or chef and management teams).
frozen) The buyer needs to know about production, often to
●● finance available and supply policies of the be able to decide how many portions a given size may
organisation yield. He or she must also understand the various
●● availability, seasonality, price trends and supply. yields. Cooking shrinkage may vary, causing problems
The skill of the employees, catering assistants and in portion control and yield.
chefs must also be taken into account, as well as The chef must inform the buyer of quantities. The
condition and the processing method, the ability of buyer must also be aware of different packaging
the product to produce the item or dish required, and sizes, such as jars, bottles, cans, and the yield from
the storage life of the product. each package. Grades, styles, appearance, composi-
tion, varieties and quality factors must be indicated,
Three types of need such as:
1 Perishable: fresh fruit and vegetables, dairy ●● colour l size
products, meat and fish; prices and suppliers ●● bruising l maturity
may vary; informal needs of buying are frequently ●● texture l absence of defects.
used; perishables should be purchased to meet ●● irregular shape
menu needs for a short period only. Quality standards should be established by the chef
2 Staple: supplies that are canned, bottled, and management team when the menu is planned.
dehydrated or frozen; formal or informal Menus and recipes may be developed using stand-
purchasing may be used; because items are ardised recipes that relate directly to the buying pro-
staple and can easily be stored, bid buying is cedure and standard purchasing specifications.
frequently used to take advantage of quantity
price purchasing.
FOOD PURCHASING, STORAGE AND CONTROL 251
Buying tips sufficient time for the order to be implemented

The following is a list of suggestions to assist the efficiently.
buyer. ●● Request price lists as frequently as possible and
compare prices continually to make sure that you
●● Acquire, and keep up to date, a sound knowledge buy at a good market price.
of all commodities, both fresh and convenience, ●● Buy perishable goods when they are in full
to be purchased. season as this gives the best value at the
●● Be aware of the different types and qualities of cheapest price. To help with the purchasing of
each commodity that is available. the correct quantities, it is useful to compile a
●● When buying fresh commodities, be aware of purchasing chart for 100 covers from which
part-prepared and ready-prepared items available items can be divided or multiplied according to
on the market. requirement. An indication of quality standards
●● Keep a sharp eye on price variations. Buy at the can also be incorporated in a chart of this kind.
best price to ensure he required quality and also ●● Deliveries must all be checked against the orders
an economic yield. The cheapest item may prove given for quantity, quality and price. If any goods
to be the most expensive if waste is excessive. delivered are below an acceptable standard
When possible, order by number and weight. they must be returned, either for replacement or
For example, 20 kg plaice could be 80 3 250 g credit.
plaice, 40 3 500 g plaice, 20 3 1 kg plaice. It ●● Containers can account for large sums of money.
could also be 20 kg total weight of various sizes Ensure that all containers are correctly stored,
and this makes efficient portion control difficult. returned to the suppliers where possible and the
Some suppliers (e.g. butchers, fishmongers) proper credit given.
may offer a portion-control service by selling the ●● All invoices must be checked for quantities and
required number of a given weight of certain cuts. prices.
For example, 100 3 150 g sirloin steaks, 25 kg ●● All statements must be checked against invoices
prepared stewing beef, 200 3 100 g pieces of and passed swiftly to the office so that payment
turbot fillet, 500 3 100 g plaice fillets. may be made in time to ensure maximum
●● Organise an efficient system of ordering with discount on purchases.
copies of all orders kept for cross-checking, ●● Foster good relations with trade representatives
whether orders are given in writing, verbally or by because much useful up-to-date information can
telephone. be gained from them.
●● Compare purchasing by retail, wholesale and ●● Keep up-to-date trade catalogues, visit trade
contract procedures to ensure the best method is exhibitions, survey new equipment and continually
selected for your own particular organisation. review the space, services and systems in use in
●● Explore all possible suppliers: local or markets, order to explore possible avenues of increased
town or country, small or large. efficiency.
●● Keep the number of suppliers to a minimum. At ●● Organise a testing panel occasionally in order to
the same time have at least two suppliers for keep up to date with new commodities and new
every group of commodities, when possible. The products coming on to the market.
principle of having competition for the caterer’s ●● Consider how computer applications can assist
business is sound. the operation (see Chapter 17).
●● Issue all orders to suppliers fairly, allowing ●● Study weekly fresh food price lists.
Portion control
Portion control means controlling the size or quantity heavy industry or to female clerical workers. In a
of food to be served to each customer. The amount restaurant offering a three-course table d’hôte
of food allowed depends on the three following menu for £25 including salmon, the size of the
considerations. portion would naturally be smaller than in a luxury
restaurant charging £17.50 for the salmon on an
1 The type of customer or establishment:
à la carte menu.
there will obviously be a difference in the size
2 The quality of the food: better-quality food
of portions served, such as to those working in
usually yields a greater number of portions than 5 5224 litres of milk lost daily; this resulted in a
poor-quality food: low-quality stewing beef often loss of hundreds of pounds per year.
needs so much trimming that it is difficult to get ●● When an extra penny’s worth of meat is served
six portions to the kilogramme, and the time and on each plate it mounts up to a loss of £3650
labour involved also loses money. On the other over the year when 1000 meals are served daily.
hand, good-quality stewing beef will often give
eight portions to the kilo, with much less time Portion amounts
and labour required for preparation, and more The following is a list of the approximate number of
customer satisfaction. portions obtainable from various foods.
3 The buying price of the food: this should
correspond to the quality of the food if the General
person responsible for buying has bought wisely. ●● Soup: 2–3 portions to each half a litre.
A good buyer will ensure that the price paid for ●● Hors-d’oeuvres: 120–180 g per portion.
any item of food is equivalent to the quality – in ●● Smoked salmon: 16–20 portions to the kg when
other words, a good price should mean good bought by the side; 20–24 portions to the kg
quality, which should mean a good yield, and so when bought sliced.
help to establish sound portion control. If, on ●● Shellfish cocktail: 16–20 portions per kg.
the other hand, an inefficient buyer has paid a ●● Melon: 2–8 portions per melon, depending on the
high price for food of indifferent quality then it type of melon.
will be difficult to get a fair number of portions, ●● Foie gras: 15–30 g per portion.
the selling price necessary to make the required ●● Caviar: 15–30 g per portion.
profit will be too high and customer satisfaction
can be affected.
Fish
●● Plaice, cod, haddock fillet: 8 portions to the kg.
Portion control should be closely linked with the ●● Cod and haddock on the bone: 6 portions to the kg.
buying of the food; without a good knowledge of the ●● Plaice, turbot, brill, halibut, on the bone: 4 portions
food bought it is difficult to state fairly how many por- to the kg.
tions should be obtained from it. To evolve a sound ●● Herring and trout: 1 per portion (180–250 g fish).
system of portion control, each establishment (or type ●● Mackerel and whiting: 250–360 g fish.
of establishment) needs individual consideration. A ●● Sole for main dish: 300–360 g fish.
golden rule should be: ‘a fair portion for a fair price’. ●● Sole for filleting: 500–750 g best size.
Conveniently portioned items are available, such ●● Whitebait: 8–10 portions to the kg.
as individual sachets of sugar, jams, sauce, salt and ●● Salmon (gutted, but including head and bone):
pepper, individual cartons of milk and cream, and 4–6 portions to the kg.
individual butter and margarine portions. ●● Crab or lobster: 250–360 g per portion (a 500 g
lobster yields about 150 g meat; a 1 kg lobster
Portion control equipment
yields about 360 g meat).
There are certain items of equipment that can assist
in maintaining control of the size of the portions: Sauces
●● scoops, for ice cream or mashed potatoes For each type, 8–12 portions to the half litre:
●● ladles, for soups and sauces ●● hollandaise
●● butter pat machines, regulating pats from 7 g ●● tomato
upwards ●● custard
●● fruit juice glasses (75–150 g) ●● jam
●● soup plates or bowls (14, 16, 17, 18 cm) ●● béarnaise
●● milk dispensers and tea-measuring machines ●● any demi-glace, reduced stock or jus-lié
●● individual pie dishes, pudding basins, moulds and ●● apricot
coupes. ●● chocolate.
The following real-life examples demonstrate how For each type, 10–14 portions to the half litre:
portion control can save a great deal of money.
●● apple
●● It was found that 0.007 litres of milk was being ●● cranberry
lost per cup by spilling it from a jug; 32,000 cups ●● bread.
For each type, 15–20 portions to the half litre: ●● loin on the bone – 6–8 portions to the kg.
●● pork chop – 180–250 g.
●● tartare
●● vinaigrette Ham:
●● mayonnaise.
●● hot – 8–10 portions to the kg.
Meats ●● cold – 10–12 portions to the kg.
●● sausages are obtainable 12, 16 or 20 to the kg.
Beef: ●● chipolatas yield approximately 32 or 48 to the kg.
●● roast boneless – 6–8 portions per kg. ●● cold meat – 16 portions to the kg.
●● boiled or braised – 6–8 portions per kg. ●● streaky bacon – 32–40 rashers to the kg.
●● stews, puddings and pies – 8–10 portions per kg. ●● back bacon – 24–32 rashers to the kg.
●● steaks – rump – 120–250 g per one portion,
sirloin – 120–250 g per one portion, tournedos – Poultry:
90–120 g per one portion, fillet – 120–180 g per ●● poussin – 1 portion 360 g (1 bird), 2 portions
one portion. 750 g (1 bird).
●● ducks and chickens – 360 g per portion.
Offal: ●● geese and boiling fowl – 360 g per portion.
●● ox liver – 8 portions to the kg. ●● turkey – 250 g per portion.
●● sweetbreads – 6–8 portions to the kg.
●● sheep’s kidneys – 2 per portion. Vegetables:
●● ox tongue – 4–6 portions per kg. ●● new potatoes – 8 portions to the kg.
●● old potatoes – 4–6 portions to the kg.
Lamb: ●● cabbage – 6–8 portions to the kg.
●● leg – 6–8 portions to the kg. ●● turnips – 6–8 portions to the kg.
●● shoulder, boned and stuffed – 6–8 portions to ●● parsnips – 6–8 portions to the kg.
the kg. ●● swedes – 6–8 portions to the kg.
●● loin and best end – 6 portions to the kg. ●● Brussels sprouts – 6–8 portions to the kg.
●● stewing lamb – 4–6 portions to the kg. ●● tomatoes – 6–8 portions to the kg.
●● cutlet – 90–120 g. ●● French beans – 6–8 portions to the kg.
●● chop – 120–180 g. ●● cauliflower – 6–8 portions to the kg.
●● spinach – 4 portions to the kg.
Pork: ●● peas – 4–6 portions to the kg.
●● leg – 8 portions to the kg. ●● runner beans – 6 portions to the kg.
●● shoulder – 6–8 portions to the kg.
Methods of purchasing
There are three main methods for buying, each 2 The secondary market: goods are bought
depending on the size and volume of the business. wholesale from a distributor; the catering
establishment will pay wholesale prices and
1 The primary market: raw materials may be
obtain possible discounts.
purchased at the source of supply (the grower,
3 The tertiary market: the retail or cash-and-
producer or manufacturer) or from central markets
carry warehouse is a method suitable for smaller
such as Smithfield (meat), Nine Elms (fruit and
companies. A current pass obtained from the
vegetables) or Billingsgate (fish) in London, or
warehouse is required in order to gain access.
Rungis in Paris (the largest wholesale food market
This method also requires the user to have his
in the world). Some establishments or large
or her own transport. Some cash-and-carry
organisations will have a buyer who will buy directly
organisations require a VAT number before they
from the primary markets. Also, a number of
will issue an authorised card. It is important to
smaller establishments may adopt this method for
remember that there are added costs:
some of their needs (the chef patron may buy his
– running the vehicle and petrol used
fish, meat and vegetables directly from the market).
– the person’s time for going to the warehouse.
Example of a standard purchasing ●● Weight: 6 kg net per box.

specification ●● Count: 90–100 per box.
●● Quote: per box/tray.
Tomatoes ●● Packaging: loose in wooden tray, covered in
●● Commodity: round tomatoes. plastic.
●● Size: 50 g, 47–57 mm diameter. ●● Delivery: day following order.
●● Quality: firm, well formed, good red colour, with ●● Storage: temperature 10–13°C at a relative
stalk attached. humidity of 75–80 per cent.
●● Origin: Dutch, available March–November. ●● Note: avoid storage with cucumbers and
●● Class/grade: super class A. aubergines.
Cash and carry is often an impersonal way of buying ●● Grown (primary): butcher’s meat; fresh fish; fresh
as there are no staff available with whom to discuss fruit and vegetables; milk and eggs.
quality and prices. ●● Manufactured (secondary): bakery goods; dairy
products.
For more information, visit the World Union of ●● Processed (tertiary): frozen foods including
Wholesale Markets website, www.wuwm.org. meat, fish, and fruit and vegetables; dried goods;
canned goods.
Standard purchasing specifications It can be seen that any food product can have a
Standard purchasing specifications are documents specification attached to it. However, the primary
that are drawn up for every commodity describing specifications focus on raw materials, ensuring the
exactly what is required for the establishment. These quality of these commodities. Without quality at this
standard purchasing specifications will assist with level, a secondary or tertiary specification is useless.
the formulation of standardised recipes. A watertight For example, to specify a frozen apple pie, this prod-
specification is drawn up which, once approved, will uct would use:
be referred to every time the item is delivered. It is a ●● a primary specification for the apple
statement of various criteria related to quality, grade, ●● a secondary specification for the pastry
weight, size and method of preparation, if required ●● a tertiary specification for the process (freezing).
(such as washed and selected potatoes for baking).
Other information given may be variety, maturity, age, But, no matter how good the secondary or tertiary
colour, shape, and so on. A copy of the standard specifications, if the apples used in the beginning are
specification is often given to the supplier and the not of a very high quality, the whole product will not
storekeeper, who are left in no doubt as to what is be of a good quality.
needed. These specifications assist in the costing For most perishable items, rather than entering
and control procedures. into a long-term contract, a daily or monthly quota-
Commodities that can be specified include the tion system is more common. This is essentially a
following. short-term contract regularly reviewed to ensure that
a competitive situation is maintained.
The standard recipe

The standard recipe is a written formula for produc- Objective
ing a food item of a specified quality and quantity To predetermine the following:
for use in a particular establishment. It should show
the precise quantities and qualities of the ingredi- ●● the quantities and qualities of ingredients to be
ents, together with the sequence of preparation and used, stating the purchase specification
service. It enables the establishment to have greater ●● the yield obtainable from a recipe
control over cost and quantity. ●● the food cost per portion
●● the nutritional value of a particular dish.
To facilitate: Also the standard recipe will assist new staff in the
preparation and production of standard products,
●● menu planning, purchasing and internal
which can be facilitated by photographs or drawings
requisitioning, food preparation and production,
illustrating the finished product.
portion control.
Cost control
It is important to know the exact cost of each process volume of business; in an operation that uses
and every item produced, so a system of cost analysis part-time or extra staff for special occasions,
and cost information is essential. the money paid to these staff also comes under
The advantages of an efficient costing system are variable costs; by comparison, salaries and
as follows. wages paid regularly to permanent staff are
fixed costs.
●● It discloses the net profit made by each section of 2 All costs of labour and overheads: regular
the organisation and shows the cost of each meal charges that come under the heading of fixed
produced. costs; labour costs in the majority of operations
●● It will reveal possible sources of economy and fall into two categories: direct labour cost,
can result in a more effective use of stores, which is salaries and wages paid to staff such
labour, materials, and so on. as chefs, waiters, barstaff, housekeepers,
●● Costing provides information necessary for the chambermaids, and where the cost can be
formation of a sound pricing policy. allocated to income from food, drink and
●● Cost records provide and facilitate speedy accommodation sales; and indirect labour cost,
quotations for all special functions, such as which would include salaries and wages paid,
parties, wedding receptions, and so on. for example, to managers, office staff and
●● It enables the caterer to keep to a budget. maintenance staff who work for all departments
No one costing system will automatically suit every (so their labour cost should be charged to all
catering business, but the following guidelines may departments). Overheads consist of rent, rates,
be helpful. heating, lighting and equipment.
3 Cleaning materials: an important group of
●● The cooperation of all departments is essential. essential items that is often overlooked when
●● The costing system should be adapted to costing. There are over 60 different items that
the business, not vice versa. If the accepted come under this heading, and approximately 24
procedure in an establishment is altered to fit a of these may be required for an average catering
costing system then there is danger of causing establishment. These may include: brooms,
resentment among staff and as a result losing brushes, buckets, cloths, drain rods, dusters,
their cooperation. mops, sponges, squeegees, scrubbing/polishing
●● Clear instructions in writing must be given to staff machines, suction/vacuum cleaners, wet and wet/
who are required to keep records. The system dry suction cleaners, scouring pads, detergents,
must be made as simple as possible so that the disinfectants, dustbin powder, washing-up liquids,
amount of clerical labour required is kept to a fly sprays, sacks, scourers, steel wool, soap, soda,
minimum. An efficient mechanical calculator or and so on.
computer should be provided to save time and
labour. It is important to understand the cost of these materi-
als and to ensure that an allowance is made for them
To calculate the total cost of any one item or meal under the heading of overheads.
provided it is necessary to analyse the total expendi-
ture under several headings. Basically the total cost Costing and profit
of each item consists of the following three main
Pricing
elements.
There are several different approaches to pricing
1 Food or materials costs: known as variable catering products and services. (There is more on
costs because the level will vary according to the pricing in Chapter 11.)
Table 8.1 Example breakdown to show a satisfactory profit. This method tends to be
used by the more sophisticated operators.
Percentage of sales (%)
Food cost £12,000 44 Cost plus
Labour £6,000 25 This is the system used by many sectors of the indus-
Overheads £3,000 18 try. In order to arrive at the selling price, a percentage
£21,000 of ratio of cost price (e.g. 100 per cent) is added to
cost of raw materials. This ‘mark-up’ should set a level
Net profit £4,000 13
that meets costs and, in commercial catering, makes
Sales £25,000
a profit as well. There are variations on this cost-plus
approach.
Competitive pricing
Using this method, prices are based on the prices
charged by competitors for broadly similar products Gross profit – fixed percentage mark-up
and services. The argument for this approach is that The food cost of each dish is calculated and a fixed
the consumer’s choice is dependent largely upon gross profit (e.g. 100 per cent) added. Gross profit
price and that catering operations charging more than refers to the difference between cost and selling
their competition price themselves out of business. price.
It is usual to express each element of cost as a per-
‘Backward’ pricing centage of the selling price. This enables the caterer
This method bases prices on what market research to control profits.
indicates the consumer will be prepared and able to Gross profit, or kitchen profit, is the difference
pay. Once the price has been determined, the cost of between the cost of the food and the net selling
materials, labour and overheads is calculated in order price of the food. Net profit is the difference between
Table 8.2 Labour costs as a percentage of revenue
Factors that can affect labour %

% range (as a % of
Type of outlet revenue) per annum Low % High %
Hotels: 2–3 star 18–32% Efficient design Inefficient design
Limited menu Extensive menus
Hotels: 4–5 star 25–35% Living-in staff High level of service, e.g.
Limited services room service
Restaurants: waiter/waitress 25–35% As above As above
service
Popular catering
Waitress service 22–35% As above As above
Self-service 15–25% As above As above
Wine bars 12–22% As above As above
Fast food takeaway 11–18% As above As above
Kiosks, mainly confectionery Around 6% Very high tobacco element
and tobacco
Public houses 15–30% Efficient design, e.g. one High catering ratio, several
bar, mainly liquor sales, bars/restaurants, low
long turnover turnover
Note: These figures do not, however, accurately reflect work activity. Labour percentages do not indicate whether an employer
employs a lot of low-paid staff or a few high-paid staff. In many other industries productivity is measured by measuring output
against labour input, such as per full-time equivalent employee or per hour paid. Such measures can include covers per session
for each type of operative.
Source: Croners Catering

Table 8.3 Calculating the selling price of a dish with food costs of £2.50 (before adding VAT)
Gross profit required Therefore, food costs are:

(% of selling price) (% of selling price) Calculation Selling price
70 30 £2.50 3 100 £8.33
30
60 40 £2.50 3 100 £6.25
40
50 50 £2.50 3 100 £5.00
50
40 60 £2.50 3 100 £4.17
60
30 70 £2.50 3 100 £3.57
70
the selling price of the food (sales) and total cost (of which means that the customer’s contribution
food, labour and overheads). Here is an example: towards:
Sales – Food cost 5 gross profit (kitchen profit) Food cost 5 25 3 48% 5 £12.00
Sales – total cost 5 net profit Labour 5 25 3 24% 5 £6.00
Food cost 1 gross profit 5 sales Overheads 5 25 3 12% 5 £3.00
Net profit 5 25 3 16% 5 £4.00
Example
Average price of meal 5 £25.00
Food sales for 1 week 5 £25,000
Food cost for 1 week 5 £12,000 A rule that can be applied to calculate the food cost
Labour and overheads for 1 week 5 £9,000 price of a dish is: let the cost price of the dish equal
Total costs for 1 week 5 £21,000 40 per cent and fix the selling price at 100 per cent.
Gross profit (kitchen profit) 5 £13,000
Cost of dish 5 400p 5 40%
Net profit 5 £4,000
40 3 100
Food sales – food cost £25,000 – £12,000  Selling price 5 5 £10.00
40
5 £13,000 (gross profit)
Food sales – net profit £25,000 – £4,000 Selling the dish at £10, making 60 per cent gross
5 £21,000 (total costs) profit (GP) above the cost price, would be known as
Food cost 1 gross profit £12,000 1 £15,000 40 per cent food cost. For example:
5 £25,000 (food sales)
Sirloin steak (250 g)
Profit is always expressed as a percentage of the 250 g entrecote steak at £10.00 a kg 5 £2.50
selling price.
To fix the selling price £2.50 3 100
£4000 3 100 5 5 £6.25
Net profit 5 5 16% at 40% food cost and 40
£25,000
60% GP
A breakdown reveals the figures shown in Table 8.1.
More examples are shown in Table 8.3.
If the restaurant served 1000 meals, then the aver- If food costing is controlled accurately the food
age amount spent by each customer would be: cost of particular items on the menu and the total
Total sales £25,000 expenditure on food over a given period are worked
5 £25.00 out. Finding the food costs helps to control costs,
No of customers 1000
prices and profits.
As the percentage composition of sales for a month An efficient food cost system will disclose bad
is now known, the average price of a meal for that buying and inefficient storing, and should tend
period can be further analysed: to prevent waste and pilfering. This can help the
Average price of a meal 5 £25.00 5 100% caterer to run an efficient business, and enable
25p 5 1% her/him to give the customer adequate value for
money.
Table 8.4 The food and beverage manager’s guide to factors affecting the gross profit % (1)
Area Causes Method of detection Remedies

Purchasing Poor specifications Not fit for job in hand with Recheck all specifications
1 Suppliers and regard to size, weight, against requirements
specifications standard, quality
Goods disposed of or more
used than necessary
Supplier unable to cope with As above Change supplier
volume or standard
Acceptance of minimum Food wasted (kitchen bins Agree smaller deliveries or
deliveries, which are in checked) change supplier
excess of daily requirements
Not keeping close to agreed Check market prices and Continually monitor suppliers’
prices or checking market competitors price lists
prices
Poor response following Items not changed Change supplier
complaints immediately and credit note
system not responsive
Poor yields Observation and physical Carry out regular yield checks
checks and introduce standard recipes
Poor menu planning Poor profitability Plan menus to take advantage
Use of high-priced items of seasonal items
out of season Include realistic mix of high- and
low-cost items
2 Ordering Incorrect specification, Delivery note, visual check, Increase control procedures
quantity or price invoice check Ensure orders are placed only by
authorised staff
Over-ordering, resulting in
over-stocking
Stock deteriorating Shortage of storage space Closely monitor levels of
Stock value high business and establish trends
Establish stock levels for
non-perishable goods
Eliminate standing orders
Order as frequently as purchase
contract allows to ensure lower
stocks
The caterer who gives the customer value for GP 60% Food costs 40%
money together with the desired type of food is well £2.80 3 100
on the way to being successful. Selling price 5
40
5 £7.00
Example
If a dish costs £2.80 to produce, what should its sell- Add VAT (£7.00 3 .20) 1 £1.40
ing price be to achieve 60 per cent profit on sales? Final selling price 5 £8.40
Food cost and operational control

As food is expensive, efficient stock control levels are ●● Media focus on certain products that are
essential to help the profitability of the business. The labelled healthy or unhealthy will affect demand;
main difficulties of controlling food are as follows. for example butter being high in saturated
fats, sunflower margarine being high in
●● Food prices fluctuate frequently because of
polyunsaturates.
inflation and falls in demand and supply, through
poor harvests, bad weather conditions, and so on. Each establishment should devise its own control
●● Transport costs rise due to wage demands and system to suit its own needs. Factors that affect a
cost of petrol. control system are:
●● Fuel costs rise, which affects food companies’
●● regular changes in the menu
and producers’ costs.
●● menus with a large number of dishes
●● Any food subsidies imposed by governments
●● dishes with a large number of ingredients
could be removed.
●● problems in assessing customer demand
●● Changes occur in the amount demanded by
●● difficulties in not adhering to or operating
the customer; increased advertising increases
standardised recipes
demand; changes in taste and fashion influence
●● raw materials purchased incorrectly.
demand from one product to another.
Table 8.5 The food and beverage manager’s guide to factors affecting the gross profit % (2)
Area Causes Method of detection Remedies

Materials lost during Quantity not checked: Inspection and observation Establish procedures for
delivery • staff too busy of deliveries: checking orders on receipt
1 Receipts short on • staff indifferent • spot checks at delivery of goods
delivery • staff unsuitable • unsigned delivery notes Constant spot checks
• staff untrained • staff shortages Careful selection, training
• insufficient time • observation and monitoring of staff
• staff failing to follow • security checks Report driver to supplier
procedures • observation, goods Visual checks
• dishonesty arriving when stores Follow up on records
• delivery times inappropriate unmanned
• log temperatures of
Poor transportation of goods:
delivery vans
• incorrect temperatures
• check condition of
• incorrect packaging of
packaging
goods
• check credit notes
• credit notes not checked
2 Change in source Inappropriate specifications Checking of material Establish appropriate
of supply and issued specifications against purchase specifications
quantity Changes in supply standards goods received
not checked
3 Poor stock rotation Failure by staff Inspection and observation Establish stock rotation
Lack of training of storage areas and procedures (bin card
date-stamped goods system)
Spot checks on stores Regular inspections
Question staff on Staff training
understanding of process Review stores layout
4 Hygiene Failure of staff to carry out Regular inspection of Establish procedures
procedures stores area (HACCP)
Training update Instigate and maintain staff
training
Factors assisting a control system include: VAT-exclusive price

●● Menu remains fairly constant (e.g. McDonald’s, If a price is quoted including VAT, you might want to
Harvester, Pizza Hut, Burger King). work out what it was before the tax was added: this is
●● Standardised recipes and purchasing the VAT-exclusive price. In order to calculate the VAT-
specifications used. exclusive element of a VAT-inclusive price of £108, it
●● Menu has a limited number of dishes. is not correct to take 20 per cent of the value of the
inclusive selling price of £108. This would result in a
Stocktaking is therefore easier and costing more net price of £86.40. Instead, the correct calculation
accurate. is:
In order to carry out a control system, food stocks
must be secure, refrigerators and deep-freezers 108 £108
£ 3 100 5 £90.00 or, simply, 5 £90
should be kept locked, portion control must be accu- 100 1 20 £1.20
rate. A bookkeeping system must be developed to Another way to calculate this is to take the selling
monitor the daily operation. price including tax and multiply it by 1 plus the rate of
tax divided by 100. For example:
VAT (value added tax)
Selling price including tax (SP) 5 £8.40
Calculating VAT
VAT 5 20%
VAT is charged at the rate of 20 per cent, which has
to be added to the value of any taxable sale. VAT 20
5 5 0.2
100 100
VAT-inclusive price
1 1 0.2 5 1.2
The VAT-inclusive price is the price with VAT added. It
may be calculated as follows: SP £8.40
5 5 £7.00
Net VAT sale value £90.00 1.2 1.2
£90 Example
3 120 5 £108 or, more simply,
100 If a dish costs £2.80 to produce, what should its sell-
£90 3 £1.20 5 £108 ing price be to achieve 60 per cent profit on sales?
Another way to calculate this is to take the selling £2.00 cost 5 £5.00 selling price
price before tax and multiply it by 1 plus the rate of £0.80 cost 5 £2.00 selling price
tax divided by 100. For example: Selling price 5 £7.00
Selling price (SP) 5 £7.00 Add VAT (£7.00 3 .20) 5 £1.40
VAT 5 20% Final selling price 5 £8.40
VAT 20
5 5 0.2 The control cycle of daily operation
100 100
1 1 0.2 5 1.2 Purchasing
It is important to determine yields from the range of
SP 3 1.2 5 £7.00 3 1.2 5 £8.40
commodities in use, which will determine the unit
If VAT changes, carry out the calculation in the same costs. Yield testing indicates the number of items or
way. For example, if VAT is 17.5%: portions obtained and helps to provide the informa-
tion required for producing, purchasing and speci-
Selling price (SP) 5 £7.00
fication. Yield testing should not be confused with
VAT 5 17.5% product testing, which is concerned with the physical
properties of the food (e.g. texture, flavour, quality). In
VAT 17.5
5 5 0.175 reality, tests are frequently carried out that combine
100 100
these objectives.
1 1 0.175 5 1.175
Receiving
SP 3 1.175 5 £7.00 3 1.175 5 £8.225
Goods must be checked on delivery to make sure
they meet the purchase specifications.
Before items are delivered, it is necessary to know ●● perishable goods are checked immediately
what has been ordered, both the amount and quality, ●● there is no delay in transporting items to cold
and when it will be delivered. This is essential so that storage
persons requiring items will know when foods will be ●● all other goods are checked for quantity and
available, particularly perishable items, and so that, quality, and stored
on arrival, they can be checked against the required ●● any damaged items are returned
standard. It is also helpful for the storekeeper to know ●● items past their ‘use by’ or ‘best before’ dates are
when to expect the goods so that he or she can plan not accepted
the working day and also inform staff awaiting the ●● receipts or amended delivery notes record returns
arrival of items. ●● one part of the delivery note is retained
The procedure for accepting deliveries is to ensure ●● the other part is kept by the supplier
that: ●● a credit note is provided for any goods not
delivered
●● adequate storage space is available
●● should there be any discrepancies, the person
●● access to the space is clear
making the delivery and the supplier are informed.
●● temperature of goods, where appropriate, is
checked
Organisation of control
Control in every catering organisation is crucial: vary from establishment to establishment. However,
in small restaurants and tea shops, in hospital successful control applies to all aspects of catering,
kitchens and in large hotels, in contract and air- namely:
line catering, in school meals – in fact, in every
●● purchasing of food, etc. ● first aid
establishment.
●● security ● presentation of food
The role of potential managers and managers,
●● storage of food, etc. ● equipment
whether they are called food and beverage manager
●● waste ● hygiene
or assistant food and beverage manager, executive
●● preparation of food ● maintenance
chef, chef de cuisine, sous chef, head chef, chef de
●● energy ● safety
partie, or whatever, is to organise:
●● production of food ● legal aspects.
●● themselves
●● other people Control of resources
●● their time The effective and efficient management of resources
●● physical resources. requires knowledge and, if possible, experience. In
An essential factor of good organisation is effective addition, it is necessary to keep up to date. This may
control of oneself, of those responsible to you, and require attending courses on management, comput-
of physical resources, which often includes financial ing, hygiene, legislation, and so on. Membership of
control. The amount and how it is administered will appropriate organisations, such as HCIMA or former
Checklist for control Food preparation

Production
Proper standard of
hygiene and safety
Goods inwards
●● Are deliveries correct in terms of quality,
Presentation Accurate portion control
quantity, hygiene, temperature? Back door Measures to prevent pilfering

Recording
Storage
Monitoring Is it effective, adequate?
●● Items issued in rotation, accurate recording.
●● Correct standards of hygiene: temperature,
Checking
security, minimum wastage.
TI
LF
M
SE
E
Portion Control
How: Your own time control of waste
1 you see yourself
2 others see you Other people’s time
a) superiors a) in-house Energy Budget
b) equals b) out of house control
control
c) subordinates e.g. suppliers
Relationships: Physical resources

at work Purchasing Pilfering
with customers Manpower control control
with family
with others Financial
ES Self- Time
PE
RC control control
O
U
PL
SO
E
RE
Figure 8.2 Organisation of resources
student associations, can also be valuable, as is Means of control

attending exhibitions and trade fairs. Checks need to occur spontaneously, without previ-
How the control of resources is administered will ous warning of the check being made, at regular
depend partly on the systems of the organisation but intervals, which may be daily or weekly. These checks
also on the way the person in control operates. Apart may involve one item, several items or all items.
from knowledge and experience, respect from those Records need to correspond with the physical items.
for whom one is responsible is earned, not given, by For example, if records indicate 40 packets of sugar
the way staff are handled in the situation of the job. at 1 kilo, then those 40 3 1 kilo packets need to be
Having earned the respect and cooperation of staff, a seen. It is necessary to know to whom any discrep-
system of controls and checks needs to be operated ancies should be reported and what action should
that is smooth-running and not disruptive. Training be taken. Therefore the policy of the establishment
and delegation may be required to ensure effective should be clear to all members of staff.
control and, periodically, it is essential to evaluate the A system of authorisation regarding who may pur-
system to see that the recording and monitoring are chase and who may issue goods to whom, with the
being effective. necessary suitable documents and records, needs
The purpose of control is to make certain: to be established and inspected to see that it works
●● that supplies of what is required are available satisfactorily.
●● that the supplies are of the right quality and The following topics, covered in other parts of this
quantity book, are essential reading:
●● that they are available on time ●● food purchase and control (see pages 248–251
●● there is the minimum of wastage in this chapter)
●● there is no overstocking ●● energy conservation (Chapter 5)
●● there is no pilfering ●● health (Chapter 4)
●● that legal requirements are complied with. ●● legal aspects (Chapter 14)
●● supervision (Chapter 10)
●● computers (Chapter 17)
●● hygiene (Chapter 14).
Introduction to the organisation of resources
Health and safety requirements Storing and issuing

To comply with the regulations it is essential to Raw materials should be stored correctly under the
observe the following good practice requirements, not right conditions, temperature, etc. A method of pric-
only because of the legal requirement but for the ben- ing the materials must be decided, and one of the
efit of all who use the storage areas of the premises. following should be adopted for charging the food to
the various departments. The cost of items does not
●● Receiving areas must be clean and free from
remain fixed over a period of time; over a period of
litter.
one year a stores item may well have several prices.
●● Waste bins, empty return boxes, and so on, should
The establishment must decide which price to use:
be kept tidy and safe.
●● Waste bins (rubbish and swill) must be kept with ●● actual purchase price
lids on, emptied frequently and kept clean. ●● simple average price
●● All storage areas must be kept clean and tidy. ●● weighted average price
●● Trolleys and stacking shelves should be suitable ●● inflated price (price goes up after purchase)
for heavy items. ●● standard price (fixed price).
●● Trolleys should not be overloaded; accidents can
occur due to careless loading, such as heavy Weighted average price example (of dried
items on top of light ones. beans)
●● Lifting of heavy items should be done in a 5 kg 3 £0.80 5 £4.00
manner to prevent injury. 10 kg 3 £1.00 5 £10.00
●● Cleaning equipment and materials must be Total £14.00
available and kept separate from food items.  14.00  15 kg 5 £0.93 per kg 5 weighted
●● All items should be stored safely, shelves not average price
overloaded, heavier items lower than lighter items,
with suitable steps to reach higher items. Preparing
●● Stores should have a wash-hand basin, towel, This is an important stage of the control cycle. The
soap and nail brush. cost of the food consumed depends on two factors:
●● Unauthorised persons should not have access to
the stores or areas where goods are delivered. 1 the number of meals produced
●● Be prepared for the unexpected; accidents 2 the cost per meal.
can occur due to: delivery vehicles and trolley In order to control food costs we must be able to:
movement; breakages of containers, glass jars, etc.;
undue waste left by delivery or storekeeping staff. ●● control the number to be catered for
●● Know where the first-aid box is. ●● control the food cost per meal in advance of
●● Know the procedures to follow in the event of an production and service by using a system of pre-
accident. costing, using standardised recipes, indicating
portion control.
Temperature of food on delivery
Procedures must be laid down for checking the Sales and volume forecasting
temperature of foods on arrival at the establishment. This is a method of predicting the volume of sales for
Delivery vehicles are subject to legislation and food a future period. In order to be of practical value the
should be at these temperatures when delivered. forecast must:
●● predict the total number of covers (customers)
Documentation of deliveries ●● predict the choice of menu items.
Goods are ordered from the supplier for the amounts
required and when needed. The quality and details Therefore it is important to:
of the foods will have been specified by the estab- ●● keep a record of the numbers of each dish sold
lishment so that when delivered the goods should from a menu
comply with what was ordered. ●● work out the average spent per customer
●● calculate the proportion, expressed as a ●● insufficient research into suppliers

percentage, of each dish sold in relation to total ●● inaccurate forecasting
sales. ●● bad menu planning.
Forecasting is done in two stages.
Food labels
1 Initial forecasting: this is done once a week in A great deal of information can be obtained from a
respect of each day of the following week. It is food product by looking at the label. A number of
based on sales histories, information related to regulations control what is permissible on a food
advance bookings and current trends, and when product label:
this has been completed, the predicted sales are
converted into the food/ingredients requirements. ●● name of food
Purchase orders are then prepared and sent to ●● list of ingredients
suppliers. ●● conditions of use – special storage conditions
2 The final forecast: this normally takes place the ●● indication of durability
day before the actual preparation and service ●● name and address of the manufacturer
of the food. It must take into account the latest ●● instructions for use, if necessary
developments, such as the weather and any food ●● average weight of contents.
that needs to be used up; if necessary suppliers’
orders may need to be adjusted. To find out more about food labelling, visit
www.food.gov.uk/foodlabelling.
Sales forecasting is not a perfect method of predic-
tion, but it does help with production planning. Sales
List of ingredients
forecasting, however, is important when used in con-
junction with cyclical menu planning. If an ingredient is dehydrated or in a concentrated
form, it may be positioned in the list according to its
Pre-costing of dishes weight before dehydration (i.e. when fresh). Similarly,
reconstituted foods may be listed after reconstitution.
This method of costing is associated with standard-
Water and volatile products used as ingredients
ised recipes, which give the total cost of the dish per
must be listed in order of their weight in the finished
portion and often with a selling price.
product. Mixtures of ingredients like nuts, vegetables
Summary of factors that will affect the and herbs can be put under the heading ‘in variable
profitability of the establishment proportions’, provided no single one dominates.
These include: Table 8.6 List of permitted titles for additives
●● overcooking food resulting in portion loss Acided starch Emulsifying salts Preservation
●● inefficient preparation of raw materials Acidity regulator Firming agent Propellant gas
●● poor portion control Anti-caking agent Flavour enhancer Raising agent
●● too much wastage, insufficient use of raw
Anti-foaming Flour treatment Stabiliser
materials; left-over food not being utilised
agent agent
●● theft
Antioxidant Gelling agent Sweetener
●● inaccurate ordering procedures
●● inadequate checking procedures Bulking agent Glazing agent Thickener
●● no reference mark to standardised recipes and Colour Humectant
yield factors Emulsifier Modifi
Table 8.7 Indication of durability*
Date to be declared Period of durability

‘Best before’ – day/month Within 3 months
‘Best before end’ – month/year 3–18 months
‘Best before end’ – month/year or year 18 months PLUS
* Minimum durability is indicated by ‘best before’ followed by the date up to which the food remains in first-class condition if
stored correctly; the ‘use by’ date should be indicated by ‘use by’ followed by the date – day/month or, for longer periods, day/
month/year; details of necessary storage conditions must be given
Table 8.8 Nutritional labelling Food labelling is strictly governed by law, and part
of the role of the Food Standards Agency (FSA) is to
This must be in tabular form – for example:* prevent mislabelling or misdescription of foods.
Per serving (xg) and per 100g Food authenticity is all about whether a food
Energy kJ and kcal matches its description. If you, the buyer, are being
Protein g deceived, then this deceit can be passed on to your
Carbohydrate of which sugars g customers by inaccurate wording on menus and/
Polyols g or incorrect answers given to customers in reply to
Starch g questions about ingredients in certain dishes.
Fats of which saturates g
Monounsaturates g
Types of misdescription
Polyunsaturates g ●● Health and safety: e.g. people with an
intolerance of or allergy to certain foods may
Cholesterol mg
suffer severe or life-threatening reactions.
Fibre g
●● Not having the necessary composition for a
Sodium g legal name: e.g. if named ‘chocolate’ the food
Vitamins* Units as appropriate must contain a certain amount of cocoa solids;
Minerals Units as appropriate a sausage must contain a certain amount of
meat.
* Names of each vitamin and mineral to be given, and relevant
units (e.g. vitamin C ascorbic acid 60 mg)
●● Substitution with cheaper ingredients: e.g.
diluting olive oil with lower-quality vegetable oil.
The naming of ingredients is important (e.g. ‘fish’ ●● Incorrect origin: e.g. misdescribing the meat
can be used for any species, ‘fat’ for any refined fat, species in a product or not declaring any other
‘sugar’ for any type of sucrose). meat present; giving an incorrect county or
Flavouring is identified by the word ‘flavouring’; the country of origin of a food or wine.
word ‘natural’ may be added for naturally occurring ●● Incorrect declaration of quantity: e.g. giving the
products. Additives can be listed by either the princi- wrong amount of meat in a burger.
pal function they serve, followed by the name or by
their E-numbers (see Table 8.8).
Storekeeping
A clean, orderly food store, run efficiently, is essen- it musty, and encourages bacteria to grow and
tial in any catering establishment for the following tins to rust).
reasons. ●● It should be in a convenient position to receive
goods being delivered by suppliers and also in
●● Stocks of food can be kept at a suitable level,
a suitable position to issue goods to the various
so eliminating the risk of running out of any
departments.
commodity.
●● A wash-hand basin, soaps, nail brush and hand
●● All food entering and leaving the stores can be
drier must be provided for staff; also a first-aid
properly checked; this helps to prevent wastage.
box.
●● A check can be kept on the percentage profit
●● A good standard of hygiene is essential, therefore
of each department of the establishment. (This
the walls and ceilings should be free from
control may be assisted by computer application,
cracks, and either painted or tiled so as to be
see Chapter 17.)
cleaned easily. The floor should be free from
A well-planned store should include the following cracks and easy to wash. The junction between
features. the wall and floor should be rounded to prevent
the accumulation of dirt. A cleaning rota should
●● It should be cool and face the north so that it
clearly show daily, monthly and weekly cleaning
does not have the sun shining into it.
tasks.
●● It must be well ventilated, vermin-proof and free
●● Shelves should be easy to clean.
from dampness (dampness in a dry store makes
●● Good lighting, both natural and artificial, is very ●● Bread should be kept in a well-ventilated
necessary. container with a lid. Lack of ventilation causes
●● A counter should be provided to keep out condensation and encourages mould. Cakes and
unauthorised persons, thus reducing the risk of biscuits should be stored in airtight tins.
pilfering. ●● Stock must be inspected regularly, particularly
●● The storekeeper should be provided with a cereals and cereal products, to check for signs of
suitable desk. mice or weevils.
●● There should be ample, well-arranged storage ●● Tinned goods should be unpacked, inspected and
space, with shelves of varying depths and stacked on shelves. When inspecting tins, the
separate sections for each type of food. These following points should be checked for: blown
sections may include deep-freeze cabinets, cold tins – this is where the ends of the tins bulge
rooms, refrigerators, chill rooms, vegetable bins owing to the formation of gases either by bacteria
and container stores. Space should also be growing on the food or by the food attacking
provided for empty containers. the tinplate; all blown tins should be thrown
●● Efficient, easy-to-clean weighing machines for away as the contents are dangerous and the
large- and small-scale work should be supplied. use of the contents may cause food poisoning;
●● Stores staff must wear clean overalls at all times, dented tins – these should be used as soon as
and suitable shoes to help prevent injury if a possible, not because the dent is an indication
heavy item is dropped on the feet. of inferior quality but because dented tins, if left,
●● Steps to help staff reach goods on high shelves will rust and a rusty tin will eventually puncture;
and an appropriate trolley should be provided. the storage life of tins varies considerably and
depends mainly on how the contents attack the
Store containers internal coating of the tin, which may corrode and
Foods delivered in flimsy bags or containers should be lay bare the steel.
transferred to suitable store containers. These should ●● Due to the use of fewer preserving additives,
be easy to wash and have tight-fitting lids. Glass or many bottled foods now need to be refrigerated
plastic containers are suitable for many foods, such as once they are opened.
spices and herbs, as they have the advantage of being ●● Cleaning materials often have a strong smell;
transparent; therefore it is easy to see at a glance therefore they should be kept in a separate store.
how much of the commodity is in stock. Cleaning powders should never be stored near
Bulk dry goods (pulses, sugar, salt, etc.) should be food.
stored in suitable bins with tight-fitting lids. These
Table 8.9 Temperatures and storage times for freezers
bins should have wheels so that they can be moved
easily for cleaning. All bins should be clearly labelled Maximum Safety storage
or numbered. Symbol temperature time
Sacks or cases of commodities should not be
* 268C 7 days
stored on the floor; they should be raised on duck
** 2128C 1 month
boards so as to permit the free circulation of air.
Some goods are delivered in containers suitable *** 2188C 3 months
for storage and these need not be transferred. Heavy **** 2188C 3 months-plus
cases and jars should be stored at a convenient
height to prevent any strain in lifting. Storage accommodation
Foods are divided into three groups for the purpose of
Special storage points storage: perishable foods, dry foods and frozen foods.
●● Always comply with ‘best before’ or ‘use by’ dates. ●● Perishable foods include meat, poultry, game,
●● All old stock should be brought forward with each fish, dairy produce and fats, vegetables and fruit.
new delivery. ●● Dry foods include cereals, pulses, sugar, flour,
●● Commodities with strong smells or flavours etc., bread and cakes, jams, pickles and other
should be stored as far away as possible from bottled foods and canned foods (cleaning
those foods that readily absorb flavour; strong- materials can also be included in this section).
smelling cheese should not be stored near eggs, ●● Frozen foods must be placed immediately into a
for example. deep freeze at a temperature of –18°C to –20°C.
Storage of perishable foods Eggs

Meat and poultry ●● Store refrigerated at 1–4°C.
●● Keep away from other foods; their shells are
●● Meat joints should be hung on hooks over a drip
porous and they can absorb strong smells.
tray to collect any blood.
●● Keep in their delivery boxes; handle as little as
●● The temperature of refrigerators should be
possible.
between –1°C and 1°C.
●● Use in rotation.
●● The humidity level should be approximately 90
per cent. Milk and cream
●● Meat and poultry should ideally be stored in
●● Store in the refrigerator below 5°C.
separate places.
●● Partially used containers should be covered.
●● Cuts of meat may be brushed with oil or wrapped
in oiled greaseproof paper, wrapped in clingfilm or
vacuum packed. Cheese and butter
●● Drip trays and other trays used for meat or
●● Refrigerate at a temperature below 5°C.
poultry should be cleaned daily.
●● Cut cheeses should be wrapped.
●● Frozen meat and poultry must be stored at
between –18°C and –20°C.
Bread, etc.
Fish
●● Use in rotation: first in, first out.
●● Store in ice in a fish refrigerator or fish drainer at
●● Store in a well-ventilated cool store.
between –1°C and 1°C.
●● Avoid overstocking.
●● Keep different types of fish separated.
●● Take care that biscuits are stacked carefully to
●● Smoked fish should be kept separate from fresh
avoid breaking.
fish.
●● Frozen gâteaux should be kept frozen.
●● Frozen fish should be stored at –18°C.
●● Cakes containing cream must be refrigerated.
Vegetables
Sandwiches
●● Ideally, have a cool, dry vegetable store with
●● All sandwiches must be sold within four to
racks.
24 hours of preparation.
●● As a safety precaution do not stack sacks too
●● They must be stored at a maximum temperature
high.
of 8°C.
●● Leave potatoes in sacks.
●● Sandwiches to be sold within four hours are not
●● Place root vegetables on racks.
covered by this legislation.
●● Store green vegetables on racks.
●● Store lettuce leaves as delivered in a cool
environment.
Storage of dry goods
●● Remove any vegetables that show signs of ●● Storage must be cool, well lit and well ventilated.
decay. ●● Storage should be off the floor or in bins.
●● Leave onions and shallots in nets or racked. ●● Issue goods in rotation: first in, first out.
●● Place cauliflower and broccoli on racks. ●● Stack items so that stock rotation is simple to
●● Leave courgettes, peppers, avocado pears and operate.
cucumbers in delivery containers. ●● Arrange items in such a way that they can easily
●● Leave mushrooms in containers. be checked.
Fruit Storage of ice cream and frozen

●● Soft fruits should be left in punnets and placed in goods
refrigeration. ●● Store immediately on receipt.
●● Hard fruits and stone fruits are stored in the cold ●● Storage temperature must be –20°C.
store. ●● Use in rotation.
●● Do not refrigerate bananas as they will turn ●● Keep chest lid closed as much as possible.
black. If possible hang by the stems to slow down
ripening.
Cleanliness and safety of storage The chill room

areas A chill room is not the same as a walk-in refrigerator.
High standards of hygiene are essential in the It keeps food cold without freezing, and is particularly
store. suitable for those foods requiring a consistent, not
too cold, temperature, such as dessert fruits, salads
●● Personnel must: and cheese. Fresh fruit, salads and vegetables are
(a) wear clean clothing best stored at a temperature of 4–6°C with a humid-
(b) be clean in themselves ity that will not result in loss of water from the leaves,
(c) be particular with regard to hand washing causing them to go limp. Green vegetables should be
(d) have clean hygienic habits. stored in a dark area to prevent the leaves turning
●● Floors must: yellow. Certain fruits, such as peaches and avocados,
(a) be kept clear are best stored at 10°C, while bananas must not be
(b) be cleaned of any spillage at once stored below 13°C otherwise they will turn black.
(c) be in good repair. Dairy products (milk, cream, yoghurt and butter) are
●● Shelving must: best stored at 2°C. Cheese requires differing storage
(a) be kept clean temperatures according to the type of cheese and its
(b) not be overloaded. degree of ripeness. Fats and oils are best stored at
●● Cleaning materials must be: 4–7°C – slightly higher than standard refrigeration –
(a) kept away from foods otherwise they are liable to go rancid. The chill room
(b) stored with care and marked dangerous if provides the optimum temperature to keep these
they are dangerous chemicals. commodities at their best.
●● Windows and, where appropriate, doors must be
fly- and bird-proof. Refrigeration
●● Walls should be clean and, where any access by
Because spoilage and food-poisoning organisms
rodents is possible, sealed.
multiply most rapidly in warm conditions, there is a
●● Equipment such as knives, scales, etc., must be:
need for refrigeration through every stage of food
(a) thoroughly cleaned
delivery, storage, preparation, service and, in certain
(b) stored so that cross-contamination is
situations, onward distribution. Refrigeration does not
prevented.
kill micro-organisms but prevents them multiplying.
●● Cloths for cleaning should be of the disposable
Many cases of food poisoning can be tracked back to
type.
failure to control food temperatures or failure to cool
●● Surfaces should be cleaned with an antibacterial
food properly.
cleaner.
Temperature control is so important that statutory
●● All bins should have lids and be kept covered.
measures have been extended by the Food Hygiene
●● All empties should be stacked in a safe area with
Regulations whereby all food must be stored at or
care.
below 8°C and some foods at lower temperatures.
●● Waste and rubbish should not be allowed to
Chilling at 0–3°C and freezing at –18 to –22°C are
accumulate.
the easiest and most natural ways of preserving food
●● Empty bottles, waste paper, cardboard and so on
and maintaining product quality because this:
should be recycled.
●● cuts down on wastage (reducing operating costs)
The cold room ●● allows a wider variety of food to be stacked
A large catering establishment may have a cold room ●● gives flexibility in delivering, preparation and use
for meat, with possibly a deep-freeze compartment of foods.
where supplies can be kept frozen for long periods. To maintain the quality and freshness of food, refrig-
The best temperature for storing fresh meat and eration at correct temperatures must be provided:
poultry (short term) is between 4 and 6°C with con-
trolled humidity (poultry is stored in a cold room). Fish ●● at delivery
should have a cold room of its own so that it does not ●● for preparation
affect other foods. Game, when plucked, is also kept ●● for onward distribution
in a cold room. ●● for holding, display and service.
●● for storage.
Types of refrigeration Ordering of goods within the

●● Mise-en-place – these are smaller refrigerators establishment
placed near to or under specific working areas. In a large catering establishment the stores carry a
Some types have bain-marie-style containers that stock that, for variety and quantity, often equates to
allow for the storage of the many small prepared a large grocery store. Its operation is similar in many
food items required in a busy à la carte kitchen. respects, the main difference being that requisitions
●● Separate cabinets are essential for such foods as take the place of cash. The system of internal and
pastry, meat and fish, and cold buffets where food external accountancy must be simple but precise.
is displayed for more than four hours.
●● Quick chillers – as the slow cooling of cooked The storekeeper
food can allow rapid bacterial growth, rapid The essentials that go to making a good storekeeper
chillers are available. are:
●● Display cabinets incorporating forced circulation
of chilled air. ●● experience
●● knowledge of how to handle, care for and
Temperature checks organise the stock in his or her charge
In addition to the legal requirements for food to ●● a tidy mind and sense of detail
be stored at the correct temperature, the mainte- ●● a quick grasp of figures
nance of correct temperature display should be ●● possibly computer literate
specified on each cabinet and should be monitored ●● clear handwriting
regularly, with the use of probes, thermometers, etc. ●● a liking for his or her job
Temperatures and recommended storage times are ●● honesty.
listed on pages 266 and 267. There are many departments that draw supplies from
Points to note on refrigeration these stores – kitchen, still room, restaurant, grill
room, banqueting, floor service. A list of these depart-
●● All refrigerators, cold rooms, chill rooms and ments should be given to the storekeeper, together
deep-freeze units should be inspected and with the signatures of the heads of departments or
maintained regularly by qualified refrigeration those who have the right to sign the requisition forms.
engineers. All requisitions must be handed to the storekeeper
●● Defrosting should take place regularly, according in time to allow the ordering and delivery of the goods
to the instructions issued by the manufacturers. on the appropriate day. Different-coloured requisitions
Refrigerators usually need to be defrosted may be used for the various departments if desired.
weekly; if this is not done, then the efficiency of
the refrigerator is reduced. Duties of a storekeeper
●● While a cold unit is being defrosted it should be ●● To keep a good standard of tidiness and
thoroughly cleaned, including all the shelves. cleanliness.
●● Hot foods should never be placed in a refrigerator ●● To arrange proper storage space for all incoming
or cold room because the steam given off can foodstuffs.
affect nearby foods. ●● To keep up-to-date price lists of all commodities.
●● Peeled onions should never be kept in a cold ●● To ensure that an ample supply of all important
room because their smell can taint other foods. foodstuffs is always available.
●● To check that all orders are correctly made out,
Vegetable store and despatched in good time.
This should be designed to store all vegetables in a ●● To check all incoming stores – quantity, quality
cool, dry, well-ventilated room, with bins for root veg- and price.
etables and racking for others. Care should be taken ●● To keep all delivery notes, invoices, credit notes,
to see that old stocks of vegetables are used before receipts and statements efficiently filed.
new ones; this is important as fresh vegetables and ●● To keep a daily stores issue sheet.
fruits deteriorate quickly. If it is not convenient to ●● To keep a set of bin cards.
empty root vegetables into bins they should be kept ●● To issue nothing without receiving a signed chit in
in the sack on racks off the ground. exchange.
●● To check all stock at frequent intervals.
●● To see that all chargeable containers are properly In large catering operations, the traditional bin number
kept, returned and credited – that is, all money system has been computerised. Beverages are man-
charged for sacks, boxes, and so on, is deducted aged through the Fidelio Food and Beverage system.
from the account. This is a fully integrated software system with the
●● To obtain the best value at the lowest buying following key features.
price.
●● Stock control – pricing, recipe function for
●● To know when foods are in or out of season.
cocktails, stock-take store values, variances are
automated.
Types of records used in stores
●● Breakdowns are per outlet.
control ●● Generates purchase orders.
Bin card ●● Interfaced with point of sale system (e.g. MICROS
There should be an individual bin card for each item 8700, Fidelio Front Office for charging and
held in stock. The following details are found on the Fidelio F&B for consumption).
bin card: ●● Invoice management – receiving and invoice
control, invoice control is interfaced with a system
●● name of the commodity (e.g. Oracle) for financial reporting.
●● issuing unit
●● date goods are received or issued Fidelio is one of the mainstay operating systems that
●● from whom they are received and to whom issued is the backbone of all food and beverage control sys-
●● maximum stock tems currently in use.
●● minimum stock
●● quantity received Stores ledger
●● quantity issued This is usually found in the form of a loose-leaf file
●● balance held in stock. giving one ledger sheet to each item held in stock.
The following details are found on a stores ledger
BIN CARD
sheet:
PRICE
UNIT (lbs, Tines, etc.) MAX STOCK
●● name of commodity
●● classification
COMMODITY MIN STOCK
●● unit
DATE RECEIVED ISSUED STOCK IN ●● maximum stock
HAND
●● minimum stock
●● date of goods received or issued
●● from whom they are received and to whom issued
●● invoice or requisition number
Figure 8.3 Example of a bin card
Example of an operation ●● To minimise stock-holding values, and

efficiently utilise space within the property,
Stores Ledger/Departmental Requisitions daily deliveries have been negotiated with main
●● Process – Outlets do a Fidelio requisition
suppliers.
according to the outlet par stock and ●● One supplier is usually identified from whom it
forecasted two-day expected levels of trading. is compulsory for the entire estate to purchase
●● Cellarman/stores supervisor allocates the
99 per cent of all beverages.
request; this entails filling orders from stock, ●● Monthly stock-take and variance reports are
and managing par stock levels in accordance produced.
with outgoing requisition. ●● Value of the stock for recording on the balance
●● Order requests are transferred to purchase
sheet is automatically calculated.
orders and communicated to supplier for delivery.
Stock Total
in Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday purcha- Total Total
Commodity Unit hand In Out In Out In Out In Out In Out ses issues stock
Butter kg 27 2 3 5 22
Flour Sack 2 1 1 1 1 2
Olive oil Litres 8 1 1/ 2 11/ 2 61/ 2
Spices 30g packs 8 4 6 6 4 12
Peas, tin A10 30 6 3 9 21
CANTEEN Week ending No. meals served Cost per meal

Stock received during week Stock used during week
Hand In hand
B/F M Tu W Th F Total M Tu W Th F S Total @* Cost C/F
Commodity
Apples, canned
Apples, dried
Apricots, etc. –
dried
Baking powder
Baked beans
* The cost of stock used can be checked by using two extra columns
Figure 8.4 Example of a daily stores issue sheet
BIN No DESCRIPTION CLASSIFICATION CODE UNIT MAXIMUM MINIMUM
Invoice or QUANTITY UNIT VALUE

Date DETAIL
Req. No. Recvd Balance Issued PRICE Received Balance Issued
Figure 8.5 Example of a stores ledger sheet
267
DEPARTMENTAL REQUISITON BOOK
Date Class
Price Price
Description Quan. Unit per Issued if different Quan. Unit per Code £
Unit Unit
Figure 8.6 Example of a stores requisition sheet
●● quantity received or issued and the remaining on the bin card should always be the same as the
balance held in stock balance shown on the stores ledger sheet.
●● unit price
●● cash value of goods received and issued, and the Departmental requisition book
balancing cash total of goods held in stock. One of these books should be issued to each depart-
Every time goods are received or issued the appropri- ment in the catering establishment that needs to
ate entries should be made on the necessary stores draw goods from the store. These books can either
ledger sheets and bin cards. In this way the balance be of different colours or have departmental serial
numbers. Every time goods are drawn from the store ●● price per unit
a requisition must be filled out and signed by the ●● quantity received and issued, and balance
necessary head of department – this applies whether ●● cash columns.
one or 20 items are needed from the store. When the
The stock sheets will normally be printed in alphabeti-
storekeeper issues the goods he or she will check
cal order.
them against the requisition and tick them off; at the
All fresh foodstuffs, such as meat, fish and vegeta-
same time the cost of each item is filled in. In this
bles, will be entered on the stock sheet in the normal
way the total expenditure over a period for a cer-
manner, but as they are purchased and used up daily,
tain department can quickly be found. The following
nil stock will always be shown on their respective
details are found on the requisition sheet:
ledger sheets.
●● serial number
●● price per unit Commercial documents
●● issue number, if different Essential parts of the control system of any cater-
●● quantity of goods required ing establishment are delivery notes, invoices, credit
●● name of department notes and statements.
●● cash column
●● quantity of goods issued Delivery notes
●● unit These are sent with goods supplied as a means of
●● date checking that everything ordered has been delivered.
●● signature The delivery note should also be checked against the
●● unit duplicate order sheet.
●● price per unit.
●● description of goods required. Invoices
These are bills sent to clients, setting out the cost
Order book of goods supplied or services rendered. An invoice
This is in duplicate and has to be filled in by the should be sent on the day the goods are despatched
storekeeper every time he or she wishes to have or the services are rendered or as soon as possible
goods delivered. Whenever goods are ordered, an afterwards. At least one copy of each invoice is made
order sheet must be filled in and sent to the supplier, and used for posting up the books of accounts, stock
and on receipt of the goods they should be checked records, and so on (see Figure 8.7).
against both delivery note and duplicate order sheet. Invoices contain the following information:
All order sheets must be signed by the storekeeper. ●● name, address, telephone numbers (as a printed
Details found on an order sheet are as follows: heading), fax numbers, of the firm supplying the
●● name and address of catering establishment goods or services
●● description of goods to be ordered ●● name and address of the firm to whom the goods
●● name and address of supplier or services have been supplied
●● date ●● the word ‘invoice’
●● serial number of order sheet ●● date on which the goods or services were
●● signature supplied
●● quantity of goods ●● particulars of the goods or services supplied,
●● date of delivery, if specific day required. together with the prices
●● a note concerning the terms of settlement, such
Stock sheets as ‘Terms: 5% one month’, which means that if
Stock should be taken at regular intervals of either the person receiving the invoice settles his or her
one week or one month. Spot checks are advisable account within one month he or she may deduct
about every three months. The stock check should 5 per cent as a discount.
be taken where possible by an independent person, Credit notes
thus preventing the chance of pilfering and ‘fiddling’
taking place. The details found on the stock sheets These are advice to clients, setting out allowances
are as follows: made for goods returned, or adjustments made
through errors of overcharging on invoices. They
●● description of goods should also be issued when chargeable containers
such as crates, boxes or sacks are returned. Credit Cash discount

notes are exactly the same in form as invoices This is a discount allowed in consideration of prompt
except that the words ‘credit note’ appear in place payment. At the end of any length of time chosen as
of the word ‘invoice’. To make them more easily dis- an accounting period (such as one month) there will
tinguishable they are usually printed in red, whereas be some outstanding debts. In order to encourage
invoices are always printed in black. A credit note customers to pay within a stipulated time, sellers of
should be sent as soon as it is known that a client goods frequently offer a discount. This is called cash
is entitled to the credit of a sum with which he or discount. By offering cash discount, the seller may
she has previously been charged by invoice. induce his or her customer to pay more quickly, so
Statements turning debts into ready money. Cash discount varies
from 1.25 to 10 per cent, depending on the seller and
These are summaries of all invoices and credit notes the time: 2.5 per cent if paid in 10 days; 1.25 per cent
sent to clients during the previous accounting period if paid in 28 days, for example.
(usually one month). They also show any sums owing
or paid from previous accounting periods and the Trade discount
total amount due. A statement is usually a copy of
a client’s ledger account and does not contain more This is discount allowed by one trader to another, a
information than is necessary to check invoices and deduction from the catalogue price of goods made
credit notes. before arriving at the invoice price. The amount of
INVOICE
Phone: 0208 574 1133 No. 03957

Fax: 0208 574 1123 Vegetable Suppliers Ltd.,
Email: greend@veg.sup.ac.uk D. Green
Website: http://www.greend.com 5 Warwick Road,
Messrs. L. Moriarty & Co., Southall,
597 High Street, Middlesex
Ealing,
London, W5 Terms: 5% one month
Your order No. 67 dated 3rd September, 20... £
Sept 26th 10 kg Potatoes bag 6.00 6.00

5 kg Sprouts, net 8.00 2.10
14.00
STATEMENT
Phone: 0208 574 1133 Vegetable Suppliers Ltd.,

Fax: 0208 574 1123 D. Green
Email: greend@veg.sup.ac.uk 5 Warwick Road,
Website: http://www.greend.com Southall,
Messrs. L. Moriarty & Co., Middlesex
597 High Street,
Ealing, Terms: 5% one month
London, W5
20... £
Sept 10th Goods 45.90
17th Goods 32.41
20th Goods 41.30
26th Goods 16.15
135.76
28th Returns credited 4.80
130.96
Figure 8.7 Example of an invoice and statement

trade discount does not therefore appear in the ●● all monies paid out must also be clearly shown
accounts. For example, in a catalogue of kitchen and entered on the right-hand or credit side of
equipment, a machine listed at £250 less 20 per cent the book
trade discount shows: ●● at the end of a given period – either a day,
week or month or at the end of each page – the
●● catalogue price – £250
book must be balanced – that is, both sides are
●● less 20 per cent trade discount – £50
totalled and the difference between the two is
●● invoice price – £200.
known as the balance; if, for example, the debit
£200 is the amount entered in the appropriate side (money received) is greater than the credit
accounts. side (money paid out), then a credit or right-hand
In the case of purchase tax on articles, discount is side balance is shown, so that the two totals are
taken off after the tax has been deducted from list then equal; a credit balance then means cash in
price. hand
Gross price is the price of an article before discount ●● a debit balance cannot occur because it is
has been deducted. impossible to pay out more than is received.
Net price is the price after discount has been
An example is given in Table 8.10.
deducted; in some cases a price on which no dis-
count will be allowed. General rule
●● Debit – monies coming in.
Cash account
●● Credit – monies going out.
The following are the essentials for the keeping of a
simple cash account: Statement
●● all entries must be dated Received monthly, and verified by cost control, who
●● all monies received must be clearly named and will ensure all invoices have been accounted.
entered on the left-hand or debit side of the Copy of invoices and credit notes are requested
book from the supplier.
Table 8.10 Cash account
DR. First week CR.

Date Receipts £ Date Payment £
Oct to lunches 400 Oct by repairs 80
3 “ teas 100 1 “ grocer 100
4 “ tax rebate 60 2 “ butcher 120
5 6 “ balance c/fwd 260
DR. Second week CR.
Date Receipts £ Date Receipts £
Oct to balance b/fwd 260 Oct 8 by fishmonger 50
9 “ sale of pastries 100 10 “ fuel 50
11 “ goods 200 11 “ tax 40
560 12 “ balance c/fwd 360
560
DR. Third week CR.
Date Receipts £ Date Receipts £
Oct To balance b/fwd 360 Oct 19 By butcher 80
15 “ teas 120 21 “ grocer 60
17 “ pastries 110 “ balance c/fwd 650
24 “ goods 60 790
26 “ goods 80
29 “ goods 60
790
Cash accounting reconciliation will be used similar to the example illus-

At hotel unit level, this is not applicable unless the trated in Table 8.10.
hotel is privately owned – in which case, a cash flow
Example Example as used in a large hotel

Make out a cash account and enter the following
Invoice statements
transactions:
●● Delivery notes received and checked in loading
Oct. 1 Paid for repair to stove
bay against delivery and purchase order –
£109.00
delivery note input into Fidelio on the basis of
2 Paid to grocer 200.00
the purchase order, discrepancies are identified
3 Received for lunches 750.00
to supplier and purchasing.
4 Received for teas 200.00
●● Delivery note and purchase order are
5 Received tax rebate 97.84
transferred to Food and Beverages Accounts
6 Paid to butcher 120.00
Payable, invoice will follow.
Oct. 8 paid to fishmonger 72.60
●● Invoice checked against delivery note and
9 Received for sale of pastries 112.90
purchase order, discrepancies will be corrected
10 Paid for fuel 80.00
in Fidelio, outstanding credit notes will be
11 Paid tax 60.00
requested from supplier.
11 Received for goods 500.00
●● Invoice control – invoice details entered to
12 Paid to greengrocer 112.36
Fidelio, this closes the purchasing and delivery
Oct. 15 Received for teas 150.20
process.
17 Received for pastries 150.00
●● Information is interfaced with Oracle for
19 Paid to butcher 100.80
recording and payment.
21 Paid to grocer 95.00
●● Oracle will automatically pay in line with pre-
agreed payment terms, regardless of input date
of data.
●● On completion of input, statement is considered
paid even though cheque or bank transfer may
not have been expedited.
●● From date of input statement recorded as a
cost of sale on our ledger for the month.
Sustainability
A recent trend in the twenty-first century is the promote vegetable dishes, pulses and nuts. When
subject of sustainability. Further reference to this meat is purchased along with dairy products that
may be found in Chapter 15. In particular, great these are produced to high environmental standards
emphasis is now being placed on sustainable food and animal welfare conditions. Fish species identi-
that is purchased, consumed and prepared with as fied as at risk are not used. Only fish identified as
little impact on the environment as possible, for a fair being from sustainable sources are used. Bottled
price, and that makes a positive contribution to the water is now being avoided in order to minimise
local economy. transport and packaging waste. Tap water is per-
Caterers are now using more local, seasonal and fectly safe and pure to offer. There is a growing
available ingredients as a standard to minimise food trend among chefs to promote seasonal and local
transport, storage and energy use. This includes produce.
specifying produce from farming systems that mini- The key indications of success are:
mise harm to the environment, such as certified
●● percentage of food sourced locally, nationally and
organic. Livestock farming is one of the most sig-
abroad
nificant contributors to climate change. Caterers are
●● decrease in food waste
looking at ways to reduce meat on the menu, and
●● reduction in food miles
●● financial contribution to the local economy

●● increase in recycling
●● increase in food sales.
One of the key objectives is to reduce the food miles.
This is the number of miles that food travels from pro-
ducer to consumer. Food miles have implications for
greenhouse gas emissions, and consequent effects
on the climate.
Labelling
New types of labelling are being developed and intro- Figure 8.8 A new logo to explain the recyclability of food
duced to the market in response to consumer demand product packaging
for more information and as a tool to encourage
behaviour change. One example is a label developed are intended to drive up packaging recycling rates
by the British Retail Consortium and the govern- by signalling whether or not a product’s packaging
ment’s Waste and Resources Action Programme to is collected for recycling. The Carbon Trust is also
signpost the recyclability of packaging. working with a number of companies, including food
Labels developed in response to consumer demand manufacturers and retailers.
Reference
Drummond, D. (1998) Purchasing and Costing for Some references to storage and control
the Hospitality Industry. Hodder Arnold. elsewhere in this book:
✎● Computer systems ......................................................... Ch. 17
✎● Costing ........................................................................................ Ch. 17
✎● Each commodity........................................................................... 48
✎● Hygiene.............................................................................................. 391
✎● Management control ........................................................... 300
✎● People control............................................................................ 306
✎● Pricing.................................................................................................. 233
✎● Safety .................................................................................................. 369
✎● Waste.................................................................................................... 419

Food purchasing Storage and control
1 A food-buying policy. 1 Why control of goods from receipt (delivery) to
2 Is there a need for portion control? final destination (the customer) is essential.
3 The relationship between food quality and price. 2 What controls are needed regarding goods, staff
4 The reasons for using standard purchasing and the preparation and service of food?
specifications. 3 The need to be knowledgeable regarding the cost
5 The use of standardised recipes. and quality of foods in relation to selling price.
6 How you would implement a cost control 4 The implication of setting the selling price too
system. low, and also of setting it too high.
7 The advantages of a computerised stock-keep- 5 How do you consider a fair profit percentage is
ing system. arrived at? Specify the establishment you have in
8 How the role of the storekeeper may change in mind.
the future. 6 What do you understand to be a ‘suitable por-
tion’? Give examples and explain your reasoning.
, production
An overview of food and
ng
beverage service, and
ni a
9 nd
an
Part 3 Pl
ser
food service design
vice
What is Food and Beverage Restaurant Planning 287

Service? 277 Liquor and Other Licensing 289
Food and Beverage Service Matching Food to Wine/Drinks 289
Methods 281 Designing a Food Service
Food and Beverage Service System 292
Staff 283 References 298
Customer Service Topics for Discussion 299
Specification 286

›● Activity worksheets: food and beverage service
›● Videos and worksheets: food and beverage service
What is food and beverage service?

Food and beverage service is the essential link ●● the nature of the customers (non-captive, captive
between the menu, beverages and other services or semi-captive)
on offer in an establishment, and the customers. ●● prices to be charged
People working in food and beverage service are ●● production process
the main point of contact between customers and an ●● volume of demand
establishment. It is an important role in a demand- ●● volume of throughput
ing profession, with increasing national and interna- ●● space available
tional status. Skills and knowledge are transferable ●● availability of staff
between establishments and sectors, and throughout ●● opening hours
the world. ●● booking requirements
For a particular food and beverage (or food service) ●● payment requirements
operation, the choices on how the food and bever- ●● legal requirements.
age service is designed, planned, undertaken and
Food and beverage service was traditionally seen as
controlled are made taking into account a number of
a delivery system, where only the requirements of
organisational variables. These include:
the operation itself would determine how the service
●● customer needs was designed, planned and controlled. This view has
●● level of customer demand changed significantly as the customer is now seen
●● the type and style of the food and beverage as being central to the process and also as an active
operation participant within it. It is also now recognised that
food and beverage service actually consists of two

separate systems, which are operating at the same
time. These are:
1 the service sequence, which is concerned with
the delivery of the food and beverages to the
customer (see below)
2 the customer process, which is concerned with
the experience the customer undertakes (see
page 280).
The service sequence

The service sequence is essentially the bridge
between the production system, the beverage pro- Figure 9.1 Feeding people at work
vision and the customer process (or experience).
information to the food production or bar areas and
The service sequence consists of, or may consist of,
provides information for the billing method. Whatever
seven or more stages that can be summarised as:
type of system is used – whether manual or elec-
1 preparation for service tronic – it will be based on one of the three basic
2 taking food and beverage orders order-taking methods, listed below.
3 the service of food and beverages
1 Duplicate: order taken and copied to supply
4 billing
point and second copy retained by server for
5 clearing
service and subsequent billing.
6 dishwashing
2 Triplicate: order taken and copied to supply point
7 clearing following service.
and cashier for billing, third copy retained by
Within these seven elements, there is a variety of server for service.
alternative ways of achieving the service sequence. 3 Service with order: taking order and serving
to order, as used in, for example, bar service or
Preparation for service takeaway methods.
Within the service areas, there is a variety of tasks
Within the order-taking procedure there are many
and duties that need to be carried out in order to
opportunities for exploiting the potential for per-
ensure that adequate preparation has been made
sonal selling that can be carried out by service staff.
for the expected volume of business and the type
Personal selling refers specifically to the ability of the
of service that is to be provided. These activities
staff in a food and beverage operation to contribute
include:
to the promotion of sales, also known as up-selling.
●● taking and checking bookings This is especially important where there are specific
●● checking and ensuring the cleanliness of promotions being undertaken. Service staff must
glassware, crockery, flatware and cutlery therefore be trained in selling and also be well briefed
●● dealing with linen and paper items on special offers (see the section headed ‘The cus-
●● undertaking housekeeping duties tomer process’, page 280).
●● arranging and laying up the service areas
●● stocking hotplates, workstations, display buffets The service of food and beverages
●● setting up bars and bar areas The various service methods available are given in
●● arranging and laying up lounge areas Table 9.2. The choice of service method will depend
●● briefing of staff to ensure that they have as much on the customer service specification (see
adequate knowledge of the product and the page 286) as on the capability of the staff, the
service requirements. capacity of the operation and the equipment avail-
able. Differing service methods will also determine
Taking food and beverage orders the speed of service and the time the customer
Taking orders from customers for the food and bever- takes to consume the meal, which in turn will have
ages they wish to have, takes time. The order-taking an impact on the throughput of customers.
process is part of a longer process, which feeds Good food and beverage service is achieved where
An overview of food and beverage service, and food service design 279
management continually reinforces and supports Dishwashing

service staff in the maintenance of good stand The capacity of the dishwashing system should always
ards of achievement. Additionally the provision and be greater than the operational maximum required. This
maintenance of good service is primarily dependent is because slow dishwashing increases the amount of
on teamwork, not only among service staff but also equipment required to be in use at a particular time and
among and between staff in other departments. increases the storage space required in service areas.
Billing The various dishwashing systems are as follows.
The various billing methods found in food service ●● Manual: the manual washing by hand or brush
operations are as follows. machine of soiled ware.
●● Semi-automatic: the manual loading by
●● Bill as check: second copy of order used as bill. operators of a dishwashing machine.
●● Separate bill: bill made up from duplicate check ●● Automatic conveyor: the manual loading by
and presented to customer. operators of soiled ware within baskets mounted
●● Bill with order: service to order and billing at on a conveyor for automatic transportation
same time, e.g. bar or takeaway methods. through a dishwashing machine.
●● Prepaid: customer purchases ticket or card in ●● Flight conveyor: the manual loading by operators
advance either for specific meal or specific value. of soiled ware within pegs mounted on a
●● Voucher: customer has credit issued by third conveyor for automatic transportation through
party, e.g. luncheon voucher or tourist agency dishwasher.
voucher for either specific meal or specific value. ●● Deferred wash: the collection, stripping,
●● No charge: customer not paying. sorting and stacking of ware by operators for
●● Deferred: refers to function-type catering where dishwashing at later stage.
bill is paid by organiser.
Essentially, the potential volume that can be accom-
The actual choice of billing method will be dependent modated increases, as does potential efficiency, from
on the type and style of the operation. However, the the manual method to the flight conveyor method,
billing system is also part of a longer process linked and the choice of method will be largely dependent
first to the order-taking method and second to the on the scale of the operation. It is also often neces-
revenue-control procedures. sary to employ more than one method.
Clearing For hygienic washing-up the generally recognised
requirements are a good supply of hot water at a tem-
The various clearing methods found in food service perature of 60°C for general cleansing followed by a
operations may be summarised as follows. sterilising rinse at a temperature of 82°C for at least
●● Manual 1: the collection of soiled ware by waiting one minute. Alternatively, low-temperature equipment
staff to dishwash area. is available that sterilises by means of a chemical:
●● Manual 2: the collection and sorting to trolleys by sodium hypochlorite (bleach).
operators for transportation to dishwash area.
●● Semi-self-clear: the placing of soiled ware by Further information can be obtained from Lever
customers on strategically placed trolleys within Industrial, Lever House, St James Road, Kingston-
dining area for removal by operators. upon-Thames, Surrey KT1 2BA.
●● Self-clear: the placing of soiled ware by customers
on conveyor or conveyorised tray collecting system Dishwashing machines take over an arduous job
for mechanical transportation to dishwash area. and save a lot of time and labour, ensuring that a
●● Self-clear and strip: the placing of soiled good supply of clean sterilised cutlery, crockery and
ware into conveyorised dishwash baskets by glassware is available. There are three main types of
customer for direct entry of baskets through the machine.
dishwashing machine. 1 Spray type: the dishes are placed in racks that
The choice of clearing method, whether manual by slide into the machines, where they are subjected
staff or involving customers, will be dependent not to a spray of hot detergent water at 48–60°C
only on the type of operation but also on the nature from above and below. The racks then move on to
of the demand being met. the next section, where they are rinsed by a fresh
hot shower at 82°C. At this temperature they are
sterilised, and on passing out into the air they dry

off quickly.
2 Brush type: revolving brushes are used for the
scrubbing of each article in hot detergent water;
the articles are then rinsed and sterilised in
another compartment.
3 Agitator water machines: baskets of dishes
are immersed in deep tanks and the cleaning is
performed by the mechanical agitation of the hot
detergent water. The loaded baskets are then
given a sterilising rinse in another compartment.
Dishwashing machines are costly and it is essential
that the manufacturer’s instructions with regard to
use and maintenance are followed at all times. Figure 9.2 Self-service salad bar
Clearing following service through self-service from some form of display or

After the service periods, there is a variety of tasks buffet. This type of service is found in ‘carvery’-
and duties to be carried out, partly to clear from the type operations and is often used for meals such
previous service and partly to prepare for the next. The as breakfast in hotels.
efficient management of the clearing stage can have 3 Self-service: self-service by the customer. The
a dramatic impact on the potential reuse of an area. customer is required to help him or herself from
Included in this stage of the service sequence is a buffet or counter. This type of service can be
the requirement for the management of cleaning found in cafeterias and canteens.
programmes. Detailed cleaning schedules need to 4 Service at a single point: the customer orders,
be developed to ensure that all cleaning activities are pays and receives the food and beverages at a
coordinated. These can be daily, weekly, monthly or for single point – for example, at a counter, at a bar
other periods. Alongside these cleaning schedules, in licensed premises, in a fast-food operation or
it is desirable to incorporate maintenance checks. at a vending machine.
These, together with the operation of cleaning sched- 5 Specialised service or service in situ: the food
ules, can help to ensure that equipment and facilities and beverages are taken to where the customer
are always available and in working order. is. This includes tray service in hospitals and
The customer process

The customer receiving the food and beverage
product is required to undertake or observe certain
requirements – this is the customer process. If food
and beverage service is viewed only as a delivery pro-
cess, then the systems and procedures of an estab-
lishment tend to be designed only from the delivery
perspective. However, for food and beverage service
to work well then the customer has to be seen as
being central to the process.
In food and beverage operations there are five
basic processes that customers experience.
1 Table service: service at a laid cover. This type
of service, which includes waiter service and bar
counter service, is found in restaurants, cafés and
in banqueting.
2 Assisted service: part service at a laid cover and
part self-service. The customer is served part of
the meal at a table and is required to obtain part Figure 9.3 Fine dining
AN OVERVIEW OF FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE, AND FOOD SERVICE DESIGN 281
aircraft, trolley service, home delivery, lounge and

room service.
In the first four of these customer processes, the
customer comes to where the food and beverage
service is offered, and then the service is provided in
areas primarily designed for the purpose. However, in
the fifth customer process, the service is provided in
another location, and where the area is not primar-
ily designed for the purpose. A summary of the five
customer processes is shown in Table 9.1 and a full
listing of all food and beverage service methods is
given in Table 9.2.
Figure 9.4 Informal dining (brasserie)
Table 9.1 Simple categorisation of the customer processes in food and beverage service
Service Service
method area Ordering/Selection Service Dining/Consumption Clearing
Table service Customer From menu By staff to At laid cover By staff
enters and is customer
seated
Assisted Customer From menu, buffet or Combination Usually at laid cover By staff
service enters and is passed trays of both staff
usually seated and customer
Self-service Customer Customer selects items Customer Dining area or takeaway Various
enters onto a tray carries
Single-point Customer Orders at single point Customer Dining area or takeaway Various
service enters carries
Specialised or Where the From menu or Brought to Served where the By staff or
in situ service customer is predetermined the customer customer is located customer
located clearing
Source: Cousins and Lillicrap (2010)
Food and beverage service methods

(This section is adapted from Cousins and Lillicrap,
2010.)
There are 15 different service methods found in
the hospitality industry and these fall into the five
customer process groups identified in Table 9.1. The
service methods are described in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 Summary of the five food and beverage service customer processes
TABLE SERVICE
This is service of food and beverages to a customer at a laid cover.
1. Waiter service
(a) Silver/English service: presentations and service of food to a customer by waiting staff from a food flat or
dish.
(b) Family service: main courses plated and with vegetables, placed in multi-portion dishes on tables for
customers to help themselves. Any sauces are usually offered.
(c) Plated/American service: service of pre-plated foods to customers, now widely used in many
establishments and in banqueting.
(d) Butler/French service: presentation of food individually to customers by food service staff for customers
to serve themselves.
(e) Russian service: table laid with food for customers to help themselves. (This is a modern interpretation,
but may also be used to indicate guéridon or butler service.)
(f) Guéridon service: food served on to a customer’s plate at a side table or from a trolley. Also may include
the preparation of salads and dressings, carving, cooking and flambé dishes.
2. Bar counter service
Service to customers seated at a bar counter (usually U-shaped) on stools.
ASSISTED SERVICE
This is a combination of table service and self-service.
3. Assisted
(a) Commonly applied to ‘carvery’-type operations, some parts of the meal are served to seated customers;
the customers collect other parts. Also used for breakfast service.
(b) Buffets where customers select food and drink from displays or passed trays; consumption is either at
tables, standing or in lounge area.
SELF-SERVICE
4. Cafeteria service
(a) Counter: customers line up in a queue at a service counter and choose the menu items they require
at different points. The customer places her items on a tray. Some establishments use a ‘carousel’ – a
revolving, stacked counter saving space.
(b) Free flow: selection as in a counter service. Customers move at will to random service point, exiting via a
payment point.
(c) Echelon: this is a series of counters at angles to customer flow within a free-flow area, thus saving space.
(d) Supermarket: island service points within a free-flow area.
Note: call order cooking may also feature in some cafeterias.
SINGLE-POINT SERVICE
This is the service of customers at a single point where they consume on the premises or they take away.
5. Takeaway
Customer orders are served from a single point, usually at a counter, hatch or snack stand; customer normally
consumes the food off the premises, although some takeaway establishments provide limited seating. This
service method is commonly used for fast-food operations; this also includes drive-thrus where the customer
drives a vehicle past order, payment and collection points.
6. Vending
Automatic retailing of food and beverage products.
7. Kiosks
Service provided by outstations during peak demand in specific locations.
8. Food court
A group of autonomous counters where customers may either order and eat or buy from a number of
counters and take away or eat in a central eating area.
9. Bar
A selling point for the consumption of intoxicating liquor in licensed premises.
SPECIALISED (OR IN SITU) SERVICE

Service to customers where they are located and in areas not primarily designed for service.
10. Tray service
Service of a meal or part of a meal in a tray to the customer in situ, e.g. in hospitals or in an aircraft.
11. Trolley
Service of food and beverage from a trolley away from dining areas to customers – for instance, at their
seats or desks. Used, for example, on an aircraft, on trains and in offices.
12. Home delivery
Food and beverage delivered to a customer’s home or place of work, e.g. pizza delivery, meals-on-wheels, or
sandwiches to offices.
13. Lounge service
Service of food and beverages in a lounge area, e.g. hotel lounge.
14. Room service
Service of food and beverages in hotel guest rooms, or in meeting rooms.
15. Drive-in
Customers are served food and beverages to their vehicles.
Note: banquet/function catering is a term used to describe food and beverage operations that are providing service for a
specific number of people at specific times in a variety of dining layouts. Service methods also vary. The term banquet/function
catering therefore refers to the organisation of service rather than a specific service method.
Source: adapted from Cousins and Lillicrap (2010)
Food and beverage service staff

In food and beverage establishments today, there cal skills in some sectors, these four key require-
are many different ways of using and deploying staff. ments remain for all staff. However, the emphasis on
In addition, differing terminology is used to describe these key requirements varies according to the type
what people do. of establishment and the particular service methods
For food and beverage service staff the four key being used.
requirements are: Food and beverage staff play an important role
in the overall customer meal experience. As well
1 sound product knowledge
as being trained in knowledge of the product and
2 competence in technical skills
technical service skills, service staff must be trained
3 well-developed social skills, and
in customer service skills. They must have the abil-
4 the ability to work as part of a team.
ity to respond to customer needs and to observe
While there have been changes in food and beverage the overall dynamics of a restaurant. Good food
service, with less emphasis on the high-level techni- and beverage staff should, through experience, be
Figure 9.5 Gastropub dining Figure 9.6 Fast food

able to anticipate the individual needs of customers hours on and off duty, and contribute to operational
and read their body language. Customers want indi- duties (depending on the size of the establishment)
vidual attention; good service professionals should so that all the service areas run efficiently and
be able to anticipate the individual needs of the smoothly.
customer.
Reception headwaiter
Roles in food and beverage service The reception headwaiter is responsible for accept-
The various types of job roles in food and beverage ing any bookings and for keeping the booking diary
service are identified below. In smaller operations a up to date. S/he will reserve tables and allocate
number of these job roles may be combined. In addi- these reservations to particular stations. The recep-
tion, different terminology can be used for the various tion headwaiter greets guests on arrival, takes them
job roles in differing types of establishment. to the table and seats them.
Food and beverage manager Headwaiter/maître d’hôtel/supervisor

Depending on the size of the establishment, the food The headwaiter has overall charge of the staff team
and beverage manager is either responsible for the and is responsible for seeing that all the pre-prep-
implementation of agreed policies or for contributing aration duties necessary for service are efficiently
to the setting of the food and beverage policies. The carried out and that nothing is forgotten. The head-
larger the organisation the less likely the manager is waiter will aid the reception headwaiter during the
to be involved in policy setting. In general, food and service and will possibly take some orders if the
beverage managers are responsible for: station headwaiter is busy. The headwaiter also helps
with the compilation of duty rotas and holiday lists,
●● ensuring that the required profit margins are and may relieve the restaurant manager or reception
achieved for each food and beverage service headwaiter on their days off.
area, in each financial period
●● updating and compiling new wine lists according
to availability of stock, current trends and
customer needs
●● compiling, in liaison with the kitchen, menus for
the various food service areas and for special
occasions
●● purchasing of all materials, both food and drink
●● ensuring that quality in relation to price paid is
maintained
●● determining portion size in relation to selling price
●● ensuring staff training, sales promotions and
maintenance of the highest professional
standards
●● employing and dismissing staff Figure 9.7 Serving wine
●● holding regular meetings with section heads to
ensure all areas are working effectively, efficiently Station headwaiter/section supervisor
and are well coordinated. For larger establishments the restaurant area is
broken down into sections. The station headwaiter
Restaurant manager/supervisor has the overall responsibility for a team of staff
The restaurant manager or supervisor has overall serving a number of stations within a section of the
responsibility for the organisation and administration restaurant area. Each of the sets of tables (which
of particular food and beverage service areas. These may be anything from four to eight in number)
may include the lounges, room service (in hotels), within the section of the restaurant area is called
restaurants and possibly some of the private func- a station.
tion suites. It is the restaurant manager who sets the The station headwaiter must have a good knowl-
standards for service and is responsible for any staff edge of food and wine and its correct service, and be
training that may be required, either on or off the able to instruct other members of staff. He or she will
job. They may make out duty rotas, holiday lists, and take the food and beverage orders (usually from the
host) and carry out service at the table with the help throughout the day is normally offered only by a first-
of the chef de rang, who is in command of one of the class establishment. In smaller establishments room
stations within the section. service may be limited to early-morning teas and
breakfasts with the provision of in-room mini bars,
Station waiter/chef de rang and tea and coffee facilities.
The chef de rang, or station waiter, provides service
to one set of tables (between about four and eight) Lounge staff/chef de salle
known as a station within the restaurant area. The Lounge service staff may be employed only for
chef de rang will normally have had less experience lounge service within larger establishments. In a
than a station headwaiter. smaller establishment it is usual for members of the
food service staff to take over these duties on a rota
Assistant station waiter/demi-chef de basis. The lounge staff are responsible for the ser-
rang vice of morning coffee, afternoon teas, aperitifs and
The assistant station waiter or demi-chef de rang is liqueurs before and after both lunch and dinner, and
the person next in seniority to the station waiter and any coffee required after meals. They are responsible
assists as directed by the station waiter. for setting up the lounge in the morning, and main-
taining its cleanliness and presentation throughout
Waiter/server/commis de rang the day.
The waiter or commis de rang acts by instruction from
the chef de rang. This person mainly fetches and car- Wine butler/wine waiter/sommelier
ries, may do some of the service of either vegetables The sommelier is responsible for the service of all
or sauces, offers rolls, places plates upon the table alcoholic drinks and non-alcoholic bar drinks during
and so on, and also helps to clear the tables after the service of meals. The sommelier must also be a
each course. During the pre-preparation period, many sales person. This employee should have a thorough
of the cleaning and preparatory tasks will be carried knowledge of all drink to be served, of the best wines
out by the commis de rang. and drinks to go with certain foods, and of the liquor
licensing laws in respect of the particular establish-
Trainee/commis/debarrasseur/apprentice ment and area.
The trainee, commis or debarrasseur is the apprentice or The sommelier will advise on the wines to be
learner, having just joined the food and beverage service stocked and the appropriate level of stock. This staff
staff, who wishes to take up food service as a career. member will also train colleagues in dealing with wine
During the service this person will keep the sideboard and other drinks.
well stocked with equipment and may help to fetch and
carry items as required. The debarrasseur will carry out
some of the cleaning tasks during the pre-preparation
periods. They may also be given the responsibility of
looking after and serving hors d’oeuvres, cold sweets
and assorted cheeses from the appropriate trolleys.
Carver/trancheur
The carver, or trancheur, is responsible for the carv-
ing trolley and the carving of joints at the table as
required. The carver will plate up each portion and
serve with accompaniments as appropriate. Very few
establishments use this style of service.
Floor or room service staff/chef d’étage/

floor or room waiter
Floor or room service staff are often responsible for
a complete floor in an establishment or, depending
on the size of the establishment, a number of rooms
or suites. Room service of all meals and beverages Figure 9.8 Bar
Bar staff/bar tender/mixologist ments or making ledger account entries for a food
The people working within bar areas must be respon- and beverage operation. This may include making up
sible and competent in preparing and serving a vari- bills from food and drink checks or, in a cafeteria for
ety of wine, drinks and cocktails. They should have a example, charging customers for their selection of
thorough knowledge of all alcoholic and non-alcoholic items on a tray.
drinks being offered within the establishment, and the
Counter assistants
ingredients necessary for the making of cocktails;
they should also have knowledge of the requirements Counter assistants are found in cafeterias where they
of the liquor licensing laws, to ensure legal compli- will stock the counter and sometimes serve or portion
ance. A mixologist is an employee who mixes and food for customers. Duties may also include some
serves alcoholic beverages at a bar; this is also often cooking of call-order items.
used as a name for people who are creators of new
mixed drinks, and can also mean a cocktail maker or Table clearers
cocktail bar person, or simply bar tender. Mixology is Table clearers can be found in seating areas where
the art of making mixed drinks. the service is not waiter service. These people are
responsible for clearing tables using trolleys specially
Barista designed for the stacking of crockery, glassware,
The word barista is of Italian origin. In Italian, a barista cutlery, etc.
is a male or female bar tender who typically works
behind a counter, serving both hot and cold bever- Function catering/banqueting staff/events
ages as well as alcoholic beverages. Barista does not staff
mean specifically a coffee maker, although it is now In establishments with function catering facilities
often used as such. The plural in English is baristas. there will normally be a certain number of permanent
staff. These will include the banqueting and confer-
Buffet assistant/buffet chef/chef de encing manager, one or two assistant managers, one
buffet or two headwaiters, a dispense bar person and a
The chef de buffet is in charge of the buffet in the secretary to the banqueting and conferencing man-
room, its presentation, the carving and portioning of ager. All other banqueting, conferencing and events
food and its service. This staff member will normally staff are normally engaged as required on a casual
be a member of the kitchen team. basis. In small establishments, where there are fewer
events, the manager, the assistant manager and the
Cashier headwaiter will undertake the necessary administra-
The cashier is responsible for billing and taking pay- tive and organisational work.
Customer service specification

Increasing competition within the industry has meant sequence, pages 278–279, and the customer pro-
that the quality of the service, and the perceived value cess, pages 280–281) as they are on the way they
of the experience had by the customers, have become are carried out. This is because food and beverage
the main differentiators between operations that are is more than a delivery system – it also requires
seeking to attract similar customers. Therefore under- customers to be assisted in following various pro-
standing the customer’s involvement in the process, cedures, such as being seated at a table, and also
and identifying the experience they are likely to have, to enable a positive interaction between staff and
and should expect, have become critical to the busi- customers.
ness success of food service operations. However, a customer service specification cannot
Like the food, beverages and other product speci- be achieved if it does not take account of both the
fications, there must also be a customer service infrastructure supporting the specification as well as
specification. For food and beverage operations, the the ability to implement standards within the interac-
customer service specification is focused as much tive phase. A customer service specification can be
on identifying the procedures that need to be fol- defined taking account of a combination of the fol-
lowed (as summarised in the notes on the service lowing five key characteristics.
1 Service level: the method of service and the addition, the staff must be capable of supporting the
extent of the individual personal attention that is intended customer service specification. This takes
given to customers. account of the technical and interpersonal skills,
2 Availability of service: e.g. the opening times, product knowledge and team-working capability of
the variation in the menus and wine and drinks the staff.
lists on offer. As well as the interaction with customers, service
3 Level of standards: e.g. food quality, decor, staff also are interacting with staff outside of the
equipment cost, staffing professionalism. service areas, e.g. kitchen staff, bill office staff, dis-
4 Reliability of the service: the extent to which pense bar staff, still room staff. It is important that the
the product is intended to be consistent in provision of the food and beverage product within an
practice. establishment is seen as a joint effort between all
5 Flexibility of the service: the provision of departments, with each department understanding
alternatives, or variations in the standard product the needs of the others in order to meet customers’
on offer. demands.
In order to minimise problems with customer rela-
In designing a food service operation to meet a cus-
tions, there has to be equal concern over the physical
tomer service specification, care is taken to ensure
aspects of the service, the way in which the service
the profitability of the operation by considering the
is operated, and with the interpersonal interaction
efficiency of the use of resources. The resources
between customers and staff. Knowing what the
used in food service operations are as listed below.
potential for customer satisfaction is from the food
●● Materials: commodities and equipment and beverage product can help to ensure that there
●● Labour: staffing and staff costs are procedures in place for dealing with any difficul-
●● Facilities: the premises and the volume of ties that might arise. The potential for satisfaction
business that the premises are physically able to should already have been built in to the design of
support. the product so that it meets the needs the customers
have at the time. There is, though, also the potential
The management of the operation must therefore
for dissatisfaction. Potential dissatisfactions fall into
take account of the effect that the level of business
two categories: tangible (those that are controllable
has on the ability of the operation to maintain the
by the establishment, such as scruffy, unhelpful staff
service, while at the same time ensuring a high pro-
or cramped conditions); and intangible (those that
ductivity in all the resources being used.
are uncontrollable, such as the behaviour of other
The operation must be physically capable of sup-
customers, the weather or transport problems). Being
porting the customer service specification. Otherwise
able to identify all of these possibilities provides an
limitations in the physical capabilities of the operation
operation with the potential to have procedures in
to meet the requirements of the customer service
place to deal with them when they occur.
specification will always be the cause of difficulties. In
Restaurant planning
Restaurant planning needs to focus on the market harmony. The choice of layout, furniture, linen, table-
the establishment is aiming to attract, its customers, ware, small equipment and glassware will be deter-
the theme the restaurant will take, and the type of mined by considering:
food and service it is going to offer. In any establish-
●● the type of clientele expected
ment a customer’s first impressions on entering the
service area are of great importance. A customer may ●● the site or location
be gained or lost on these impressions alone. The ●● the layout of the food and beverage service area
creation of atmosphere, by the right choice of decor, ●● the type of service offered
furnishings and equipment, is therefore a major factor ●● the funds available.
that contributes to the success of the food service
operation. A careful selection of items in terms of There are many service areas behind the scenes, or
shape, design and colour enhances the overall decor what may be termed back of house. These areas are
or theme, and contributes towards a feeling of total usually between the kitchen and food and beverage
service operation, such as the kitchen, larder

and pastry)
2 silver or plate room (for the storage of all metal
service equipment)
3 wash-up (usually adjacent to the still room area)
4 hotplate (often called the pass, where orders are
given in and collected from the food production
area by service staff)
5 spare linen store (used for paper and linen).
A well-designed layout of all these areas is important
to ensure an even flow of work by the various mem-
bers of staff. However, the layout itself may vary with
different establishments, depending on the type of
operational needs.
The general considerations for the planning of the
Figure 9.11 Restaurant receptionist back-of-house service areas are:
service areas. They are important parts of the design ●● appropriate siting and logical layout of equipment
of a food service operation, acting as the link between ●● ease of delivery access
kitchen or food preparation areas and the restaurant ●● ease of service
or food and beverage service areas. These areas are ●● meet hygiene, health and safety requirements
also meeting points for staff of various departments ●● ease of cleaning
as they carry out their duties, and therefore there ●● sufficient storage space for service equipment
must be close liaison between these various mem- and food items
bers of staff and between the departments to ensure ●● security.
the smooth running of the operation.
In general, especially in large operations, five main The front-of-house areas are used by both customers
back-of-house service areas can be identified. These and staff, and include:
are: ●● food service area(s)
1 still room (the area directly between the food ●● reception – the place for taking bookings,
production area and the food service area, and receiving customers and processing the bills
where food and beverage items are prepared ●● licensed bar
for the service of a meal that are not catered ●● coffee lounge
for by the other major departments in a food ●● customer cloakroom facilities.
Table 9.3 Examples of space allocation in different types of food and beverage service areas
Restaurant and hotel dining areas

Style Space per cover (m2)
Traditional restaurant 1
Banqueting 0.9
High-class restaurants 2
(Note: for safety reasons all aisles should be 1 metre wide)
Cafeteria – square metres per meal served/hour:
Meals Up to 200 200–500 5001
m² 0.45–0.70 0.35–0.45 0.25–0.35
Fast-food outlets: the average overall size of most fast-food outlets is currently around 1000–1500 m2
Note: space allocation includes sideboards, aisles, etc.

Source: adapted from Cousins, Foskett and Gillespie (2002)
The general considerations for the planning of the their meal experience. In this case the kitchen is a
areas used by both customers and staff include first central feature with some of the cooking smells and
the general considerations for staff-only back-of- noise going into the food service area.
house areas as above, and then taking into account
the consideration of: Space
●● decor and lighting The amount of space required per customer depends
●● heating and ventilation on the type of standard expected from the style and
●● noise level theme of the operation. Consideration has to be given
●● the size and shape of the areas. to comfort versus the maximum number of custom-
ers you are trying to fit into the restaurant. The more
In most food service operations the back-of-house upmarket the restaurant, the more comfortable and
and front-of-house areas are quite separate so that spacious it should be. Examples of the space alloca-
customers cannot see into the back-of-house areas, tion for different types of food and beverage service
especially the kitchen. More recently, food service areas are given in Table 9.3.
operations are making a feature of the cooking area;
this is in full view of the customer and contributes to
Liquor and other licensing

The sale of alcoholic liquor is subject to the Licensing ●● restrictions on under-aged persons being served
Act (2003) requirements, which have four key alcohol and employed to serve alcohol
objectives: ●● the need for an authorised person (or the
personal licence holder) to be on site at all times.
1 the prevention of crime and disorder
2 public safety Other types of licence may include, for example,
3 the prevention of public nuisance licences for music (live or pre-recorded), dancing,
4 the protection of children from harm. gambling, theatrical performance and television dis-
play. In all cases the supervisor and the staff should
The usual requirements of the Act are:
be aware of the provisions and limitations of the
●● the display of a summary of the premises licence, licences to ensure compliance. Further information
including the days and times of opening, the regarding licensing in England and Wales should be
name of the registered licence holder, the licence sought from the local Licensing Authority covering
number and a valid date the area of the establishment.
●● drinks price lists to be displayed
Matching food to wine/drinks

Food and its accompanying wine/drink should har- ●● Dry wines should be served before sweeter
monise well, with each enhancing the other’s perfor- wines.
mance. However, the combinations that prove most ●● White wines should be served before red
successful are those that please the individual. wines.
●● Lighter wines should be served before heavier
Wine and food wines.
When considering possible food and wine partner- ●● Good wines should be served before great
ships there are no guidelines to which there are not wines.
exceptions; however, general guidelines on matching ●● Wines should be at their correct temperature
wine and food are summarised in Table 9.4. before serving.
Some general guidelines when selecting and serv- ●● Wine should always be served to customers
ing wines are given below. before their food.
Table 9.4 General guidelines for matching wine and food
Characteristic Food Considerations

Acidity Can be used to match, or to contrast, acidity in foods – for example, crisp wines to match
lemon or tomato, or to cut through creamy flavours
Age/maturity As wine ages and develops it can become delicate, with complex and intricate flavours;
more simple foods, such as grills or roasts, work better with older wines than stronger-
tasting foods, which can overpower the wines
Oak The more oaked the wine, the more robust and flavoursome the foods need to be;
heavily oaked wines can overpower more delicate foods
Sweetness Generally the wine should be sweeter than the foods or it will taste flat or thin; sweet
dishes need contrast for them to match well with sweeter wines – for example, acids
in sweeter foods can harmonise with the sweetness in the wines; savoury foods with
sweetness (e.g. carrots or onions) can match well with ripe fruity wines; blue cheeses
can go well with sweet wines, also sweeter wines can go well with salty foods
Tannin Tannic wines match well with red meats and semi-hard cheeses (e.g. Cheddar); tannic
wines are not good with egg dishes and wines with high tannin content do not work well
with salty foods
Weight Big, rich wines go well with robust (flavoursome) meat dishes, but can overpower lighter-
flavoured foods
Source: Cousins and Lillicrap (2010)
Beers and food should not be sweet. Dry and medium dry
Recently there has been an increasing trend to offer sherries, dry vermouths and Sercial or Verdelho
beers with food, either alongside or as an alternative Madeira are all good examples of aperitifs.
to wines. As with wines it is a question of trial and ●● Starter courses are often best accompanied by a
error to achieve harmony between particular beers dry white or dry rosé wine.
and foods. Generally the considerations for the pair- ●● National dishes should normally be
ing of beers and foods are similar to those for match- complemented by the national wines of that
ing wines with foods, as shown in Table 9.4, and in country – for example, Italian red wine with pasta
particular, taking account of acidity, sweetness/dry- dishes.
ness, bitterness, tannin, weight and the complexity of ●● Fish and shellfish dishes are often most suited to
the taste. well-chilled dry white wines.
●● Red meats such as beef and lamb blend and
Making recommendations to harmonise well with red wine.
●● White meats such as veal and pork are
customers acceptable with medium white wines.
A few general pointers are set out below that may ●● Game dishes require the heavier and more robust
be followed when advising the customer on which red wines to complement their full flavour.
beverage to choose to accompany a meal. However, ●● Sweets and desserts are served at the end of
customers should at all times be given complete free- the meal, and here it is acceptable to offer well-
dom in their selection of wines or other drinks. chilled sweet white wines that may come from the
●● Apéritifs are usually alcoholic beverages that are Loire, Sauternes, Barsac or Hungary. These wines
drunk before the meal. If wine will be consumed harmonise best with dishes containing fruit.
with the meal, then the aperitif selected should be ●● The majority of cheeses blend well with port
a grape (wine-based) rather than a grain (spirit- and other dry, robust red wines. Port is the
based) aperitif, since the latter can potentially traditional wine that harmonises best with Stilton
spoil or dull the palate. cheese.
●● The aperitif is usually a wine-based beverage. It ●● The grain- and fruit-based spirits and liqueurs all
is meant to stimulate the appetite and therefore harmonise well with coffee.
The nature of alcohol and how it Alcohol-free and low-alcohol drinks

affects the body To be classified as alcohol-free, a drink must contain
Alcohol is classed as a drug because, when con- no more than 0.05 per cent ABV; to be classified as
sumed, it alters the physical, mental and emotional low alcohol, no more than 1.2 per cent ABV. Both
state of the drinker. Where the alcohol by volume must be labelled accordingly.
(ABV) is over 0.5 per cent, the drink is classed as
alcohol for the purpose of licensing law. Units of alcohol
A unit is 8 grams (g) or 10 millilitres (ml) of alcohol.
Strength of alcoholic drinks Any quantity of drink that contains 8 g or 10 ml of
The strength of an intoxicating drink depends on alcohol is said to contain one unit. Half a pint of beer
how much alcohol it contains. The amount of alcohol of 3.6 per cent ABV contains about 8 g of alcohol,
contained is expressed as percentage of alcohol by hence one unit. One 25 ml measure of whisky of 40
volume: ‘ABV’ for short. The formula for expressing per cent ABV also contains 8 g of alcohol; therefore
ABV on labels is alc % vol or % vol. So a fortified in alcohol intake terms, half a pint of beer 3.6 per
wine, such as sherry or vermouth, labelled as alc 18% cent ABV 8 g of alcohol is equivalent to one measure
vol means that 18 per cent of any given quantity is of whisky.
pure alcohol.
Recommended safe limits of alcohol
Examples Moderate drinking can be beneficial to health;
●● Whisky labelled as alc 40% vol or 40% vol excessive drinking can be detrimental to health.
means 40 per cent of any given quantity is pure Recommended safe limits of alcohol, as recom-
alcohol. Most spirits are around 40 per cent ABV. mended by the government and other organisations
●● Wines labelled as alc 12% vol or 12% vol means such as the Portman Group, are as follows:
that 12 per cent of any given quantity is pure ●● men should drink no more than three to four units
alcohol. Wines vary from 8 per cent to 16 per a day and no more than 21 units per week
cent ABV. ●● women should drink no more than two to three
●● Beer labelled as alc 3.2% vol or 3.2% vol means units a day and no more than 14 units per week.
that 3.2 per cent of any quantity is pure alcohol.
Beers range from 3 per cent to 9 per cent ABV. Alcohol in the body
Ciders range from 3 per cent to 8.5 per cent When drunk, alcohol is absorbed into the blood and
ABV. reaches all parts of the body. Most of the alcohol
is absorbed rapidly into the bloodstream. Nearly all
Ordinary strength lager, Red or white wine Whisky, gin, rum

beer or cider or vodka
125ml
half pint
1 pint (248ml) = 1 unit 125ml = 1.5 units 25ml = 1 unit

2 3.5% ABV 12% ABV 40% ABV
Figure 9.10 Popular drinks and their units

the alcohol has to be burned up by the liver and the ●● Food eaten: the presence of food in the stomach
rest is disposed of either in sweat or urine. A person slows down the rate at which alcohol enters the
becomes drunk because he/she drinks alcohol faster bloodstream.
than his/her body can eliminate it, to a point where it
Usually about 20 minutes after the last drink, BAC
affects the body. The amount of alcohol in the blood-
starts to fall. Some alcohol is lost through the lungs,
stream is measured by the blood alcohol concentra-
some in the urine but most is removed by the liver
tion (BAC). BAC varies according to a person’s sex,
as the blood circulates through it. As a rough guide,
weight, body composition and speed of drinking.
it takes one hour to remove one unit of alcohol from
BAC is measured in milligrams (mg) of alcohol
the body.
in millilitres of blood. A BAC of 80 mg of alcohol
in 100 ml of blood is the level above which it is an What is a sensible limit?
offence to drive. This measurement has an equivalent
People must keep to the recommended sensible
in terms of micrograms in ml of breath (35 micro-
limits to avoid damaging their health. As noted
grams in 100 ml of breath). This can be measured
above, the recommended sensible limit is up to
using a breathalyser.
21 units for men and up to 14 units a week for
The amount of alcohol that gets into the blood-
women, with one or two drink-free days (see Figure
stream and the speed with which it does, depends on
9.11). Remember, there are times when even one
the following factors.
or two drinks can be too much – for example, if you
●● Quantity: how many drinks a person consumes are going to drive or operate machinery. It can be
and how strong the drinks are. dangerous to drink alcohol if you are taking certain
●● The size of a person: the amount of alcohol will types of medicine.
produce a higher BAC in women than men.
Designing a food service system

The process of designing a food service facility is ●● the Market
complex and dynamic. It encompasses the many ●● the Money needed
facets of business planning, right through to the ●● competent Management
development of facility layout drawings, interior ●● a Method of execution.
designs and equipment specifications. It is certainly
not unusual for an operator to consider opening a The menu
new restaurant or actually open a restaurant with- One can’t overemphasise the importance of the menu
out knowing what type of facility will have the best in the design of any food service facility, and its ulti-
chance of success. A potential operator may have mate success or failure. From a design and layout
sufficient money to invest, a location or a theme in perspective, the following are some of the major
mind, and a great amount of enthusiasm to make it operational and design factors influenced or driven
work – but they may not have adequately considered by the menu:
the total concept of the operation.
●● the selling price of the food
Concept development in the food service industry
●● the type of cooking equipment that will be
means planning the menu, developing a theme for
needed
the decor and developing a method of serving food to
●● the production capacities of the various pieces of
an identified target market to achieve an acceptable
cooking equipment that will be used
level of profit from the operation. Concept develop-
●● the size of refrigeration and storage areas
ment should also encompass a strategy for growth
required
and for a reasonable financial return on investment.
●● the size of the dishwashing area, as well as the
capacity of the machines
The ‘five Ms’
●● the total amount of floor space that will be
In order to have a successful food service operation, needed
an operator must combine the following elements ●● the type and capacity of seating
into a comprehensive and cohesive plan: ●● the design and type of service area(s)
●● the Menu ●● the total financial investment that will be needed.
The market ●● the purchase of various pieces of equipment and

Conducting market research studies prior to pro- supply items, and
ceeding with the construction of a food service ●● the purchase of furniture and fixtures.
facility is an important component of any concept Funds for these items must be identified and commit-
development plan. Some of the basic marketing ted before any serious planning can begin. However,
questions that should be addressed include those in the early concept development stage of the design
listed below. process, such commitments may not be made simply
●● To whom is the food service operation being because all of the costs are not known. Therefore, the
marketed? In other words, what is the target planning process for capital funds should be consid-
market or potential customer base? ered a two-phase process.
●● Is the identified market large enough to generate In the initial phase, the financial needs of the opera-
acceptable levels of sales and profits? tion are estimated and, if the prospective operator
●● What are the tastes, preferences and motivations or owner does not have sufficient personal funds to
of the target market? cover all of the expenses, then sources of financial
●● What are the best methods of marketing support should be contacted to determine the pos-
communication to reach the target market or sibility of obtaining necessary funds.
customer base? Next, lenders and investors make firm financial com-
●● What are the appropriate messages that will mitments after the concept development has taken
influence and motivate the target audience to place, preliminary designs and construction estimates
listen and act? have been made and market research has been
●● Will the target audience need or want the food completed.
items that are being planned or the facility?
●● Will the operation’s internal marketing efforts Management
be successful in selling the customer additional The quality and style of management in any food
products and services after they have arrived at service operation are the most important elements in
the food service facility? achieving success. The following questions need to
be addressed by any owner and investor.
One of the classic marketing mistakes made by
operators is not acting on the marketing data that ●● Who will actually run the day-to-day affairs of
have been obtained. Instead, decisions are made the food service facility? Will it be the owner
based on a ‘gut’ feeling. Many gut-feeling decisions or majority shareholder, or will an outside
have resulted in failed operations and subsequent ‘professional’ manager be hired to run the
ulcers for owners. operation?
●● What kind of educational background and food
The money service experience must the manager and
One of the primary causes of the high failure rate of management team have?
food service operations is lack of money – in particu- ●● What level of assistance will be available to the
lar, lack of money set aside for working capital. Often, manager? In other words, who will assist the
an operator or prospective operator has access to general manager in covering the long hours often
sufficient funds to get the proposed food service ven- required to operate a food service facility?
ture off the ground. Unfortunately, these individuals ●● What kind of level of remuneration will the
fail to plan for the day-to-day cash requirements of manager and his/her assistants receive?
product purchases and payroll demands. As a result, ●● Will the remuneration package contain an
they quickly find themselves in a working capital incentive for performance?
deficit position. ●● How will operational policies be established?
In addition to the need for sufficient working capi- ●● How will these policies be communicated to the
tal, the proper capitalisation of a food service facility management team?
must include sufficient funds for: ●● How will the management team communicate
with the rest of the operation’s employees?
●● professional planning and design
●● new building construction or the renovation of an The answers to these and related questions will
existing building help determine the organisational structure of the
●● professional interior design and decorating operation and the kind of management team needed
to operate the facility in an effective and efficient ●● determining the amount of required labour
manner. ●● the establishment of employee work schedules
Many successful restaurants are owned and oper- ●● the determination of operating hours
ated by one individual whose personality becomes a ●● staffing patterns
part of the guests’ dining experience. On the other ●● the various benefits that will be offered to
hand, the management of the food and beverage employees
department of a large hotel, or the food service direc- ●● the varying skill levels that will exist among
tor in a large hospital or university, may be under the employees
control of more than one person and is usually part of ●● the level of supervision that will be required
a more complex organisational team. In these cases, ●● issues that are centred on the remuneration
the policies and procedures of the food service facility package.
should be laid out in an operations manual, to ensure
These, plus many other closely associated issues,
consistent implementation of management policies.
must be addressed as part of the concept develop-
Method of execution ment process.
This last step in the concept development process is
The feasibility study
centred on operational issues. Three of the primary
areas that need to be addressed deal with methods Once the concept development process has been
of production, control systems and various personnel completed, it is time to move on to the next phase,
issues. which focuses on assessing the feasibility of the con-
Methods of food production raise questions such cept. Many terms are commonly used within the food
as: ‘Will pre-prepared foods be used or will the service industry to describe the process of determin-
more traditional “from scratch” methods of cooking ing whether or not a proposed operation is likely to
be used?’ This particular decision will have a major return a profit to its owner(s) or investors. But the
influence on the size of refrigerated and dry storage term that is most frequently used and best describes
areas, and on the size of the kitchen. The chosen pro- this process is ‘feasibility study’.
duction method will also greatly influence the number The primary goal of a feasibility study is to deter-
of employees in the kitchen, as well as the skill levels mine a food service facility’s potential to generate
of these employees. sales and profits. This will in turn have a direct impact
Food and beverage control systems involve many on the ROI (return on investment) analysis, which is
different areas and individuals within a food service critical to each investor in the operation.
facility. Planning for these controls before the pro- A comprehensive feasibility study consists of many
ject has been completed, or even before it is under components. One of these components is the market
construction, is highly recommended. Specific areas feasibility study. This phase deals with all the issues
that should be looked at, and control procedures that associated with the marketplace, including those
should be established include: listed below.
●● cash control ●● A comprehensive analysis of the demographics

●● sales analysis of the proposed geographical area to be served.
●● control of the guests’ bills and receipts This would include but not be limited to: age,
●● food production forecasting sex, income level, size of household, occupation,
●● control over the various storage areas, including ethnicity, etc.
refrigeration ●● An analysis of the buying and eating-out habits
●● purchasing and receiving control of the individuals in the area under study. This
●● portion control sort of information could be obtained through a
●● quality control. questionnaire or survey process.
●● An analysis of the traffic patterns of the area,
Operators significantly increase their chances of including an assessment of roadway access,
success when all of these areas have been criti- future street development, availability of public
cally examined and sufficient controls have been transportation, etc.
established. ●● An analysis of general economic factors, such
How management deals with key personnel issues as employment statistics, industry growth, future
can significantly affect the success of any operation. economic development plans, tax structure and
Areas that should be addressed include: commercial growth in the area.
●● A detailed competitive analysis, to include high. (Change the service concept.) The menu may be
size (number of seats), estimated customer wrong for that particular market. (Change the menu.)
counts, menu items, pricing, decor or theme, The originally proposed menu prices may be too high
and professionalism of the staff at existing food based on the customer demographic information
service operations within the potential service obtained. (Change the price structure and menu.)
area. Finally, the local competition may be stronger than
●● A projection of sales. This would be based on a originally assumed. (Consider an alternative location
‘guesstimated’ customer count over a specific or concept.)
period of time, as well as on an estimation of The second option is to abandon the project
what the average bill amount might be. altogether. If the projections and conclusions drawn
in the feasibility study do not paint a positive pic-
Understanding and properly responding to the target
ture, then there is no point in trying to ‘force’ the
market are two of the keys to success, for any food
numbers.
service operation. Another critical component that
The third option is to procrastinate and delay the
needs to be tackled is the financial feasibility study.
go/no-go decision until a later date. This is the least
Typically required by lending institutions, as well as by
desirable option. It may cost the operator just to keep
private investors, the financial feasibility study should
the proposed project alive.
paint a financial picture of the proposed operation,
Assuming that a ‘go’ decision is made, the design
based on the information obtained in the market fea-
process moves into an entirely new phase: the hiring
sibility study. This study should include the following.
of a professional food service facility designer or a
●● A pro forma profit and loss statement. This should food service design consultant, as they are frequently
be supported by a sales analysis, an analysis of called.
the cost of goods sold, plus a fixed and variable Today’s modern food service facilities are very
cost analysis. complex systems, made up of numerous interrelated
●● A pro forma balance sheet, detailing all assets sub-systems. They are also very expensive. In order
and liabilities. for a food service operation to function smoothly and
●● A projected cash flow analysis. This document is at the optimum level of efficiency and effectiveness,
critical. If done properly, it will provide the operator it has to be designed properly, taking into considera-
with valuable information on the short- and long- tion numerous factors, such as energy, labour, space,
term cash requirements of the organisation. equipment requirements, traffic flow and menu, to
mention a few. This type of complexity requires the
These projections should cover a three-year time
services of a professional who has been educated
frame. Of course, the further one goes out into the
and trained in the intricacies of food service opera-
future, the more difficult it becomes to forecast accu-
tions. Thus, most operators or prospective operators
rately. However, it does force the operator to look at
today rely on the services of food service design
the long-term picture and not just focus on the imme-
consultants to help them through the critical stages
diate or short-term needs of the proposed facility.
of the overall design process, equipment selection,
Once the comprehensive feasibility study is com-
construction and even project start-up.
plete, it is up to the prospective operator and/or
The benefits from using a professional food service
investors to make the critical ‘go or no-go’ decision.
facility design consultant include:
If, after a careful analysis of the findings and projec-
tions, the project looks financially sound, the market ●● potential savings in operational costs as a
is identified and can be reached easily, a need for the result of efficiencies in physical layout and
proposed food service facility exists, and sufficient design
funding and working capital is available, the decision ●● potential savings in equipment costs, the result of
to proceed can be made with confidence. proper selection
However, if one or more of the critical elements ●● construction cost savings from more efficient
associated with the decision process is uncertain, utilisation of space
there are a few alternatives to explore. One of the ●● review and synchronisation of construction and
first options is modification of the proposed concept installation
to address the problem area or areas identified. For ●● savings on the purchase prices of equipment and
instance, the facility may be too large. (Downsize the supplies from properly written specifications and
facility.) The labour cost estimates may have been too bid documents
●● operator or owner peace of mind in knowing handled to their satisfaction and in a professional
that the planning and design of their facility was manner.
provided by a trained professional. The design function normally follows a nine-phase
process. Each phase is critical to both the design
There are other professionals who may be involved
consultant and client/operator. In addition, each stage
in the overall planning and design process. They
is totally interdependent on each of the other stages.
range from interior designers who will help guide
The following model outlines the natural sequence of
and coordinate the theme of the facility, to account-
events that takes place between the design consult-
ants, lawyers, architects and bankers. The services
ant and the food service facility operator/owner.
of these necessary members of the team should be
viewed as a good financial investment. Proper use of
Phase 1: initial contact and proposal
their services will help increase the facility’s chances
of success. At this initial phase in the design continuum, the client
Now it’s time to begin the actual design process . . . is encouraged to explore with the consultant which
services they can provide, and the costs of those
The design process services. This initial phase is designed to establish the
The design process should be very interactive in ground rules and future working relationship between
nature. The professional design consultant should the design consultant and their client.
always be ‘listening’ to his/her client to ensure that
the decisions assumed at the initiation of the project Phase 2: feasibility study
are still in place and that, if any other variables have The importance of the feasibility study was discussed
come into play, they are accounted for in the overall in some detail earlier in this chapter. One of the roles
design and layout process. Conversely, the operator of the food service design consultant is to assist the
should have a constant dialogue with the food service prospective operator/client in conducting a proper
design consultant to ensure that requests are being feasibility study. The results of this study greatly
Phase 1
Phase 9 Initial
contact
Initial proposal
Implementation Phase 2
and training
Feasibility study
Phase 3
Inspection and
Phase 8 The design
acceptance Programming
process
Initial design
Phase 4
Project
Phase 7
construction
Cost estimates
Phase 6 Phase 5
Bidding and Design

development Engineering
awarding of
contract
Equipment
specification
Figure 9.11 The sequence of events between design consultant and food service facility
operator/owner (source: CESA)
assist the design consultant with various aspects and Phase 4: initial design and cost estimates
phases of the work. The primary purpose of the initial design or schematic
drawings is to show the shape of the building, the
Phase 3: programming
various entrances and flow patterns, plus the loca-
A programme for a food service facility describes tion of the dining room, kitchen and all the other
in words the function of each area in the building, functional areas within the proposed facility. These
how that particular space will be most frequently drawings will show elevations of the outside of the
used, and the number of square metres required to building (if applicable), site plans for the building lot,
serve the stated needs. A typical food service facil- and the location of roads, parking areas, etc. In addi-
ity’s programme includes the following categories of tion, and if required, schematic drawings are often
information: used to gain preliminary approval from local author-
●● the room number ity planning departments. Formal acceptance of the
●● the name of the room (i.e. the kitchen) building and/or food service facility floor plan should
●● the relationship of this room (the kitchen) to the be in writing, by the owner and the architect (if one is
other rooms in the design involved in the project), as well as by the food service
●● a description of use design consultant.
●● the amount of square metres required, and Phase 5: design development, equipment
●● the finishes (this includes the types of materials
and finishes to be used on the floors, walls,
specification and engineering
ceilings, etc.). It is during this phase that the food service design
consultant, along with the engineers and architect,
The key element in the programming phase is the begins the detailed work. Working drawings – the
establishment of space relationships among the detailed plans that will guide and be used by contrac-
functional areas of the facility. After the space rela- tors who actually build the facility – are developed
tionships are established and the programme sum- during this phase of the process. The selection of all
marised, the total square metre space requirements the equipment to be used in the facility, the assembly
are discussed with the client. It is at this point that, if of equipment literature, writing performance specifi-
changes need to be made (for example, a reduction cations and the development of utility schedules will
in the total square metres in the proposed facility) be accomplished.
because of financial constraints or for any other During this phase it is extremely important for the
reason, they are initiated. design consultant and the client to maintain a high
General conditions
Standards
of workmanship
Equipment
specifications
Performance Materials
specifications specifications
Fabricated Catalogue
equipment equipment
Figure 9.12 Types of specification

level of contact and communication. Many important to explain the layout and design of the equipment to
project decisions are made. All parties should be all employees, is an important function that should not
involved in this process. be overlooked.
Equipment specification is one of the most impor-
tant components of the design development process. The basic principles of design
These specifications can be written in several differ- Although there are significant differences in the
ent ways, but the most important thing is to ensure physical layout, menu and method of service between
the exact requirements for the equipment are clearly the various types of food service facility, there are
written. The equipment must be described in such some underlying design principles that are consist-
a manner that the bidder is in no doubt about the ently followed by all food service design consultants.
required specification of the equipment and that he Every food service project design should:
quotes accordingly. From a design consultant’s per-
spective, the ‘best’ piece of equipment is the piece ●● have flexibility and modularity built in to it
that matches the specification exactly. ●● be designed for simplicity
●● be designed so that there is an efficient flow of
Phase 6: bidding and awarding the material and personnel
contract ●● facilitate the ease of sanitation
●● make it easy to supervise the employees of the
The bidding and awarding of the contract is a process
facility, and
that can vary in length of time, depending on the com-
●● make efficient use of the space that is available.
plexity and size of the project under consideration.
Phase 7: project construction The flow of materials and people

The movement of food through a food service facility
During the construction phase of the overall process,
should follow a logical sequence starting with receiv-
the role of the food service design consultant is pri-
ing and storage functions and continuing through to
marily to:
the disposal of waste products and waste.
●● work closely with the general contractor and
architect, and answer any questions as to the Detailed information on all aspects of food and
design work the consultant has done beverage service can be found in Cousins and
●● inspect the fabricated equipment to make sure Lillicrap (2010).
it has been built to specification and that it
meets all of the requirements written into the
specification documents. Some references to food and beverage
service elsewhere in this book:
Phase 8: inspection and acceptance ✎● Beverages ........................................................................................... 96
The new food service facility will be inspected at ✎● Customer care............................................................................ 321
least twice by the design consultant, owner/operator,
✎● Establishments .............................................................................. 12
equipment dealer and all other constituents in the
process. ✎● Managing people ................................................................... 306
✎● Marketing......................................................................................... 314
Phase 9: implementation and training
✎● Menus .................................................................................................. 227
Demonstration of all the equipment found in the fac-
ulty, along with thorough training sessions designed
References
CESA: An Introduction to the Food Service Industry Cousins, J., Foskett, D. and Gillespie, C. (2002) Food
(hand-out given to CFSP course delegates). and Beverage Management (2nd edn). Pearson
Cousins, J. and Lillicrap, D.R. (2010) Essential Food Education.
and Beverage Service. London: Hodder Education.

1 Discuss the relationship between kitchen staff a suitable selection for a wine/drink list. State
and waiting staff. Explain how good relations the kind of establishment you have in mind.
may be developed. 6 Discuss the following statement: ‘Every chef
2 Discuss the merits of six different methods of should serve as a waiter and every waiter work
service and the kind of establishment for which as chef for a period of time.’
they would be suitable. 7 What is your opinion of the kitchen being on
3 Why should food service staff be knowledgeable view to the customers? What do you think is the
about the food dishes they will serve? opinion of customers?
4 Why should the kitchen staff appreciate the role 8 Discuss how the food service design process
of the waiting staff? should be implemented.
5 Explain your reasons for what you consider to be
nd busine
na ss
tio
10
sa
de
rt 4 Organi
velo ent Managing resources

pm
Pa
Assessing Yourself as a Managing Diversity 310

Manager 300 Minimising Interpersonal
Developing Trust and Conflict 310
Support with Managers 303 References 312
Managing People 306 Topics for Discussion 313
Work–Life Balance 309

›● Activity worksheet: managing people
Assessing yourself as a manager

To effectively manage people and resources it is first you are (which may not be the same as others
essential to have the ability to manage yourself; to see you) list your qualities and your failings, and
do this, it is essential to analyse yourself truthfully, endeavour to change those you think should
assess your weaknesses and take positive action to be changed. To be successful in achieving this
improve. This is necessary so that self-development it is essential to be positive and really want to
improves. improve. Be clear about the benefits of what you
‘Know yourself and to yourself be true’ is a maxim hope to gain. Know what you want and, when
that assists the potential manager to develop and things do not go as expected, have other options
earn the respect of those he or she will manage. It and seek the advice and help of others.
is not easy to assess one’s own personality, nor is
it easy to improve or change it. The following self- Key skills for management
analysis guide may be helpful. These include:
●● Having assessed your strengths and weaknesses, ●● self-management
what need or needs do you require to be self- ●● resource management
fulfilled or self-satisfied in order to develop into ●● communication
a successful manager? In catering, because of ●● decision making.
the variety of roles, most people’s needs can be ●● time management
met. These include the need: to achieve; to be
friendly; to show off; to be tenacious; to be free We will now take a closer look at some of these.
of controls; to have power; to have sympathy; to
Self-management
seek knowledge; to be orderly; to show care.
●● Having concluded the kind of person you think Effective management starts with how you see your-
Managing resources 301
self, how superiors see you and how those you Actions
are responsible for see you. First and subsequent Actions need to be taken. Prevarication, hesitancy
impressions are vital to successful development as and lethargy do not help decision making (see below).
a manager. First, what constitutes a good manager: However, before acting, ensure that priorities are
what qualities, attitudes and values are desirable to right, and use resources, manpower, finances, equip-
form the basis from which to improve? ment and commodities efficiently.
●● Honesty and integrity.
●● Orderly and of neat appearance. Results
●● Loyalty and conscientiousness. Analyse problems, give and receive feedback and use
●● Able to lead and set an example. the information to persuade others, thus improving
●● Willingness and cooperativeness. your own performance.
●● Enthusiastic and punctual.
●● Courteous and caring. Positive balanced management
To improve performance, clear positive thinking and
Direction the ability to generate enthusiasm may be helpful.
To progress it is essential to be able to clarify roles, A flexible approach, sensitive to others’ feelings and
to focus on key issues and to specify targets and expectations and capable of inspiring them may well
standards – that is, to know in what direction you are develop confidence in one’s own ability.
going and how you intend to get there.
Decision making
Teamwork 1 Define the aim.
When working in a team it is essential to plan, to use the 2 Collect the information.
ideas of the team members so that you can be effective. 3 List possible courses of action.
4 Evaluate the pros and cons, examine the
consequences and make the decisions.
5 Act on the decision, monitor and review it.
Table 10.1 Different types of people as managers
Category or type of person Management skills that may need improving

Confident Self-centred May be too bossy and aggressive, needs to develop patience
Bold Authoritative
Arrogant Independent
Optimistic Sociable May be too friendly and require greater self-discipline in difficult
Cheerful Articulate management situations
Enthusiastic Persuasive
Relaxed Stable May be unwilling to change and lacks any sense of urgency to
Patient Passive change
Laid back Calm
Careful Self-disciplined May find difficulty in delegating, worry too much and be defensive
Neat Accurate
Perfectionist Aggressive
Agreeable Peaceful May find leadership hard and become discouraged in difficult
Self-effacing Unassuming situations
Frustrated Easily discouraged
Reserved Distant May be shy and unsociable, and not good at dealing with people
Quiet Imaginative
Pessimistic Remote
Restless Impetuous May be seen as impatient, intolerant and aggressive, may need to
Erratic Quick learn to calm down
Tense Highly strung
Independent Informal May be an effective delegator but unreliable and not good at
Stubborn Uninhibited making decisions
Argumentative
302 Organisation and business development
First, know why a decision has been made and con- Time management
sider the situation and possible solutions. Evaluate To organise yourself efficiently so as to be an effec-
how the aim will be achieved, how long it will take and tive manager requires attention to controlling your
what is its cost. Moreover, is it acceptable? If it is not time. Determining priorities is an essential step to
acceptable, reconsider. this end and can be aided by producing lists and
Thinking requires the following aspects to make it categorising jobs to be done, as well as using a diary
effective. effectively.
●● Analysing: breaking the whole into small parts Time needs to be allocated for tasks such as think-
and the complex into simple elements. ing and planning, as well as using a diary effectively. A
●● Holistic thinking: thinking of the entirety, the good organiser plans both for the expected and the
opposite to analysing. unexpected. Be prepared for problems but allow time to
●● Valuing: the judgemental and critical aspect. prevent them if possible, and allot time for solving them.
It is important to realise that good managers need
To make decisions fully effective it is necessary to adequate-quality sleep and exercise, so as to be
use all three of these thought processes. Decisions healthy and alert at work. Time is also needed for
based on intuition, instinct or emotion will not produce leisure, and self-development. Control of good eating
logical decision making. and drinking habits may not be easy in the catering
Before making a decision, ensure you have the industry, but they require time to be allocated sensibly
facts and then decide what to do. Value judge- – not too long, too short or erratic.
ments are effective only if you are aware of any Time is the substance life is made of; time is
prejudices you have that may affect your decision, money, time past has gone for ever, today’s newspa-
acknowledge them and learn not to be prejudiced. per is history tomorrow. You cannot buy time, but an
Also you need to know of any codes of values that efficient manager can organise his or her own time
are needed by the establishment, such as legal and that of those for whom he or she is responsible
requirements, and any social behaviour codes and advantageously.
company procedures. Unfortunately a lot of time is wasted by being punc-
Decision-making styles tual because others are not on time. Always be punc-
tual and expect others to be so. Be well organised
●● Autocratic: the manager solves the problem before a meeting, know what you expect from it and
based on the information he or she has. what others expect from you. Set objectives that are:
●● Information finding: when a manager does not
have enough information or skill, he or she asks ●● clear l measurable
other people, then makes a decision. ●● attainable l timed
●● Consultation: the situation is explained to the ●● specific l worthwhile.
group, who generate and evaluate solutions and ●● challenging
make recommendations. The leader makes the If no time limit is stated then time could be wasted.
decision. Ideally, agree with the person the objectives that
●● Negotiation: the group is provided with apply to them, as well as the time required to fulfil
information. The group members then negotiate a these objectives.
solution that is acceptable.
●● Delegation: responsibility for the decision rests ●● Plan each day, and decide on priorities.
with a group or an individual. The manager may ●● Identify immediate, short-term and long-term
guide the discussion that leads to the decision, goals, and organise office and paperwork.
which is then implemented. ●● Avoid distractions, prevent interruptions.
●● Delegate, make lists and delete things as they
Implementation of the decision are done.
Having made a decision, determine clear objectives ●● Be organised, develop routines.
and consider what can be delegated, to whom, the ●● Do important jobs when you are at your best. Set
time needed and whether further training is neces- time limits and keep to them.
sary. To action the decision, define it in writing, set ●● Do not put off unpleasant or difficult tasks. Let
details of progress and when to report back. others know when you are having quiet time.
●● Do one thing at a time and finish it if possible;
plan phone calls.
MANAGING RESOURCES 303
●● Arrange breaks; keep a notebook for ideas. of losing the value of face-to-face contact and oral
●● Learn to say no, and think before acting. skills.
Communication and information Self-assessment

To develop managerial skills it is important to commu- In order to improve performance it is desirable to
nicate effectively with senior management and other review one’s current situation and how to develop
departmental managers, and with those for whom you into the future. Appropriate others, such as colleagues
are responsible. It is essential to ensure that what is in the establishment, and comparison with people in
communicated is understood in the way it is intended. similar situations in other organisations, members
Likewise it is very important that information, sugges- of professional associations, tutors at colleges and
tions, commands, decisions, requests, and so on, are those who have experience of management in cater-
clear, cannot be misconstructed and are unambiguous. ing, may all provide constructive advice. Keep abreast
Listening is an art that needs particular attention as it of developments by reading journals and visiting trade
is a vital aspect of effective communication. fairs.
Information may be communicated by oral or visual
means, depending on the establishment’s policy, per- Balanced organisation
sonal preference and the matter to be conveyed. The Evaluate responsibilities objectively so that you
advantage of speech is that questions and discus- understand, appreciate and can act effectively in an
sions can clarify the issues immediately, and intona- efficient but balanced style.
tion and emphasis convey more accurately what is
intended. While the telephone is invaluable, there is ●● Assess your responsibilities for: people, finance,
no eye contact, which makes face-to-face communi- development, administration and communication.
cation more effective. Body language conveys much ●● People to consider are: yourself, your
to both communicators, which naturally can occur subordinates, your family and your department.
only in direct contact situations. ●● Finance: your own, the department’s, budgeting,
Written instructions, reports and so on have the authorisation of expenditure and control of
advantage that there is tangible evidence of what is expenditure.
communicated. However, care must still be taken that ●● Development in: the organisation, the department,
what is written is understood by the recipient: that your own and new ideas.
which is written may be clear to the person writing ●● Administration may include: an office, secretary,
the instructions, but it is essential that it is specific, your department, other departments and
unambiguous and not too wordy, so that there are no customers.
misunderstandings. ●● Communication: ensure it is effective – to others
Although emails are a popular modern form of and from others.
communication, they also bring with them the risk
Developing trust and support with managers

Trust and support with one’s immediate manager will which may improve the quality of decisions. This will
simply not appear in an ad hoc fashion. For a chef this stimulate better cooperation between managers.
person may be the food and beverage manager or Conflict with your immediate line manager can be
the general manager. Serious attention has to be paid very damaging. However, one of the main areas in
to developing a communication channel with one’s which conflict can and does take place is at work.
immediate manager in order to encourage an effec- Section heads may often feel dissatisfied with their
tive relationship that will help to achieve departmental line manager, perhaps in connection with pay, working
or organisational goals. The better the communica- conditions and the like. Another issue may be one of
tion, the more likely that the relationship will become communication between the section head and the line
better and more efficient. manager. The section head should take time to find
It is important that the departmental head consults out about his/her line manager by discussing, observ-
with his or her line manager on a regular basis to ing and talking to him/her and other managers in the
genuinely seek his or her views, ideas and feelings, organisation.
It also helps if a close relationship is developed help you to decide if you have the qualities she or he
with the manager and a good understanding of all values? What does your manager expect from you?
the issues the organisation is faced with. Provide the Do his or her goals match yours? If not, can you live
manager with ideas, give definitions of problems and with the resulting difficulties?
your views on solutions.
A manager will generally have: Learn to understand your manager’s
●● another, or alternative, view on things
strengths and weaknesses
●● more information on the overall picture ●● Does the manager need time and lengthy
●● advice on difficult issues explanations?
●● guidance on appropriate policies. ●● Is the manager good at one-to-one
communication?
They will be able to offer support and protection ●● Is the manager able to see essentials, and keen
(through consultation with him or her). to resolve issues?
The departmental head must in turn provide: ●● Does the manager contribute to good ideas?
●● clear documentation ●● Is he or she able to see practical solutions?
●● clear definition of issues ●● Is the manager able to handle conflict, or does
●● identified courses of action and views on the she or he seek to avoid it?
various strategies available Once these strengths and weaknesses have been
●● reasoned arguments on how/why he or she has identified you should seek to complement them. You
arrived at the recommendations may need to modify your behaviour to ensure your
●● predictions about likely outcomes and relationship with him/her is legitimate, not a sellout,
contingencies if a recommendation he or she and can be productive – taking care not to go too far
actions is unsuccessful in compromising.
●● information on his or her team’s progress.
Analyse his or her style
Your line manager is expecting you to produce results
and to organise your team. This will strengthen your ●● Does your manager prefer written, detailed
relationship with the line manager. Your manager will reports? If so, you should provide them and check
often, in turn, take a certain amount of credit for what them thoroughly.
you do well. ●● He or she may prefer verbal briefings. If so,
Consider also your own relationship with your sub- provide them but follow up with a memo or email.
ordinates. If the relationship works well, then what are ●● He or she may prefer formal meetings with
the reasons for this? Are these relevant to establish- itemised agendas.
ing a working relationship with your line manager? ●● Assess the circumstances within the environment
you are both working in.
Assess your line manager ●● What are the pressures on you both?
●● What are her or his own dealings with her or his
●● Understand what she or he wants for her/himself.
peers and more senior managers?
●● What are his or her values?
●● What is expected of your manager? Where does
●● Is she or he able to accept criticism?
he or she look for success?
●● Is he or she ambitious?
●● What are the rewards for succeeding? Salary
●● How does she or he measure herself/himself?
increase? Promotion? Bonus? Could this reflect
●● Who are the people that he or she admires?
on your relationship?
●● Does the manager like open, frank discussion?
●● How are you contributing to what she or he is
●● Does the manager take risks? Or is she or he a
trying to achieve?
protector?
●● How do people view the manager in the
●● Is the manager an autocratic leader, expecting
organisation?
you to do as he or she says? Or intuitive,
expecting you to follow broad, informal indications Making decisions
or signs?
Decision making is a very important part of the man-
Try to analyse why situations produce conflict or agement process. No matter how good you are as a
stalemate. Is it because your views differ or because section manager, how well you motivate your staff
you both manage the situations badly? Does this or how good your ideas, you will be judged by your
manager and your staff on the quality of the decisions Avoid using one style to deal with everything. Use
you make. ‘unswerving flexibility’.
Quantity can be no substitute for quality. An excess Managing projects means making hard decisions
of bad or short-term decisions will lead to a serious about money, materials, time and staff.
backlog of niggling problems.
●● All team members must know their roles.
Decisions are your judgement choices between
●● Progress must be reviewed frequently in order
alternative courses of action. To be effective, this
to spot potential problems and to note what time
often means keeping decision making to a minimum,
and resources are available.
but ensuring the decisions that have to be made are
●● Continually feed back to your line manager to avoid
timed correctly, after taking into account all the facts
misunderstandings or conflict if things go wrong.
and information at our disposal.
●● Consult experts when necessary before any
Managing the team and its performance in a regu-
emergency.
lar series of tasks and a number of various projects
●● Refer any decisions to your line manager that fall
involves decisions relating to routine, individuals and
outside your sphere of authority, responsibility or
the team.
flexibility. Referrals should be accompanied by a
●● Different strategies and styles of working/ clear statement of possible choices, together with
interaction that encourage effective working your recommendations.
relationships with senior staff.
●● Range of methods to keep the immediate Steps to effective decision making
manager informed and how to select an
appropriate method according to a range of Classify the problem
issues and contexts. If it is generic, it is probably one of those everyday
●● The types of emerging threats and opportunities problems that has to be solved by adapting the
about which the manager needs to be informed, appropriate generic rule, policy or principle. If it is
and the degree of urgency attached to this. extraordinary, the problem must be dealt with on its
●● How to develop and present proposals in a individual merits.
way that is realistic, clear and likely to influence
the immediate manager’s decision making Define the problem
positively. State precisely the nature of the problem and check
●● Handling disagreements positively. Assess the your definition against all the observable facts.
likely reaction from both the team and individuals. Beware the plausible but incomplete definition that
●● Avoid making decisions on impulse. does not embrace all the known facts.
●● Collect all information, not just the material that
supports your view. Specify the conditions
●● Discuss decisions with more experienced Clarify exactly what the decision must accomplish.
senior staff, but retain responsibility for the final These are the so-called boundary conditions, or
decision. specifications, that must be satisfied by the solution
●● Do not take premature or unnecessary decisions. to the problem.
Routine decision making is often delegated by a Decide on the right action
departmental head to a junior. This encourages and
Decide first of all what it is right to do rather than
develops them in the decision-making process and
what is acceptable in the circumstances. Make the
allows the head to concentrate on more strategic
decision that satisfies all the specifications.
issues.
Certain decisions remain with the departmental Compromise the decision
manager:
In reality there usually has to be some form of
●● those that focus on overall direction compromise, so make the best decision possible by
●● staff resourcing adapting it to the circumstances.
●● organisation structure in the section to achieve
objectives and cope with the workload Implement the decision
●● skills, forecasting Assign the responsibility of carrying out the decision
●● planning to achieve operational objectives. to those staff who are capable of doing so. Inform
306 ORGANISATION AND BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT
everyone who needs to know about the decision and and monitoring. Receive reports on the results of
the effects of the decision. the decision – how does the decision measure up
to expectations? All positive facts should be incor-
Review the effectiveness of the decision porated into the classifying, defining and specifying
The implementation process should involve feedback process of making decisions.
Managing people
This involves developing the trust and support of col- job has to be considered. A good, developed team
leagues and team members. will be able to:
As individuals working within an organisation, we
●● analyse problems effectively and create useful
can achieve very little, but working within a group we
ideas
are able to achieve a great deal more. Good, effective
●● communicate with each other and get things
teamwork is an important feature of human behaviour
done
and organisational performance.
●● show good leadership, which will result in
Each member in a group must:
skilled operations with technical precision and
●● regard themselves as being part of that group ability
●● interact with one another ●● evaluate logically and equate control systems.
●● perceive themselves as part of the group The group will never become a team unless the per-
●● share the purpose of the group. sonalities involved are able to relate to and communi-
This will help build trust and support, and will result cate with one another, and value the contribution that
in an effective performance. Cooperation is therefore each employee or team member makes.
important. The team leader has a strong influence on his or
People in groups will influence one another; within her team or brigade, and is expected to set examples
the group there may be a leader and/or a hierarchical that have to be followed, particularly when under
system. The pressures within the group may have a pressure, dealing with conflict, personality clash,
major influence over the behaviour of individual mem- change and stress.
bers and their performance. The style of leadership People’s behaviour is affected by many factors. For
within the group has an influence on the behaviour of example, individual characteristics, cultural attributes
members within the group. and social skills: the head must lead rather than drive,
Groups help shape the work pattern of organisa- and encourage the team to practise reasonable and
tions, and the attitudes and behaviour of members to supportive behaviour so that any problems are dealt
their jobs. with in an objective way and the team’s personal skills
Two types of team can be identified within an are harnessed to achieve their full potential.
organisation. Every team has to deal with:
●● The formal team is the department or section ●● the egos, and the weaknesses and strengths of
created within a reorganised structure to pursue the individuals
specified goals. ●● the self-appointed experts within the group
●● The informal team deals with a particular ●● relationships/circumstances constantly changing.
situation; members have fewer fixed The head is able to manage the team successfully by
organisational relationships and the team is pulling back from the task in hand. He or she must
disbanded after performing its function. examine the processes that create efficient team-
work, finding out what it is that makes it greater than
Both groups have to be developed and led. Thought
the sum of its parts. To assist this process the follow-
has to be given to relationships, and to the tasks and
ing attributes are necessary:
duties the team has to carry out.
Selecting and shaping teams to work within a ●● have a consistent approach to solving problems
department is a very important task. This is the job ●● take into account people’s characters as well as
of the departmental head. It requires management their technical skills
skills. Matching each individual’s talent to the task or ●● encourage supportive behaviour in the team
●● create an open, healthy climate 2 Safety needs: the security of home and work.
●● make time for the team to appraise its progress. 3 Social needs: the need for a supportive
environment.
Supportive team practices 4 Esteem needs: gaining the respect of others.
Listening skills 5 Self-fulfilment: the need to realise your own
potential.
●● Pay attention, responding positively.
●● Look interested, avoid interrupting. As each goal is achieved, the next is sought. Thus, at
●● Build on proposals, asking for clarity on questions. different stages of career development, each individ-
●● Summarise to check your understanding. ual has different values, depending on their progress
through this ‘hierarchy of needs’.
Cooperating In 1959 Frederick Herzberg (see Herzberg et al.,
●● Encourage others to give their views. 1959) added to Taylor’s and Maslow’s work by intro-
●● Compliment good ideas. ducing the idea of ‘hygiene factors’. If these hygiene
●● Avoid coercion and acrimony. factors are absent they will lead to dissatisfaction and
●● Give careful consideration to different proposals. will prevent effective motivation. The hygiene factors
●● Offer new ideas openly. can be identified as follows.
Challenging 1 The organisational policy and rules.
●● Any assumptions are questioned in a reasonable 2 The management styles and controls.
manner. 3 Retirement and sickness policies.
●● Continually refer back to the problem-solving 4 Pay and recognition of status.
process and aims. ●● Hygiene factors, although considered important,
●● Review the progress of objectives and aims, in do not have lasting effects on motivation, as other
relation to the team and time taken. positive motivating factors must be present.
●● Money obviously plays an important role in
Motivation and the team motivation. There are a number of non-financial
An understanding of what motivates staff is crucial motivators, and these are considered to be
to the creation of productivity and the realisation of highly important, to achieve the organisational
profits. People’s needs and wants are complex and goals.
often difficult to define. ●● Most people want to achieve – those in charge
Money and status are important but they cannot of teams must recognise this and provide
be relied upon exclusively. Behavioural scientists opportunities for others to attain levels of
have provided useful ways of thinking about people’s achievement that celebrate ability.
needs and wants. ●● People also want recognition. Praise and
F. W. Taylor (1911) established a scientific manage- feedback spur people on to achieve even more.
ment approach that involved breaking jobs into simple ●● People generally want to move on to more
but repetitive tasks, providing training, isolating indi- challenging situations. The team should aim to
viduals from distractions and each other, and paying challenge its members.
good wages, which included bonuses for productivity ●● Certain workers (e.g. chefs) want to practise
over target levels. their skill and use their intelligence to maintain
In the short term, productive gains were significant; interest.
in the long run, these gains were less than significant ●● Most workers want to accept responsibility and
as people reacted against the idea of being treated authority.
like a machine.
The scientific approach may have been discredited Motivating a team
because some managers give too much attention to
A leader must motivate his or her team by making
pay and too little to personal needs, and the needs of
their work interesting, challenging and demanding.
groups and teams.
People must also know what is expected of them and
Abraham Maslow (1954) concentrated on human
what the standards are. Rewards are linked to effort
needs, which he defined as a fivefold hierarchy.
and results.
1 Physiological needs: the need for food and Unless these factors go towards fulfilling the
shelter. organisational needs and the expectations of team
members, if pay and prospects within the establish- Awareness of the potential gap between intent and
ment are bad, the system should be improved and effect can help clarify and prevent any misunder-
performance should be recognised. Therefore, the standing within the group.
leader should attempt to intercede on behalf of his By bridging the gap between intent and effect you
or her staff. This, in turn, will help to increase their can begin to change the culture of the working envi-
motivation and their commitment to the team. ronment – the processes become self-reinforcing in
For the leader to manage his or her staff effectively, a positive direction. The staff begin to respect each
it is important to get to know them well, understand other in a positive framework; they listen more care-
their needs and aspirations, and help them achieve fully to each other, with positive expectations, hearing
their personal aims. the constructive intent and responding to it.
As a manager, the art is in achieving results through
Communication the team, with communication being the key to the
Successful communication is vital when striving to exercise. A great deal of time will be taken up with
build working relationships. Training and develop- communicating in one way or another.
ing the team are about communicating. In work, the
quality of our personal relationships depends on the Planning communication
quality of the communication system. Communication can be planned in a systematic way
with clarity about the objectives and methods to
●● The speaker must know what he or she wishes to
be used. Not every communication needs to be
convey.
planned, as many trivial or routine transmissions can
●● He or she must find visible symbols, gestures,
go through automatic channels. The significant com-
words, body movements, to externalise the
munication lines are those that recur frequently and/
internal thoughts.
or take up a great deal of time, or that carry substan-
●● The listener must be receptive to these visible
tial rewards or penalties for success or failure.
symbols, know the language and terminology,
First, the manager must define his or her job objec-
and understand the non-verbal symbols being
tives, then he or she must identify the communication
demonstrated.
strategy to achieve these objectives.
●● The listener must translate all these symbols into
Planning the communication will cover the subject
thought.
and the method content and process.
Communication requires a transmitter and a receiver, The content means:
and therefore it is a shared responsibility. Speaking in
●● collecting the data
a meeting you have several potential listeners; a memo
●● getting your thoughts in order
you send to staff may have multiple copies. Many staff
●● formulating information.
receive messages, commands, notices and so on – but
they don’t give them. Therefore the communication The process means:
system may imply only a transmitting process.
●● alternative ways communication may proceed and
The greatest scope for quantitatively improving
achieve objectives.
your communication skills is to improve your listen-
ing, observing, reading and watching abilities, as a The medium can be:
priority over speaking and writing. The most effective
●● face to face, meeting, phone call, fax, email, memo.
transmissions are those that are able to fit into the
receiving processes of the recipients. A major factor in the quality of any communication
Hearing and understanding the content of the system is the climate in which it takes place. The
instruction or the message are not sufficient for full climate refers to the prevailing attitudes and habitual
communication. There has to be a match between the behaviours of the team within which the communica-
‘intent’ and the ‘effect’ the instruction or message has tion is being attempted. The degree of friendliness
on the individual. Breakdowns in communication can and/or hostility that exists between the transmitters
be identified by looking at the ‘intent’ and the ‘effect’ and receivers will affect the communication outcome.
as two separate realities. Sometimes, the intent is The climate for communication is greatly influenced
not translated into the effect. Such breakdowns by the leader. The leader sets the tone in the way he or
can adversely affect staff and team relationships. she interacts with the team. Do not patronise staff as
Good relationships depend on good communication. this causes resentment, which results in sullen silence
MANAGING RESOURCES 309
Table 10.2 The predominant communication component in each category of meeting
Purpose of meeting Predominant communication component

Information exchange Facts and opinions
Problem solving Ideas and goal wishes
Briefing Facts
Consultation Opinions
Conflict resolution Ideas and goal wishes
Morale building Feelings and goal wishes
or overt hostility. Being dogmatic, with a closed mind, Meetings

results in others being dogmatic in return. Any hospitality manager must ask her/himself what
Accept disagreement as an interesting alternative is the purpose of meetings, what they are trying to
view that is worth exploring, demonstrating how you achieve by holding the meeting. The purpose needs
are able to learn from it. This provides a climate of to be expressed in specific terms. We are able to
open-mindedness. Staff very often respond to the identify the predominant communication component
expectations communicated to them, either directly in each category of meeting (see Table 10.2).
or indirectly.
Work–life balance
It is increasingly being recognised by employers of all thus creating a clear, consistent and honest
sizes and in all industry sectors that it makes good model to be followed.
business sense to create a better work–life balance ●● Choose the right time to make decisions and take
for their workers. Where this has been successfully action.
organised, it has resulted in increased morale and ●● Create an atmosphere of enthusiasm in which
employee loyalty, better productivity and effective- individuals are stimulated to perform well, find
ness at work, and improved adaptability in the face fulfilment, gain self-respect and play an integral
of change. role in meeting the organisation’s overall goals.
Research shows that, when employees are better ●● Be sensitive to individual team members’ needs
able to integrate their needs outside work into their and their expectations.
daily lives with no detriment to their work, there are ●● Define clear responsibilities and structures, so
considerable benefits to the business. collective effort is enhanced not hindered.
●● Recognise what motivates each team member
Leading the team and work with these motivations to achieve
●● Look at tomorrow’s problems and issues today to standards and objectives.
detect signs of changes and pitfalls. ●● Determine boundaries within which team
●● Learn to adapt to change, to embrace it and turn members can work freely.
it to positive advantage. Most good managers do one of the following:
●● Set high standards and clear objectives.
●● Think clearly, allowing intuition to influence ●● make a decision the team accepts
rationality. ●● ‘sell’ a decision before trying to have it accepted
●● Create a sense of value and purpose in work, so ●● present decisions but respond to the team’s
that team members believe in what they do and questions
do it successfully. ●● present a tentative decision, subject to change
●● Provide a positive sense of direction in order to after team input
give meaning to the lives of team members. ●● present problems, ask the team for input, then
●● Act decisively, but ensure decisions made are make a decision
soundly based and not just on impulse. ●● define the limits within which the team can make
●● Set the right tone by your actions and beliefs, a decision
●● ensure that chef and team make a joint decision.
Managing diversity
The world of work, especially the hospitality industry, innovation, and is based on the belief that groups
is becoming more diverse. Increasing numbers of of people who bring different perspectives together
women are entering the labour force, who expect will find better solutions to problems than groups of
to progress to senior management; the ethnic mix people who are the same.
is becoming wider and the population in western
economies is ageing. In the case of multinational Why is diversity management
companies, domestic diversity is compounded by the important?
diversity that is introduced through the movement of The markets served are constantly changing (e.g.
people around the globe. The mobility of labour is women and older people have more spending power,
further encouraged by regional mechanisms such as minority ethnic groups are an important market seg-
arrangements for the free movement of people in the ment, disabled people and their carers want accessi-
European Union. All these changes (and more) are ble holidays) and, in order to meet the needs of these
affecting the nature of customers and their needs. diverse markets, the same groups need to be repre-
sented in the workforce. Taking a proactive approach
What is diversity? to diversity management can achieve the following:
Diversity recognises that people are different. It
includes some of the more obvious and visible dif- ●● access the best people from the widest labour
ferences – such as gender, ethnicity, age and dis- pool available
ability – and also the less visible differences – such ●● develop the creative talents of all employees
as sexual orientation, background, personality and ●● motivate all staff
work style. Diversity management is about recognis- ●● reduce labour turnover
ing, valuing and celebrating these differences. It is ●● improve quality and customer service.
about harnessing difference to improve creativity and
Minimising interpersonal conflict

Interpersonal conflict is a fact of life. It starts with chil- reviews and guides, where a chef is, say, after a
dren in school, who in most cases are able to resolve Michelin star or special accolade.
their disagreements quickly and often make friends ●● Conflicts damage working relationships and upset
again. With adults this ability to resolve conflict tends the team; eventually this will show in the finished
to fade away as we become older. In an organisational product.
context a whole range of things can get in the way,
The chef and manager must also be aware of the
which makes handling conflict even more difficult.
insidious conflict that may be going on around them,
A conflict with the manager or with colleagues can
in less obvious places. Covert conflicts are those
easily get entangled with issues about work and status
that take place in secret, and can be very harmful.
– both of which can make it difficult to approach the
This type of conflict is often difficult to detect. A new
problem in a rational and professional way.
person joining the team may have no idea that the
●● One of the skills of all front-line managers is the conflict is taking place. This type of conflict will also
need to identify conflict, so that plans can be put undermine the team’s performance. Such conflict may
in place to minimise it. happen when a person has been passed over for pro-
●● Conflict arises where there are already strained motion and has never received feedback as to why. In
relations and personality clashes between other words, they have been ignored. The resentment,
members of your team. anger and bitterness can bubble away beneath the
●● Conflict often occurs in a hospitality business surface.
when the brigade is understaffed and under Many conflicts start with misunderstandings or a
pressure, especially over a long period. Pressure small upset that grows and develops out of all propor-
can also come from, for example, restaurant tion. The manager or chef should attempt to:
●● stop it getting worse ●● moving closer to someone, standing up to tower

●● make the individuals confront their own problems over someone else
●● manage the situation to avoid any escalation. ●● not listening, talking so much there is no space to
respond.
Destructive and constructive conflicts
It is important to reflect on and analyse the nature of Why does conflict arise?
conflict and individual attitudes to it. While conflicts The chef/manager needs to be aware within which
can be very damaging and upsetting, there can also areas interpersonal conflict can arise in order to put
be some positive outcomes. Conflict can also be a strategies in place to manage it. He/she should act
learning curve that a chef or manager has to enter positively, rather than simply react to a conflict when
into; this then has to be handled properly and focused it breaks out.
to achieve the desired outcome. If people feel that they do not have a chance to
Conflict is destructive when it: discuss their problems and difficulties with someone
this could also lead to conflict. It could also lead to:
●● produces name calling
●● makes people feel angry and let down with each ●● a breakdown in trust
other ●● misunderstandings about standards
●● causes people to close off and withdraw. ●● failing to communicate with one another
correctly
Conflict is constructive when it:
●● dealing with complex personal problems that
●● acts as the first stage towards negotiating should have been passed to an expert.
●● clears the air
Other reasons for conflict can be:
●● helps staff to talk to each other.
●● racism, sexism, differences in opinion
Some common physical reactions when we are
●● inappropriate personal habits, non-compliance
threatened by conflict are sweaty palms, a rise in
with organisational norms/values
pulse rate, dry mouth, trembling.
●● discriminatory behaviour, working conditions
unrealistic work expectations, personal
Flight ●●
antagonism.
This is an unsatisfactory way of dealing with conflict
at work or, indeed, in other social situations. Much In some cases conflicts that arise from these issues
of the time, you can’t just run away and, if there may result in formal grievances, or even disciplinary
is no escape, it can turn into a demonstration of matters. Formal procedures can often be helpful in
submission, a form of passive behaviour. Don’t be containing conflict to a standard approach. This dep-
so intent on pleasing others that you fail to please ersonalises it and stops the manager or chef taking
yourself. The emotional aftermath of submitting it personally, converting it into a standard work-role
often results in guilt and feeling that you have let approach that spells out who is to do what by when.
yourself down.
Examples of flight reaction and passive behaviour Conflict between the chef and
include: the manager, the supervisor and
●● withdrawing eye contact, looking down, hiding the manager, or the staff and the
behind hair supervisor
●● withdrawing body language, hiding This can be very damaging and leads to feelings of
●● continual agreement. dissatisfaction. Often it may be the result of poor
communication in either direction, about activities,
Fight (aggressive behaviour) progress results and achievements.
Aggressive behaviour is equally unsatisfactory. This The main issues include:
can be demonstrated by: ●● failing to communicate accurately or promptly –
●● a raised voice, clipped or sarcastic tone on problems, opportunities and activities
●● pointing a finger, clenched fist, banging the table ●● going it alone – taking decisions that require the
and waving the arms approval of the manager or another party
●● staring and invasive eye contact – glaring ●● coming up with problems rather than solutions,
and neglecting to put forward proposals for action manager. If a proposal is rejected, wait for a while,
at the appropriate level of detail then put forward an alternative proposal.
●● feeling hurt when ideas are rejected, instead of 6 Deal with disagreements with your line manager
coming up with other proposals in a positive way. Avoid falling out and so
●● allowing some disagreements to grow without damaging the relationship.
limiting the damage 7 Continue to find ways to improve your relationship.
●● failing to do what the job requires and not 8 Check you have completed everything you are
meeting expectations without good reason required to do in your job.
●● balancing the expectations of the kitchen/ 9 Carry out your activities positively, willingly and in
restaurant team, and trying to live up to your a helpful way.
manager’s expectations and demands.
Sometimes there may be a member of staff who
Therefore, there is a need to continue to find ways keeps calm, gets everyone listening and talking sen-
of improving and maintaining relationships with line sibly, and comes up with a reasonable compromise
managers and the team. Relationships have to be that gets everyone out of a hole. This person should
worked on, they need constant nurturing. be the chef or the manager.
Turning the situation round

Here are nine steps that will help to enhance working Some references to management elsewhere
relationships with your immediate manager. in this book:
✎● Computer use ...................................................................... Ch. 17
1 Keep the manager well informed on what you and
the team are doing, by means of regular progress ✎● Conservation ................................................................................ 198
reports that clearly identify achievements. ✎● Cost control ................................................................................... 255
2 Inform him or her of problems and opportunities. ✎● Functions.......................................................................................... 244
Give information at the right stage.
✎● Kitchen organisation ........................................................... 161
3 Ask for advice when you need it. Use your
manager as a resource. ✎● Portion control ............................................................................ 251
4 Make proposals for action clearly and at the right ✎● Supervision..................................................................................... 163
time, giving the right level of detail. ✎● Working methods.................................................................... 162
5 Not all proposals will be accepted by your line
References
DTI (2001) A Good Practice Guide for the Herzberg, G.F., Mausner, B. and Snydeman, B.B.
Hospitality Industry (produced by the Insitute (1959) The Motivation to Work. New York: Wiley.
of Hospitality’s Managing Diversity Working Insitute of Hospitality, May 1999.
Group in conjunction with the DTI’s Work–Life Maslow, A. (1954) Motivation and Personality. New
Balance Team). Free copies available from DTI York: Harper & Row.
Publications, tel: 0870 1502 500, website: Taylor, F.W. (1911) The Principles of Scientific
www.dti.gov.uk/publications. Management. New York: Harper Bros.

1 Ways in which conflict can be resolved in a 5 The importance of developing teams.
kitchen and restaurant. 6 Why good communication in the organisation is
2 The importance of acquiring management skills important.
when working as a head chef or restaurant 7 What are the qualities of a good manager?
manager. 8 What does the employee expect of the manager?
3 Why trust in the management process is 9 What does the manager expect of the employee,
important. and what does the employee expect of the
4 Which is more important: gaining accolades management?
and Michelin stars, good reviews or operating a 10 Discuss what makes a successful organisa-
successful kitchen and restaurant/hotel where tion/company. Name two different companies
managers and staff feel comfortable and the that you consider to be successful, and explain
product is successful? why.
nd busine
na ss
tio
Marketing, sales and
11
sa
de
rt 4 Organi
velo ent customer care

pm
Pa
Marketing 314 Customer Care 321

The Catering Cycle 316 How to Win Commitment
Aspects of Promotion and from Staff 322
Selling 316 Reference 327
Automatic Vending 320 Topics for Discussion 327

›● Activity worksheets: marketing; promotion; customer care
Marketing
Operating a successful business in today’s competi- Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. When a
tive environment means that an establishment has to SWOT analysis is carried out it is useful to take into
gain an advantage over its competitors. A hospitality account the so-called ‘7 Ps’ of marketing:
establishment has to carefully predict customers’
1 product 5 price
wants, needs and desires, and translate these into a
2 process 6 promotion
product that people will want to purchase.
3 place 7 people.
This chapter primarily focuses on promotion and
4 physical environment
selling. Marketing is necessary for the long-term sur-
vival of any business. It is not just about selling, how- Strengths refer to the positive aspects of the estab-
ever: it is the whole complex of business behaviour lishment. For example:
that identifies customer needs and trends in buying
●● good reputation ● attractive environment
behaviour, and carefully monitors and interprets the
●● good location ● comfortable restaurant.
business environment in which the establishment or
organisation is operating. Factors include the amount Weaknesses could refer to:
of disposable income people have, the economic
●● declining market ● lack of investment
environment and exchange rates. There are also
●● lack of staff training ● no parking spaces.
political factors, such as the change in the VAT rate
and legislation such as the impact of the Food Safety Opportunities could include:
Act on an establishment’s hygiene costs.
●● economic environment – people with high
Market research relies on a systematic approach,
disposable incomes
and there are a number of different approaches to
●● geographical – good attractive area, good parking
researching a particular market. The SWOT analysis
facilities
is a well-known example. SWOT stands for Strengths,
Marketing, sales and customer care 315
●● attractive area approach will mean that the price of the product or
●● good transport links service will also have to rise – in some cases beyond
●● demographic – increasing numbers of young the reach of the customer. For this reason many
professional people moving into the area organisations adopt the backward-pricing approach.
●● technological – availability of new equipment,
good control systems available Marginal pricing
●● competition – little competition in the area. This takes into account the actual costs a customer
incurs in using the product or service; these costs
Threats could include:
include materials and energy costs. These are the
●● technological – out-of-date equipment direct costs. The customer is charged just over the
●● competition direct costs, and so a contribution is made to the
●● decline in demand for product overhead costs. Overheads such as capital, insurance
●● geographical – area becoming run-down, poorly and staff costs have to be incurred whether or not the
kept area, difficult parking customer used the product or service. This pricing is
●● legislation – impact of new legislation, which used often at weekends and off season to sell hotel
means more bureaucracy. rooms, in the hope that the customer will purchase
other products at the realistic price.
It is important for any manager to know the market,
and this is done by carrying out detailed market Discounts
research. Some companies will do their own market
Discounting is used to sell hotel rooms and hospital-
research, while others will bring in consultants. This
ity products. It is used to maintain customer loyalty,
research will assist the company in knowing the
increase the business, to attract repeat business,
potential and current customers, the competition
increase demand in off-peak periods and to encour-
and the business pattern, and will bring the company
age the prompt settlement of accounts.
closer to knowing its own product, strengths, weak-
nesses and specific characteristics.
Why some restaurants fail
Pricing Location
Once it is clear from the research what the business ●● The basic attributes of location are missing, such
is, where the profits should be coming from and what as footfall, access, visibility, parking, neighbouring
the competition is, then decisions on pricing can be complementary activity. The neighbourhood
made. There are a number of different pricing policies profile has permanently changed but this has not
that can be adopted. been recognised by the owners/operators. For
example, if office businesses have closed in an
Competitive pricing area; this means that new office populations and
This looks carefully at what the competition is charg- customers have to be generated.
ing and aims to price at the same level, or sometimes ●● Onerous operating conditions enforced by local
at a slightly lower price. It is vital that the prices agencies: delivery times, dining constraints,
charged and the cost structure are compatible. environmental health officer checks, noise and
nuisance controls. Some local authorities are
Backward pricing strict on enforcement, which can affect trade.
This requires an accurate estimate of what people are ●● Locations with permanently high base rents and
likely to spend in the future. The product and services rates with large annual and five-year increases,
are then designed to match what the market will bear particularly if an area is dominated by absentee
– in other words, what the customer is prepared to institutional landlords as this drives up break-even
pay for the product or service within that particular to an unsustainable level.
market segment. ●● Misunderstanding and misreading of traffic flows;
some ostensibly high-volume sites suffer from
Cost plus having mixed markets: office workers, domestic
This is where a set mark-up or a set percentage is and overseas tourists, day trippers. With no
added to basic costs. one market segment strong enough to sustain
This approach is reasonably high risk. For example, business, it becomes difficult for the operator to
if the price of the raw materials rises, then a cost-plus know whom to target.
The catering cycle

Caterers running a business should attempt to operations, and making decisions about the plant
understand and apply the catering cycle principle and equipment required.
(Figure 11.1). 5 The development of appropriate provisioning
Food and beverage (or food service) operations are methods to meet the needs of the production and
concerned with the provision of food and a variety service methods used within given operational
of beverages within business. The various elements settings.
that comprise food and beverage operations can be 6 Operational knowledge of technical methods
summarised in the catering cycle. Food and beverage and processes, and ability in the production
operations are concerned with the following factors. and service processes and methods available
to the food service operator, understanding
1 The markets served by the various sectors of the
the varying resource requirements (including
food service industry, and consumer needs.
staffing) for their operation, as well as decision
2 The range and formulation of policies, and the
making on the appropriateness of the various
business goals and objectives of the various
processes and methods to meet operational
operations, and how these affect the methods
requirements.
adopted.
7 Controlling the costs of materials as well as
3 The interpretation of demand, and decisions to be
the costs associated with the operation of
made on the food and beverages to be provided,
production and service, and controlling the
as well as the other services.
revenue.
4 The planning and design to create a convergence
8 The monitoring of customer satisfaction.
of facilities required for food and beverage
1 Consumer and market
8 Monitoring of consumer satisfaction 2 Formulation of policy
7 Control of costs and revenues 3 Interpretation of demand
6 Production and service 4 Convergence of facilities
5 Provisioning
Figure 11.1 The catering cycle (Cracknell and Kaufmann, 2002)
Aspects of promotion and selling

Once a catering establishment has been planned, the are made aware of the establishment, persuaded to
process has to be generated whereby the buyer and make a visit and encouraged to return. Promotion is
seller come together. Through promotion, customers concerned with the product. This product constitutes
a total package on offer, and includes some of the them feel comfortable, but also promotes sales and
following concepts: increases the effectiveness of the establishment.
●● the image of the establishment
Advertising
●● the prices charged
●● the quality of the product and service This should convey messages that will influence
●● the environment, facilities and services consumer attitudes and behaviour favourable to the
●● the style of management and staff. seller. Advertising should:
Promotion should inform customers of the establish- ●● increase sales immediately

ment, make them aware of its existence, persuade ●● create greater public awareness of the location
them to buy, and convince them of the image and and existence of the establishment
quality of the product. This is done through: ●● persuade the public that the product and services
offer good value for money
●● personal selling l public relations ●● concentrate on the benefits of using the
●● merchandising l sales promotion establishment and consuming the product
●● advertising l agents. ●● focus on the product differences from those of
Promotion is an activity that must be carefully planned competitors.
and controlled. Usually, the main objective of the pro- Advertising can be done via the following media:
motional campaign is to stimulate demand by using
persuasive messages to attract new customers and ●● posters
past users of the establishment. Such messages ●● television
must convince prospective customers that the prod- ●● radio
uct on offer represents good value for money. ●● newspapers
●● magazines
Defining the market ●● direct mail
●● the Internet (including Facebook and Twitter)*
The manager or chef should establish the best poten-
●● email.
tial market. This will determine the type of messages
to project in order to influence customer behaviour. The selection depends on finance and desired target
It will also indicate the best form of media relevant audience.
to the age, sex, social class, income level and loca- * Advertising and promoting on Facebook and Twitter: with the
tion of the target customer. It is important for these expansion and wider use of these and other social networking
messages to emphasise the benefits of the product sites, companies are increasingly using them to promote their
to the customer. products and services.
Promotion timing Direct mail

Promotion timing depends on the objectives and The advantages of direct mail include:
when the decision to purchase is to be made by the ●● the ability to select potential customers who are
customer. likely to buy the product – target groups can be
broken down into geographical location, leisure
Personal selling interest and socio-economic groups, to name but
Personal selling is done through contacts with a few
local organisations and committees, for example, ●● the ability to express a personal message to each
or, more directly, through senior restaurant staff customer
talking to clients. All employees who are in con- ●● the ability to time the promotion
tact with customers must be made aware of the ●● the ability to gauge the level of response from
importance of selling the products to increase various segments of the market and evaluate the
profits and provide a satisfactory experience for cost-effectiveness of the exercise.
the customer.
All staff must therefore gain a good knowledge of Sales promotion
the company’s products and services, and develop Sales promotion is a day-to-day operation relating to
good social skills with an ability to promote and sell. discount offers, price reductions and special offers,
Showing concern for customers not only makes such as a free bottle of wine with every meal for two.
They are designed to appeal to a certain section of their preferences. Before you decide what you are
the market: weekend promoting, gastronomic eve- going to display, first define:
nings, gastronomic weekends, golfing weekends and
●● type of customer (age, background, social class,
food festivals.
income groups, gender)
Food festivals are held to promote the cuisine and
●● the people and organisations that use your
beverages of a particular region or country. A themed
establishment
promotion may help the business and promote sales
●● the frequency of their custom
in the following ways:
●● their use of other catering services
●● increase sales during off-peak periods by ●● how they use their time
attracting new customers ●● how they use their disposable income.
●● gain publicity in local press and on local radio
●● stimulate and keep the interest of regular customers. The product
Competing with other establishments and creating a Consider the product profile; this will define the con-
new type of trade, such as conferences, are two other text of your merchandising policy. You must consider
examples of sales promotion activities. all aspects of the product and products, particularly
those that relate to:
Merchandising ●● the appearance of food and beverage – for
To be a successful caterer, it is important to have example, preparing dishes in front of the
a knowledge of merchandising. The object of mer- customer, such as salads, grilling meat and fish
chandising is to sell more and to reassure custom- or flambé dishes; this may be suitable in some
ers about the quality of what is being offered – for situations but not others
example, the quality of the cooking, fresh produce ●● how customers see the service you offer
being used and persuading customers to return to ●● how the product can be further developed with
the establishment. appearance in mind
Merchandising is the art of displaying products ●● how the product may be promoted using posters,
attractively in order to promote sales. This is done tent cards, illustrated menu cards, sending emails,
to great effect in supermarkets. For example, on the using social networking sites (Facebook, Twitter,
fresh fish counter they display a very small selection etc.).
of rare or expensive fish and shellfish. This has the
Many of the major supermarkets can give caterers
effect of making the fish counter interesting, draw-
good ideas on how to develop merchandising.
ing customers’ attention and encouraging them to
buy – not necessarily the specialist items, but more
What and how to display
generally the everyday species. An example of mer-
chandising in a fast-food restaurant is the illustrated When the marketing context has been established,
fascia above the counter, showing what is available the next stage is to consider how to show services
with the help of coloured photographs. Such a display and products to their best advantage and to develop
may also be used in a luxury restaurant where a dis- aspects of them that will provide additional attrac-
play of exotic fruits and vegetables helps to promote tions. The caterer may like to focus on:
sales. ●● the quality and freshness of ingredients
In a staff restaurant, tent cards and displays are ●● the use of specialist lighting
used at various points on the counter to promote ●● the use of fresh flowers and fruits for display
certain dishes. These areas are commonly known as ●● using a selection of finished dishes for display;
hotspots, and are where the customer is encouraged this is done to great effect when displaying a
to buy either an additional item or an item that yields choice of plated sweets on a tray
a higher profit margin. ●● assessing how displayed food on a self-service
Menus and wine lists are important merchandising buffet will look after customers have taken
tools and should be at the forefront of the merchan- portions from the various dishes
dising strategy. ●● how dishes deteriorate in presentation and flavour
when they have been standing for too long
The customer ●● assessing how the smell of cooking is an
First, profile the groups of customers and consider advantage or disadvantage; supermarkets often
pump out the smell of freshly baked bread and The decision to eat out may be split into two parts.
this encourages people to buy bread products
1 the decision to do so for the reasons given above
●● how the menu is displayed and the language that
2 the decision as to what type of experience is to
is used to describe dishes (do the layout and
be undertaken.
language encourage sales?)
●● the provision of essential information about A number of factors influence the latter decision. The
ingredients, sources of wine, vintages and prices factors that affect the meal experience are as follows.
in menus and wine lists.
●● Food and drink: the range of foods, choice
Where to display availability, flexibility of the restaurant to cope with
special orders, quality of the food and drink.
In any restaurant thought must be given to the space ●● Level of service: depending on the needs people
required for merchandising and the strategic points have at the time – the level of service must be
where a display will give maximum effect. Consider: suitable to the needs. For example, a romantic
●● customer flow night out may call for a quiet table in a luxury
●● position of check-in and cash desks restaurant, whereas a group of friends may well
●● entrances and exits be seeking a more informal service. This factor
●● use of lounges and bar areas also takes into account services such as booking
●● use of displays outside restaurants (for example, and account facilities, acceptance of credit cards,
in the street or windows) and also the reliability of the operation’s product.
●● hotel bedrooms for a hotel restaurant ●● Level of cleanliness and hygiene: this relates
●● the facilities of agents or business associates. to the premises, equipment and staff. These days,
people are concerned about food safety and are
When to display prepared to pay for it.
Timing is important both as an opportunity and as ●● Perceived value for money and price: people
a means of getting the best from a merchandising have perceptions of the amount they are
project. Opportunities on many occasions present prepared to spend in different establishments,
themselves at short notice and projects need not be and in different operations.
long-lasting.
Special evening events may be held where key Merchandising administration
clients or customers are invited to sample food. Major Ideas have to be developed and implemented. All rel-
department stores invite storecard holders to spe- evant material relating to food and drink must reflect
cial evenings, pre-sales events or special Christmas the style and service of the product on offer.
shopping events. These account customers feel spe-
cial and are encouraged to buy. If special events are ●● Descriptive terms used in menus and displays
to be held, the caterer must consider: must be appropriate to the aims of the catering
establishment. Accuracy and spelling are very
●● the season important. Remember the menu and wine list
●● the weather are selling tools and should help the customer
●● the event – whether it is to be local or national. understand what you have to offer.
●● All themes should be carefully researched;
The meal experience ambition must not exceed capability.
People who eat out do so because they want to ●● Point-of-sale notices should be in keeping with
satisfy a need. Reasons for eating out may be sum- the overall style of the restaurant. Wording
marised as follows. must be positive and friendly. Notices should be
●● For convenience – at work or near home. presented with style and confidence.
●● For variety – to make life more interesting. ●● Avoid handwritten notices; these give a very
●● To avoid preparing food at home. amateurish impression of your establishment.
●● Status – hosting business lunches, to feel important. ●● Items displayed in generous quantities can
●● To attend social events. assist sales. For example, when supermarkets
●● Impulse – spur-of-the-moment decision. are running special offers, they sometimes stack
●● Captive market – where there is no choice (for the product so it gives the impression that it is
example, hospital patients, prisoners). plentiful; this has the effect of encouraging the
customer to buy not one but at least two of the order, otherwise it will have the adverse effect
items on special offer. of discouraging sales. For example, the sweet
●● Consider combined presentations: port with tray should be replenished. Menus and wine
Stilton, dessert wine with the sweet course. lists should be replaced before they become
●● All display material must be maintained in good shabby.
Automatic vending
The automatic vending market has developed in Why vending?
the last 20 years. The quality of the products has ●● Convenience: vended goods are available 24
improved enormously. There are approximately 1.2 hours a day and machines can be sited just
million machines in operation in the UK. where they are wanted.
●● Time/money saving: vending machines are
Applications not only convenient, they are time saving too.
Vending/automatic retailing has applications wher- As noted above, research conducted by NOP
ever people gather to work, rest, play or study, and showed that an average-size business with 50
where there is a common need for refreshment or the staff could be spending more than £85,000 of
provision of a facility for casual purchase: its annual wages bill on time spent by employees
●● factory making their own tea and coffee.
●● office ●● Hygiene: with vending you get a clean cup every
●● school, college, university time and avoid the chore of washing up china
●● hospital – staff dining room, visitors’ waiting room, cups or, worse still, having dirty crockery hanging
patients’ rest room around all day.
●● recreation centre, swimming pool, sports ground ●● Recycling: the SaveaCup scheme provides a
●● ferry terminal, bus/railway station, airport ready way to recycle used vending cups into
●● exhibition centre, amusement park, tourist site, zoo durable items for the office.
●● hotel, holiday camp, camping site, caravan park ●● Variety: vending machines offer a whole range
●● motorway service station, garage forecourt of different products and beverages. Drinks
●● shopping centre. vending machines can offer not just black and
white coffee and tea, but can also make the
Cashless systems: the money card or drink weak or strong according to taste. Fresh
brew, cappuccino and chocolate drinks are also
key reader and revaluator available. Then there are confectionery, savoury
This is a completely cashless system of vending. snacks, ice cream, sandwiches, snack foods and
Basically this is a plastic-type credit card or key with a meals.
magnetic strip that carries an identification code and
money balance. When the card is used in the machine Types of equipment
the value of the vend is automatically subtracted from
The main types of refreshment machine are:
the money balance on the card. When the spend-
ing power runs out, the card may be topped up to a ●● beverage – traditional or in-cup
desired value by the customer inserting the card in a ●● can or carton
revaluator unit. ●● glass-fronted merchandisers for confectionery
and snacks
Vending operation ●● refrigerated food
The vending operating company will source and ●● confectionery and ambient foods
site the machine for you, and be able to provide ●● ice cream.
a service/maintenance contract for cleaning, fill- Beverage machines are available to suit all sizes
ing and cash collecting, as well as any necessary of operation, from table-top machines suitable for
maintenance. a small office environment to fully automatic high-
volume machines.
Manual dispenser-type machines are either
MARKETING, SALES AND CUSTOMER CARE 321
plumbed into mains water or have a built-in water ●● How many people will be using the machine and
tank for filling by hand. There are two types: in-cup, during what hours?
where the ingredients are pre-packed in the cup, ●● What products will they want?
and dispenser, where customers place an empty cup ●● How much will they be prepared to pay for the
under the ingredient-dispensing point. drinks?
Most dispensers are mounted on cabinets and can ●● Will there be long periods when the machine is
have payment systems fitted if required. Single prod- not in use (for example, school holidays)?
uct dispensers are dedicated to one drink, such as ●● What other sources of supply are available
leaf tea, ground coffee, hot chocolate or cappuccino. locally? What do they charge and what do they
They are sited primarily at counter service areas. offer?
●● Where will the machine be located?
To find out more, visit the website of ●● Is it readily accessible to all those who want to
the Automatic Vending Association: use it?
www.ava-vending.org. ●● Is there a convenient supply of potable water and
electricity nearby?
●● Do you want users to pay by cash, token or card,
Vending equipment
or are you providing free drinks?
The type of machine and its exact location will ●● What is your budget for the machine?
depend on the likely demand. Before decid-
ing on equipment consider the following
questions.
Customer care
Many staff may have the opportunity of direct con- manners, with the food served in an environment
tact with consumers or customers in most types of that has an atmosphere that makes the customer
establishment. For some it will be a regular aspect of feel at ease, wanted and welcome.
their job, for others it may be for irregular events or Customer care is, therefore, caring for customers.
special occasions. Waiters/waitresses and food ser- Remember:
vice personnel called upon to serve customers need
●● put the customer first
to be aware of how to provide customer satisfaction.
●● make them feel good
Catering staff serving at food service counters
●● make them feel comfortable
directly to customers may be employed in canteens,
●● make them feel important
refectories, dining halls, and so on, in schools, hos-
●● make them want to return to your restaurant or
pitals, industrial establishments, offices and other
establishment.
premises. Other food outlets include fast-food estab-
lishments such as crêperies, baked potato houses, It is important that you adjust your behaviour to suit
McDonald’s, fish and chip shops and takeaways, certain customers and to treat all customers equally
buffets at all kinds of functions (including outdoor as if they were special. Give them your time and full
catering, wedding receptions and carveries). The attention. Use body language to put customers at
following information is intended to assist catering ease.
employees at all levels not only to provide customer Concentrate on:
satisfaction but to obtain job satisfaction when
●● your appearance
caring for customers. The first thing to remember
●● using the phone correctly
is that a smile gets both the customer and you off
●● a clean and tidy environment
to a good start; however, it is important to realise
●● writing to customers
that excellent food served from the kitchen is only
●● answering the phone within three rings
the first essential to satisfy the customer: the finest
●● finding out what makes customers happy
food produced for a meal can be completely spoiled
●● achieving positive results
if served by uncaring staff. Technical skills and tech-
●● ensuring that what you give is what the customer
nique are very important, but equally (or perhaps
wants.
more) important are sincere caring attitudes and
The customer needs to be kept informed. You yourself business. If staff make the customers happy they will
should take responsibility and not pass the buck, and respond in kind:
achieve results if people complain. You must show
Happy staff ↔ Happy customers
the customer empathy and be able to discuss things
↓
from their point of view. They expect good customer
Good profits
care. This is an important concept: getting customers
and keeping them creates revenue (income). All other Staff can benefit from good customer care training.
activities create costs. Dealing with people is a highly complex skill; we train
Emotional factors surround the products that people to use complicated machinery but we do not
people buy; these include after-sales service, speed often consider training staff to deal with the most
of delivery and ambience, especially in a restau- complex machinery of all: the human being.
rant. Customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction comes The caterer must first:
more and more from the way people are treated.
●● set standards for customer care
Customers buy a total package. Customer care gives
●● measure performance
the caterer the opportunity to be ‘special’, to stand
●● set up training schemes
above the competition, winning customers and keep-
●● reward accordingly.
ing them loyal. When a customer comes into contact
with you, the caterer, your image is being exposed to Staff must know:
the customer. The staff of the company are perceived
●● what the company stands for, what its mission is
as representing not themselves but the company that
●● what behaviour the company values highly
they are working for.
●● that cutting costs is not more important than
Customer perceptions are often emotional, idi-
customer care
osyncratic and sometimes irrational, often based on
●● that all guarantees must be honoured
narrow observations. When a restaurant manager
●● that the restaurant or establishment is in business
remembers a customer’s name, that customer will
to keep the customer happy
be delighted, but if staff treat customers badly, they
●● that happy customers can lead to repeat business
will be unhappy. Often customers will then react in
and recommendations to friends and colleagues.
a way that makes staff unhappy, thus affecting the
How to win commitment from staff

Staff will be happier and feel more committed by: ●● Know what the special dishes of the day are.
●● Know what the chef’s specialities are.
●● good leadership
●● avoiding unnecessary stress (remove the causes, Examples of good customer care phrases you may
if they are under your control) hear in a restaurant or service area include:
●● knowing the fundamental importance of the
●● ‘I’ll take care of that for you right away.’
customer; seek ideas from your staff on how to
●● ‘I’ll go and get it for you myself.’
improve customer care
●● ‘Is there anything else I can help you with?’
●● receiving good customer care training
●● ‘I’ll be glad to help you.’
●● building pride in their work performance
●● ‘I don’t know, but I’ll find out now. Please take a
●● having their training reinforced periodically.
seat for a moment.’
●● ‘I’m sorry to hear about that. Let’s find out what
Training aspects in customer care
went wrong and I’ll put it right.’
When you are training staff the following points can ●● ‘I’m sorry for the delay. I’ll check with the kitchen
be used as a guide. to see how long your order will be.’
●● Identify what the staff should know in caring for Good communication within the organisation assists
the customer. in the development of customer care. It is important
●● Know what the customer may ask them. that the staff are constantly kept informed of what
●● Know what’s on the menu and the composition of is going on otherwise they will feel that they are not
the dishes. part of the organisation. They must have a sense
of ‘ownership’ or responsibility, since well-motivated Staff must have a sense of identity with the company
staff are good for the organisation and will assist in or organisation. McDonald’s, for example, has a 700-
the progressive development of the business, helping page Operations and Training Manual, which explains
to avoid the ‘it’s not my job’ attitude. every stage of the cooking process and the correct
If staff are expected to work hygienically and treat behaviour to be used when dealing with customers.
the customer well, you must likewise treat the staff Disney requires all new staff to go through an induc-
with respect and care for their well-being. Good tion programme called ‘Traditions’, which explains
staff welfare aids the process of customer care. about Walt Disney, the characters, what it is like to
Staff must have good, clean changing rooms, wash- work at Disneyland, and their role. It stresses that all
ing and/or showering facilities, quality facilities for visitors are not ‘customers’ but ‘guests’, so they must
refreshments, and medical provision. be treated that way. Although on most days there will
Staff, too, must treat each other with respect, be more than half a million ‘guests’, they must be dealt
cooperating and supporting each other. Good with as individuals, not as a crowd. These individuals
team spirit will ultimately rub off on the customer. look to the staff to help them enjoy their day; staff
Remember that behaviour begets behaviour, so if one therefore have a crucial role to play. Disney explains
member of staff treats another badly, they in turn may to all its staff that they:
treat the customer badly.
●● are part of showbusiness
Customer care is a team game. It is about all the
●● are performers in a live show
staff working towards the same aim: getting the cus-
●● must make sure that nothing spoils the perfect
tomers on their side.
picture the guests see
●● must make a clear distinction between ‘on stage’
Define standards of performance
and ‘off stage’ – off stage they are able to relax,
The starting point is a clear analysis of what should on stage they must play the perfect role; they
happen at each of the points of contact that a cus- must never be seen ‘with their mask off’.
tomer might have with the restaurant. It can become
a checklist, as in the following example. It may be said that caterers, too, are part of show-
business, that waiters are performers in a live show.
●● A customer enters the restaurant or service area: TGI Friday’s restaurants have further developed this
(a) the entrance should be clean and tidy concept, and waiters and food service staff are inter-
(b) the doors could be marked ‘welcome’. viewed on the basis of their personality. They become
●● The customer is then greeted by the head waiter, actors as part of a large show. Traditionally waiters
restaurant manager or receptionist: that perform flambé dishes ‘live’ in front of a customer
(a) the reception area is clean and tidy, perhaps show off their flair and skill. Such staff develop a
decorated with fresh flowers sense of importance and pride in their job.
(b) menu sample and drinks list on display
(c) all staff smartly dressed and well groomed
(d) staff smile when greeting customers
(e) if possible head waiter, restaurant manager or
receptionist use customer’s name
(f) customer is escorted to the table, assisted
into the seating position
(g) if there is any delay, staff apologise and
explanation is given to the customer
(h) waiter introduces him/herself to the customer.
●● At the end of the meal, head waiter or restaurant
manager escorts customer to the door, smiles and
exchanges pleasantries: ‘Good day’/’Good night’.
When defining standards of performance, use num-
Figure 11.2 Greeting guests in the restaurant
bers: for example, answer the phone within three
rings; if there is a delay, update the caller every 20
seconds with ‘Sorry, the line is still engaged, do you
still wish to hold?’
Measure and monitor performance Body language

The defined standards of performance must be moni- Body language includes:
tored and measured. You need to measure success
●● how you dress l facial expressions
in terms of your promises to customers. Measuring
●● posture l movements
the right thing helps staff understand what is impor-
●● your distance from others l eye contact
tant to customers and how to act accordingly.
●● stance l gestures
Staff who look after customers and provide the
●● how you sit l eye movements.
service and care they expect, deserve reward. Good
positive feedback to staff is important. You may: Body language includes unconscious signals that tell
us what people really think/feel. If someone is telling
●● just say ‘Well done’, which goes a long way
a lie, for instance, their body language will usually
●● make a payment of a bonus
give them away. By focusing on other people’s body
●● give an increment on their annual pay increase
language you can discover their true feeling towards
●● give a promotion.
you and what they think of what you are saying. It has
a clear value in business situations and is therefore
Continuing customer care
very important in customer care.
Keep in touch with customers through mailshots, Learn to:
advertising, and so on (see page 317).
●● look for what is important
Customer care skills ●● recognise other people so you are able to ‘read’
them better
Attitude and behaviour ●● recognise how to use body language
If a customer is rude or aggressive to a waiter (e.g. ●● control it and use it to your advantage, so that
blames a waiter for the chef’s mistake), the waiter you give the right positive message to people.
should not be rude or aggressive in return. If the
Remember that body language is universal but does
waiter can remain calm and use his/her skills of
mean different things in different cultures.
patience, the customer will often apologise for their
anger. Behaviour is a choice; you should select the Signs and meanings
behaviour that is appropriate to the customer.
A gesture doesn’t always reveal exactly how a person
When dealing with customers, behaviour should be:
is thinking. For example, arms folded may mean that:
●● professional
●● the person is being defensive about something
●● understanding – customers in a restaurant want a
●● the person is cold
service and are paying for it; learn to understand
●● the person is comfortable.
their needs
●● patient – learn to be patient with all customers Some gestures are open, expansive and positive. For
●● enthusiastic – it can be contagious example, leaning forward with open palms facing
●● confident – it can increase a potential customer’s upwards shows interest, acceptance and a welcom-
trust in you ing attitude, while leaning backwards, arms folded,
●● welcoming – it can satisfy a customer’s basic head down says closed, defensive and negative,
human desire to feel liked and be approved of uninterested, rejection.
●● helpful – customers warm to helpful staff Using plenty of gestures usually indicates warmth,
●● polite – good manners are always welcomed enthusiasm and emotion, while using gestures
●● caring – make each customer feel special sparsely may indicate that a person is cold, reserved
●● empathy – understanding what it is like to be a and logical.
customer.
Distance
Appearance Each person has around them an area that they
Remember, you never get a second chance to make a regard as their personal space. Beware of intruding
first impression. What you wear and how you look are into a customer’s personal space. Although some
part of how potential customers judge your organisa- customers may regard it as friendliness, you may
tion. You are part of the company’s image. make others feel uncomfortable.
Placing people at a table for a meeting or for lunch
or dinner is an art. The way people sit round a table it can cause serious adverse effects. How good a
sends messages. customer feels about your restaurant or catering
establishment is directly connected to the amount
●● Formal meeting: people sit opposite each other.
and types of ‘strokes’ (attention) they have received.
●● Teamwork: sitting people side by side is stressful.
Stroking can be both positive or negative, it can be
Eyes physical, verbal and non-verbal. Some examples of
positive stroking include:
Eye contact should be used as a way of acknowledg-
ing customers, making them feel welcome and as ●● greetings
the foundation of building a good relationship. Eye ●● compliments
contact should be used to show the customer you ●● laughing.
are listening.
Some examples of negative stroking include:
Ears ●● unpleasant greeting l sarcastic remarks
Really listening is the highest form of courtesy. ●● adverse criticism l snatching
●● pushing l absence of praise
●● Look at the customer.
●● swearing l unpleasant hand gestures.
●● Ignore any negative thoughts you have about
them. Pacing
●● Lean towards them.
Pacing is speaking in a way that is compatible with
●● Think at the pace they are talking.
your customers. Match their speed, tone and volume.
●● Listen to every word.
Do not talk above their heads.
●● Try not to interrupt.
●● Use facial expressions and body language to Assertiveness
show you understand.
Remember that customers are human beings; you
●● Stick to the subject.
may have to handle them when they shout at you,
●● Use their name wherever possible.
interrupt you, are rude to you, criticise you or blame
Greeting people you for something you have not done. The answer is
for you to be assertive, standing up for your rights.
If you are already dealing with another customer in
Being assertive means:
the restaurant, acknowledge the new customer and
reassure them that you will help them as soon as pos- ●● stating your views while showing that you
sible. Try to greet people with a smile that is genuine. understand their views
You may even get one in return – after all, smiles are ●● enhancing yourself without diminishing them
free! Remember that good manners are important. ●● speaking calmly, sincerely and steadily.
Use people’s names: it holds their attention, and
demonstrates recognition and respect. Their name Advantages of assertive behaviour
is probably the most important word in the world to There are some advantages to be gained.
them. Always use their surname until they give per-
●● It gives you greater self-confidence.
mission for you to use their first name.
●● You will be treating others as equals, recognising
Asking the customer questions will demonstrate:
the abilities and limitations of others, rather than
●● you have properly understood what they want regarding them as superiors.
●● you have time for them to talk ●● It gives greater self-responsibility.
●● interest on your part ●● It gives greater self-control; your mind is
●● that you feel the customer is important concentrated on achieving the behaviour you want.
●● you are able to find out how they feel ●● It can produce a win-win situation; opinions on
●● you can keep control of the conversation both sides are given a fair hearing, so each side
●● you can understand their needs, their complaints feels it has ‘won’.
●● you know how to make them feel better.
Telephone
‘Stroking’ A badly handled telephone call can destroy the effect
This is defined as giving any kind of attention. of good advertising. Remember: when using the tel-
Humans need ‘stroking’. A prolonged absence of ephone, give all your attention to the customer; get
their name, write it down and use it. Take note of Don’t:
all the other details the customer is wanting. Listen
●● say ‘It’s not my fault’
and use your voice correctly. Summarise what you
●● say ‘You’re the fifth today to complain about
have agreed with the customer at the end of the
that’
conversation.
●● interrupt – it will only add to their wrath
●● jump to conclusions
How to handle customer complaints
●● accept responsibility until you are sure it’s your
Here are some statistics on complaints and customer firm’s fault
satisfaction: ●● be patronising
●● 96 per cent of dissatisfied customers do not go ●● argue
back and complain, but they do tell between 7 ●● lose your temper
and 11 other people how bad your restaurant or ●● blame others.
service is Do:
●● 13 per cent will tell at least 20 other people
●● 90 per cent will never return to your restaurant ●● show empathy and use appropriate body
●● it costs roughly five times as much to attract language (e.g. show concern on your face, nod)
a new customer as it does to keep an existing ●● use their name, when possible
one. ●● shut up and listen, and use body language to
show that you are listening (e.g. use eye contact)
Therefore, encourage customers to complain on ●● take notes
the spot. If they are unhappy about anything that ●● let them make their case, they will lose their head
is served to them, they should be encouraged to of steam
inform the member of staff who served them. This ●● ask questions to clarify the details
will give the establishment the opportunity to rectify ●● recapitulate; confirm with them that you’ve got it
the fault immediately. Ask them about their eating right.
experience; this information will be vital for future ●● sympathise (regardless of where the blame lies)
planning. Treat any customer who complains well; ●● gather together your version of the facts before
offer them a free drink or a free meal. Make the replying
complainant your ambassador. Show them empathy, ●● phone back if necessary – on time!
use the appropriate body language, show concern, ●● apologise profusely if your company is at fault
sympathise. Always apologise. If you handle the com- ●● tell them what you propose to do
plaint well you will make the customer feel important. ●● give them alternatives to choose from, if your
Remember: company is at fault
Running
out of
steam
Ask
questions
Take
notes
Recapitulate
ANGER
Shut up Make
listen proposals
Make sure
it is done
properly
TIME
Figure 11.3 Let them make their case
MARKETING, SALES AND CUSTOMER CARE 327
●● offer more than the bare minimum (e.g. make If you handle a customer complaint well, you will
some concession on ‘future business’) make the customer feel important. They will want to
●● get their full agreement that this will resolve the praise your company to their friends. Then they may
issue well be prepared to deal with you again. So ask open
●● make sure that it is done properly and that they questions to discover their future wants. For example:
are kept fully informed
●● ‘How often do you come to this establishment?’
●● contact them very soon afterwards to make sure
and ‘How often do you order this from the menu’?
that they are happy
●● ‘How do you think your requirements will change
●● see it as an opportunity to cement the
in the future?’
relationship and encourage more business.
●● ‘What will you be looking for then?’ and ‘What
Customer care other services or meal items will you be looking
↓ for in the future?’
Happy customers
↓ Some references to marketing elsewhere in
Profit this book:
↓ ✎● The Internet ............................................................................ Ch. 17
Jobs
✎● Menu planning ........................................................................... 227
Reference
Cracknell, H.L. and Kaufmann, R.J. (2002) Practical
Professional Catering Management. Thomson
Learning Vocational.

1 Your ideas for promoting a 100-seat industrial it could be used for a restaurant or any food
catering restaurant in an office block. service facility.
2 Examples of advertising and promotion. 8 Making contact with local media to promote
3 What you understand by good public your business.
relations. 9 State the advantages of ‘theatre’ cookery
4 The advantages of cafeteria service. (open-style kitchens, which enable the cus-
5 The popularity of takeaways and what you think tomer to see the food being cooked), with
the changes will be in takeaway services in the particular reference to customer service.
future. 10 List six of the most important points you need
6 When is the use of vending machines worth- to get across to staff when designing a training
while? Discuss where and how. poster for customer care.
7 Can advertising increase sales? Explain how
nd busine
na ss
tio
Accommodation
12
sa
de
rt 4 Organi
velo ent management

pm
Pa
Classifications of Performance Indicators 353

Accommodation 329Design 355
Demand for Accommodation 333Housekeeping 356
Quality Management 334Maintenance and Facilities 364
Characteristics 335Security 364
Staffing and Structures 338Conclusion 365
Operations (Front Office, References 366
Housekeeping and Facilities) 343 Topics for Discussion 366
Technology in the Front Office 350
Revenue Management 352

›● Activity worksheets (?)
To accompany high-quality food and beverage, a high

standard of accommodation management is vital to
any hospitality operation. Although not all hospitality
operations will provide room accommodation, a warm
welcome and clean, safe and well-maintained prem-
ises are imperative in attracting and retaining guests.
Accommodation can be categorised into either
private or public, or commercial or non-commercial
operations.
●● Private:
– hotels
– motels
– serviced apartments Figure 12.1
– public houses
– guest houses ●● Public:
– private clubs – welfare (hospitals and residential
– youth hostels establishments)
– caravan parks – university halls of residence
– transport – military accommodation
– time-share apartments. – prisons.
ACCOMMODATION MANAGEMENT 329
Classifications of accommodation
For details of the classifications used in private Tables 12.4 to 12.7 describe other types of
accommodation, see Table 12.1. accommodation.
Table 12.1 Private accommodation
Type Description
Five-star Can be part of a large hotel chain, consortia or independent. Deluxe facilities may include
hotels several food and beverage outlets, conference and banqueting, leisure facilities and retail outlets.
Accommodation categories in most cases include suite, executive and standard rooms, to meet
the needs of different customer segments. Rooms are spacious, comfortable, well equipped and
designed to a high standard. Front-office operations are extensive, providing a wide range of
personal services from check-in to check-out. Typical guests would include head office corporate
executives, business executives, government officials and celebrities.
Four-star Can be part of a large hotel chain, consortia or independent. A high standard of facilities may
hotels include restaurant, bar, coffee shop, conference and banqueting, leisure and retail outlets. The
majority of accommodation would consist of standard rooms followed by executives and a few
suites. Rooms are comfortable and well equipped.
Boutique Anhar (2001) defines a boutique hotel as follows: ‘Style, distinction, warmth, and intimacy are
hotels key words in the architecture and design of boutique hotels. Boutique hotels are not boxed into
standards; the definition and expression of a theme is a crucial path to success. Many boutique
hotels introduce different themes in each guestroom, making every single stay unique, even for
their repeat guests.’
A relatively new concept, the key characteristics of boutique hotels include:
• in most cases independent but can also be part of a small chain
• four- or five-star
• located in buildings that have been refurbished (i.e. car parks, office blocks or old buildings)
• small in nature, ranging from 20–150 rooms
• many rooms feature different internal decor and design
• public areas are stylish and trendy
• restaurant and bar are of high quality
• highly personalised service.
Serviced A relatively new concept that emerged as an alternative for long-stay executives. Most large hotels,
apartments particularly in Asia and the Middle East, allocate a small percentage of their accommodation to
serviced apartments. In some cases in the USA, whole properties consist of exclusively serviced
apartments. The main difference between a serviced apartment and a normal hotel room is that
its facilities will in most cases include a dining area, fully equipped kitchen, washing facilities and
TV relaxation area. Operators achieve satisfaction from guests due to having a larger space that is
more flexible and the opportunity to self-cater.
Budget The British Hospitality Association (BHA) defines a budget hotel as a strongly branded offer with
hotels generally compact rooms, a small food and beverage operation, and limited facilities and services.
The UK has seen a rise in the growth of budget hotels in the past ten years. The characteristics of
a budget hotel are:
• often chained
• in city-centre or motorway locations
• two-or three-star standard
• rates are competitive
• food and beverage services are limited (breakfast buffet and maybe a bar)
• internal decor has a common theme throughout
• services are limited with ‘no frills’
• services are highly standardised, little flexibility
• rooms are compact and feature the basics (some feature no baths, only showers)
• front office features only a reception (no concierge, guest relations) – some self-check in terminals
• in many cases support services such as housekeeping and maintenance are for the most part
outsourced.
Type Description
Private Some private members’ clubs will provide some accommodation within the club. These rooms would
clubs consist of basic facilities and may be used by members from affiliate clubs who are travelling to the
location.
Guest Typically operated by the owner, who deals with most of the front-office procedures during arrival
house or and departure. These small businesses provide limited but comfortable room accommodation.
bed and Rooms would be cleaned by a small team of in-house cleaning personnel. Facilities are limited, with
breakfast the exception of a small area provided for breakfast and in some cases a small bar area is also
(B&B) available.
Motels Motels are in most cases situated close to motorways and are normally in the budget category.
Their main purpose is to provide a place for motorists to rest.
Public Pubs’ core focus is to provide food and beverage in a relaxed environment. In some cases pub
house or landlords also provide basic accommodation at a reasonable price on the same premises. Some
inn large pubs will also have a function room where weddings or social get-togethers can be provided.
Guests travelling to or through an area may also find pubs a good low-budget alternative. The
preparing and cleaning of the rooms would be carried out by in-house cleaning personnel. Pub
operators can look at the sales of accommodation for additional revenue opportunities in a
challenging and competitive marketplace.
Youth Budget accommodation centrally located in most cities. Prices are low and rooms can be provided
hostel in different configurations, i.e. single, double or shared dormitories. Rooms are very basic and
fittings may include a wardrobe and TV. In most cases bathroom facilities are separate.
Time-share Tourists pay for access to an apartment or villa for a specific period over a number of years.
Table 12.2 Hotel sub-segments
Hotel Description
Resort hotels The main purpose of resorts is for rest, relaxation and recreation. Resorts can be subdivided
into two main types: country resort and holiday centre.
• Country resort hotels are in most cases situated in rural locations with natural surroundings.
Resorts in hot climates can provide extensive facilities that may include swimming pools,
tennis courts, spas, miniature golf, and gardens. Resorts normally occupy more land, which
requires lots of maintenance. Rooms are spacious and comfortable.
• Holiday centres offer for the most part self-contained villas, chalets or apartments. Facilities
are extensive and include restaurants, leisure and entertainment.
A growing trend is in the area of eco resorts, where the central theme is to provide
accommodation in a natural setting with a sustainable operation. Seth (2006) explains eco
tourism as ‘environmentally friendly travel that emphasises seeing and saving natural habitats
and archaeological treasures.’
City-centre City-centre hotels are located in central, city locations. Due to space being at a premium, these
hotels hotels are normally high-rise structures, and leisure and recreation facilities such tennis courts,
swimming pools and gardens are less prominent.
Airport hotels Located in close proximity to airports, these hotels are normally large, with between 200 and
10001 rooms. Guests are transient and range from air crew and passengers to delegates
attending meetings. In some cases, guests may rent room for just a few hours to freshen up
and rest between flights.
Casino hotels These hotels act as support for the casino, which is the main focus. Many hotels (such as
those in Las Vegas and Macao) are very large, with over 1000 rooms. In addition, there is
a large space allocated to retail outlets, dining, recreation and entertainment. Rooms are
luxurious and spacious.
Conference Conference hotels provide conference and banqueting facilities to delegates or visitors
hotels attending an event. They are normally located on the periphery of a city.
Accommodation management 331
AA star ratings
The UK Automobile Association (AA) provides a star
rating system to classify hotels. This assists guests in
selecting accommodation and provides standards for
hotel operators. See Table 12.3.
Figure 12.2 The Venetian Macao: a casino hotel Figure 12.3 Virgin Airlines Upper-Class accommodation
Table 12.3 AA star ratings
 Courteous staff provide an informal yet competent service. The majority of rooms are en suite, and
a designated eating area serves breakfast daily and dinner most evenings.
 All rooms are en suite or have private facilities. A restaurant or dining room serves breakfast daily
and dinner most evenings.
 Staff are smartly dressed and professionally presented. All rooms are en suite, and the restaurant
or dining room is open to residents and non-residents.
 Professional, uniformed staff respond to your needs or requests, and there are usually
well-appointed public areas. The restaurant or dining room is open to residents and non-residents,
and lunch is available in a designated eating area.
 Luxurious accommodation and public areas, with a range of extra facilities and a multilingual
service available. Guests are greeted at the hotel entrance. High-quality menu and wine list.
Source: AA (2010)
Table 12.4 Non-serviced accommodation
Type Description
Caravan park or Individuals provide their own accommodation (tents, caravans or mobile homes) as a means of
campsite accommodation while on vacation. (Some campsites provide caravans for rent.) Customers pay
a small fee for a space on the site. Communal bathrooms, cafés, and leisure and entertainment
venues may be provided.
Villas or These are privately owned by individuals or companies. Fully furnished, they feature bedroom,
apartments living, kitchen and outdoor spaces. Guests rent for vacation and self-cater. In most cases
cleaning does not take place until the guests vacate, when the company’s cleaning personnel
clean and prepare for the next guests.
Table 12.5 Transport and accommodation
Type Description
Cruise ship Cruise ship passengers enjoy a large range of facilities while on board. These can range from
restaurants, bars and nightclubs to conference rooms, gymnasiums and spas, to name a few.
Sleeping accommodation (cabins) can range from deluxe to basic. Different cruise companies’
standard cabins can be of a range of sizes, however the average cabin is around 150 square feet.
Cabins feature beds (berths), bathroom and in some cases balconies.
Rail Some trains in Europe provide beds (berths) for sleepers on long train journeys. These beds can
in some areas of Europe be referred to as ‘couchettes’. In most cases this accommodation is
communal, with travellers sleeping up to six berths per cabin. Blankets and pillows are provided in
most cases.
Air Most international airlines now offer some kind of sleeping facility for ‘upper class’ passengers.
Virgin Airlines’ Upper Class offers passengers seats that convert into fully flat beds (see Figure
12.3). In-flight cabin crew (stewards) ensure passengers have a comfortable flight.
Table 12.6 Accommodation within the non-commercial sector
Type Description
Hospitals Accommodation for patients who require to stay in overnight can vary. Public-sector hospitals
provide ‘wards’ where patients share accommodation. In private hospitals, patients in most
cases are provided with single (or twin) roomed accommodation, which is very comfortable,
featuring own bathroom, refrigerator and television. To minimise the risk of infection the
standard of hygiene is paramount in any hospital, so cleaning is carried out frequently by
a well-trained team of cleaning personnel. Matrons or persons of a similar standing have
personal responsibility and accountability for delivering a safe and clean care environment.
Military Accommodation can vary for military personnel depending on the rank and situation of the
individual. For personnel who are with their families, fully furnished accommodation would
be provided on or close to the military base. Single living accommodation (or barracks) is
also provided on or close to base and would in most cases consist of fully furnished en suite
accommodation. For new recruits, multi-occupancy barracks are commonly used. This style of
accommodation is non-private and can accommodate up to 20 personnel at one time. Each
individual has a single bed and wardrobe. Bathing facilities are communal. Depending on rank,
military personnel in most cases would be responsible for maintaining the cleanliness of their
accommodation on a day-to-day basis.
Prisons Prisoners are accommodated, for most of the time, in cells. Cells are 6 3 8 feet in size and in
most cases accommodate two inmates on a vertical-standing ‘bunk bed’. Furniture and fixtures
are limited apart from a lavatory, which may be provided. Shower facilities are separate. The
prison provides cleaning personnel to clean cells as and when required.
University halls Most universities provide halls of residence in close proximity to the university for students.
of residence Student rooms are small and would feature in most cases a single bed, desk, television and
shower. Communal kitchens are provided where students can prepare meals. The university
would in most cases outsource the cleaning of rooms and public areas to a specialised
cleaning company.
Welfare Many residential homes provide private comfortable rooms for all residents. Homes are in most
cases developed as a single-storey unit so all rooms are easily accessible. Rooms feature
pleasant views, double beds, own bathroom, television and air conditioning/heating. Residents
dine together in in-house restaurants. Rooms and public areas are cleaned on a daily basis by
in-house staff.
Table 12.7 International examples of accommodation specific to a particular country/area
Country Type Description

Spain Paradors State-run hotels located throughout Spain, which are in most cases located in old
buildings, castles or monasteries.
Portugal Posadas Small family-run guest houses.
Japan Ryoken Small, friendly, owner-operated inns with authentic Japanese design. Rooms are
equipped with tatami mats and futon beds, and are in most cases situated close to a
hot spring bath.
Japan Capsule High-rise accommodation located in central city areas. Rooms are around 6 feet
long by 3 feet wide (and high). Guests access through a hatch-like door with room
only for lying down. Guests check in via a vending machine and leave their luggage
in a locker. Capsules include a television, mattress, bedding and light control.
Demand for accommodation

The demand for accommodation is closely linked to
tourism activity. Individuals require accommodation
for different reasons, such as business, attending
conferences, vacationing, visiting friends and family,
studying and health care.
Different data are collected on accommodation Accommodation
users, for example: Tourism and Hospitality
catering
●● type of accommodation used (e.g. hotel, motel, B&B)
●● length of stay
●● domestic or overseas
●● nationality of guest
●● age
●● gender
●● reason for visit. Figure 12.4
12000
10000
Holiday
8000 Business
Visits (000)
Visits to friends and

6000 relatives (VFR)
Study
4000
Misc.
2000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Figure 12.5 Trend of visits (000s) by purpose of visit

Rented house
2% 3%
Paying guest at family or friend’s house
23%
Free guest with relatives or friends
Own home
Other
3%
Hotel/guest house 2%
Bed & Breakfast 48%
6%
Camping/mobile home 1%
Hostel/university/school
19%
Holiday village/centre 3%
Figure 12.6 Breakdown of accommodation type used by tourists visiting UK

(Visit Britain, 2009)
Quality management
It is imperative that hospitality managers ensure that ●● adopt quality programmes (e.g. Hospitality
each guest has a pleasant experience during their Assured, Investors In People)
visit. When customers are satisfied, they are more ●● recruit good people and invest in training and
likely to return, and will pass on their positive expe- development
riences to friends and colleagues. This will in turn ●● source good products.
result in many benefits for accommodation operators.
Customers’ evaluation of service delivery is essential
to improve the operation and remain competitive.
Core functions of accommodation
management Table 12.8 Contrasts in quality management
Quality tools that can be used in accommodation
High quality Low quality
management include:
Happy customers Unhappy customers
●● completed ‘customer questionnaires’ for every
Retain customers Lose customers
customer
Meet budgets Under budget
●● speak to customers face to face throughout their
visit Positive word of mouth Negative word of mouth
●● mystery guests to evaluate the accommodation Good image Poor image
product and services Market growth Market decline
●● effective ‘service recovery’ and complaint Retain employees Lose employees
handling Attract customers Difficult to attract
●● good leadership and supervision Easy to attract employees Struggle to attract
●● the ongoing review and utilisation of internal No discounts Frequent discounts
management information Open Closed
●● focus groups with customers
●● conduct external surveys with target customers The continual desires to meet the core functions are
●● implement, monitor and review service standards essential to the success of the accommodation prod-
●● conduct internal surveys with employees uct. The link to the market mix details the main areas
●● the ongoing monitoring of competition that need to be carried out in order to successfully
●● research industry academic literature sell your product.
●● employ external consultants to evaluate product,
service and systems
Table 12.9 The market mix’s link to accommodation
Market mix Linkage

Product Both the tangible and intangible products need to be aligned to continuously meet the needs
of the target customer at all times. Tangible products can include the exterior, the interior
furnishings, bedrooms, restaurants and bathrooms, to name a few. Examples of intangible
elements could include the lighting, air temperature, music and service. The product is managed
by accommodation managers through ongoing research with guests, employee training,
monitoring of service standards and external scanning.
Price Price is of great importance in service industries due to the high perishability of the product. In
most cases the revenue generated from rooms yields the greatest profitability of all departments
within the hotel. Therefore it is imperative that the price is positioned correctly to meet the
demands of the guests and cover operational expenses.
To achieve and set the correct price, accommodation managers need to consider a wide range of
internal and external information that will guide their decisions. If prices are too high managers
risk losing guests, while pricing too low can result in loss of profits.
Place Place is ‘where’ the organisation distributes or ‘sells’ its room product. For example, if a guest
wants to book a room in a four-star branded hotel, this can in most cases be purchased through
various channels, including a travel agent, the hotel’s website, group’s central reservations office
(CRS), a third-party website or over the counter, to name a few. Alternatively, a small bed and
breakfast operation may distribute its rooms only over the counter or on its website. Therefore,
the key is for accommodation operations to increase the amount of channels available where
individuals can purchase rooms. The more distribution channels, the more opportunities to sell
your accommodation. This, however, requires careful management to ensure the best returns are
achieved from each channel.
Promotion Once a good standard of accommodation has been achieved, the operator needs to create
awareness to attract buyers and effectively sell its product. As most hospitality businesses
operate in a seasonal environment, they often create promotions during the ‘low season’ to
attract demand.
Characteristics
In this section, hotel accommodation will be inves- attending meetings, requesting information from the
tigated, focusing on the rooms division department. concierge, having refreshments, shopping, waiting for
At the core of the rooms division department are taxis, or just sitting in the lobby reading newspapers.
front office and housekeeping, with maintenance Individuals that come into contact with front office
and security acting as valuable support departments. personnel may include guests staying in the hotel,
Rooms division and food and beverage are in most
cases the two main revenue-generating departments
within the hotel. It is often the case that rooms pro-
vide more profit than food and beverage due to lower
operating costs. The size and scope of the rooms
division can depend on the type of the hotel.
Front office is a revenue-generating department,
while housekeeping is a support department.
The front office department

The hotel’s front office is in most cases the busiest
area within the hotel, attracting the most traffic and
activity. It is the visitor’s first impression on arrival
and their last on departure. It is a hub of activity
where individuals may be arriving, checking in or out, Figure 12.7 The hotel lobby
Table 12.10 Characteristics
Characteristic Description Solutions

Intangibility A large part of the hospitality product is made up of Regular employee training
intangible elements such as service, ambience and other Develop service standards
guests. These elements can provide many challenges for and monitor
the operator as they are hard to standardise and can create
inconsistencies.
Simultaneous The uniqueness of the hospitality product is that it is Standardise tasks
production and produced and consumed simultaneously in most cases. This Simplify tasks
consumption means limited time for quality control. Supervision
Empowerment
Heterogeneity Each service experience is different; service delivery can Understand target market’s
vary in the same organisation due to different producers, and needs and wants
different consumers with different needs and wants. Standardise tasks
Flexibility
Consistency Due to the intangible element of the accommodation product, Job specifications
consistency is a challenge, which is what most consumers Job descriptions
demand. For example, as humans our moods can change Effective recruitment
easily due to a combination of factors such as illness, bad Standardise tasks
news and difficult guests. Supervision
Perishability The accommodation product, as in most service industries, is Sales-orientated employees
highly perishable. This means that certain products, such as Internal budgeting
bedrooms, cannot be stored. If a bedroom is not sold tonight, External monitoring
the revenue will be lost. Unused hospitality services cannot Revenue management
be returned, claimed or resold. Yield management
Ownership When purchasing a hospitality product the consumer owns Customer care
that product only for that period of time. Bedrooms are rented Customer retention
not owned.
No guarantees As with most other industries there is little post-consumption Loyalty schemes
aftercare or service. Customer care
Follow-up evaluation
Imitation is easy The service process is easily observed by competitors. No External monitoring
patents. Differentiate
Seasonality Many hospitality businesses operate in a seasonal Market research
marketplace, which creates many challenges for operators in Forecasting
relation to staffing and expenses. Budgeting
Yield management
External variables The industry is faced with many external variables that PESTLE analysis (Political,
can impact the running of the business. Examples include Economic, Social,
weather, competitors and PESTLE factors, Technological, Legal and
Environmental)
Contingency
No pre-trial According to Jones and Paul (1996), unlike many other Accurate and effective
products on sale, accommodation cannot be sampled or tried brochures and websites
out before purchase.
Rooms Division
Manager
Front Office Executive Chief of Chief

Manager Housekeeper Security Engineer
Figure 12.8 Typical rooms division structure in a large four-star hotel

Front of
house Gift shop
Transport
Reception
Restaurant and bar

Security
Leisure club
Concierge
Support Transport Revenue
department department
Human
resources
Room service
Housekeeping
Accounts Laundry
Maintenance
Kitchen and
stores Back of house
Stewarding
Figure 12.10 A doorman
Figure 12.9 Revenue and support centres in a typical four-

star hotel
The objectives of the front office are to:
●● maximise profits through the effective
management of room inventory
●● ensure that at each stage of the customer cycle
consumer expectations are met
guests of guests, non-residents visiting the hotel’s
●● effectively channel and process information
restaurants, conference and banqueting attendees,
between the front office and stakeholders.
and individuals meeting with hotel executives.
The times with the heaviest footfall tend to be the In order to achieve the front office objectives there
morning, when guests are checking out, and late are many challenges and variables that need to be
afternoon, when arrivals are due. managed and overcome.
Table 12.11 Key challenges in the front office
Challenge Meeting the challenge

Achieving financial The front office deals with a large number of financial transactions each day. These could
control include receiving cash from guests or selling the correct rooms to the correct guests.
Therefore, front office managers must place a great emphasis on financial control. This
entails the correct planning and selling of room inventory, coupled with the monitoring and
maintaining of departmental expenses.
Communication With front office acting as the main communication hub that channels information
throughout the hotel, it is essential that processes are in place to ensure that effective
communication is achieved between front office and all its stakeholders.
Complex distribution Guests need to be reassured that they are buying at a fair price, and that the information
network on availability and price is consistent regardless of the distribution channel they have
used. They look for integrity in that system. The distribution channel is the method used
to purchase the hotel room, i.e. website, travel agent, tour operator. The management
of various distribution channels is a complex and demanding task for managers. This is
compounded by the fact that supply and demand patterns can change quickly. The front
office manager must be able to assimilate a great deal of information quickly and make
appropriate decisions while maintaining consistency across the distribution network.
Challenge Meeting the challenge

Fixed capacity The hotel has a maximum quantity of rooms that it can sell. On occasions, demand
exceeds supply and the hotel fails to meet those demands due to a fixed quantity of
rooms. This fixed capacity sometimes places limits on opportunities to sell more rooms
and achieve greater sales. It is therefore important for front office managers to be aware
of demand trends and to capitalise on them when they arise.
Diversity With an increase in numbers of international travellers the front office needs to be able to
meet their needs and expectations, to ensure satisfaction is achieved. Hotel diversity and
intercultural training is essential to achieving this aim.
Legal framework To protect the hotel, its assets, employees and guests, the hotel’s front office is required
to work within a legal framework.
Major guest interface The front office department is a highly visible and busy department with lots of activity. It
is for this reason that it is essential that all employees working in this area are well trained
and able to meet the myriad of demands that confront them in their day-to-day exchanges
with guests, managers and partner departments.
Perishability The aim of the accommodation department is to sell rooms. When rooms are not sold
they cannot be stored and sold another time, as products in other industries can (e.g.
manufacturing). Unsold rooms equate to lost revenue. The high perishability of rooms is
one of the greatest challenges for accommodation managers.
Staffing and structures
Front office structures and staffing

The organisational structure of a hotel front office
can depend on many factors. These may include
those listed in Table 12.12.
Table 12.12 Factors affecting the organisational structure of a hotel front office
Factor Example
Star rating or A budget hotel’s front office may consist only of a reception manager, receptionist and
standard luggage porter. While, in contrast, a five-star hotel may have staff including door attendants,
lobby hosts, guest services and concierge.
Size of hotel The quantity of personnel is also a factor in front office structure. If a hotel has 50 rooms or
5000 rooms this will require different manning levels.
Management Management requiring close control may have a centralised, tight structure that will require
structure more employee positions. Alternatively, a more open decentralised management approach
may require fewer employees, but who are cross-trained and more flexible.
Target customer The type of customer can also be a factor in some circumstances. Some hotels that cater
to business clientele may provide separate executive check-in desks. Hotels attracting
business guests may also require a higher staff-to-customer ratio.
Location Some resort hotels will have more transport personnel to transport guests around the
facilities. Many hotels in China still feature the role of cashier as a separate position.
Front Office
Manager
(FOM)
Assistant
FOM
Night Reception Reservations Head

Manager Manager Concierge Guest
Manager Relations
Assistant Assistant Manager
Manager Reception Assistant Assistant
Manager Reservations Head
Night Concierge
Auditor Manager
Guest
Reception Executive Lounge Reservation Concierge Relations
Night Supervisor Receptionist Supervisor Executive
Receptionist
Receptionist Cashier Switchboard Reservationist Bell boys Doormen Drivers
(PABX)
Figure 12.11 A standard four-star hotel front office organisation
The role of the front office manager sub-departments in their operations and ensure that
The front office manager is the leader of the team each customer’s needs are met throughout the guest
and responsible for the day-to-day running of the cycle.
front office department. They oversee all front office
Job title: Front Office Manager ●● Plan and hold meetings with employees and
Report to: General Manager department managers
●● Ensure that costs are minimised at all times
Key functions
●● Ensure that customer satisfaction is achieved,
Key management functions include maximising through constant monitoring
sales, minimising costs and maintaining standards ●● Implement systems to minimise and manage
simultaneously at all times. customer complaints
●● Manage and monitor room occupancy and
Major responsibilities and duties
average room rates throughout the day
●● Be responsible for the smooth, effective, ●● Recruit and select front office personnel
efficient and professional operations of all front ●● Motivate employees and set incentives
office areas ●● Plan, organise and deliver training
●● Conduct daily briefings, outlining daily targets, ●● Constantly evaluate service standards
areas for improvement and VIPs ●● Write and monitor budgets
●● Ensure all front office personnel comply with ●● Train and develop staff to the quality and
hotel’s standard guidelines consistency of service standards
●● Attend daily management morning briefing, sales ●● Ensure that all front office employees are fully
strategy meeting and other meetings as required; conversant with all hotel facilities, activities,
prepare all relevant reports to managers and points of interests and attractions in the
●● Ensure all daily VIPs are pre-registered and city
greeted, and escorted to their rooms on arrival ●● Train all front office staff how to identify
●● Ensure all VIP room allocations are checked frequent guests, to know their preferences,
prior to guests’ arrival ensuring all guests’ needs are met
●● Train all front office staff to be fully acquainted ●● Train all front office employees to understand
with the property management system (PMS) and be familiar with cultural differences of
●● Coordinate with the housekeeping department gusts
to ensure that there is a maximum number of ●● Be fully conversant with all emergency
rooms available for sale at all times procedures and train all front office staff to
●● Develop a close and effective working know how to act upon them.
relationship with all other department heads
Reception
Manager
1. Planning
Reception Night
Supervisor Manager 2.
4. Organising
Evaluating Coordinating
Staffing
Receptionists
3.
Figure 12.12 The front office structure in a Directing
budget hotel Controlling
Figure 12.13 The management process
Table 12.13 Front office managers: application to disciplines
Discipline Front office application

Planning Planning of staffing to ensure there is sufficient manpower on duty to deal with demand
Planning of departmental budgets to set financial targets for room revenues and expenses
Planning of departmental training to ensure standards are met consistently
Planning of departmental stocks to ensure all resources are in place for employees to complete
their work successfully
Controlling Controlling of room inventory, ensuring the right price is allocated to the right customer at the
right time
Controlling of departmental assets (cash and equipment)
Controlling of guests’ assets (safety deposit boxes)
Controlling of guests’ details (Data Protection Act)
Controlling of departmental service standards, ensuring these are being met consistently at all
times
Coordinating Coordinating of monthly departmental meetings to discuss front office issues and performance
Organising Organising of employee social events and activities
Organising of room promotions
Staffing Screening and interviewing potential new front office personnel
Recruitment and selection of front office personnel
Assisting new personnel with a smooth induction and departmental orientation
Carrying out departmental training
Setting employee incentive programmes
Motivating and encouraging employees continuously in their work
Guiding and correcting employees continually in their work
Issuing disciplinary warnings as and when required
Directing Directing employees to perform duties
Directing employees on new guidelines or standards
Evaluating Evaluating the recruitment of front office personnel
Evaluating the performance of all front office personnel both daily and in the conducting of
employee appraisals
Evaluating rooms performance against daily room financial targets
Evaluating customer satisfaction
Evaluating service standards against service audits
Evaluating competitors’ performance against the hotel’s (benchmarking)
Evaluating own performance through 360-degree appraisal
Front office managers communicate through their ing, fast-paced and diverse environment (see Table
staff, feelings of warmth, care, safety and efficiency 12.14). Competent employees will be rewarded with
to each front office guest. opportunities to develop personal communication
(Bardi, 2007) skills, problem solving, decision making and progres-
sion, to name but a few.
Employees working in the front office department
require a myriad of skills to deal with a challeng-
Table 12.14 Requirements of front office personnel
Challenges Requirements
24-hour, fast-paced operation Stamina
Personal fitness
Continuous guest contact Communicative
Adaptive
Reactive
Ability to read people
Confident
Outgoing
General enthusiasm to meet people
Demanding guests Patient
Good composure
Ability to solve complaints
Highly automated work Computer literate
environment Ability to use email, intranet and Internet systems
Knowledge of front office software (e.g. Fidelio, Opera, Micros, Remanco,
Galileo, Amadeus)
Ability to use property management system (PMS)
Highly visible Excellent personal presentation
Good posture
Good body language
International client base Multilingual
Culturally aware
Large work team Ability to work in a team
Excellent communication skills
Revenue department Ability to sell
Product knowledge
Jones and Paul (1996) explain, ‘A sales orientation or awareness should be an
integral part of the operations culture, particularly where there is a continuous
need to increase occupancy and revenue levels.’
The relationship developed by personnel may or

may not impress the customer, may or may not
encourage the customer to sample the facilities
and services available, may or may not encourage
the customer to return or recommend the hotel to
other potential guests.
(Jones and Paul, 1996)
Table 12.15 lists brief descriptions of the roles and
responsibilities of front office personnel. These can
differ from property to property.
Figure 12.14 Working front of house involves continuous

guest contact
Table 12.15 Roles and responsibilities of front office personnel
Position Responsibilities
Receptionist Welcoming, checking in and registering guests
Carrying out cashiering duties and exchanging currency
Allocating customer rooms, and cutting and issuing room keys
Checking room status with housekeeping departments
Fulfilling any guest requests
Upselling room categories
Informing guests of hotel facilities and of any special events taking place within the hotel
Following departmental operating standards of performance
Carrying out any bill adjustments
Carrying out customer check-outs
Assisting with any room reservations
Communicating with other departments as and when required
Dealing with customer complaints
Operating hotel point-of-sale (POS) system
Concierge Being aware of the hotel facilities, locations and hours of operation
Providing details of local information to guests – should have knowledge of local areas, e.g.
social, cultural and physical attractions, and their hours of operation
Having awareness of local restaurants and their hours of operation
Assisting with the booking of local tours and attractions
Booking of onward transport, flights and accommodation
Reservationist Dealing with calls, emails and fax enquiries
Checking room availability
Providing hotel information
Providing, negotiating and confirming rates
Using revenue and yield management to manage supply
Sending out reservation confirmations
Maintaining reports
Regular communication with front office and sales managers
Guest relations Making guests feel welcome
officer (GRO) Reviewing arrivals list
Organising VIP amenities for rooms
Greeting VIP guests, assisting with guest check-in and escorting guests to rooms
Dealing with customer enquiries
Conducting guest tours
Escorting sick or unwell guests to the hospital
‘Executive lounge’ Checking in guests for executive rooms
receptionist Informing guests of executive lounge facilities
Checking guest satisfaction throughout stay
Assisting with the service of food and beverage in the executive lounge
Checking out executive guests
Switchboard Ensuring all calls are answered promptly and courteously
operator (PABX) Transferring incoming calls to guests, employees and managers
Taking messages
Providing guidance on dialling codes
Assisting guests with outgoing calls
Dealing with any emergency calls as per hotel standard
Luggage porter/ Storing, tagging and transferring luggage
bell boy Guiding guests as required – should have a good knowledge of hotel layout, rooms, facilities
and hours of operation
Promoting hotel facilities and restaurants whenever possible
Delivering mail, faxes, messages and packages to guest rooms
Performing light housekeeping duties in lobby area
Delivering newspapers to rooms
Position Responsibilities
Night manager Bardi (2004) details the six steps involved in preparing a night audit:
• posting room and tax charges
• assembling guest charges and payments
• reconciling departmental financial activities
• reconciling the accounts receivable
• running the trail balance
• preparing the night audit report.
Hotel driver Ensuring hotel vehicle is clean internally and externally at all times, is well maintained and
has passed the appropriate roadworthiness checks
Ensuring vehicle is equipped with newspapers, magazines and hotel literature
Receiving and delivering guests to and from airport
Providing a comfortable, friendly and informative travel experience to guests
Being prompt in collection of guests
The safe loading and unloading of guests’ luggage
Doorman Greeting all guests in a friendly, attentive manner (using name wherever possible)
Bidding farewell and ‘bon voyage’ to departing guests
Some general cleaning duties of external arrival area
Providing directions to guests as and when required
Calling of taxis and opening doors of taxis for guests
Keeping external forecourt free of traffic build-up and illegal parkers
Cashier Ensuring sufficient change in float to deal with guest transactions
The accurate completion of transactions
Dealing with foreign currency exchange
Processing cheques, credit/debit and cash transactions efficiently
Reconciling all transactions at end of shift and completing the appropriate reports
Dealing with any ‘petty cash’ transactions
Keeping all cash assets safe at all times through added vigilance
Ensuring all stationery, till rolls and printer cartridges are in stock
Valet parker (in The safe parking of guests’ personal cars/vehicles
some deluxe The storage of guests’ keys while in the hotel
properties) Some very general cleaning/polishing of vehicles
The safe retrieval of guests’ cars/vehicles
Operations (front office, housekeeping and facilities)
The front office process

The front office exchange moves through four main 1. Pre-arrival
phases – more commonly termed the ‘guest cycle’
(Figure 12.15). The guest cycle details the different
stages that most consumers go through when deal-
ing with the front office. Although most consumers
advance through the cycle, this can change in certain 4. 2.
Departure Arrival
situations – for example, when hotels receive ‘walk in’
guests who have not pre-booked. From a manage-
ment perspective, each stage of the cycle provides
opportunities and challenges. It is the front office
manager’s responsibility to ensure that all depart- 3.
mental objectives are met and this process is free Occupancy
from defects.
In addition to these core guest cycle functions, Figure 12.15 The ‘guest cycle’
more specific functions are included for different
customer types such as business guest, leisure, inter- Meeting the needs of guests in the
national, family, disabled and groups. front office
Throughout the cycle, front office personnel carry
While they are in the hotel, it is imperative that the
out specific functions (as shown in Figure 12.16) to
customer’s needs are met. When these needs are not
ensure guests have a positive experience.
met then dissatisfaction occurs.
All consumers are different, and have different
Market segmentation
needs and requirements; it is the goal of the hotel
Different types of accommodation target different to ensure that these specific needs are met, not only
types of customer. The type of customer drives the during their stay but before they arrive. Using past
establishment’s product design, level of service and experience and information on consumer trends,
overall mission. hotels are able to meet the customer’s needs on
arrival. For example, a business guest may require a
limousine pick-up from the airport, express check-
in, a particular room of their choice and a particular
newspaper. If their needs are anticipated then there is
a greater opportunity to achieve satisfaction.
Pre-arrival
Reservation inquiry
Room availability
Rate allocation
Booking confirmation
Departure Any amenities placed in rooms Arrival

Transport of luggage from Welcome
room to reception
Luggage delivered to room
Carrying out guest check-out
Check-in at reception
Settling outstanding bills
Check identification
Final billing
Payment confirmation
Printing of customer bill
Credit card authorisation
Key collection Occupancy Room allocation
Check customer satisfaction Currency exchange Creating folio
Assist with transportation Account posting Issuing of room key
to next destination
Monitoring of account balance Providing of hotel facts
Updating customer history
Maintaining customer accounts and information
Processing late charges
Dealing with customer enquiries
Dealing with customer
complaints
Checking satisfaction by guest
relations/duty manager
Assisting with information
on local area
Booking of any tickets and tours
Processing guest mail and
telephone calls
Transportation within area
Figure 12.16 Key functions and interactions during the guest cycle
BE
Desk Desk
Registration Delivery Lobby
Hotel Papers Elevators Room tray Hotel
exterior Care for Lobby Hallways Care for Amenities Food exterior
Parking bags Key Room bags Bath Menu Appearance Food Parking
Give bags Check

Arrive Check Go to Receive Sleep Call room Receive
to Eat out and
at hotel in room bags Shower service food
bellperson leave
Line of interaction
Greet and Process Deliver Deliver Process

take bags registration bags food check out
Line of visibility
Take bags Take

to room food order
Line of internal
interaction
Registration Prepare Registration

system food system
Figure 12.17 The flow of guest activity from arrival to departure
Customer expectation Service delivery
Expectations
exceeded
Expectations
met
GAP
Expectations
not met
Figure 12.18 Transporting luggage to the room
Figure 12.19 Customer satisfaction
Another method to ensure guests receive a ences, which can be used to enhance satisfac-
better service is to use ‘guest histories’, provided tion on their return. For example, a customer who
that they have stayed previously. Each time a guest stays quarterly at the hotel always prefers a room
stays at a hotel, data are collected on their prefer- with a view and the Financial Times newspaper,
Table 12.16 Specific functions of front office personnel
Employee Pre-arrival Arrival Occupancy Departure

Receptionist Checking room arrivals Welcoming guest Posting room charges Printing invoice
list Completion of Dealing with any Making any
Checking room status registration form enquiries adjustments
information Completing financial Updating room status Collecting payment
Preparing resources transactions Moving rooms and settling room bill
Briefing on facilities Checking room Printing receipt
Issuing of key balances Collecting key card or
Dealing with lost keys room key
Checking satisfaction
Updating customer
history
Concierge Checking arrival Greeting, assisting Assistance with: Assisting with any
information where necessary • guidance on places onward hotel or
Considering any of interest in local transport reservations
specific needs or area
wants • where to shop
Communicating with • recommending
transport personnel restaurants
Updating information • maps and how to
on external events and get around
activities • tourist attractions
• making onward hotel
reservations
• booking and travel
arrangements
• booking theatre
tickets
Bell boy Identifying customer Tagging luggage Delivering newspapers Transporting luggage
peaks in arrival times Transporting luggage to rooms from room to reception
Preparing luggage to rooms Delivering mail, faxes Assisting with
trolleys for expected In-room guidance or messages to rooms transport of luggage to
guests (how to use aircon, TV, Helping with any guest taxi or other transport
Ensuring sufficient etc.) shopping bags
manpower available Running any
to greet guests and emergency errands for
transport luggage guests
Reservationist Receiving reservation Dealing with Dealing with Dealing with
Confirming reservation reservations as reservations as reservations as
details required required required
Guest relations Preparing welcome Meeting guests Checking customer Checking satisfaction
letters for rooms Escorting to rooms in satisfaction
Confirming any some cases Dealing with any
in-room guests Dealing with any customer enquiries
amenities (fruit basket, immediate enquiries Solving customer
wine, champagne, etc.) complaints
Table 12.17 Examples of accommodation segmentation (can differ from property to property)
Accommodation Target guests

Four- and five-star city hotels Monday to Friday
Corporate CEOs and executives
Business travellers
Frequent independent travellers (FITs)
Conference attendees
Airline crew
Some leisure business
Corporate groups
Leisure groups (off-season)
Weekends
Leisure guests (families, shoppers, weekend visitors)
Guests attending banqueting functions (wedding party guests)
Four- and five-star resort hotels Vacationers
Conference and banqueting guests
Incentive guests
Airline hotels Short-stay travellers in transit (half-day let)
Passengers of cancelled/delayed flights
Airline crew
Conference attendees
Conference hotels Conference delegates
Banquet attendees
Casino hotels Gamers
Tourists
Pre-wedding parties (stag and hen)
Budget Budget-conscious travellers
Independent businessmen
Bed and breakfast (B&B) Budget-conscious travellers
Independent businessmen
Tourists
Youth hostel Students
Tourists
and always requests extra hangers. This informa- distribution channels as ‘a set of interdependent
tion would be flagged when the customer makes organisations (intermediaries) involved in the pro-
another booking, and these preferences put in cess of making a product or service available for use
place. The key is reducing the customer’s opportu- or consumption by the consumer or business user’.
nity ‘to ask’ for services or products by anticipating It is good practice for accommodation managers to
and fulfilling their needs. regularly evaluate the performance of each distribu-
tion channel, to achieve overall efficient performance
Reservations within the rooms department. For example, you may
Guests have the opportunity to reserve rooms in a be receiving a high quantity of bookings through travel
variety of ways. These may include travel agent, tour agents at a low commission, but the type of customer
operator or hotel website. Accommodation operators is not your target market and requires more work.
use these reservation channels in different ways Alternatively, research from customers details that
depending on different factors, which may include they found it difficult to book online through the hotel’s
room demand, season, rate of commission and over- website, a channel that is relatively cost-effective.
all customer strategy. Kotler et al. (2003) describe
Table 12.18 Meeting customers’ specific needs
Customer type Particular needs Front office

Large group Organisation Rooms allocated and group rooms located together
Communication Keys cut before arrival and rooms allocated
Separate check-in area
Pre-registration
If on package, tables reserved, and menus and dining times given to
group members on check-in
Additional bell boys scheduled to deal with high volume of luggage
Business guests Efficient service Express check-in
Recognition Information on Wi-Fi and business centre
Club lounge information
Mobile phone adaptor
Newspaper
Information on hotel’s meeting rooms
Registration form completed and ready just for signature
Female guests Safety Non-interconnecting room
Comfort
Families Safety Interconnecting rooms
Entertainment Low-level floor
Information on babysitting service
Rollaway bed
Tourists Information on local Currency exchange
area Local maps
Sightseeing information
Older guests Safety Low-floor room
Room with a pleasant view
Assistance with luggage
Table 12.19 Appraisal of distribution channels
Channel Explanation Advantages Disadvantages

Central The central reservations system Guests have access to Can be costly to develop
reservations (CRS) is in most cases used by knowledgeable, efficient sales and staff
large hotel chains personnel
Reservationists are off-site and Lower space costs as most
deal with reservations for hotels CRSs are located off-site, thus
within a particular region freeing up space in the hotel
Reservationists have up-to-date
room availability for all properties
in region
Airport desk Airports feature hotel desks Opportunity to sell unsold rooms Fee to airport
to advertise hotel rooms to inventory throughout the day representative
individuals arriving at destination Net profit is not always
without a reservation high
Third-party Hotels sell rooms to third-party Hotels can advertise and reach Highly competitive
websites websites, which then sell to growing number of consumers May impact brand image
(e.g. Expedia, consumers booking through the booking through websites No personal contact for
lastminute.com) websites Increase in market share guests
Travel agents Hotel uses agents to sell rooms Hotels can use multiple agents Percentage of final rate
on its behalf around the globe paid to agent
Can target agents for specific Rates are cheap
demographic and geographic Lack of full control over
segments clients
Channel Explanation Advantages Disadvantages

Company/hotel Most hotels develop their own No commission Not always most
website websites to attract guests Can change/update competitive rate
Consumers can view all hotel May be slow for guests
facilities online
Over the counter Guests have no prior booking Consumer can view facilities If hotel is full, may lead to
and arrive to purchase room before purchase disappointment
Negotiation is possible
Corporate travel Large corporate companies Sales department can create Tension is created at
agents develop corporate travel agents contracts with companies based periods when demand is
to book reservations for their on quantity of rooms booked per high as rooms could be
employees year sold at a higher rate
Marketing Groups of independent hotels Cross-marketing Share costs of CRS and

consortia form a coalition and develop a New distribution channel marketing
CRS to compete with chains More competitive
Competitors’ Agreements can be formed An opportunity for the overflow Percentage of room fees
‘overflow’ between competing hotels to hotel arises as new guests could paid to full-capacity hotel
send overflow guests to each switch loyalty and become loyal for overflow customer
other when capacity is exceeded to overflow hotel
Hotel/chain
website
Competitors’ Travel
‘overflow’ agents
Aiport
Partner
hotel
hotels
desk
National Room Central

tourist reservations reservations
offices system (CRS)
Marketing Tour
consortia operators
Third party
Walk in, websites
‘over the Corporate (Expedia,
counter’ travel lastminute.com)
agents
Figure 12.20 Examples of distribution channels for accommodation operations

Technology in the front office

In the hotel the front office is the core for technology. ●● maintains data on customer relationship
The technology links the front office with the hotel’s management (loyalty programmes)
other departments, its guests and external intermedi- ●● provides properties with necessary technologies
aries. The property management system (PMS) acts ●● communicates room availability to e-distribution
as the hub interfacing with different systems to serve channels
the guest. ●● agents have up-to-date hotel information at hand
to assist caller’s enquiry
Computer applications are central to front office
●● delivers reservations to properties
operations in today’s modern hotels.
●● in most cases, the CRS offers a toll-free or 0800
(Bardi, 2007)
number
The benefits of using a central reservations system ●● bills properties for handling reservations
(CRS) include: ●● maintains demographic information about callers
●● CRS offices are ‘off-site’, allowing for cost savings
●● agents are ‘sales’ orientated
●● sales agents are in most cases multilingual.
●● maintains statistical information (call volume, talk
time, conversion rates, denial rates)
Central
Reservations
System (CRS)
Folio Call
Management Accounting
and System
Accounting Property (CAS)
Management
System
(PMS)
Point of Sale Electronic Locking

(POS) System
(ELS)
Figure 12.21 A property management system

Table 12.20 Technology in the front office
Technology Description
Property management The PMS is the central hardware hub that interfaces with all other hotel systems.
system (PMS) According to Bardi (2007), ‘The property management system gives the front office
manager an unlimited opportunity for managerial control.’
Central reservations A service developed by chains and consortia. Customers can call toll-free numbers and
system (CRS) speak to a reservations agent 24 hours a day. Agents are trained in sales techniques
and knowledgeable on any of the properties, products and services within the
organisation.
Travellers in various market segments depend on a well-organised reservation system
that is easily accessible through toll-free numbers, the Internet or at a few hours notice
(Bardi, 2007).
Call accounting system Software that captures telephone charges for in-room guests calling numbers outside
(CAS) the hotel. The system captures rate per minute, minutes called and number called; this
charge then appears on the guest’s folio.
Electronic locking Many hotels now feature electronic locks on hotel room doors, offices and storage
system (ELS) areas. The locks provide additional security for guests and capture data on when the
room was accessed and by whom.
Point of sale (POS) According to Bardi (2004) the point-of-sale option allows the front office computer
to interface with the computers in other departments. In a hotel, when a front office
interfaces with the restaurant, the front office computer terminal accepts and
automatically costs charges made in the restaurant (the point of sale) to a guest’s folio.
Folio management and Software that captures and manages all guest billing information
billing
Hotel
World
Wide Web Hotel
Hotel
Global
distribution Central
system (GDS) reservation
e.g. Galileo, system
Pegasus Hotel
Customer Restaurant Bar

phone call
Information about
guest transaction
Figure 12.22 A central reservation system Reception
Room Leisure
service club
Figure 12.23 Central reservation: benefits

Revenue management
For hotels and other providers of room accommoda- ●● How can we create additional demand through
tion, it is imperative that they develop strategies to room promotions?
effectively sell their rooms inventory. Room sales are ●● What are our competitors’ strengths and
important in terms of: weaknesses?
●● What strategies and tactics can we use to sell
●● meeting budgeted financial targets and achieving
more rooms?
a return on investment
●● How can we get a competitive advantage with
●● avoiding wasted capacity and space
our rooms?
●● providing owners with financial returns
●● How can we leverage our rooms product to
●● remaining competitive
achieve the highest rate possible?
●● reducing expenses
●● What is our current position within the
●● achieving a vibrant environment
marketplace?
●● utilising stocks
●● Which customers yield the most profit?
●● maintaining satisfaction among employees
●● What changes in external forces will impact how
●● improving operational performance
we deliver our rooms products?
●● avoiding loss of profits and closure
●● Which reservation channels yield the most profit?
●● attracting and retaining customers
●● Are there any ways in which we can increase
●● attracting potential investors.
supply?
Front office managers are required to invest lots of ●● Is this budget realistic and achievable?
time in research and forecasting to achieve these
A SWOT analysis is a valuable business analysis
financial objectives. Possibly the most important plan-
technique which can be used to build up a pic-
ning function is the development of the room’s
ture of the reality of the business and identify
budget. Budgeting is a management tool that fore-
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
casts departmental revenues, expenses and profit.
to the accommodation product.
Each manager with their individual teams prepares
(Jones and Paul, 1996)
their department and these are collated to produce a
‘hotel budget’. This takes place once a year and is a
Yield management
very critical task, which can be time consuming due
to its importance. A modern approach, commonly used in large inter-
Considerations when planning a budget include the national hotel operations is yield management (YM).
following. The concept of this approach is to maximise profit-
ability with careful forecasting tactics – more simply,
●● What rates shall we charge for our rooms? selling the right room to the right customer at the
●● How much demand will we have for our rooms on right time. Through studying past history and future
each day? demand, reservation managers can use this infor-
●● How much profit is required? mation to determine whether room rates should be
●● What will our operational costs be? increased or decreased, or if a booking should be
●● What prices are our customers prepared to pay? accepted or declined to achieve the greatest profit
●● What events will create demand? on the room sale.
●● What is our room supply on each day? YM is based on supply and demand. Prices tend to
●● What are our strengths and weaknesses within rise when demand exceeds supply; conversely, prices
our rooms operation? tend to fall when supply exceeds demand.
●● How much supply and demand will our
competitors have?
SWOT anaysis PESTLE analysis

(Strengths, (Political,
Internal audit Economic, Social, Competitor Strategic
Weaknesses,
Technological, analysis response
Opportunities
and Threats) Legal and
Environmental)
Figure 12.24 Process and models used in room forecasting
On high demand days
Always
On low demand days Low High Increase room rates
demand days demand days Reduce group reservations
Always Limit corporate reservations
Offer discounts Apply full prices to suites and
Create room promotions executive rooms
Public, national Sell to groups that book meeting
Consider complimentary and religious space and use food and beverage
upgrades holidays outlets
Accept groups Require minimum length of stay (mlos)
Local events
Provide ‘familiarisation No local activities (music concerts, Ensure sufficient staff are on duty
trips’ or events sporting events
Carry out ‘deep cleaning’ Never
Meetings, exhibitio Offer discounts or promotions
Carry out ‘routine Low season ns
and conferences be on rooms
maintainance’ ing
held in-house or loc Accept non-guaranteed bookings
ally
Encourage employee Provide complimentary rooms
holidays of any kind
Have any rooms ‘out of order’
Permit any ‘stay overs’
or extensions
Figure 12.25 Examples of yield management strategies
Performance indicators
It is essential that front office managers evaluate the
performance of resources within their department.
This ongoing measurement will assist in improving
profits and the hotel’s positioning overall within the De
marketplace. ma ply
Sup
Price
nd
Q
Quantity
Figure 12.26 Key performance indicators in the front office

Table 12.21 Key performance indicators in the front office
Measure Formula Considerations

Rooms Rooms occupancy 5 Rooms occupancy measures the quantity of rooms occupied in the
occupancy total number of rooms hotel. Although it measures total capacity of room stock, this formula
and average occupied/total number has a number of weaknesses. On its own it is ineffective as a hotel
room rate of rooms available for can have 99% occupancy, but if the hotel’s average room rate is $1 its
(ARR) sale 3 100 performance is poor. Therefore, it is really effective only when combined
with the average room rate formula. In addition, if room occupancy is
ARR 5 total rooms
80% one might also consider this to be relatively good. However, if the
revenue/total rooms sold
target daily occupancy of the hotel was 95% on that same day, it has
or failed to meet the target. Therefore, it is important to always measure
against the target occupancy. Another consideration with this formula is
total rooms revenue/
that one should consider who is occupying the rooms. If the rooms are
total number of rooms
being occupied by individuals on a complimentary basis– for example,
occupied
employees, managers and travel agents – then no sales are being
achieved. Therefore as a financial measure a more accurate formula to
be used is total number of rooms sold, as opposed to rooms occupied:
total number of rooms sold/total number of rooms available 3 100
Performance Suite occupancy 5 total In many hotel properties there are several different room categories
per room suites occupied/total that may include suite, executive and standard rooms. It is therefore
type or suites available for sale important for front office managers to measure the performance
category 3 100 and suite ARR 5 of these categories individually. This breakdown of room category
total suite revenue/total performance will also help in identifying any particular weaknesses in
suites sold occupancy and ARR.
Bed or Total number of beds To evaluate how well you are utilising your beds is to consider the
sleeper occupied/total number number of sleepers per room. Many hotel rooms have a configuration
occupancy of beds available for sale of two beds per room (twin) and if only one sleeper is allocated to the
and double 3 100 room this may be considered poor utilisation. Although, the room price
occupancy doubles/twins let as may be the same if either one or two sleepers occupied the room one
doubles/twins/doubles/ should consider the potential for spend on other facilities within the
twins available for sale hotel – for example, food and beverage.
3 100
Revenue per Total rooms revenue/ This formula is slightly different from ARR as it looks at room revenue
sleeper total sleepers per individual and not per room.
Room yield Yield 5 rooms realised/ The room yield formula looks at how well you are managing your total
Revenue rooms potential room capacity. It investigates how well your rooms performed (actual) in
per available (rack rate 3 100% relation to how well they could have performed (potential). For example, a
room occupancy) hotel has 100 rooms for sale and the rack rate (published rate or highest
(REVPAR) rate) is $100. Therefore if the hotel sold all rooms (100%) and each room
Rooms actual (ARR 3
was sold at the highest rate $100 the total yield is 100 rooms 3 $100
actual occupancy/rooms
5 $10,000 revenue. Consider this, if the hotel achieved total daily room
potential (rack rate 3
revenue of $7,100 the room yield percentage would be 76%. Hence, from
100% occupancy)
a management perspective only 76% of your total potential has been
realised. Therefore, both occupancy and ARR would have to be looked at
in more depth to identify where the problem was. Another name for this
formula is REVPAR.
Gross Gross operating profit/ This measure is the only formula that evaluates the cost management
operating total rooms available for of rooms. The one weakness with many other rooms performance
profit per sale indicators is that they do not measure profit. For example, the hotel can
available achieve high occupancies and ARRs, but if management is failing to
room maintain costs then, ultimately, profit is reduced. The gross operating
(GOPPAR) profit per available room (GOPPAR) formula assists front office
managers in measuring this. Accommodation managers need to ensure
that a strict eye is kept on operating costs, such as staffing and cleaning,
to ensure that profit is achieved. This formula is used less frequently due
to the difficulties in measuring costs on a daily basis.
Design
When designing a front office area there are many fac- as ambience created and the initial impact of the total
tors to consider to achieve a functional and appealing design scheme of this area on the arriving customer,
environment. According to Jones and Paul (1996), are very important design issues, the practicalities of
‘Although the psychological aspects of design, such designing for functional efficiency are also important.’
Table 12.22 Key considerations in front office design
Considerations Rationale
Aesthetic appeal To enhance the appearance of the area, careful attention should be given to the
coordination of colours, textures and fabrics of furniture, fittings and interior.
Atmosphere To achieve the desired atmosphere, attention must be given to layout of furniture, lighting,
foliage and background music. Four- and five-star hotels may use chandeliers, fountains,
aquariums, and flora and fauna to achieve this experience.
Branding In some chain hotels (particularly budget) the colours of the brand are introduced into the
overall design to maintain theme and brand image. This may include lighting, fabric colour,
carpets and employee uniforms, to name a few.
Comfort Comfort can be achieved through the use of soft furnishings, appealing furniture, art,
background music, carefully positioned televisions, and air temperature control.
Communication To increase access for customers and efficiency for employees it is important to locate
the sub-departments of reception, concierge and bell desk as close together as possible.
Effective telecommunication is essential for the exchange of information between
employees and to guests. This can be enhanced with front office areas being supplied
with email, intranet, facsimile, Internet, touch-dial telephones and pagers.
Cleaning The cleaning requirements need to be considered when purchasing furniture and
equipment. Furniture should be easy for housekeeping personnel to move.
Environmental Energy-reducing design considerations can include natural light, energy-efficient
equipment, energy management systems (EMSs), air blowers and revolving doors.
Legislation Legislation should be considered. For example, in accordance with Disability
Discrimination Act (DDA) legislation, the front office entrance should have a ramp for
wheelchair access and a lowered desk to allow for easy check-in.
Fashion To remain contemporary, hotels should attempt to integrate modernity into design. This
may include fashionable colours, art or technological advances – for example, Wi-Fi.
Flow Traffic flow is important when designing a front desk operation. Outside there needs to
be sufficient room for vehicles to arrive, drop off and depart without causing any queues.
Similarly, queuing should be avoided on check-in, therefore sufficient check-in counters
should be available.
Health and safety The safety and security of guests, employees and the hotel’s assets need to be
considered. Ergonomic workstations, CCTV, safety deposit boxes and task lighting are
some examples.
Sales opportunity The opportunity for the hotel to maximise sales should not be missed. Examples include
gift shop, window boxes, posters of partner hotels, and clear signage to other facilities and
services.
Storage Sufficient storage for guest luggage and hotel inventory items.
Technology Technology to be integrated to improve guest service, financial control and communication
(POS, self check-in, Wi-Fi, pagers).
Departmental communication which it has the closest relationship is housekeeping.

While the guest is in-house a large amount of infor- The availability of rooms as guests check out and
mation is communicated between the front office and check in requires constant communication to ensure
other departments. Although the front office commu- that guests receive a clean, ready-prepared room on
nicates with many departments, the department with check-in.
Housekeeping Accounts
Room status information Depositing of cash and takings
Room release and availability Accounting controls and standards
Providing of flowers for lobby Collecting of cash floats
Communication of mini bar charges PMS training
Cleaning of lobby area Stock inventory
Sales and Marketing Security

Front office
Room performance Reporting of any security concerns
communication
Blocking of rooms for client tours Fire training
Fulfilling guest amenity requests In-room theft
Product knowledge training Violent customers
Rooms forecasting
Food and Beverage Engineering

Posting of guest transactions onto Reporting of any in-room defects
guest folio Repairs within reception and
Issuing of meal vouchers front office
Promoting of restaurants
Figure 12.27 Front-office communication
Housekeeping
Efficiently managed housekeeping departments
ensure the cleanliness, maintenance, and aesthetic
appeal of lodging properties. The housekeeping
department not only prepares clean guestrooms on
a timely basis for arriving guests, it also cleans and
maintains everything in the hotel.
(Kappa, Nitschke and Schappert, 1997)
Challenges for the housekeeping department include:
●● responsibility for the largest volume of area within
the hotel
●● the largest department in the hotel in terms of
staffing
●● in most cases, has the largest departmental staff Figure 12.28
count in the hotel
●● hard to attract skilled employees a part-time cleaner, whereas a hotel may employ
●● hard to motivate and retain employees. a whole team of cleaning staff. Many operations
now outsource their cleaning to improve quality and
The responsibility for cleaning an operation can vary
reduce expenses.
depending on its size, standard and type of operation.
Small independent restaurants and bars may employ
To ensure
all areas
are clean
To improve the at all times
To minimise the
appearance of the
build-up of dirt
operation
To prolong the life To make

of furniture, fixings customers feel
and fittings comfortable
Housekeeping
objectives
To promote a To clean at the
healthy and safe most convenient
environment times in the most
efficient way
To use good- To minimise any

quality, safe disruption to
cleaning chemicals To reduce any customers while
opportunities cleaning
of infestation
Figure 12.29 Housekeeping objectives
The importance of cleaning ●● good-quality chemicals and equipment

Clean facilities are critical to the success of any hos- ●● productivity standards
pitality operation. A clean environment can attract and ●● follow cleaning principles
retain guests and employees, and reduce sickness ●● good leadership and supervision
and accidents, thus avoiding waste and legal claims. ●● comply with the law
Tools for achieving a high standard of cleanliness ●● correct scheduling of cleaning personnel
include: ●● continually speak with customers.
●● cleaning schedules Hotel housekeeping

●● checklists Within a hotel, the housekeeping is managed by
●● standards of performance – ‘how to clean’ the executive housekeeper, who manages a large
●● ongoing training team of employees to achieve a high standard of
●● provide cleaning personnel with the right tools cleanliness.
Table 12.23 Housekeeping structures and services: accommodation
Organisation Employee structure Housekeeping services offered

Five-star hotel Large team of employees, to include High standard of cleanliness
executive housekeeper, floor Large team of skilled employees
housekeepers, room maids, housekeeping Longer room cleaning times
porters, public area cleaners, butlers, valet, Evening turndown service
and linen and laundry personnel Good-quality linen and furniture
Luxury internal design
Butler and valet services provided in some cases
Public area cleaners more visible
Own florist
Toilet attendants
Less likely to outsource room cleaning
Four-star hotel Similar to a five-star, but butlers may not Room cleaning
be used Turndown service
Public area cleaning
Budget hotel Room attendants may be outsourced to Room cleaning during guest occupancy and
minimise costs and keep in line with main departure
mission of hotel Cleaning of entrance and public areas, bar and
No in-house laundry, therefore linen is restaurant
outsourced
Bed and Owner carries out most cleaning; may Room cleaning during occupancy and on
breakfast (B&B) employ part-time staff to assist when busy departure
Linen may also be cleaned in-house Cleaning of entrance and public areas
Independent food Independent catering outlets in most General cleaning of facilities after service periods
service operator cases employ a part-time cleaner or carry and at night
out general cleaning by themselves
Non-commercial In most cases outsourced to a large Daily cleaning of facilities
operation (e.g. cleaning company Deep cleaning
hospital, school,
university)
Job description order’ system and keep rooms free from

Executive housekeeper defects at all times
●● Ensure that all areas are kept clean and as per ●● Successfully recruit all new housekeeping
standard at all times employees and carry out departmental
●● Have in place an inspection programme that inductions
checks rooms, corridors, public areas, back-of- ●● Implement strategies to retain employees and
house areas, laundry and external surroundings reduce labour turnover
●● Ensure each area has cleaning specifications ●● Motivate and guide employees at all times
and that these are adhered to at all times ●● Be visible throughout hotel and meet with
●● Ensure through efficient employee rostering that customers as often as possible
there are always the correct quantity of employees ●● Implement systems to collect feedback on
on duty at all times in relation to business demand housekeeping products and performance
●● Create housekeeping budget detailing forecast ●● Liaise with other department heads and
consumption of each housekeeping item, and communicate effectively
ensure budget is met each month ●● Ensure that par levels of housekeeping supplies
●● Ensure all employees follow health and safety and equipment are maintained
legislation at all times ●● Constantly be proactive in looking for ways to
●● Ensure employees follow maintenance ‘work improve the housekeeping product
Executive Housekeeper
Housekeeping Manager Laundry Manager
Floor Floor Floor Floor Night Linen Room Senior Recreation

Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor Housekeeping Supervisor
Aid
Room Room
Attendant Attendant
Night Night Linen Room Lobby
Room Room Housekeeper Housekeeping Attendant Housekeeper
Attendant Attendant Aid
Room Room
Attendant Attendant
Figure 12.30 Typical organisation chart for housekeeping in a large four- or five-star hotel
Table 12.24 Examples of employees within the housekeeping department
Position Responsibilities (may differ depending on property)

Assistant manager Deputises for executive housekeeper
Floor supervisor Quality checks rooms
Checks rooms prior to arrival, during occupancy and after departure
Releases clean rooms to reception
Conducts shift briefings
Reviews guest lists and VIP reports
Organises and schedules rooms and suites maintenance – for example, spring clean, wall
and ceiling washing, dusting, high dusting and under-bed vacuuming
Hands over the shift and all information regarding their floor to the evening housekeepers
Communicates any issues regarding their rooms and suites with the housekeeping office
coordinator and senior housekeepers
Carries out weekly and monthly stock-takes to maintain par levels
Ensures all keys (master and floor) are controlled tightly
Motivates and monitors staff accordingly
Reviews ‘out of order’ rooms
Ensures all storage rooms are clean and stocked at all times
Room attendant Attends daily briefings
Stocks service trolleys
Cleans rooms and suites to the highest standards
Completes turndown service
Maintains maid service and pantry areas
Communicates with floor housekeeper
Reports any broken and missing items in their rooms and suites to their floor housekeepers
Greets and assists guests whenever necessary
Public area (PA) Cleans public areas, to include lobby, lifts, corridors, public toilets, offices and service areas
cleaner Greets and assists guests whenever necessary
Reports any defects to maintenance
Housekeeping Assists with rooms and suites maintenance as and when required
porter Assists floor housekeepers with the weekly and monthly stock-take
Assists with floor housekeepers’ and room attendants’ requests
Moves furniture in and out of rooms and suites as per floor housekeepers’ instructions
Assists with any guest room changes
Delivers and collects ‘special requests’ to rooms (e.g. cots, blankets, extra towels)
Transports dirty laundry to linen room from floors
Assists room attendants during peak times
Assists room attendants in deep cleaning activities
Position Responsibilities (may differ depending on property)

Valet Washes and irons guest laundry items
Sends and receives guests’ dry-cleaning items
Pressing services
Linen room Sends out and receives all staff laundry and dry-cleaning items on a daily basis
attendant Organises and puts all staff laundry and dry-cleaning items in places as per departments on
a daily basis
Delivers all linen to the maid service on each floor as per floor housekeepers’ requests
Laundry Washes and irons in-house laundry items
attendants Sends and receives in-house dry-cleaning items
Organises the chute room and delivers all linen items to the laundry room
Separates all types of linen and laundry items before the items are processed
Receives, sorts, cleans, dries, folds and stores linen and laundry items
Ensures equipment and storage areas are clean at all times
Adheres to safety standards at all times
Butler (hotels) For housekeeping duties only:
(This position is • unpacks and packs guest belongings
normally found • sends and receives guest laundry and dry-cleaning items from the valet
only in very • communicates any issue and challenge regarding rooms and suites to housekeeping office
high-quality co-coordinator and senior housekeepers
hotels) • lists all guest items to and from the storage cupboards
Soil can be generated in different ways. It is the 2 Inorganic (oily, sticky): soil or dirt is almost
responsibility of the housekeeper to minimise the always mixed with grease or other oily materials.
entry and build-up of soil within the operation. Grease and oil make the dirt stick to a surface.
There are two main types of soil. The longer dirt remains on a surface, the more it
tends to bond to the surface and the harder it is
1 Organic (loose, dry): commonly referred to
to remove.
as dust. It can usually be removed with direct
mechanical action, as long as it stays dry. It can Soil build-up can be prevented by:
be swept, dust mopped, wiped, vacuumed or wet
●● reducing the opportunity for soil to enter the
mopped with little or no chemical action required.
establishment
Any surface that has not been cleaned in 12
●● minimising the build-up of soil within the
hours will have dust accumulated on it. The longer
establishment
it remains on a surface, the better chance it has
of becoming oily, sticky soil from contamination Soil is generated in the workplace in different ways,
with other substances, even from moisture in the as outlined in Table 12.25.
air or from air-conditioning units.
Cleaning
Cleaning
of dirt/soil
Build up
Time
Figure 12.31 The ‘theory of dirt’

Table 12.25 Soil generated in the workplace
Cause Examples Solutions/Prevention

Humans and Poor hygiene Poor hand washing Signage, training, education, supervision,
employees adequate bathing facilities
Litter Dustbins, signs
Mistakes Spillages Training/prompt removal by cleaning
Deliberate Vandalism, graffiti Code of conduct/rules
Natural Shedding skin, hair loss, Personal grooming
perspiration
Disease Sneezing, coughing Hand-washing facilities/hand gel/disinfectant
Employees Bringing in soil Dirt on clothing Changing rooms, standards, employee rules
from outside and regulations
Weather Rain/snow Water/sludge Doormats/temporary entry carpets/umbrella
holders/umbrella disposable bags/floor mats
External matter/ Leaves, earth, Visitors/employees bring in Entry mats, foot grinders
foliage dust, litter, on footwear
debris
Equipment Machinery Grease, dust, ventilation Regular cleaning/cleaning schedules
Insects, vermin Cockroaches, Pests enter through the Cover bins, keep door closed, thorough checks
and pests rats, flies atmosphere, deliveries, on delivery
luggage, cracks in
maintenance, delivery areas,
poor food hygiene, storage
and disposal
The atmosphere Smoke, The atmosphere deposits Regular cleaning, good ventilation and
exhausts, dust soil extraction
Natural Decay/ Interior and exterior – Regular maintenance
deterioration buildings, paintwork, stone
Cleaning agents ●● toilet cleaners

To assist in the removal of soil, a selection of chemi- ●● laundry aids
cals is available. When using cleaning agents one ●● floor strippers
should remember to: ●● disinfectants and bleaches
●● detergents
●● use the right chemical for the job ●● water
●● always read the label ●● floor sealers.
●● follow the cleaning specification
●● use the correct quantity Cleaning agents are applied using different methods,
●● apply in the correct way including:
●● apply safely and with care. ●● spotting
According to Raghubalan and Raghubalan (2007), ●● scrubbing
examples of cleaning agents include: ●● steam extraction
●● buffing
●● glass cleaners ●● wiping
●● polishers ●● mopping
●● carpet cleaners ●● dusting
●● reagents ●● vacuuming
●● organic solvents ●● polishing
●● abrasives ●● laundering.
●● deodorisers
The principles of cleaning Table 12.26 Cleaning equipment
When cleaning objects, the following principles should Manual equipment Mechanical equipment
be applied.
Applicators Vacuum cleaners
●● Remove all surface soil and obstructions before Brushes Wet vacuums
cleaning. Chamois leather Wet extractors
●● Follow the least obtrusive and disturbing Dusters Rotary machines
methods of cleaning, especially early in the Dustpan and brush
morning. Mop and bucket
●● Restore all surfaces to as near perfect condition Ladders
Trolleys
as soon as possible.
Squeegee
●● Always use the simplest method of cleaning and Sprayers
the mildest cleaning agent.
●● Beware of safety hazards.
●● Remove all dust and dirt – do not transfer to Prevention and legislation
another area. Strategies to create a healthy, safe and secure envi-
●● Carry out cleaning in the quickest possible time. ronment include:
●● RIDDOR
Safety within accommodation ●● training
When cleaning facilities employees are confronted ●● prevention rather than cure
with many risks, including: ●● good leadership at the top
●● back problems due to bending and reaching ●● fire procedures
●● defective equipment ●● goals for health and safety reduction
●● contamination from used needles ●● penalties/warnings for non-compliance
●● stress – workload ●● clear communication – reporting
●● equipment flexes ●● accountability
●● faulty electrics ●● well-executed maintenance repair
●● broken glass ●● awareness
●● frequent lifting and moving of heavy objects ●● qualified supervision
●● high ladder work ●● health and safety committees
●● wet, slippery floors ●● attend health and safety workshops and
●● cleaning of high floors and balconies conventions
●● allergic reactions to chemicals ●● certified, skilled employees
●● hazardous chemicals. ●● adhere to and follow the law
●● consult employees – bottom up!
Every working day in Great Britain at least one ●● external health and safety consultants
person is killed and over 6000 are injured at work. ●● regular risk assessment
Every year three quarters of a million people take ●● regular health and safety audits.
time off work because of what they regard as
work-related illness. About 30 million work days Some of the legislation within the accommodation
are lost as a result. sector is listed in Table 12.28.
(Health and Safety Executive)
Table 12.27 Typical health and safety risks for housekeeping employees
Risks Examples Prevention

Back problems Turning mattresses, pushing carts, bending, Training in lifting techniques, ask for
stretching assistance
Dealing with In most cases all housekeeping employees COSHH training, protective clothing,
hazardous chemicals will have to deal with chemicals at some point chemical label fact sheets
in time; the correct use of these chemicals is
paramount and failing to do this can lead to
serious injury
Defective equipment Shorts in equipment Maintenance repair/preventative
maintenance programme/purchase safe,
tested equipment/portable appliance
testing/risk assessment
Contamination from Use of controlled substances in rooms by Special training and standards in the
infected needles/ customers/non-disposed used needles; correct, safe disposal of needles/blood
blood hepatitis B virus or HIV are found in blood and stains/sharps box
spread when infected blood or certain body
fluids get into the body
Work stress All employees can be subject to additional Good scheduling, regular breaks, job
workload and pressures, which can lead to chats, fair distribution and allocation
stress of work, observation, ‘management by
walking around’ (MBWA)
Equipment flexes Room attendants frequently use equipment with Training/operating procedures
long flexes (e.g. vacuum cleaners/polishers),
and can be at risk of trips and falls
Wet/slippery floors When floors are wet after mopping or wet Non-slip work shoes, wet floor signs, grit
weather
High floor/ladder Some high dusting may require the use of Training/ensure ladder is safe/colleague
work ladders (e.g. cleaning high balconies, artwork or to hold ladder/only attempt if qualified/
chandeliers) Working at Height Regulations 2005/
never use chair instead of ladder
Broken glass/china Room attendants and public area cleaners can Training/awareness/standards for
come into contact with broken glass correct disposal/broken glass containers
Office work It is not only subordinates that face risks – Provide an ergonomic workplace
managers/operators who work at computers environment
also can suffer from back pain and repetitive
strain injury (RSI)
Table 12.28 Legislation within the accommodation sector
The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous

Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995 Act
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
2002 Act
First Aid Regulations 1981
Manual Handling Regulations 1992 Act
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Regulations
(1992)
Safety Signs and Signals Regulations 1996 Act
The Fire Precautions Act 1971
The Health and Safety at Work Act (HASAWA) 1974
Maintenance and facilities

●● promptly repair any defective furniture, equipment
or fittings
●● plan and oversee any major refurbishments,
renovations or redecorations
●● contract external specialists to perform
maintenance works as and when required
●● provide a safe physical working environment for
employees
●● provide safe premises for visitors and customers
●● actively work towards reducing energy costs.
Very few hotels employ a full team of specialised
maintenance personnel. Many have general employ-
Figure 12.32 ees who work in the maintenance department, who
may specialise in one area but are also cross-trained
Facilities are a key element of the money making to carry out other maintenance tasks. For example,
aspects of the business. They serve as a loca- an employee who is a qualified plumber may also
tion for the delivery of services, they play a role in have had training on how to operate the energy man-
estate appreciation and they contribute to corpo- agement system. Cross-training employees provides
rate growth. greater flexibility. Another approach would be to have
(Stipanuk and Roffman, 1996) general handymen who can deal with general day-
to-day tasks but when a specialised piece of work
The objectives of the maintenance department
needs to be done, they employ a local contractor at
include:
an hourly rate to carry out the work.
●● maintain the operation’s internal and surrounding
facilities
Chief
Engineer
Assistant Chief
Engineer
Supervisors
Painter and Carpenter/ Gardener/grounds

Plumber Engineer Electrician
decorator Handyman personnel
Figure 12.33 Organisational chart for the maintenance department of a large four- or five-star
hotel
Security
In this section, the importance of security is predefined as ‘the condition of being protected against
sented. Both customers and employees need to danger or loss’.
feel secure while on the premises. Security may be The size and complexity of the security department
can vary depending on the operation. City-centre ●● create awareness of security issues in all
hotels, hotels in volatile political locations and casi- employees
nos, for example, require more security. It is common ●● escort suspicious or undesirable persons
for security personnel to be outsourced from a secu- ●● assist in dealing with difficult or intoxicated guests
rity agency. In most cases there is one individual in ●● assist in making security checks on personnel
the hotel who is responsible for security – this person ●● complete security paperwork
could be the chief of security or security manager. ●● be alert at all times.
The key responsibilities of a security manager
The objectives of the security department are to
include:
protect:
●● monitor CCTV
●● guests and their assets while on the premises
●● escort cash-drops
●● employees and their assets while on the premises
●● follow up
●● the hotel’s assets
●● respond rapidly to security requests
●● the data of the hotel and the customer.
●● make frequent rounds of premises
●● work closely with local police
Table 12.29 Security risks and prevention
Security risk example Who is at risk? Risk prevention

Suspicious packages Guests, employees, Visible in-house security/crisis planning/awareness by
assets employees
Potential in-room theft from Guests Effective in-house security/awareness by employees/
intruders educating customers/electronic locking system (ELS)/use of
in-room safes/safety deposit box/CCTV surveillance system
– closed-circuit television/signing in and out for all visitors
Handbag thieves in public Guests In-house security, informing guests to be aware, CCTV,
areas handbag safety hooks
Employees attempting to Guests Employ good staff – reference/police checks/effective
defraud customers/identity supervision/CCTV/standards/data protection
theft/customer information
Employees taking cash from Hotel Reference checks, police checks, POS system, CCTV, good
tills supervision, employee bag checks, security personnel
Harassment from customers Employees Visible in-house security guards
Attack on front desk Employees, assets Security training for employees on what to do in the event of
reception for cash (by such a situation, panic alarm, CCTV, security personnel, drop
robber) safe
Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce some of Some references to accommodation
the key areas of importance within accommodation management elsewhere in this book:
management – moreover, to highlight the impor-
✎● Computer systems ......................................................... Ch. 17
tance of good-quality accommodation management
for guests, employees and operational profits. It has ✎● Customer care............................................................................ 321
set out to detail the challenges that operators face in ✎● Employment ...................................................................................... 31
managing accommodation, and has provided exam- ✎● Marketing......................................................................................... 314
ples of tools, systems and approaches that can be
✎● Tourism ....................................................................................................... 4
used to deal with these challenges.
The accommodation sector is highly competitive ✎● UK hotel industry ............................................................................ 6
and constantly evolving, and so requires high-quality,
motivated employees and managers to ensure that
the delivery of the accommodation product meets the
customer’s expectation every time.
References
Anhar, L. (2001) The definition of boutique Kotler, P. (2009) Marketing Management (13th edn).
hotels. Hospitality Net. Available online at USA: Prentice Hall.
http://www.hospitalitynet.org/news/4010409. Nobles, H. and Thompson, C. (2001) What is
print (accessed 31 April 2010). a boutique hotel? Hotel Online. Available
Bardi, A.J. (2007) Hotel Front Office Management online at: http://www.hotel-online.com/News/
(2nd edn). USA: Wiley PR2001_4th/Oct01_BoutiqueAttributes.html
Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2008) Justice and alternative (accessed 16 May 2010).
globalisation. Journal of Sustainable Tourism Raghubalan, G. and Raghubalan, S. (2007) Hotel
16(3), pp. 345–364. Housekeeping. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jones, C. and Paul, V. (1996) Accommodation Seth, P. (2006) Successful Tourism: Vol. 1. Sterling
Management. London: Batsford. Publishers.
Jones, T.J.A. (2008) Professional Management of Stipanuk, D.M. and Roffmann, H. (1996) Facilities
Housekeeping Operations (5th edn). John Wiley Management. Michigan: AHLA.
& Sons. Plus:
Kappa, M.N., Nitschke, A. and Schappert, P.B. (1997) Automobile Association (AA) hotel classification
Managing Housekeeping Operations (2nd edn). system (2010)
Michigan: AHLA. British Hospitality Association
Kavanaugh, R.R. and Ninemeier, J.D. (2001) Health and Safety Executive (2010)
Supervision in the Hospitality Industry. Michigan: World Tourism Organisation (WTO)
AHLA. Visit Britain (2009) Britain and Inbound Market
Knowles, T. (1994) Hospitality Management, An Report
Introduction. London: Pitman.

1 Different types of accommodation attract differ- 4 Reflect and evaluate in your groups how the inte-
ent profiles of customers. In groups, consider the gration of technology on the front desk assists in
types of people who visit your city and identify achieving the following:
the following: (a) financial control
(a) their demographic profile (age, nationality, (b) customer satisfaction
gender, occupation, etc.) (c) revenue maximisation.
(b) purpose of visit (business, leisure, visiting 5 Visit a local hotel in your town or city. Identify how
friends or family, study etc.) the design of the hotel:
(c) length of stay (a) meets the needs of the target market
(d) which types of accommodation in your area (b) contributes towards sales maximisation
they would use. (c) meets health and safety requirements.
2 Using a ‘mind map’, outline the benefits of provid- 6 Protecting the environment is at the forefront
ing quality accommodation for customers, and of consumers’ minds. Discuss and detail what
detail the challenges and opportunities it pre- steps accommodation managers can implement
sents for the profits, employees and customers. to assist in achieving a more sustainable accom-
3 Consider the ‘guest cycle’. Discuss and list the modation operation.
opportunities at each stage to ‘upsell’ services
and products to customers.
Legislatio
t5 n
ar
Health, safety
13
P
and security
Sickness and Accidents in the Accidents 380

Workplace 367 First Aid 383
Control of Substances Fire Precautions 385
Hazardous to Health (COSHH) 369 Security in Catering 389
Other Legislation 370 Catering Safety Management:
Safety Regulations 371 a Summary 390
Health and Safety Training 377 Topics for Discussion 390
Occupational Health 379

›● Activity worksheet: health and safety
›● Videos and worksheets: health and safety
Sickness and accidents in the workplace

Sickness absence costs the UK economy approxi- Stress and accidents are currently the two biggest
mately £400–500 per employee each year. Accidents causes of absence from work.
can happen in any workplace (see the section on You can report an accident at work by:
accidents, which starts on page 380).
●● email
If an employee works on a computer, they may be
●● fax
at risk of:
●● telephone
●● eye and eyesight problems ●● letter.
●● epilepsy
The average number of days taken as sick leave each
●● upper limb pain and discomfort
year in the UK is approximately 30 million.
●● fatigue and stress.
368 Legislation
Table 13.1 Significant factors for the catering industry
Cause Percentage of all injuries Significant factor

Slips, trips 30 per cent but 75 per cent 88 per cent due to slippery floors due to spillage not
of all major injuries cleared up, wet floors and buckets, etc. in passageways and
uneven floors
Handling 29 per cent 33.3 per cent due to lifting pans, trays, etc.; 33.3 per cent to
handling sharp objects (e.g. knives); 33.3 per cent awkward
lifts from low ovens or high positions
Exposure to 16 per cent 61 per cent from splashes; 13 per cent from hot objects.
hazardous Causes: poor maintenance 28 per cent of cases; steam
substances, hot from ovens/steamer 23 per cent; carrying hot liquids 16 per
surfaces, steam cent; misuse of cleaning materials 14 per cent; cleaning flat
fryers 14 per cent; equipment failure 12 per cent; horseplay
4 per cent; hot surfaces 1 per cent
Struck by moving 10 per cent 33.3 per cent most probably from knives; 25 per cent from
articles including falling articles; 10 per cent from assault
hand tools
Walking into objects 4 per cent 75 per cent of cases involved walking into a fixed as
opposed to a moveable object
Machinery 3 per cent Slicers 30 per cent; mixers 16 per cent; vegetable cutting
machines 9 per cent; vegetable slicing, mincing and grating
attachments 10 per cent; pie and tart machines 4 per cent;
dough mixer, dough moulder, mincing machine, dishwasher
2 per cent
Falls 1.8 per cent 75 per cent falls from low height (but half of the major
injuries occurred on stairs)
Fire and explosion 1.6 per cent 80 per cent during manually igniting gas fire appliances,
mainly ovens
Electric shock 0.5 per cent 25 per cent due to poor maintenance; 25 per cent trolley
involved; 25 per cent unsafe switching and unplugging
(75 per cent of these in wet conditions); 25 per cent poor
maintenance
Transporter 3 per cent 50 per cent involved fork lift trucks
Reportable major injuries resuscitation or admittance to hospital for more

●● Fracture other than finger, thumb or toe than 24 hours
●● Amputation ●● Unconsciousness caused by asphyxia or
●● Dislocation of hip, knee or spine exposure to a harmful substance or biological
●● Loss of sight (temporary or permanent) agent
●● Chemical or hot metal burn to the eye or any ●● Acute illness requiring medical treatment, or
penetration to the eye loss of consciousness from absorption by
●● Injury from electric shock or burn leading to inhalation, ingestion or through the skin
unconsciousness or requiring resuscitation or ●● Acute illness requiring medical treatment where
admittance to hospital for more than 24 hours there is reason to believe that this resulted from
●● Any other injury leading to hypothermia, heat- exposure to a biological agent or its toxins or
induced illness or unconsciousness, or requiring infected material
HEALTH, SAFETY AND SECURITY 369
RIDDOR (Reporting Injuries, Diseases their representatives, to be honest and able to trust
and Dangerous Occurrences) each other at every step of the process. The sooner
you take positive action together, the more likely it
RIDDOR regulations came into effect in 1996 and
will be that your sick employees can return to work
require work-related accidents, diseases and danger-
successfully and get on with the job of helping you
ous occurrences to be reported by employers to the
build your business.
Incident Contact Centre, Caerphilly Business Park,
For small employers, an instance of an employee
Caerphilly CF83 3GG. Records must be kept of each
being off work for more than 14 days is likely to be
occurrence.
rare, but when it does happen there are consider-
Examples of reportable diseases include certain
able benefits from working in partnership with your
poisons, dermatitis, skin cancer, lung diseases such
employees, their trades union or other employee
as occupational asthma, infections such as hepatitis,
representatives, to help those off sick return to work
tuberculosis, anthrax and tetanus.
as soon as they are able.
An example of a dangerous occurrence could be an
By doing this you will:
overloaded electric circuit causing a major fire.
‘Three-day injuries’ are not major but cause the ●● keep valued staff and avoid unnecessary
employee to be absent for more than three days recruitment and training costs
consecutively (not counting the day of the injury, but ●● keep your business productive and, where your
including days they would not normally be at work). sick employee has built up a loyal client base,
keep this as a source of income
Managing absence ●● reduce unnecessary overheads, such as saving on
Managing employee absence doesn’t have to be dif- lost wages and sick pay costs
ficult or complicated. ●● help meet your legal duties and avoid
discriminating against disabled workers
●● Tell your employees what they can expect from ●● maintain and improve workplace relations by
you to help them return to work, as far as your working in partnership with your employees and
business permits. their workforce representatives.
●● Make sure they understand their own contractual
duties to you, including what procedures you Enforcement and support
require for absences from work.
In most catering businesses, health and safety law
It is important to have a fair and consistent approach is enforced by environmental health officers (EHOs)
to return to work and for you, your employees and employed by the local authority.
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)

The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health COSHH Register
Regulations 1999 (COSHH) state that: A COSHH register should be kept by the manager for
an employer shall not carry on any work which is all substances used in the establishment. Technical
liable to expose any employees to any substance data sheets should be attached to the completed
hazardous to health unless he has made a suitable COSHH assessment sheet.
and sufficient assessment of the risks created by Substances dangerous to health are labelled ‘very
work to the health of these employees. toxic’, ‘toxic’, ‘harmful’, ‘irritant’ or ‘corrosive’. While only a
small number of such chemicals are used for cleaning
Nature of the hazard catering establishments, it is necessary to be aware of
When considering carrying out your legal obligations the regulations introduced in 1989 and the symbols
under the COSHH Regulations all areas should be used on products.
surveyed in order to ascertain the chemicals and
substances used. Table 13.2 presents a list of areas
Principles
and the likely chemicals and substances to be found Those persons using such substances must be made
in them. aware of their correct use and proper dilution, where
appropriate, and must wear protection: goggles,
370 LEGISLATION
gloves and face masks as appropriate. Eye goggles workers and carry out an appropriate form of
should be worn when using oven cleaners, gloves surveillance of their health.
when hands may come into contact with any chemical ●● Inform, instruct and train employees about the
cleaner, and face masks when using grease-cutting risks and the precautions to be taken.
and oven degreasers. Extra protective aprons or over-
alls may be needed. Rules for using chemicals
It is essential that staff are trained to take precau- ●● Always follow the maker’s instructions.
tions and not to take risks. ●● Always store in original containers. Decanting
a chemical means you may lose its name and
What does COSHH require? classification, and it may be misused.
The basic principles of occupational hygiene underlie ●● Keep lids tightly closed.
the COSHH Regulations. ●● Do not store in direct sunlight, near heat or naked
flames.
●● Assess the risk to health arising from work and ●● Read the labels. Know the product and its risk.
what precautions are needed. ●● Never mix chemicals.
●● Introduce appropriate measures to prevent or ●● Know the first-aid procedure.
control the risk. ●● Always add product to water, not water to
●● Ensure that control measures are used and that product.
equipment is properly maintained and procedures ●● Dispose of empty drums immediately.
observed. ●● Dispose of waste chemical solutions safely.
●● Where necessary, monitor the exposure of the ●● Wear the correct safety equipment.
Table 13.2 Work areas, and the chemicals and substances likely to be found in them
Area Chemicals and substances

Kitchen Cleaning chemicals including alkalis and acids, detergents, sanitisers, descalers
Chemicals associated with burnishing, possibly some oils associated with machines
Pest-control chemicals, insecticides and rodenticides
Restaurant Cleaning chemicals, polishes, decalers, fuel for flame lamps including methylated spirits, LPG
Bar Beer line cleaner, glass-washing detergent and sanitisers
Housekeeping Cleaning chemicals including detergents, sanitisers, disinfectants, descalants, polishes, carpet-
cleaning products, floor-care products
Maintenance Cleaning chemicals, adhesives, solvents, paint, LPG, salts for water softening etc., paint
stripper, varnishes etc.
Offices Correction fluid, thinners, solvents, methylated spirits, toner for photocopier, duplicating fluids
and chemicals, polishes
Other legislation
Every year in the UK 1000 people are killed at work, The law imposes a general duty on an employer ‘to
a million people suffer injuries, and 23 million working ensure so far as is reasonably practicable, the health,
days are lost annually because of industrial injury and safety and welfare at work of all his employees’. The
disease. As catering is one of the largest employ- law also imposes a duty on every employee while at
ers of labour the catering industry is substantially work to:
affected by accidents at work.
●● take reasonable care for the health and safety
In 1974 the Health and Safety at Work Act was
of himself or herself and of other persons who
passed with two main aims:
may be affected by his or her acts or omissions
1 to extend the coverage and protection of the law at work
to all employers and employees ●● cooperate with his or her employer so far
2 to increase awareness of safety among those at as is necessary to meet or comply with any
work, both employers and employees. requirement concerning health and safety
●● not interfere with, or misuse, anything provided in ●● issue a written statement of ‘safety policy’ to
the interests of health, safety or welfare. employees, to include general policy with respect
to the health and safety at work of employees,
It can clearly be seen that both health and safety at
the role of the organisation in ensuring the
work is everybody’s responsibility. Furthermore, the
policy is carried out, how the policy will be made
Act protects the members of the public who may be
effective.
affected by the activities of those at work.
●● consult with employees’ safety representative and
Penalties are provided by the Act, which include
establish a Safety Committee.
improvement notices, prohibition notices and criminal
prosecution. The Health and Safety Executive was The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare)
set up to enforce the law, and the Health and Safety Regulations 1992 require indoor workplace temper-
Commission issues codes of conduct and acts as an atures to be reasonable, with effective and suitable
adviser. ventilation provided.
Working in extreme temperatures can cause con-
Responsibilities of the employer siderable stress on staff, which could result in condi-
The employer’s responsibilities are to: tions such as hypothermia or heat exhaustion. Before
these injuries occur, staff may become tired and
●● provide and maintain premises and equipment listless, and reduced concentration could make them
that are safe and without risk to health more prone to accidents such as cuts and burns.
●● provide supervision, information and training
Safety regulations
Six health and safety at work regulations came into Risk assessment and reduction
force in 1993.
Management of health and safety
1 Management of Health and Safety at Work The duties of employers, as specified by the
Regulations 1992: Management of Health and Safety at Work
– risk assessment Regulations 1999, are listed below. Employers have a
– control of hazardous substances duty under these regulations to carry out risk assess-
– training. ments and COSHH assessments.
2 Work Place (Health, Safety and Welfare)
Regulations 1992: Hazard
– floors to be of suitable construction Means anything that can cause harm (e.g. chemicals,
– floors free from hazardous articles or electricity, working from ladders).
substances
– steps taken to avoid slips, trips and falls. Risk
3 Manual Handling Operation Regulations 1992: Is the chance high or low that somebody will be
– reducing incorrect handling of loads harmed by the hazard?
– preventing hazardous handling.
4 Fire Precautions in Places of Work:
– means of firefighting
Five steps to assessing risk
1 Look for hazards – the things that could
– evacuation procedures
cause harm.
– raising the alarm.
2 Decide who might be harmed, and how.
5 Provision and Use of Work Equipment:
3 Evaluate the risks and decide whether the
– ensure correct usage
existing precautions are adequate, or whether
– properly maintained
more should be done.
– training given.
4 Write down your findings so you have a
6 Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment):
record that you can check back against.
– to see that staff using visual display units have
5 Regularly review your assessment, and revise
a suitable workplace and take regular breaks.
it if necessary.
372 Legislation
Criminal prosecution
Enforcement action
Civil action/claims
Food poisoning Business Accidents
threats
Other food/ Compensation
customer complaints Higher insurance
Disorganisation Bad press Poor morale

Poor service
HMS legal Helpline synthesis

update/info Business risk
Audit status review
assessment
Incident
synthesis Policy implementation
status
Business health
strategy
Safety culture
Low insurance
Policy implementation premium – low risk
Risk
control High morale
Reduced incidence
of food complaints Staff training and focus
Reduced accidents
Due diligence
Business protection
Figure 13.1 Business protection
Managing risk The prevention of accidents and food poisoning in

Managing risk is not a complicated procedure. To catering establishments is essential; therefore it is
start with, a health and safety policy must be in place necessary to assess the situation and decide what
for the business. action is to be taken. Risk assessment can be divided
into four areas, as follows.
Involve employees 1 Minimal risk – safe conditions with safety
These are people most at risk of having accidents, or measures in place.
experiencing ill health, and they also know the most 2 Some risk – acceptable risk, however attention
about the jobs they do so are in the best position to must be given to ensure safety measures operate.
help managers develop safe systems of work that are 3 Significant risk – where safety measures are not
effective in practice. An actively engaged workforce fully in operation (also includes food most likely
is one of the foundations that support good health to cause food poisoning). Requires immediate
and safety. It ensures that all those involved with a action.
work activity, both managers and workers, are partici- 4 Dangerous risk – operations of process or
pating in assessing risks. equipment to stop immediately. The system
of equipment to be completely checked and
Assessing risk recommended after clearance.
Assessing risk is the key to effective health and To operate an assessment of risks the following
safety in the workplace. This means nothing more points should be considered:
than a careful examination of what, in your work,
could cause harm to people, so that you can weigh ●● assess the risks
up whether you have taken sufficient precautions or ●● determine preventative measures
should do more to prevent harm. ●● decide who carries out safety inspections
Health, safety and security 373
●● decide frequency of inspection ●● planning l monitoring

●● determine methods of reporting back and to ●● organisation l review.
whom ●● control
●● detail how to ensure inspections are effective
The aim is to reduce risk and secure a progressive
●● see that on-the-job training in safety is related to
improvement in health and safety performance.
the job.
The purpose of the exercise of assessing the pos- Health and safety information for
sibility of risks and hazards is to prevent accidents. employees
First, it is necessary to monitor the situation, to have All employees, including trainees, must be provided
regular and spasmodic checks to see that the stand- with information on the particular risks they face, what
ards set are being complied with. However, should to do in the event of a fire or other general emergency
an incident occur, it is essential that an investigation situation, and the preventative and protective meas-
is made as to the cause or causes, and any defects ures designed to ensure their health and safety, includ-
in the system remedied at once. Immediate action is ing the identity of staff that would assist in the event
required to prevent further accidents. All personnel of an evacuation. The information must be capable of
need to be trained to be actively aware of the pos- being understood by those for whom it is intended.
sible hazards and risks, and to take positive action to
prevent accidents occurring. Employees’ duties
Employees have a duty to use correctly all work items
The workplace provided by the employer in accordance with the
The highest number of accidents occurring in hospi- training and instructions they have received to enable
tality premises are due to persons falling, slipping or them to use the items safely.
tripping (see Table 13.1). Therefore, floor surfaces Employees must immediately inform their employer,
must be of a suitable construction to reduce this risk. A or person responsible for health and safety, of any
major reason for the high incidence of this kind of acci- work situation that might present a serious and
dent is that water and grease are likely to be spilt, and imminent danger. Also employees should report any
the combination of these substances is treacherous shortcomings in the health and safety protection
and makes the floor surface slippery. For this reason arrangements in the company.
any spillage must be cleaned immediately and warning
notices put in place, where appropriate, highlighting Consultation with employees
the danger of the slippery surface. Ideally a member Safety Representatives and Safety
of staff should stand guard until the hazard is cleared.
Committees Regulations 1997
Another cause of falls is the placing of articles on
the floor in corridors, passageways or between stoves The employer is required to consult employee repre-
and tables. Persons carrying trays and containers sentatives in health and safety matters. The recog-
have their vision obstructed and items on the floor nised trades union must notify the employer in writing
may not be visible; the fall may occur onto a hot stove of the names of the appointed persons who are the
and the item being carried may be hot. These falls safety representatives.
can have severe consequences. The solution is to The functions of a safety representative include:
ensure that nothing is left on the floor that may cause ●● investigating potential hazards and dangerous
a hazard. If it is necessary to have articles temporarily occurrences in the workplace
on the floor, then it is desirable that they are guarded ●● examining the cause of accidents, investigating
so as to prevent accidents. complaints by any employee on health and safety
Kitchen personnel should be trained to think and issues
act in a safe manner so as to avoid this kind of ●● making representations to the employer on
accident. general matters affecting the health, safety or
welfare at work of employees
Managing health and safety ●● attending health and safety meetings.
Employers must have appropriate arrangements in
place (recorded where there are five or more employ- Safety committees
ees) for maintaining a safe workplace. These should If two or more safety representatives make a request
cover the usual management functions of: in writing for a committee, the employer must set up
374 Legislation
one within three months, after consultation with those that work equipment is suitable for its intended use,
who made the request. and is maintained in efficient working order and in
good repair, and that adequate information, instruc-
Manual handling tion and training on the use and maintenance of the
The incorrect handling of heavy and awkward loads equipment and any associated hazards is given to
causes accidents, which can result in staff being off employees.
work for some time. Figure 13.2 shows how to lift Work equipment that possesses a specific risk must
heavy items in the correct way. The safest way to lift be used only by designated persons who have received
items is to bend at the knees rather than bending relevant training. The Regulations’ ‘specific’ require-
the back. Strain and damage can be reduced if two ments cover dangerous machinery parts, protection
people do the lifting rather than one. against certain hazards (i.e. falling objects, ejected com-
ponents, overheating), the provision of certain stop and
Handling checklist emergency stop controls, isolation from energy sources,
●● When goods are moved on trolleys, trucks or any stability and lighting, and markings and warnings.
wheeled vehicles, they should be loaded carefully PUWER 1998 replaces the list of prescribed dan-
(not overloaded) and in a manner that enables gerous machines as contained in the Prescribed
the handler to see where they are going. Dangerous Machines Order 1964.
●● In stores, it is essential that heavy items are stacked
at the bottom and that steps are used with care. Need for signage
●● Particular care is needed when large pots are Following risk assessment under the Management of
moved containing liquid, especially hot liquid. They Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992, safety
should not be filled to the brim. signage should only be implemented to control a hazard
●● A warning sign that equipment handles, lids, etc. when all other methods to reduce the risk to employees
can be hot should be given; this can be indicated have been exhausted. Safety signs must not take the
by a small sprinkle of flour or by wrapping an place of other risk-control methods and should signifi-
oven cloth around the handle. cantly decrease the likelihood of an accident occurring.
●● Extra care is needed when taking a tray from The employer has a duty to:
the oven or salamander so that the tray does not
●● provide and maintain any safety sign
burn someone else.
●● give employees clear information on unfamiliar signs
●● give employees instructions and training in
Provision and Use of Work Equipment
the meaning of the signs and what to do in
Regulations 1998 (PUWER) connection with them.
‘Work equipment’ covers work machinery such as food
processors, slicers, ovens, knives, and so on. These There are two main types of signage:
Regulations place duties on employers to ensure 1 permanent – used for prohibitions, warnings and
Stage 1 – think Stage 5 – avoid

before lifting twisting or
leaning sideways Stage 6 –
look ahead
Stage 7 – move
object and place
Stage 2 – adapt a down, adjust to the
strong, stable position desired position
Stage 3 – place
feet slightly apart,
straight back,
squat over the Stage 4 –
object with keep the
knees slightly load close
bent and feet to the waist
slightly apart
Figure 13.2 How to lift correctly

mandatory requirements, identifying emergency describe a behaviour. They take the form of a blue
escape routes, first-aid facilities and firefighting circle with a white pictogram. (Blue should take
equipment up at least 50 per cent of the area of the sign.)
2 occasional – including acoustic signals like fire Examples include:
alarms, and illuminated signs (such as fire escape
●● for all fire doors, ‘Fire Door – Keep Closed’
signs) that operate with emergency lighting systems.
●● for chemical dosing areas, ‘Wear Gloves’, ‘Eye
Prohibition signs Protection Must Be Worn’
●● for dangerous machinery, ‘Guards Must Be In
Such signs prohibit behaviour that is likely to increase
Position Before Starting’.
or cause danger. They are round with a red circular
band and crossbar, featuring a black pictogram on a Emergency escape/first-aid signs
white background. (Red should cover at least 35 per
These are of a rectangular or square shape, with a
cent of the area of the sign.) Examples include ‘No
white pictogram on a green background. (Green should
Entry’ and ‘No Exit’ signs.
take up at least 40 per cent of the area of the sign.)
Safety signs
Other signs
The display and use of safety signs and other means
●● Emergency eye wash stations: sign featuring
– such as hand and acoustic signals and marking of
‘Emergency Eye Wash’.
pipework – for communicating general and specific
●● For dangerous machinery, if applicable, sign
warnings about hazards and dangers, reminders and
featuring ‘Emergency Stop Push Button’.
prohibitions, as well as matters relating to road traf-
fic in the workplace and fire safety, are dealt with in
the Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals)
Regulations 1996.
Mandatory signs
These give warning of hazard or danger, and
Eye
protection
must be
worn
No Figure 13.5 A mandatory sign
smoking Personal protective equipment (PPE)

on site The Personal Protective Equipment at Work
Regulations 1992 came into effect on 1 January
Figure 13.3 A prohibition sign 1993 and apply to all equipment designed to be
worn or held by persons to protect them from
one or more risks (e.g. uniforms, clothing required
for hygiene purposes). The provision of equip-
ment and clothing – for example, chefs’ whites,
safety shoes, eye protection goggles – which is
intended to be worn or held by a person at work,
as protection against risks to health and safety, is
covered by the Personal Protective Equipment at
Work Regulations 1992. The Health and Safety
(Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations 2002
added various points of detail on the provision of
Figure 13.4 A warning sign PPE, and instruction and training.
376 Legislation
Information, instruction and training ●● Bratt pans and tilting pans should not be able to
Suitable information, instruction and training – includ- be accidentally tilted.
ing, where appropriate, demonstrations in the wearing ●● Fat fryers must not have their thermostats
of PPE – must be provided to guide employees on tampered with and must never be over-filled.
the proper use of PPE, how to correctly fit and wear ●● Only step ladders should be used for reaching
it, its limitations, care and replacement. Managers and items stored on high shelves, not standing on
supervisors must also be aware of why PPE is being boxes or a chair.
used and how it should be used. Information and ●● Electrical equipment must be given special
instruction on the use of PPE must be kept available attention, particularly that listed under the
to them. Dangerous Machines Order 1964:
–– worm-type mincing machines
Health and Safety (Safety Signs and –– rotary bowl choppers
Signals) Regulations 1996 –– mixing machines
–– slicing/shredding machines
On 1 April 1996 these regulations completely revoked
–– chipping/chopping machines.
the previous Safety Signs and Signals Regulations
1986. They aim to standardise safety signing across Only trained people (over 18) are allowed to use and
the European Union, so that wherever such signs are clean such machines, and warning signs and instruc-
seen, they will have the same meaning. (The labelling tion in their use must be sited by the machine. (For
of dangerous substances and most machinery is not more on electrical safety, go to: www.sgs.co.uk.)
covered by these regulations.)
●● Gas equipment must have instructions for
Due to the hazardous nature of some of the
igniting the equipment and these must be
work in kitchens, it is necessary to assess the risks
followed. In the event of a gas leak or problems
to employees. Provision of protective clothing and
with pilot lights, maintenance personnel or the
footwear, properly maintained, is essential to safety.
gas equipment suppliers should be contacted
Suitable storage, such as lockers, needs to be avail-
immediately.
able for the storage of personal clothing.
●● Maintenance should be regular to ensure correct
Items such as oven cloths and heatproof gloves
function and safety of all gas and electrical
need to be provided and maintained, or replaced so
equipment. This includes checking seals on
that they are safe to use.
microwave ovens.
First-aid equipment must be readily available and
●● Extraction systems should function correctly, and
replenished when necessary. There must be one
particular care is needed to see that they are
trained first-aider for every 50 employees.
cleaned regularly as fat is liable to accumulate
Kitchen equipment on filters, preventing the extractor from working
properly.
All equipment should be safe and used correctly,
●● Walk-in refrigerators and deep freezers must
properly maintained and not misused.
have a door that is operable from the inside.
●● Tables must be strong, easily cleaned for hygiene ●● Records of staff trained in the use of equipment
reasons and never used for sitting on. and records of maintenance need to be kept.
Fire
First aid exit
Figure 13.6 Emergency/escape and first-aid signs
Computers and other display screen The design, installation, operation, use and main-
equipment tenance of all electrical systems and equipment in
the workplace are covered by the Electricity at Work
The employer and the person in control of the
Regulations 1989. A whole range of specific and
workplace, if this is different (e.g. because the user
detailed health and safety requirements are laid down
is employed by an agency or contractor, or is self-
that both employers and the self-employed must
employed), must take steps to reduce the risks to
have regard to.
health of those using a computer for work pur-
poses under the Health and Safety (Display Screen ●● The design, installation and maintenance of
Equipment) Regulations 1992. electrical systems and equipment are carried out
The Health and Safety (Miscellaneous Amendments) only by competent people.
Regulations 2002 widened the scope of the regula- ●● Equipment is suited to the job and the conditions
tions to require all computers and other display screen in which it is used.
workstations to meet health and safety specifications. ●● The maker’s instructions on the safe use and
maintenance of equipment are followed.
Electricity at work ●● Employees use equipment safely, having been
The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 introduced given the appropriate supervision, guidance and
new fixed installation and portable appliance require- training, and report any faults or problems.
ments, extending the general duties of the Health Arrangements are also important for checking the
and Safety at Work Act 1974 to cover all workplaces safety of electrical equipment at appropriate inter-
and work activities. vals, such as every six or twelve months, or at longer
All electrical equipment, both fixed and portable, intervals depending on the equipment and the use to
must be maintained to ensure safety under the which it is put.
regulations.
Health and safety training

Health and safety training is a vital, moral and legal basis: when workplace systems change, when new
requirement upon all employers no matter what their equipment is installed, and so on.
business activity. All staff must be aware of occupa-
tional hazards and systems developed to reduce risks Ten ways to reduce health and safety
and prevent accidents. risk at your premises
1 Understand the consequences: a significant
Developing a positive safety culture number of business owners and managers
It is important to develop within the organisation are oblivious to the sort of problems that can
a safety culture to maintain health and safety, to occur. Having at least a basic understanding
save time and money in preventing accidents and of the sort of safety issues that can impact on
decreased time off work. Achieving this requires time the premises is the first and most important
and effort to create a caring, committed and well- step.
organised management that understands the benefits 2 Create a competent team: whether this is just
of good health and safety practice. Knowledgeable one person or a team of people from across
staff who understand their responsibilities and duties the business, it is vital that they have the skills,
also contribute positively to the business. knowledge, attitude and awareness to identify
The safety policy is the essential basic foundation and manage risks properly.
on which to build. Once this policy has been devel- 3 Call in the experts: look for experts that can
oped, control of workplace hazards is possible, and develop the knowledge base within the team
this involves getting systems and procedures under and manage functions the team is either too
way. This is a vital part of staff training. busy or not experienced enough to deal with.
Periodic review of systems will be necessary to 4 Create a clearly defined risk management
further develop health and safety, which constantly system: this should not only document all the
changes. Reviews should be actioned on a regular risks that have been identified but also detail
378 Legislation
who is responsible for dealing with them and Enforcement policy

how they will be monitored. Enforcement officers may:
5 Educate: train as many people as possible
(particularly the key personnel) in risk ●● offer information and advice, face to face and in
awareness and reduction. writing, that may include a warning that you are
6 Monitor: make sure that the risk management failing to comply with the law
system you have developed involves obvious ●● serve improvement and prohibition notices,
checkpoints that are recorded and easily withdraw approvals, vary licence conditions or
identifiable when absent. exemptions, issue formal cautions (England and
7 Evaluate: regularly review the risk management Wales only)
system to ensure that it is getting the desired ●● prosecute (or report to the Procurator Fiscal with
results. a view to prosecution in Scotland).
8 Change: the hospitality industry is particularly
dynamic so it is important to ensure that the risk Enforcement of legislation
management system changes in line with the Health and safety inspectors and local authority
business. inspectors (environmental health officers) have the
9 Tap into the knowledge base: the problems authority to enforce legal requirements. They are
that one hospitality business is experiencing empowered to:
will be similar to those of other establishments. ●● issue a prohibition notice that immediately
Sharing your knowledge by communicating with prevents further business until remedial action
hotel associations and groups can build a vital has been taken
source of intelligence. ●● issue an improvement notice – whereby action
10 A safe guest experience is a good guest must be taken to remedy the problems identified
experience: poor safety standards, which could within a stated time – to an employee, employer
cause injury, and poor food hygiene standards, or supplier
which could result in food poisoning, will deter ●● prosecute any person breaking the Act; this can
future guests. be instead of or in addition to serving a notice
Staff facilities and welfare and may lead to a substantial fine or prison
●● seize, render harmless or destroy anything that
The welfare of all employees at a place of work is the the inspector considers to be the cause of
responsibility of the employer. Facilities should be pro- imminent danger.
vided that are both safe and beneficial. These include:
●● sufficient working space (minimum 11 cubic Environmental health officers/
metres per person) practitioners
●● easy evacuation in an emergency The environmental health officer has two main
●● floors and exit routes non-slip and in good repair functions: one is to enforce the law; the other
●● proper ventilation aspect of the job is to act as an adviser and edu-
●● temperature comfortable (normally 16°C and cator in the areas of food hygiene and catering
never below 13°C, except when foods are to be premises. Here his or her function is to improve the
kept cold, i.e. in a cold room preparation area) existing standards of hygiene and to advise how
●● system of maintenance put into practice this may be achieved. Frequently, health educa-
●● system of cleaning in operation tion programmes are organised by environmental
●● quick disposal of waste, so that is does not health officers; these may include talks and free
accumulate literature. If in doubt about any matter concerning
●● safe and non-obstructed loading and unloading bays food hygiene, pests, premises or legal aspects,
●● provision of adequate toilets, working facilities, the environmental health officer is there to be
drinking water consulted.
●● changing facilities and accommodation for
outdoor clothes, separate for men and women Smoke-free premises
●● provision of a rest room. No smoking is allowed in an enclosed or substantially
enclosed space to which members of the public have
The Health Act 2006 led to smoking being banned
access in the course of their work, business or leisure.
in public places, workplaces and vehicles used for
work purposes.
Occupational health
Occupational health means remaining free from ill- Early treatment
nesses associated with conditions at work. Work- If any unusual symptoms appear, the employee should
related illnesses are a major health problem in the UK inform their line manager, then report to the health
today. Hazards at work may or may not be obvious. and safety officer and seek medical advice. Early
For example: investigation and treatment can be most effective.
●● exposure limits – many substances and
environments established under COSHH Monitoring illness patterns
regulations, exposure limits may be exceeded Health professionals, such as occupational health
accidentally nurses, record cases of illness, take samples from
●● susceptibility to illness – this can vary from contaminated areas and keep medical records.
person to person
●● workplace injuries. Occupational health departments
Larger employers, or groups of employers, may
Symptoms of illness employ the services of an occupational health depart-
These may not appear for many years after the ment. They will supply information and health training,
original contact – for example, in the case of asbes- and will be the first point of call for employees with
tos causing asbestosis. health concerns. The occupational health department
Action should be taken to protect employees from may also be involved in health screening of new
hazards at work. For example: employees.
●● assessments should be made and records kept of Self-protection

any hazards employees may face Always keep a healthy frame of mind. Never assume
●● trained professionals should be employed to that ‘it can’t happen to me’ – it can! The way to help
eliminate or reduce potential hazards prevent illness and accidents is to take proper pre-
●● safety policies should be designed to minimise cautions every day you work. Treat hazardous sub-
the health risk to employees stances and working conditions with respect. Never
●● special equipment should be used to help shield cut corners to get work done faster. Follow the com-
employees from danger. pany’s health and safety policies regarding exposure
The employee must display the right attitude and limits, clean-up procedures, protective equipment,
action to safeguard their own health and safety and and so on. Be aware of hazards that might exist at
that of others while at work. She or he should cooper- work. For example:
ate with occupational health and safety programmes ●● acids ● solvents
as these are designed to identify and control occupa- ●● dust ● fumes
tional health hazards. ●● alkalis ● paints
●● noise ● resins.
Safety programmes ●● asbestos
Training and information Take care with substances that you use or that are
Such programmes instruct staff in how to handle used around you at work. Know the generic name
materials safely, use equipment correctly and detect of all chemicals. Check whether any substances can
symptoms of illness. enter the body – for example, by inhaling, swallowing
or via skin contact.
Medical examinations Where exposure limits have been established, stick
Some problems can be detected early and before to them. Know what the potential risks are and report
they become serious. Employees should have regular any health problems that are noticed. Watch for dan-
check-ups. This will depend on their age and position gerous conditions that may affect your health. These
within the organisation. include noise, heat, radiation and vibrations, as well
as leaks, spills, malfunctions in protective equipment
and poor safety practices on the part of colleagues.
380 LEGISLATION
Report any unsafe or suspicious conditions to your If you have five or more employees you will need to
line manager. write down your health and safety policy. This sets out
how you manage health and safety in your organisa-
Implementing a programme tion. It needn’t be overly complicated, but should be
Implementing health and safety measures doesn’t something that is meaningful and useful to you and
have to be expensive, time consuming or complicated. your staff.
In fact, safer and more efficient working practices can
save money and greatly improve working conditions
for your employees.
Accidents
It is essential that people working in practical areas ●● Do people suffer from sprains, strains and pains?
are capable of using the tools and equipment in a ●● Do people use computers or other display screen
manner that will harm neither themselves nor those equipment?
with whom they work. Moreover, they should be aware ●● Is your workplace noisy?
of the causes of accidents and be able to deal with ●● Are employees exposed to vibration or repetitive
any that occur. tasks?
Accidents may be caused in various ways: ●● How safe is electricity in your workplace?
●● Do people know how to select and use your work
●● excessive haste – the golden rule of the kitchen is
equipment?
‘never run’; this may be difficult to observe during a
●● What maintenance and building work takes
very busy service but excessive haste causes people
place?
to take chances, which inevitably lead to mishaps
●● What are the risks from transport in your
●● distraction – accidents may be caused by not
workplace?
concentrating on the job in hand, through lack of
●● Do you know the risks associated with pressure
interest, personal worry or distraction by someone
systems?
else; the mind must always be kept on the work
●● Do you know how to prevent fire or explosion?
so as to reduce the likelihood of accidents
●● Do you know where harmful radiation occurs?
●● failure to apply safety rules and use safety
●● Are employees feeling stressed by work?
equipment.
●● What do you do if there’s an accident at work?
Accident prevention Prevention of cuts and scratches
It is the responsibility of everyone to observe the
safety rules; in this way a great deal of pain and loss Knives
of time can be avoided. These should never be misused and the following
It isn’t difficult to keep your employees safe and rules should always be observed.
healthy in the workplace. This will keep your profits
●● The correct knife should be used for the
where they belong: as profits for your company, not
appropriate job.
money paid out to cover avoidable staff absences due
●● Knives must always be sharp and clean; a blunt
to ill health or injury.
knife is more likely to cause a cut because
When trying to establish the common causes of
excessive pressure has to be used.
accidents and ill health at work, consider the follow-
●● Handles should be free from grease.
ing questions. They may help clarify the issues.
●● The points must be held downwards.
●● What are the chances of people slipping or ●● Knives should be placed flat on the board or table
tripping at work? so that the blade is not exposed upwards and the
●● Do people work with, or come into contact with, handle does not protrude over the edge of the
asbestos? table.
●● Do people work with hazardous substances? ●● Knives should be wiped clean, holding the edge
●● Do people perform work at height and, if so, is it away from the hands.
done safely? ●● Do not put knives in a washing-up sink.
Figure 13.7 Sample in-house record of accidents and dangerous occurrences
Choppers When the guard is removed for cleaning, the blade

These should be kept sharp and clean. Care should should not be left unattended in case someone
be taken that no other knives, saws, hooks or such- should put a hand on it by accident. No one under 18
like can be struck by the chopper, which could cause must do this. Training must have taken place before
them to splinter or fly into the air. This also applies any employee does it.
when using a large knife for chopping. Cuts from meat and fish bones
Cutting blades on machines Jagged bones can cause cuts, which may turn septic,
Guards should always be in place when the machine particularly fish bones and the bones of a calf’s head
is in use; they should not be tampered with nor should that has been opened to remove the brain. Cuts of
hands or fingers be inserted past the guards. Before this nature, however slight, should never be neglected.
the guards are removed for cleaning, the blade or Frozen meat should not be boned out until it is com-
blades must have stopped revolving. If the machine is pletely thawed because it is difficult to handle: the
electrically operated the plug should, when possible, hands become very cold and the knife slips easily.
be removed.
382 Legislation
Prevention of burns and scalds should be provided in every kitchen, conveniently

A burn is caused by dry heat and a scald by wet heat. sited ready for use.
Both burns and scalds can be very painful and have ●● Steam causes scalds just as hot liquids do: in
serious effects, so certain precautions should be fact, steam is hotter than boiling water. It is
taken to prevent them. important to be certain that before steamers are
opened the steam is turned off, and that when
●● Sleeves of jackets and overalls should be rolled the steamer door is opened no one is in the
down and aprons worn at a sensible length so as way of the escaping steam. Stand back when
to give adequate protection. opening the door. The steamer should be in
●● A good, thick dry cloth or gloves are most proper working condition; the drain hole should
important for handling hot utensils. A cloth should always be clear. The door should not be opened
never be used wet on hot objects and is best immediately the steam is turned off – it is better
folded to give greater protection. It should not be to wait for about half a minute before doing so.
used if thin, torn or with holes. ●● Scalds can also be caused by splashing when
●● Trays containing hot liquid, such as roast gravy, passing liquids through conical strainers; it is wise
should be handled carefully, one hand on the to keep the face well back so as to avoid getting
side and the other on the end of the tray so as to splashed. This also applies when hot liquids are
balance it. poured into containers.
●● A hot pan brought out of the oven should have
something white, such as a little flour, placed on Emptying and cleaning fryers
the handle and lid (or an oven cloth wrapped
Lack of care during the emptying and cleaning of
around the handle) as a warning that it is hot.
fryers is a major cause of accidents. Hazards include:
This should be done as soon as the pan is taken
out of the oven. ●● fire
●● Handles of pans should not protrude over the ●● burns from hot oil
edge of the stove as the pan may be knocked off ●● contact with hot surfaces
the stove. However, handles placed inwards over ●● fumes from hot cleaning chemicals
the stove will become hot. ●● danger of chemicals overflowing
●● Large full pans should be carried correctly: when ●● eye injuries from splashes
there is only one handle the forearm should run ●● strains and sprains while lifting and moving
along the full length of the handle and the other containers of oil.
hand should be used to balance the pan where
the handle joins the pan. This should prevent the Procedure for draining
contents from spilling. ●● Switch off appliance.
●● Certain foods require extra care when heat is ●● Drain only when oil is cool.
applied to them – as, for example, when a cold ●● Do not drain until oil is below 40°C.
liquid is added to a hot roux or when adding cold ●● Follow any instructions. Remove debris.
water to boiling sugar for making caramel. The ●● Clean and dry.
hot contents of the pan will bubble and spit. Extra ●● Ensure that the drain-off tap cannot be turned on
care should always be taken when boiling sugar. accidentally.
●● Frying, especially deep frying, needs careful ●● If appropriate, eye protection should be worn.
attention. When shallow or deep frying fish, for
example, put the fish into the pan away from the Machinery
person so that any splashes will do no harm. With Accidents are easily caused by misuse of machines.
deep frying, free-standing fritures should be moved The following rules should always be put into
with care and if possible only when the fat is cool. practice.
Fritures should not be more than two-thirds full.
Wet foods should be drained and dried before ●● The machine should be in correct running order
being placed in the fat, and when foods are tipped before use.
out of the frying basket a spider should be to hand. ●● The controls of the machine should be operated
Should the fat in the friture bubble over on to a by the person using the machine. If two
gas stove then the gas taps should be turned off people are involved there is the danger that a
immediately. Fire blankets and fire extinguishers misunderstanding can occur and the machine
be switched on when the other person does not that have come into effect and are strict guidelines or
expect it. explicit instructions. These rules set out safe practice
●● Machine attachments should be correctly on topics as diverse as electromagnetic compatibility,
assembled and only the correct tools used. pressure in systems and the surface temperature
●● When mixing machines are being used the hands of oven doors. They accompany the six sets of UK
should not be placed inside the bowl until the Health and Safety at Work Regulations (1992), which
blades, whisk or hook have stopped revolving. came into force in 1993, the legislation that imple-
Failure to observe this rule may result in a broken ments European Union directives on Health and
arm or severe cut. Safety at Work. These regulations have developed
●● Electrical plugs should be removed from electric changes in the manufacture of existing equipment.
machines when they are being cleaned so they Electrical equipment is mostly covered by a non-
cannot be switched on accidentally. binding European Union directive: the Low Voltage
Directive. This was approved by the European Union’s
The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations
members in February 1973, and was passed into UK
require employers to maintain gas appliances; this
Health and Safety law in 1989, in the form of the
is distinctly separate from the duty of a landlord to
Low Voltage Electrical Equipment Safety Regulations.
maintain gas appliances in let properties. It is vital that
Interlocking devices: see page 388.
all gas equipment, and in particular Calor gas equip-
ment, is properly and regularly serviced and adjusted.
Floors
For this reason, an agreement should be in place
with a properly qualified gas installer or maintenance Accidents are also caused by grease and water
company. being spilled on floors and not being cleaned up. It
is most important that floors are always kept clean
Gas explosions and clear; pots, pans and suchlike should never
The risk of explosion from gas is considerable. To be left on the floor, nor should oven doors be left
avoid this occurring it is necessary to ensure that the open, because anyone carrying something large
gas is properly lit. On ranges with a pilot on the oven it may not see the door or anything on the floor, and
is important to see that the main jet has ignited from trip over.
the pilot. If the regulo is low, sometimes the gas does Many people strain themselves by incorrectly lift-
not light at once – the gas collects and an explosion ing or attempting to lift items that are too heavy
occurs. When lighting the tops of solid-top ranges it is (see Figure 13.2 for guidance). Large stock pots,
wise to place the centre ring back for a few minutes forequarters and hindquarters of beef, for example,
after the stove is lit because the gas may go out – should be lifted with care. Particular attention should
gas then collects and an explosion can occur. be paid to the hooks in the meat so that they do not
injure anyone.
Kitchen equipment On no account should liquids be placed in contain-
On 1 January 1996 a significant European Union ers on shelves above eye level, especially when hot
directive concerning the design and installation of and particularly not hot oil or fat. They may be pulled
gas-fuelled catering equipment became mandatory. down by someone else.
All gas appliances sold after that date, new or sec- Safe kitchens are those that are well lit and well
ondhand, must be fitted with a fuel cut-out mechanism ventilated, and where the staff take precautions to
should the main pilot light be extinguished. Equipment prevent accidents happening. When accidents do
will be withdrawn from the marketplace if it does not happen, however, it is necessary to know something
comply. This gas directive joins other European laws about first aid (dealt with in the following section).
First aid
When people at work suffer injuries or fall ill, it is workplace are set out in the Health and Safety (First
important that they receive immediate attention and Aid) Regulations 1981. First-aiders and facilities
that, in serious cases, an ambulance is called. should be available to give immediate assistance to
The arrangements for providing first aid in the casualties with both common injuries or illness.
384 Legislation
As the term implies, first aid is the immediate a responsible person, checked regularly and refilled
treatment given on the spot to a person who has when necessary.
been injured or is ill. Since 1982 it has been a legal All establishments must have first-aid equip-
requirement that adequate first-aid equipment, facili- ment. It is desirable for all establishments to have
ties and personnel to give first aid are provided at trained first-aid staff. Larger establishments must
work. If the injury is serious the injured person should provide at least one person trained in first aid
be treated by a doctor or nurse as soon as possible. per 50 employees. Smaller companies may have
instead an appointed person, who keeps the first-
Further information can be obtained from aid equipment topped up and contacts the emer-
the Royal Society for the Prevention of gency services if needed.
Accidents (RoSPA) (website: www.rospa.org. Large establishments usually have medical staff
uk) or the Health & Safety Executive (website: such as a nurse and a first-aid room. The room
www.hse.gov.uk). should include a bed or couch, blankets, chairs, a
table, sink with hot and cold water, towels, tissues
and a first-aid box. Hooks for clothing and a mirror
should be provided.
After a period of three years trained first-aid staff
must update their training to remain certificated.
All catering workers and students are recom-
mended to attend a first-aid course run by St John
Ambulance, St Andrew’s Ambulance Association or
the British Red Cross Society.
First-aid treatment
Shock
The signs of shock are faintness, sickness, clammy
skin and a pale face. Shock should be treated by
keeping the person comfortable, lying down and
warm. Cover the person with a blanket or clothing, but
do not apply hot water bottles.
Figure 13.8 First-aid kit
Fainting
First-aid equipment Fainting may occur after a long period of standing
A first-aid box, as a minimum, should contain: in a hot, badly ventilated kitchen. The signs of an
impending faint are whiteness, giddiness and sweat-
●● a card giving general first-aid guidance
ing. A faint should be treated by raising the legs
●● 20 individually wrapped, sterile, adhesive,
slightly above the level of the head and, when the
waterproof dressings of various sizes
person recovers consciousness, putting them in the
●● 25 g (1 oz) cotton wool packs
fresh air for a while and making sure that they have
●● 12 safety pins
not incurred any injury in fainting.
●● two triangular bandages
●● two sterile eye pads, with attachment Cuts
●● four medium-sized sterile unmedicated
All cuts should be covered immediately with a water-
dressings
proof dressing, after the skin round the cut has
●● two large sterile unmedicated dressings
been washed. When there is considerable bleeding it
●● two extra large sterile unmedicated dressings
should be stopped as soon as possible. Bleeding may
●● tweezers
be controlled by direct pressure, by bandaging firmly
●● scissors
on the cut. It may be possible to stop bleeding from
●● plastic gloves
a cut artery by pressing the artery with the thumb
●● report book to record all injuries.
against the underlying bone; such pressure may be
First-aid boxes must be easily identifiable and acces- applied while a dressing or bandage is being prepared
sible in the work area. They should be in the charge of for application, but not for more than 15 minutes.
When assisting someone with a cut, wear dispos- Electric shock

able gloves. Switch off the current. If this is not possible, free the
Nose bleeds person by using a dry insulating material such as
cloth, wood or rubber, taking care not to use the bare
Sit the person down with their head forward, and hands otherwise the electric shock may be transmit-
loosen their clothing round the neck and chest. Ask ted. If breathing has stopped, give artificial respiration
them to breathe through their mouth and to pinch the and send for a doctor. Treat any burns as above.
soft part of their nose. After ten minutes release the
pressure. Warn the person not to blow their nose for Gassing
several hours. If the bleeding has not stopped con-
Do not let the gassed person walk, but carry them
tinue for a further ten minutes. If the bleeding has not
into the fresh air. If breathing has stopped apply arti-
stopped then, or recurs in 30 minutes, obtain medical
ficial respiration and send for a doctor.
assistance.
Artificial respiration
Fractures
There are several methods of artificial respiration. The
A person suffering from broken bones should not
most effective is mouth to mouth (or mouth to nose)
be moved until the injured part has been secured so
and this method can be used by almost all age groups
that it cannot move. Medical assistance should be
and in almost all circumstances.
obtained.
It is stressed that we would recommend all stu-
Burns and scalds dents complete a first-aid course.
Place the injured part gently under slowly running Further information on first aid and emergency
water or immerse in cool water, keeping it there for at treatments can be obtained from the St John
least ten minutes or until the pain ceases. If serious, Ambulance Association, 27 St John’s Lane,
the burn or scald should then be covered with a clean London EC1M 4BU (website: www.sja.org.uk).
cloth or dressing (preferably sterile) and the person
sent immediately to hospital.
Do not use adhesive dressings, apply lotions or
ointments, or break blisters.
Fire precautions
Fire safety risk of a fire, using the provision of detection and

Every employer has an explicit duty for the safety alarm systems, and well-practised emergency and
of his or her employees in the event of a fire. The evacuation procedures in the event of a fire.
Regulatory Reform Fire Safety Order 2005 places a A fire requires heat, fuel and oxygen (see the sec-
greater focus on fire prevention. It places responsibil- tion on ‘the fire triangle’, below, and Figure 13.9).
ity for the fire safety of the occupants of premises Without any one of these elements there is no fire.
and people who might be affected by fire, on a Methods of extinguishing fires concentrate on cool-
defined responsible person, usually the employer. ing (as in a water extinguisher or fire hose) or depriv-
The responsible person must: ing the fire of oxygen (as in an extinguisher that uses
foam or powder to smoother it).
●● make sure that the fire precautions, where Although businesses no longer need a fire cer-
reasonably practicable, ensure the safety of all tificate, the fire and rescue authorities will continue to
employees and others in the building inspect premises and ensure adequate fire precau-
●● make an assessment of the risk of and from fire tions are in place. They will also wish to be satisfied
in the establishment; special consideration must that the risk assessment is comprehensive, relevant
be given to dangerous chemicals or substances, and up to date.
and the risks that these pose if a fire occurs An employer must consider workers’ capabilities
●● review the preventative and protective measures. when asking them to carry out any tasks or assign-
Fire safety requires constant vigilance to reduce the ments relating to fire safety. This responsibility was
386 Legislation
clarified in the Fire Safety (Employees’ Capabilities) took as a result. Tell your employees about your
England Regulations 2010. findings.
5 Keep the assessment under review and revise it
when necessary.
Fire precautions
●● Identified hazards must be removed or
The fire triangle
reduced so far as is reasonable. All persons
must be protected from the risk of fire and As noted above, for a fire to start, three things are
the likelihood of a fire spreading. needed:
●● All escape routes must be safe and used 1 a source of ignition (heat)
effectively. 2 fuel
●● Means for fighting fires must be available on 3 oxygen.
the premises.
●● Means of detecting a fire on the premises If any one of these is missing, a fire cannot start.
and giving warning in case of fire on the Taking steps to avoid the three coming together will
premises must be available. therefore reduce the chances of a fire occurring.
●● Arrangements must be in place for action Once a fire starts it can grow very quickly and
to be taken in the event of a fire on the spread from one source of fuel to another. As it
premises, including the instruction and grows, the amount of heat it gives off will increase
training of employees. and this can cause other fuels to self-ignite.
●● All precautions provided must be installed
and maintained by a competent person. FUEL
Flammable gases
Flammable liquids
Flammable solids
Fire risk assessment

A fire risk assessment will help determine the chances
of a fire occurring and the dangers from fire that your
workplace possesses for the people who use it. The
assessment method suggested shares the same
approach as that used in general health and safety OXYGEN IGNITION SOURCE
legislation, and can be carried out either as part of Always present in the air Hot surfaces
a more general risk assessment or as a separate Additional sources from Electrical equipment
oxidising substances Static electricity
exercise. Smoking/naked flames
A risk assessment is not a theoretical exercise.
However, much work can be done on paper from the Figure 13.9 The fire triangle
knowledge you, your employees or their representa-
tives have of the workplace. A tour of the workplace Fire detection and fire warning
will be needed to confirm, amend or add detail to your You need to have an effective means of detecting
initial views. any outbreak of fire and for warning people in your
For fire risk assessments there are five steps that workplace quickly enough so that they can escape to
you need to take. a safe place before the fire is likely to make escape
1 Identify potential fire hazards in the workplace. routes unusable.
2 Decide who (e.g. employees, visitors) might be In small workplaces where a fire is unlikely to cut
in danger in the event of a fire, in the workplace off the means of escape (open-air areas and single-
or while trying to escape from it, and note their storey buildings where all exits are visible and the
location. distances to be travelled are small), it is likely that
3 Evaluate the risks arising from the hazards and any fire will quickly be detected by the people pre-
decide whether your existing fire precautions are sent and a shout of ‘Fire!’ may be all that is needed.
adequate or whether more should be done to get In larger workplaces, particularly multi-storey prem-
rid of the hazard or to control the risks (e.g. by ises, an electrical fire warning system with manu-
improving fire precautions). ally operated call points is likely to be the minimum
4 Record your findings and details of the action you needed. In unoccupied areas, where a fire could start
and develop to the extent that escape routes may required. In larger or more complex premises, a greater
become affected before it is discovered, it is likely number of portable extinguishers, strategically sited
that a form of automatic fire detection will also be throughout the premises, are likely to be the mini-
necessary. mum required. Means of fighting fire may need to be
considered.
Means of fighting fire
You need to have enough firefighting equipment in Lighting of escape routes
place for your employees to use, without exposing All escape routes, including external ones, must have
themselves to danger, to extinguish a fire in its early sufficient lighting for people to see their way out
stages. The equipment must be suitable to the risks, safely. Emergency escape lighting may be needed if
and appropriate staff will need training and instruc- areas of the workplace are without natural daylight or
tion in its proper use. are used at night.
In small premises, having one or two portable extin-
guishers in an obvious location may be all that is Firefighting equipment
Portable fire extinguishers
Portable fire extinguishers enable suitably trained
people to tackle a fire in its early stages, if they can
do so without putting themselves in danger.
When you are deciding on the types of extinguisher
to provide, you should consider the nature of the
materials likely to be found in your workplace.
Fires are classified in accordance with British
Standard EN 2 as follows.
●● Class A – fires involving solid materials where
combustion normally takes place with the
formation of glowing embers.
●● Class B – fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids.
●● Class C – fires involving gases.
●● Class D – fires involving metals.
Figure 13.10 Firefighting ●● Class F – fires involving cooking oils or fats.
Fire extinguishers are red. The different types can be
identified by a clearly visible, coloured rectangle.
Class A and B fires

Class A fires involve solid materials, usually of organic
matter such as wood, paper, and so on. They can be
dealt with using water, foam or multi-purpose powder
extinguishers, with water and foam considered the
most suitable.
Class B fires involve liquids or liquefiable solids
such as paints, oils or fats. It would be appropriate
to provide extinguishers of foam (including multi-
purpose aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) carbon
dioxide, halon or dry powder types). Carbon dioxide
extinguishers are also suitable for a fire involving
electrical equipment.
The fire extinguishers currently available for dealing
with Class A or Class B fires should not be used on
cooking oil or fat fires.
Figure 13.11 Fire blanket
388 Legislation
Class C fires Fire extinguishers may be colour-coded to indicate

Dry powder extinguishers may be used on Class C their type. Previously, the entire body of the extin-
fires. However, you need to consider the circumstances guisher has been colour-coded, but British Standard
for their use and combine this with action such as EN 3: Part 5 (which came into effect on 1 January
stopping the leak to remove the risk of a subsequent 1997) requires that all new fire extinguisher bodies
explosion from the build-up of unburnt gas. should be red.
Class D, E and F fires Hose reels

●● Class D fires involve combustible metals. Use a Where hose reels are provided, they should be located
dry powder extinguisher (blue). where they are conspicuous and always accessible,
●● Class E fires involve electrically energised such as in corridors.
equipment. Use a CO2 extinguisher (black).
●● Class F fires involve cooking oils and fats. Use a Fire-extinguishing systems
wet chemical fire extinguisher (yellow). In smaller workplaces, portable fire extinguishers will
probably be sufficient to tackle small fires. However,
Types of portable fire extinguisher in more complex buildings, or where it is necessary
The firefighting extinguishing medium in portable to protect the means of escape and/or the property
extinguishers is expelled by internal pressure, either or contents of the building, it may be necessary to
permanently stored or by means of a gas cartridge. consider a sprinkler system.
Generally, portable fire extinguishers can be divided Sprinkler systems are traditionally acknowledged
into five categories according to the extinguishing as an efficient means of protecting buildings against
medium they contain: extensive damage from fire. They are also now
acknowledged as an effective means of reducing the
1 water (red)
risk to life from fire.
2 foam (cream)
3 powder (blue)
4 carbon dioxide (black)
A note on fire legislation: interlocking
5 wet chemical (yellow). Any completely new kitchen built after September
2002 must have interlocking in the ventilation
Some fire extinguishers can be used on more than system, and any replacement, new installation or
one type of fire. For instance, AFFF extinguishers can modification to existing ventilation systems must
be used on both Class A fires and Class B fires. Your incorporate interlocking. (Interlocking describes the
fire equipment supplier will be able to advise you. mechanical link between sensors in the extraction
The most useful form of firefighting equipment for system and the main valve of the gas supply to
general fire risks is the water-type extinguisher or hose cooking equipment. Should the carbon monoxide
reel. One such extinguisher should be provided for level in the ventilation system go up, the interlocker
approximately each 200 square metres of floor space, will turn off.)
with a minimum of one per floor. If each floor has a
hose reel, which is known to be in working order and Gas safety
of sufficient length for the floor it serves, there may be
The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations
no need for water-type extinguishers to be provided.
1998 require any work to a gas fitting or gas storage
Areas of special risk involving the use of oil, fats
vessel to be carried out by a competent person. This
or electrical equipment may need carbon dioxide, dry
includes installing, reconnecting, maintaining, servic-
powder or other types of extinguisher (see above).
ing, adjusting, disconnecting, repairing and purging
If you are not sure what to provide in any given cir-
the equipment of gas or air.
cumstances, your local fire authority will be able to
advise you. Competence to install, repair and maintain
Fire extinguishers should conform to a recognised
gas appliances
standard such as British Standards EN 3 for new
ones and British Standard 5423 for existing ones. Whether a contractor or in-house employee is asked
For extra assurance, you should look for the British to do the work, they must be Gas Safe registered
Standard Kitemark, the British Approvals for Fire (previously CORGI registered) and the operative must
Equipment (BAFE) mark or the Loss Prevention have a valid certificate of competence that covers the
Council Certification Board (LPCB) mark. particular type of gas work to be carried out.
Security in hospitality
Security in hospitality premises is a major concern, However, legally, a person cannot be forced to submit
especially with the increasing rise in crime due to to a search even if they have signed a contract to that
fraud. All establishments should endeavour to reduce effect. However, by refusing to submit to a search
the risk of temptation. Eliminating or reducing cash they may be in breach of their employment contract.
handling is one measure that should be encouraged. Closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras are also
The use of credit and debit cards, while costing a used as a deterrent against crime.
small amount in charges, reduces cash handling, thus Prevention of crime should be the main objec-
minimising risk. tive. With regard to staff the first step is to appoint
Encouraging the payment of employees through honest staff by taking up references from previous
cheque or bank transfer instead of by cash means employers.
that payrolls do not have to be collected and distrib- The Health and Safety at Work Regulations now
uted. Other such measures could include notices that require employers to conduct a risk assessment with
no money is kept in the premises or that safes are regard to the safety of staff in the catering business.
protected by time-delay locks. Strict stock control can Where staff constantly come into close contact with
reduce stock levels, thereby reducing temptation and strangers, it is advisable to train them in anti-aggres-
the problems of control. sion techniques, which include the early recognition
A great deal of crime is of an opportunist nature. of volatile situations and how to defuse them. At the
Large-scale crime is generally well planned. Reducing same time staff should be trained not to approach
the amount of information available to the criminal people who could pose a physical threat to them.
reduces the ability for the thief to plan and thus Staff who handle money should be trained in simple
commit the crime. anti-fraud measures such as checking bank notes,
In order for a business to function it is often neces- checking signatures on plastic cards, and so on.
sary to have cash. In order to deprive the potential Security measures also include leaving lights on in
criminal of knowledge make sure that only the staff some areas that can be seen by passers-by, as well
that need to know actually have any information as locking doors, windows and suchlike. Making sure
about this. For example, never have a regular routine that any suspicious person does not re-enter the
for ‘banking’. Regular and spot-check stock taking is building is also essential. Night-time security staff are
another valuable system to identify crime. used in some establishments.
However, in order to carry out your business effi- Each business will have its own type of risk. Over
ciently it is impossible to remove all temptation. time, staff become familiar with the risks and adopt
Therefore all equipment – for example, computers, the measures that the business has put in place to
fax machines, photocopiers – should be security deal with them.
marked. Security systems of all types should be carefully
It is important to prevent any unauthorised person selected according to the needs of the business.
entering the premises. Reception staff need to be Before buying into any security system agreements,
trained to identify suspicious individuals. Everyone seek advice from an independent security expert,
reporting to reception should be asked to sign in who will assess the needs of the establishment.
and, if they are a legitimate visitor, be given a secu- Insurance companies will have stipulated criteria to
rity badge. All contract workers should be registered be fulfilled before they will insure the business.
and given security badges; they may be restricted to
working in certain areas. Staff should be made aware Management of a security system
of the threat from terrorists. As with other operations a security system needs to
A good security system should also be in force at be managed. This involves:
the back door, with everyone delivering goods report-
ing to the security officer. Good lighting is also impor- ●● developing a security policy for the establishment
tant for security reasons. Supervisors and managers to cover security threats, bomb alerts, theft by
should carry out regular checks of all areas. customers or by employees, policy regarding
Some companies write into employee contracts prosecution
the ‘right to search’, so that searches can be carried ●● establishing resources to cover the cost of
out from time to time as a deterrent against theft. security staff, whether in-house or contract
390 LEGISLATION
●● developing procedures for security risk ●● Burglary: theft with trespass of customers’
assessment, dealing with breaches of security property, employers’ property, employees’
●● understanding the legal implications of, for property.
example, vicarious liability for false arrest or ●● Robbery: theft with assault, e.g. banking cash,
imprisonment collecting cash.
●● seeking a proper balance between the often ●● Fraud: false claims for damage; counterfeit
conflicting demands of security and safety. currency; stolen credit cards.
●● Assault: fights between customers, while staff
The main security risks in the hotel banking/collecting cash.
and catering industry ●● Vandalism: malicious damage to property by
●● Theft: customers’ property, employers’ property customers, by intruders, by employees.
(particularly food, drink, equipment), employees’ ●● Arson: setting fire to property.
property. ●● Undesirables: drug traffickers, prostitutes.
●● Terrorism: bombs, telephone bomb threats.
Catering safety management: a summary

Managers must think positively about how they can Measures to reduce risk include:
sustain and improve safety if they are to comply with
●● staff training on hazard awareness and control in
legislation and minimise the risk of incidents occur-
the workplace.
ring. Accidents often happen because of acts or
omissions by management rather than staff neglect. Safety management involves identifying the hazards
The Management of Health and Safety at Work in a business and tailoring controls through physical
Regulations 1999 provide the basis for safety man- measures, safe systems of work, the safety policy and
agement requirements. This legislation requires: staff training. Safety management and supervision is
a legal requirement.
●● all involved in safety to think positively
●● competence to be established
●● risk assessment to be undertaken
●● implementation of effective control.

1 Discuss the causes of accidents and how they mind costs and the fact that in the industry
may be prevented. Are some people accident many employees are casual or part-time.
prone, others naturally clumsy and others lack- 6 Discuss the hazards that should be prevented
ing in common sense? If so, how can they be in the kitchen.
‘educated’ to be safe workers? 7 Discuss the relationship between the caterer
2 Do notices regarding safety have any effect? and the environmental health officer.
How best may people employed in the kitchen 8 Discuss accident prevention and the responsi-
be made aware of hazards, thus making a bilities of the worker and the employer.
potentially dangerous environment much safer? 9 Is ample provision made for first aid?
3 Attendance at a first-aid course could be made 10 What fire precautions and appropriate systems
obligatory for every catering employee. Do you are in place for fire prevention?
think this would be sensible? If you do, or do 11 Explain how fire extinguishers are recognised
not, explain why. for their appropriate use.
4 Discuss what training and the procedures fol- 12 How can premises be made secure and steal-
lowing training should be provided for every ing be prevented?
person being employed in a catering establish- 13 If you find temperatures and food hygiene
ment. Does training reduce accidents, fires and legislation complex, discuss how it could be
so on? simplified.
5 What provision should be made for the welfare 14 Discuss the relationship between knowing the
of hospitality staff? Discuss this, bearing in law and implementing it.
Legislatio
t5 n
ar
Food safety and food
14
P
safety legislation
Why is Food Safety Important? 391 Personal Hygiene 409

What is Required Under UK A Clean and Hygienic Food
Food Safety Legislation? 392 Environment 412
Food Poisoning and Prevention HACCP and Food Safety
of Food Poisoning 393 Management Systems 419
Pathogenic Bacteria, Poisonous The Role of Management in
Foods, Food Spoilage and Food Safety 424
Food Preservation 397 The Food Standards Agency 425
Keeping Food Safe 404 Topics for Discussion 426

›● Activity worksheet: hygiene
›● Videos and worksheets: hygiene and food safety
Why is food safety important?

Effective management of food safety is of abso- ●● incur less wastage – therefore running costs will
lute importance throughout the hospitality industry. It be lower
means putting in place all the measures needed to ●● provide pleasant working conditions for staff,
make sure that food and drinks are suitable, safe and leading to staff retention and greater job
wholesome through all of the processes from design- security
ing premises, selecting suppliers and delivery of food ●● receive favourable press reviews
right through to serving the food to the customer. ●● build and retain desired levels of business.
Recorded management of food safety is now a
Failure to manage food safety effectively can be
legal requirement for all food businesses, but as well
extremely damaging to a business and can lead to
as ensuring compliance with the law, good standards
poor reputation, serving of notices by enforcement
of food safety will enable a business to:
officers, legal action, very high fines and even closure,
●● avoid any incidence of food poisoning as well as all the resulting bad publicity.
●● build a good reputation locally
●● give customers (and staff) confidence in the
food/services provided
392 LEGISLATION
What is required under UK food safety legislation?

Legislation concerning food safety covers a wide will identify, assess and monitor the critical control
range of topics, including: points in food production procedures, and ensure
that corrective actions are put in place and the sys-
●● controlling and reducing outbreaks of food
tems frequently verified, with accurate documentation
poisoning
available for inspection and ongoing review pro-
●● registration of premises/vehicles
cesses. (See also the information about Safer Food
●● content and labelling of food
Better Business on page 421.)
●● preventing the manufacture and sale of food that
Those responsible for food businesses must ensure
could cause illness or injury
that:
●● monitoring of food imports
●● prevention of food contamination, equipment ●● where a full HACCP system is established, at least
contamination and contamination of premises one person who has been trained in the principles
●● training of food handlers of HACCP is involved in setting up the system
●● provision of clean water, sanitary facilities and ●● the premises (and food vehicles) are registered
washing facilities. with the local authority
●● they can supply records of staff training
The latest food safety legislation affecting all food
commensurate with the different job roles
businesses came into force in the UK in January
●● policies are in place for planning and monitoring
2006 and affects all food businesses. This new leg-
staff training
islation originated in the European Parliament and
●● appropriate levels of supervision are in place
replaced the existing 1990 Act and related regula-
●● they provide adequate hygiene and welfare
tions introduced after 1990, although most of the
facilities for staff
requirements of these earlier acts/regulations remain
●● there is an adequate supply of materials and
the same. The most important and relevant regula-
equipment for staff, including PPE (personal
tions for food businesses are:
protective equipment)
●● The Food Hygiene (England) Regulations 2006, ●● there is sufficient ventilation, potable water
The Food Hygiene (Wales) Regulations 2006, supplies and adequate drainage
The Food Hygiene (Scotland) Regulations 2006, ●● there are separate washing/cleaning facilities for
The Food Hygiene (Northern Ireland) Regulations premises, equipment and food, as well as hand-
2006 washing facilities
●● Regulation (EC) No 852/2004 on hygiene ●● there are records of suppliers used
of foodstuffs; this gives details of the general ●● there are systems for accident and incident
hygiene requirements for all UK food businesses reporting.
and all member countries of the EU.
Employees also have food safety responsibilities.
The main difference in the laws introduced in 2006 They must:
was to provide a framework for EU legislation to
●● not do anything or work in such a way that would
be enforced in England (with similar requirements
endanger or contaminate the food they work with
for Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland) and the
●● cooperate with their employers and the measures
requirement for all food-related businesses to have
they have put in place to keep food safe
an approved food safety management procedure in
●● partake in planned training and instruction
place, with up-to-date permanent records available,
●● maintain high standards of personal hygiene
including staff training records. All records must be
●● report illnesses to supervisors/managers before
reviewed and monitored regularly, especially if there
starting work (see page 409)
is a change in procedures.
●● report any breakages, shortages or defects that
Before the introduction of this legislation many
could affect food safety.
food businesses did have a food safety management
system in place as part of their operation; now it is For a business to comply with the 2006 Act, food
a legal requirement to have a system based on the safety records are mandatory and will always include:
seven principles of HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical
●● essential food business records that reputable
Control Points) (see page 000). Such a system
FOOD SAFETY AND FOOD SAFETY LEGISLATION 393
suppliers are used, supplier contact records, EHOs (EHPs) can enter a food business at any
equipment and premises maintenance reasonable time without previous notice or appoint-
temperature controls, staff sickness records, ment – usually, but not always, when the business
cleaning schedules, pest audits, etc. is open. The main purpose of these inspections is to
●● written documentation of recruitment, supervision, identify any possible risks from the food business,
ongoing training, working practices and reporting to assess the effectiveness of the business’s own
procedures. hazard controls and to identify any non-compliance
with regulations so that this can be monitored and
Food safety law is outlined in more detail on Dynamic
corrected.
Learning. Further information is available on the web-
Under the food safety acts, premises that are con-
site of the Food Standards Agency (www.food.gov.uk
sidered to cause an ‘imminent risk to health’ can be
– see Food Hygiene – A Guide For Business, Food
closed down by a local authority immediately, on the
Law, Inspections and Your Business, Food Hygiene
advice of the EHO (EHP). If it is deemed through
Legislation).
courts of law that the proprietor of a food business is
Food safety legislation under the 2006 Act and pre-
guilty of an offence under the acts, they may be liable
vious 1990 (1995) Acts is enforced by local author-
to heavy fines and/or a term of imprisonment.
ities through inspection by Environmental Health
Officers (EHOs) (Environmental Health Practitioners Fines and penalties for non-compliance
– EHPs), who are empowered to serve enforcement
Magistrates courts can impose fines of up to £5000,
notices (e.g. hygiene improvement notice, hygiene
a six-month prison sentence, or both. For serious
prohibition order, hygiene prohibition notice) through
offences (e.g. knowingly selling food dangerous to
criminal and civil courts. Other legislation will be in
health), magistrates could impose fines of up to
place relating to working practices, procedures and
£20,000. In a Crown Court, unlimited fines can be
training, and may well involve Trading Standards or
imposed and/or two years’ imprisonment.
the Health and Safety Executive.
When the EHO (EHP) visits food premises, they
will need to see the up-to-date food safety manage-
Environmental Health Officers
ment system, including all relevant records. Smaller
(Environmental Health Practitioners) businesses may use ‘Safer Food Better Business’
Enforcement officers may visit food premises as a (see page 421) as their food safety system, and will
matter of routine, as a follow-up when problems have still need to provide the relevant records, many of
been identified, or after a complaint. The frequency of which are recorded in the SFBB pack.
visits depends on the type of business and food being The EHO (EHP) may also complete physical
handled, possible hazards within the business, the checks on any area of the food business, especially
risk rating, and any previous problems or convictions. where they think there may be possible food safety
Generally, businesses posing a higher risk will be vis- hazards present in the operation.
ited more frequently than those considered low risk.
Food poisoning and prevention of food poisoning

The main reason for food businesses adopting high Most illness related to food is caused by consuming
standards of food safety is to prevent food poison- foods/drinks that are contaminated in some way or
ing (in 2000 the Food Standards Agency committed are naturally poisonous.
to reducing the incidence of food poisoning across
the UK). The number of food poisoning/food-borne Food poisoning and food-borne
illness cases in the UK remains unacceptably high.
While some types of food poisoning/food-borne
illness: definitions
illness caused by some specific pathogens have ●● Food poisoning: an acute intestinal illness
been reduced over the past few years, others have that is the result of eating foods contaminated
increased. It is also important to remember that only with pathogenic bacteria and/or their toxins.
a very small proportion of food poisoning cases are Food poisoning may also be caused by eating
ever reported and recorded, so no one really knows poisonous fish or plants, chemicals or metals.
the full extent of the problem. Symptoms of food poisoning are often similar and
394 Legislation
1000000
90000
80000
70000
Number of cases
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
1000
0
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year
Figure 14.1 Reported food poisoning outbreaks

Source: Health Protection Agency
may include diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea, fever, contaminants can range from the inconvenient or
headache, dehydration and abdominal pain. slightly unpleasant through to dangerous and even
●● Food-borne illness: an illness caused by fatal. In any food business it is essential to protect
pathogenic bacteria and/or their toxins, and also food from contamination and remove or destroy con-
viruses, but in this case pathogens do not need taminants already present (e.g. possible pathogens in
to multiply in the food, they just need to get into raw poultry). We look in detail at some contamination
the intestine where they start to multiply. Only hazards below.
tiny amounts are needed and may be transmitted
person to person, in water or airborne, as well as Physical hazards
through food. Symptoms of food-borne illness are This includes physical objects such as glass, machine
wide and varied, and include severe abdominal parts, paperclips, hair, fingernails, insects, packaging
pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, headaches, blurred materials, coins, buttons, blue plasters and so on get-
vision, flu symptoms, septicaemia and miscarriage. ting into food. Some of these could well be harmful
if eaten, but they are mostly objectionable and cause
At-risk groups for customer complaint. Good staff training, including
Food poisoning/food-borne illness can be unpleasant ‘clean as you go’ and good general ‘housekeeping’,
for anyone, but for some the illnesses can be very as well as planned kitchen practices recorded in the
serious or even fatal. Extra care with food safety must food safety management system, should help to pre-
be observed when providing food for these groups of vent physical contamination.
people. These high-risk groups include:
Chemical hazards
●● babies and the very young
Chemical hazards can arise from various chemicals
●● elderly people
such as kitchen cleaning materials, disinfectants,
●● pregnant women
pesticides, degreasers, agricultural chemicals and
●● those with an impaired immune system
beer line cleaners. Residues of drugs, pesticides and
●● those who are already unwell.
fertilisers may be present in raw materials. Pesticides
sprayed on to fruit and vegetables just prior to har-
Contamination
vesting may result in a toxic build-up. Chemicals can
Contamination of food can be a major hazard in any get into food by leakage, spillage or other accidents
food-related operation. A contaminant is anything during food processing or preparation. Chemical food
that is present in food that should not be there. Food additives have to undergo rigorous testing before
Food safety and food safety legislation 395
they are allowed to be used and are usually harmless. The main foods linked with allergic reactions are:
Acid foods should not be cooked or stored in equip-
●● nuts and nut products, including nut oil
ment containing metals such as antimony, cadmium,
●● gluten, wheat and wheat products
lead, tin, zinc, aluminium or copper, unless the metal
●● dairy products, including eggs
is intended for the specific purpose.
●● shellfish
Prevention of chemical food poisoning ●● mushrooms
●● soft fruits, especially strawberries.
Chemical food poisoning can be prevented by:
It is important to provide accurate information about
●● purchasing food from reliable sources, with good
ingredients in food when this is requested, or to
farming practices and suppliers with proper
include useful information on menus, especially when
storage procedures
dealing with vulnerable groups such as young chil-
●● using containers (especially metal containers)
dren. Some establishments that provide foods for
only for their intended use
such groups completely remove certain allergenic
●● safe storage of kitchen chemicals well away from
foods like nuts from their menus.
food
Food intolerance is different from an allergy and
●● accurate dilution of chemicals used in the kitchen
does not involve the immune system, though people
●● not spraying chemicals such as sanitiser or fly
suffering from a food intolerance may still suffer ill-
spray around open food
ness or discomfort after eating certain foods.
●● training and care in the use of substances
hazardous to health – COSHH training for staff Prevention of allergenic food poisoning
●● disposing of chemicals safely and with care
Allergenic food poisoning can be avoided by:
according to regulations.
●● providing customers with accurate details of
Allergenic hazards ingredients used
These may come from various foods to which individu- ●● providing full, useful menu information
als may have an allergic reaction. When someone has ●● keeping staff fully informed of ingredients in
a food allergy, their immune system mistakes certain menu dishes – a recipe file could be useful
foods – for example, wheat or nuts – for a harmful ●● retaining food packaging/ingredients lists for
substance and a reaction takes place. This could be: information
●● removing ingredients such as nuts from the menu
●● itching and/or swelling of the lips, mouth, tongue
●● using alternative ingredients, such as replacing
and/or throat
nut oil with vegetable oil
●● skin reactions (e.g. swelling and itching, eczema
●● separate preparation areas and separate colour-
and flushing)
coded equipment for allergy-related items
●● diarrhoea, feeling sick, vomiting and bloating
●● staff training sessions on how to avoid problems
●● coughing and or runny nose
with allergies.
●● breathlessness and wheezing
●● sore, itchy eyes. Microbiological hazards
There may also be symptoms such as extreme fatigue Contamination from micro-organisms includes patho-
or arthritis. genic bacteria causing food poisoning or food-borne
Some food allergies result in immediate, severe and illness, as well as spores and toxins (see below),
even life-threatening symptoms, as happens with a moulds, viruses, parasites, etc. These are of particular
severe peanut allergy. Others cause symptoms that concern because they are often not visible on the
may take longer to develop – for example, gluten food they are contaminating. In the case of patho-
allergy (coeliac disease). Some people can develop genic bacteria, very large numbers can be present in
a severe allergic reaction called anaphylactic shock, food, certainly enough to cause food poisoning but
which is potentially fatal. This is often linked to pea- the food will smell, taste and look fine. High standards
nuts and other nut products. Symptoms can include of food safety practices and awareness are needed
dizziness, rapid pulse, a drop in blood pressure, and by all food handlers to avoid contamination by micro-
swelling of the airways and throat, making it difficult organisms, especially pathogens.
to breathe. This could result in loss of consciousness Contamination with pathogens can occur in many
and can even be fatal if left untreated. ways and particularly by:
396 Legislation
●● humans – coughing, sneezing on food; from the ●● different people touching hand-contact surfaces,
hands and because of poor personal hygiene e.g. fridge or cupboard doors.
●● people with illnesses or infections, or those who
To prevent the transfer of bacteria by cross-contami-
are ‘carriers’ of organisms
nation, the following points should be observed:
●● animals, insects, birds getting into the kitchen and
spreading pathogens from droppings, hair, saliva ●● ensure food is obtained from reliable sources
●● kitchen equipment – tea towels, dishcloths, (traceability)
knives, boards, bowls, etc. ●● handle foods as little as possible; when
●● raw ingredients such as meat, poultry and dirty practicable, use tongs, palette knives, disposable
vegetables uncovered in the kitchen plastic gloves and other suitable equipment
●● a build-up of refuse or decaying matter in the ●● ensure utensils and work surfaces are clean and
kitchen. sanitised
●● use different colour-coded cloths for raw and
Good practices to avoid pathogenic food poisoning
cooked food areas, use disposable cloths or
are discussed in detail below, but general measures
kitchen paper
should always include:
●● pay particular attention to avoid any
●● food handlers practising the highest standards contamination when handling raw poultry, meat
of personal hygiene and being meticulous about and fish
reporting any illness or infection they may have ●● wash raw fruits and vegetables thoroughly
before entering the food areas ●● clean methodically and frequently, in line with the
●● planned processes for dealing with raw foods, cleaning schedule; train staff in ‘clean as you go’
especially raw meat and poultry procedures
●● planned and monitored storage, preparation, ●● unpack food delivery boxes away from open food
cooking and hot holding of all foods ●● protect food from contamination while it is cooling
●● monitoring and supervision of temperature control in the kitchen
and the time that food is at ambient temperatures
●● recorded pest control measures and planned pest
control
●● planned and recorded training of staff in food
safety matters.
Cross-contamination
Cross-contamination occurs when pathogenic bacte-
ria (or other contaminants) are transferred from one
place to another – for example, from contaminated
food (usually raw food), equipment, areas or food han-
dlers to ready-to-eat food. It is the cause of significant
amounts of food poisoning and care must be taken
to avoid it. Cross-contamination could be caused by:
●● certain foods touching, e.g. raw and cooked
meat
●● raw meat or poultry dripping on to cooked ready-
to-eat foods
●● soil from dirty vegetables coming into contact
with high-risk foods
●● dirty cloths, staff uniforms or equipment
●● equipment used for raw then cooked food, e.g.
chopping boards or knives
●● hands – touching raw then cooked food, not
washing hands between tasks, etc.
●● pests spreading bacteria from their own bodies
around the kitchen Figure 14.2 Chopping board colours
●● keep foods covered and refrigerated as much as and staff uniforms. The most widely used of these are
possible chopping boards; the usual colour coding of these is:
●● use colour-coded kitchen equipment (see below).
●● white – dairy products
●● take particular care in the defrosting of frozen
●● red – raw meat and poultry
raw items such as chicken, to prevent them
●● brown – vegetables
dripping on to other items.
●● yellow – cooked meat
Colour-coded equipment ●● green – fruit and salads
●● blue – raw fish.
A variety of equipment is now available to help avoid
cross-contamination, and can be identified by colour. Some establishments will now have a further col-
The equipment used may include chopping boards, oured chopping board to use for items likely to cause
knife handles, food storage trays and bowls, food allergenic problems, such as nuts (these may also be
wrapping/packaging, cleaning equipment and cloths, prepared in a separate area).
Pathogenic bacteria, poisonous foods, food spoilage and

food preservation
Bacteria are minute, single-celled organisms that can tion and dehydration. Then, on return to favourable
be seen only under a microscope. They are the most conditions, they germinate into normal bacteria again,
common cause of food poisoning and food-borne ill- which can then multiply. Other bacteria produce
ness. Not all bacteria are harmful; some are essential toxins (poisons) outside their cells as they multiply in
to maintain good health (for example, in the digestive food. These mix with the food, making it poisonous,
system), some are used in the manufacture of medi- and symptoms of food poisoning follow. Toxins in food
cines and others in food production, as in the making are resistant to heat, thus still causing illness, even if
of cheese and yoghurt. Others simply cause food to the food is heated to boiling point. Different toxins
spoil, as in the souring of milk. can be released by some pathogens as they multiply
Those bacteria that can be harmful and cause in the human body.
food poisoning are referred to as pathogenic bac-
teria. These are dangerous once they get into food
because they are not visible to the human eye, and
the appearance, smell and taste of the food may
Number of bacteria
remain unchanged. It is not possible to completely Stationary

eliminate pathogenic bacteria from food premises Log Decline
as they are to be found widely in the environment,
Lag
including in raw foods, dirty vegetables, animal pests
and humans, to name just a few. They can very easily
be transferred on to hands, surfaces, cooked foods,
equipment and cloths; this is called cross-contamina- Time
tion (see above). Bacteria may be carried from one Lag1: the bacteria are adjusting
place to another in the kitchen – for example, on to the conditions before
hands or equipment (these are referred to as ‘vehi- they start to multiply
cles of contamination’). Log2: this is the phase of rapid growth
The ways pathogens act Stationary: growth has stopped because

their food is running out
Some bacteria cause food poisoning by virtue of
very large numbers of them multiplying in food then Decline: bacteria are dying
entering the digestive system, multiplying further and
1 No growth or dormant
infecting the body. Others can form spores; these 2 Abbreviation for logarithm, which is the means of using
are often referred to as ‘a resistant resting phase of tables to calculate growth
bacteria’. Spores can withstand high temperatures for
long periods of time, and can also withstand disinfec- Figure 14.3 How pathogens multiply
398 Legislation
●● meat and meat products (sausages, pâté, pies,

cold meats, sandwiches)
●● milk and milk products
●● cooked rice
●● all foods that are handled then have no further
cooking
●● all foods that are reheated.
The above foods are often implicated in food poison-
ing outbreaks, so extra care must be taken to prevent
them from being contaminated and being left in con-
ditions where bacteria can multiply.
Temperature
Food poisoning bacteria multiply most rapidly at human
Figure 14.4 Bacteria multiplying
body temperature (37°C), but can multiply anywhere
Some bacteria will multiply in the absence of air between temperatures of 5°C and 63°C. This range of
(anaerobes); others need it in order to multiply (aer- temperatures is referred to as the danger zone. Warm
obes). Bacteria multiply by dividing in two, under suit- kitchen temperatures provide ideal conditions for bacte-
able conditions, once every 10–20 minutes. This is rial growth and food should be kept refrigerated wher-
called ‘binary fission’. Therefore one bacterium could ever possible. Chilled and frozen food deliveries should
multiply in 10–12 hours to between 500 million and be put into temperature-controlled storage within 15
1000 million bacteria – enough to cause illness. minutes of delivery.
Typhoid and paratyphoid are diseases caused by Water that is just warm is not suitable for washing
harmful bacteria, and can be carried in food or water. crockery, cutlery or equipment as bacteria will not be
Scarlet fever, tuberculosis and dysentery may be destroyed. Hot water must be used for washing-up
caused by untreated water or by drinking milk that or cleaning equipment; and, where possible, use a
has not been pasteurised. The time between eating dishwasher that will clean items thoroughly and dis-
the contaminated food (ingestion) to the beginning of infect them.
the symptoms of the illness (onset) depends on the Boiling water will kill bacteria in a few seconds, but
type of bacteria that has caused the illness. to destroy toxins prolonged boiling is needed. Spores
For the multiplication of bacteria, certain conditions are almost impossible to kill with normal cooking
are necessary: temperatures: long cooking times and/or very high
temperatures are needed. Food canning processes
●● food (nutrients) must be available
use ‘botulinum cook’, which is high-heat cooking at
●● moisture must be adequate
121°C for three minutes, or a tested alternative time/
●● temperature must be suitable – 5°C–63°C, with
temperature combination, to kill any spores that may
around 37°C the most favoured temperature
be present.
●● time to allow for multiplication.
It is important to remember that, when cooking,
Food food must be heated to a sufficiently high tempera-
ture and for the required amount of time, to be sure
Most foods can be easily contaminated; those less
of safe food; any reheating of food must be done very
likely to cause food poisoning are dry or have a
thoroughly, to a minimum of 75°C. Cold foods need to
high concentration of vinegar, sugar or salt, or are
be stored at temperatures below 5°C.
preserved in some way. Some foods support the mul-
Bacteria are not killed by cold, although they mul-
tiplication of bacteria more than others when given
tiply only slowly at very low temperatures; at freezer
the right conditions; these are referred to as high-risk
temperatures they will lie dormant for long periods.
foods. They are usually foods that are ready to eat,
Once food is removed from cold storage, bacteria will
have a protein and moisture content, and will not go
start to multiply again as the temperature rises.
through a cooking process that will destroy bacteria.
Foods that have been taken out of the refrigerator,
High-risk foods include:
kept in a warm kitchen and returned to the refrigera-
●● stock, sauces, gravies, soups tor for later use could be contaminated with a higher
●● eggs and egg products level of pathogenic bacteria. Food that has been
Time Bacteria of foods contain enough water to support bacterial

12.00 1 multiplication. Even dry foods such as dried pasta
or rice will have water added to them in the cooking
12.20 2 process, so once again will become vulnerable to
bacterial growth. Some food preservation methods
12.40 4
remove enough moisture to make the food safe, e.g.
13.00 8
sundried tomatoes or food preserved with salt or
sugar (osmosis).
14.00 64
Time
15.00 512 As noted above, given the conditions they need,
bacteria can divide by binary fission every 10–20
16.00 4096
minutes. Therefore foods left at ambient tempera-
17.00 32,768 tures could contain large numbers of harmful bacteria
within a few hours. Time is the element of bacterial
18.00 262,144 growth that the food handler is most able to control.
Make sure that food spends as little time as possible
19.00 2,097,152 at kitchen temperatures, keep it cold in a refrigerator
Figure 14.5 Under ideal conditions, bacteria can multiply
or hot, not in between. When heating or cooking food,
by dividing into two every 20 minutes; in this way, a single take it through ‘danger zone temperatures’ as quickly
bacterium could increase to 2,097,152 within 7 hours as possible; this may mean cooking in smaller pans
or in smaller batches. Do not hold food on display for
long periods without proper temperature control.
taken from the freezer and defrosted will be suscep-
tible to bacterial growth as the temperature rises, so A closer look at some of the main
food should never be re-frozen once it has defrosted. organisms causing illness
Different organisms prefer slightly different tem-
perature ranges for growth (multiplication) – for Food poisoning bacteria
example, Clostridium perfringens grows best at 45°C, Salmonella group
while Listeria monocytogenes grows most efficiently
●● Incubation period: 12–36 hours
at 30°C, but can still multiply right down at refrigera-
●● Symptoms: fever, headache, diarrhoea, vomiting
tor temperatures. In a refrigerator running below 5°C,
●● Prevention: thorough cooking, correct storage,
bacteria would multiply very slowly or not at all, and
good personal hygiene, avoiding cross-
there would be no multiplication at freezer tempera-
contamination, exclusion of carriers
tures, though these temperatures would not actually
kill bacteria. These bacteria can be present in the intestines of
animals or human beings; they are excreted and
Food, time, moisture, warmth anything coming into contact directly or indirectly
As already noted, under ideal conditions one bacte- with the excreta may be contaminated (raw meat at
rium divides into two every 10–20 minutes if suitable the slaughterhouse or the unwashed hands of an
moist food is available. In warm conditions, in a com- infected person). Salmonella infection is the result of
paratively short time, sufficient pathogenic bacteria human beings or animals eating food contaminated
can be produced to cause food poisoning. Particular by salmonella-infected excreta, so completing a chain
care is therefore required to keep foods refrigerated of infection. Faecal–oral routes are often linked with
until they are actually being prepared or cooked, and outbreaks of salmonella poisoning; for example: a
food should certainly never be left out in a kitchen chef visiting the toilet and not completing careful
overnight. hand washing (salmonella on hands from intestines);
high-risk food then handled by the chef, transferring
Moisture the bacteria, which multiply in the food and cause
Bacteria need water to support their life cycle and food poisoning.
processes. The amount of water in food is referred The foods most commonly affected by the salmo-
to as aw (water activity). Other than dried foods, most nella group are poultry, meat and eggs. Contamination
food contains some moisture, and a wide variety can be caused by:
400 Legislation
Hen
Mouse
Turkey
Rat
Cat
Pig
Egg Dog
Infected
meat
Cow
Infected
unpasteurised milk
Salmonella bacteria
Uncooked or lightly
cooked food
Food poisoning
Figure 14.6 Foods contaminated by salmonella organisms if uncooked or lightly

cooked may result in food poisoning
●● insects and vermin, because salmonella is spread scalp, in uncovered cuts, burns and other abrasions,
by droppings, feet, hairs or saliva and also in the nose and throat. Foods affected by
●● the food itself (occasionally with eggs) Staphylococcus aureus are often high-risk foods that
●● cross-contamination (if a raw chicken is prepared on have been handled and contaminated by the food han-
a board and the board is not properly cleaned before dler, then left at suitable temperatures long enough
another food (such as cold meat) is cut on the board for the bacteria to multiply to dangerous levels. The
●● the food being infected by a human carrier (a illness onset is rapid because Staphylococcus aureus
person who does not suffer from symptoms produce toxins that are detected by the body as
but who carries the organism and passes it on a poison and this is rejected by vomiting. Ongoing
through food they handle). staff training in the importance of personal hygiene
is crucial to the control of food poisoning from this
It is now highly recommended that any kitchen prepa-
organism.
rations (e.g. mayonnaise or mousses made with raw
or very lightly cooked egg) are made with pasteur-
Clostridium perfringens
ised egg because raw eggs can contain salmonella
bacteria. ●● Incubation period: 12–18 hours
●● Symptoms: diarrhoea, severe stomach cramp,
Staphylococcus aureus little if any vomiting
●● Incubation period: 1–7 hours ●● Prevention: thorough cooking, bringing food
●● Symptoms: severe vomiting up to temperature quickly, and rapid cooling,
●● Prevention: high standards of personal hygiene, prevention of cross-contamination
exclusion of food handlers with illness, infections
These bacteria are distributed from the intestines of
etc.
humans and animals, and are also found in the soil.
Staphylococcus will be present on humans, and will Foods affected by Clostridium perfringens frequently
be on hands and other parts of the skin, hair and include raw meat, which is the main source of these
Figure 14.7 Reports on salmonella food poisoning
bacteria, but dirty vegetables can also be a significant is reheated, temperatures are not high enough to
source. Clostridium perfringens can produce spores destroy spores and toxins. Bacillus cereus has also
that may survive cooking and this organism has been linked with other cereal crops, spices and
caused problems when large amounts of meat are vegetables.
cooked but take a long time to heat to boiling point
(e.g. a large pan of stewing beef). During this slow Competition
heating time spores can form that may not be killed The rate at which bacteria multiply and survive may be
by subsequent cooking. If the food is to be cooled partly dependent on other bacteria that are present
for later use the spores can germinate back into the as they will compete for the same conditions and
organisms, which can then reproduce to dangerous nutrients.
levels.
Clostridium botulinum is another type of bacterium Food-borne illness
that causes food poisoning with some very serious Different organisms from those described above
outcomes, including death. It is found in soil and in cause food-borne illness. These do not multiply in
fish intestines in some parts of the world, but fortu- food, but use food to get into the human gut,
nately is very rare in the UK. where they then multiply and cause a range of ill-
nesses, some of them very serious. They include
Bacillus cereus those described in more detail below.
●● Incubation period: 1–5 hours (common type)
●● Symptoms: vomiting, diarrhoea Campylobacter
●● Prevention: thorough cooking of rice; avoid ●● Incubation period: 2–5 days
cooking and storing rice in bulk, especially at ●● Symptoms: headache, fever, bloody diarrhoea,
ambient temperatures abdominal pain (mimics appendicitis)
●● Prevention: thorough cooking, avoiding cross-
Bacillus cereus is found in soil where vegetables and
contamination from raw to cooked food, treated
cereal crops like rice may grow. It can produce spores
water, pasteurised milk
and can also produce two different types of toxin,
making it a dangerous pathogen. It is often associ- Campylobacter now causes more food-related illness
ated with cooking rice in large quantities (spores can than any other organism. It is found in raw poultry
form) then cooling it too slowly (spores germinate, and meat, sewage, animals, insects and birds. It has
organisms multiply, producing toxins). When the rice been particularly linked with raw, fresh chicken and
402 Legislation
increased chicken consumption. It is destroyed by from person to person, and are sometimes associ-
thorough cooking. ated with shellfish that come from contaminated
water.
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
●● Incubation period: 10–72 hours Sources
●● Symptoms: vomiting, severe abdominal pain, Food-poisoning bacteria live in:
diarrhoea (kidney failure and death with certain
strains) ●● the soil (bacillus cereus, clostridium perfringens,
●● Prevention: good personal hygiene, thorough botulinum, listeria)
cooking, avoiding cross-contamination from raw ●● humans – intestines, nose, throat, saliva, skin,
to cooked food, proper temperature control cuts, burns, hair, scalp, spots, cuts and burns
(salmonella, staphylococcus)
Found in the intestines of humans and animals, E. coli ●● animals, rodents, domestic pets, insects and
is usually an indicator of faecal contamination of birds – intestines, skin, fur, and so on (salmonella,
food or water. It has also been linked with raw meat campylobacter, E. coli)
and vegetables. Certain strains are pathogenic and ●● kitchen refuse can carry a variety of pathogenic
produce an ‘enterotoxin’ in the intestine that results bacteria.
in abdominal pain and diarrhoea. One group of
pathogenic E. coli is responsible for severe infantile To prevent food poisoning, everyone concerned with
diarrhoea, and another group causes travellers’ diar- food must:
rhoea. E. coli has been recorded at temperatures as ●● prevent bacteria from multiplying
low as 4°C. ●● prevent bacteria from contaminating other areas
Serious recorded outbreaks of E. coli occurred in ●● destroy harmful bacteria.
Scotland in 1997, originating from a butcher selling
raw and cooked meat. This resulted in 20 deaths. This means that harmful bacteria must be isolated,
More recently, outbreaks have been associated with the chain of infection broken and conditions favour-
farms, takeaway food shops, other food outlets and able to their growth eliminated. It is also necessary
children’s animal farms. to control the harmful bacteria being brought into
premises or getting on to food. This is achieved by
Listeria monocytogenes high standards of hygiene of personnel, premises,
●● Incubation period: 1 day–3 months equipment and food handling.
●● Symptoms: meningitis, septicaemia, flu-like
symptoms, stillbirth Poisoning from fish, vegetable and plant
●● Prevention: thorough cooking, avoiding untreated items
milk/cheeses, careful temperature control ●● Scombrotoxic fish poisoning (SFP):
Listeria organisms can be found in soil, vegetables associated with the consumption of
and animal feed. Listeria is a cause for concern contaminated fish of the Scombroid family
because it can multiply (slowly) at fridge tempera- (including tuna, mackerel, herring, marlin
tures, i.e. below 5°C. Listeria has been linked with and sardines). The poison builds in the
such chilled products as unpasteurised milk and fish, especially in storage above 4°C. It is a
cheeses, pâté and prepared salads, as well as cook- chemical intoxication and symptoms occur
chill meals. It can be the cause of serious food-borne within ten minutes to three hours after eating
disease, particularly in the elderly, the chronically sick the affected fish. Symptoms include, rash
or babies. Listeria is killed by correct and thorough on the face/neck/chest, flushing, sweating,
cooking. nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal cramps,
headache, dizziness, palpitations and a
Viruses sensation of burning in the mouth. Symptoms
Viruses are even smaller than bacteria and can be have usually disappeared within 12 hours.
seen only with a powerful microscope. They only Although most cases are not serious enough
multiply on living cells, not on food, though they may for hospital attention, some are very severe and
be transferred into the body on food or drinks, and urgent medical attention is necessary, when
may live for a short time on hard surfaces such as antihistamine drugs may be used. These toxins
kitchen equipment. Viruses can easily be passed are very heat resistant and not affected by
normal cooking. Scombrotoxins are thought to lice, grubs). They can usually be destroyed by
be responsible for up to 70 per cent of food thorough cooking or very high-temperature food
poisoning from fish in the UK. preservation methods. In most cases they will also
●● Paralytic fish poisoning: this is a very be killed by freezing.
dangerous form of fish poisoning. It occurs
when some bivalve shellfish (e.g. mussels) feed Food spoilage and food preservation
on poisonous plankton. The poison can survive Most foods, once removed from their natural envi-
normal cooking temperatures. Symptoms after ronment, will have a limited life and will eventually
eating affected shellfish may be nausea, vomiting, deteriorate. The deterioration may be caused by
lowered temperature, diarrhoea, and also a moulds, yeasts, enzymes or bacteria. Spoilage of food
numbness of the mouth, neck and arms, which could also be due to exposure to oxygen, moisture
can lead to paralysis and death within 2–12 or chemicals, damage by pests, or poor handling and
hours. bad storage.
●● Certain plants are poisonous, such as some Unlike bacteria, moulds will grow on acid, alkaline,
fungi, rhubarb leaves, daffodil bulbs and the parts sugary and salty foods. They grow best between
of potatoes that are exposed to the sun above 20 and 30°C, but will also grow at refrigerator tem-
the surface of the soil. peratures. Unlike bacterial contamination, which is
●● Red kidney beans (black kidney beans): every impossible to detect in a normal kitchen situation,
year there are a number of reported cases of food spoilage can usually be detected by ‘orga-
mild poisoning from the toxin in red kidney beans naleptic observation’, which means the spoilage can
(haemagglutin). Poisoning occurs when the beans be observed by sight, smell, taste, touch, etc. Food
are not boiled rapidly at temperatures that will spoilage includes, mouldy, slimy, dried-up, over-wet
kill the toxin (i.e. rapid boiling for ten minutes fresh foods, blown cans and vac packs, and food with
or more). After this initial rapid cooking at high freezer burn.
temperatures, the heat can then be reduced to Over many years, different methods have been
finish the cooking process. The symptoms of developed to prolong the natural life of various foods
this poisoning include nausea, vomiting, pain and and keep them fresh. These include:
diarrhoea. The symptoms usually disappear within
a few hours. Problems with not getting kidney ●● use of heat – cooking, canning, sterilisation,
beans hot enough may also occur if cooking in UHT, pasteurisation, use of heat and sealing (e.g.
very large quantities or if using a ‘slow cooker’. canning, bottling, vacuum packaging)
●● Mycotoxins: as they grow, some moulds can ●● use of low temperatures – chilling, freezing
produce toxins – these are called mycotoxins. ●● exclusion of air – vacuum packaging
Mycotoxins can cause serious illness and have ●● changing the gases surrounding food – modified
been linked with cancers. They are invisibly atmosphere packaging (MAP)
present in mouldy food over a much wider area ●● removal of moisture – dehydrated foods
than the visible mould. Mycotoxin-producing ●● use of acids, sugar or salt concentrations
moulds can tolerate a wide range of acid/alkaline ●● smoking – used on meat and fish (this will offer
conditions, low water activity and temperature only limited preservation)
ranges from –6 to 35°C. They are heat resistant, ●● preservatives (e.g. nitrates, nitrites).
so can withstand very high temperatures. A wide Food preservation will often combine methods to
range of foods may be affected by mycotoxin- ensure effective preservation (e.g. smoked fish may
producing moulds, but the foods most frequently be vacuum packed and will also be refrigerated; milk
affected are cereal crops and products, nuts and is pasteurised but also stored under refrigeration).
fruit products such as juices, dried fruit and jams. Careful use and control of temperature is essential in
●● Food parasites: a variety of parasites can live on producing safe, high-quality food.
plants or animals, from where they get their food.
They present in different forms (e.g. worms, eggs,
404 LEGISLATION
Keeping food safe
Methods and procedures for between 1°C and 4°C (butchers’ fridges –1 to 1°C).
controlling food safety If not already packaged, place on trays, cover well
with clingfilm and label. If it is necessary to store
Food delivered to food businesses will be taken
meat/poultry in a multi-use refrigerator, make sure it
through a number of stages before it reaches the
is covered, labelled and placed at the bottom of the
customer. Careful control at each stage – known as
refrigerator running below 5°C and is well away from
critical control points (see page 419) – is essential to
other items that could be contaminated.
keep food safe and wholesome.
Fish
Food deliveries and storage
A specific fish refrigerator is preferable (running at
For food to remain in the best condition and safe
1°C). Remove fresh fish from ice containers or boxes
to eat, it is essential that correct storage is in place
and place on trays, cover well with clingfilm and label.
and procedures fully understood by kitchen staff. Full
If it is necessary to store fish in a multi-use refrigera-
documentation systems need to be completed for all
tor (1–4°C), make sure it is well covered, labelled and
kitchen deliveries, in line with the food safety man-
placed at the bottom of the refrigerator well away
agement system. This will ensure that food is stored
from other items. Remember that odours from fish
correctly and will be available for inspection by EHOs
can permeate other items, such as milk or eggs.
(EHPs) and, if necessary, as part of ‘due diligence’
(see page 421). Only approved suppliers should be Dairy products/eggs
used, who can assure that food is delivered in the
Pasteurised milk and cream, eggs and cheese should
best condition, in suitable packaging, properly date
be stored in their original containers in refrigerators
coded and at the correct temperature.
running at 1 to 4°C). Sterilised or UHT milk can be
●● All deliveries should be checked then moved to the kept in the dry store following the storage instruc-
appropriate storage area as soon as possible, and tions on the label, but once open treat as you would
chilled/frozen food within 15 minutes of delivery. fresh milk. After delivery, eggs should be stored at a
●● Use a food probe to check the temperature of constant temperature and a refrigerator is the best
food deliveries – chilled food should be below place to store them. Prevent eggs from touching
5°C (reject it if above 8°C), frozen foods should other items in the refrigerator.
be at or below 18°C (reject if above 15°C).
●● Many suppliers will now supply a printout of Multi-use refrigerators.
temperatures at which food was delivered (save If food needs to be stored in multi-use refrigerators it
these printouts in kitchen records, they could be an is absolutely essential that all staff know the correct
important part of due diligence – see page 421). procedures to store the food and this should become
●● Dry goods should be in undamaged packaging, part of ongoing staff training. Posters, pictures and
well within best before dates, be completely dry charts near the refrigerator may help with this. Ensure
and in perfect condition on delivery. that the refrigerator is running at 1 to 4°C (check/
●● Remove food items from outer boxes before monitor and record).
placing the products in the refrigerator, freezer
or dry store. Remove outer packaging carefully, ●● store raw foods such as meat, poultry and fish at
remaining fully aware of any possible pests the bottom of the fridge in suitable deep containers
that may have found their way into it. Avoid any to catch any spillage; cover with clingfilm and label
possibility of physical contamination, such as with the commodity name and the date; do not
staples or string getting into food. allow any other foods to touch these raw foods
●● Segregate any unfit food from other food until it is ●● store other items above raw foods – again they
thrown away or collected by the supplier. This is to should be covered and labelled; keep high-risk
avoid any possible contamination of other foods. foods well away from raw foods
●● never overload the refrigerator – to operate
Raw meat and poultry properly, cold air must be allowed to circulate
Wherever possible, store in refrigerators just for between items
meat and poultry storage, running at temperatures ●● wrap strong-smelling foods very well as the smell
Defrosting
If you need to defrost frozen food, place it in a deep
tray, cover with film and label with what the item is
and the date when defrosting was started. Place at
the bottom of the refrigerator where thawing liquid
can’t drip on to anything else. Defrost food completely
(no ice crystals on any part), then cook thoroughly
within 12 hours. Make sure that you allow enough
time for the defrosting process – it may take longer
than you think! (A 2 kg chicken will take about 24
hours to defrost at 3°C.)
Fruit, vegetables and salad items

Storage conditions will vary according to type; sacks
of potatoes, root vegetables and some fruit can be
stored in a cool, well-ventilated storeroom, but salad
Figure 14.8 Food in a refrigerator items, green vegetables, soft fruit and tropical fruit
would be better in refrigerated storage. If possible,
a specific refrigerator running at 8–10°C would be
(and taste) can transfer to other foods, such as ideal to avoid any chill damage.
eggs and milk
●● as with other foods, check date labels and use Dry (ambient) food stores
strict stock-rotation procedures. A dry or ambient food store is an area to store
foods that generally have a longer shelf life than
Make sure that refrigerators are cleaned regularly.
those needing refrigerated or frozen storage
This needs to be part of the cleaning schedule. The
(though the dry stores area may also have areas
procedure should be:
for refrigerated and freezer storage). Items usually
1 remove food to another refrigerator kept in the dry stores include dry goods and cereal
2 clean according to cleaning schedule using a products, spices and dried herbs, packaged goods
recommended sanitiser (a solution of bicarbonate (e.g. biscuits), canned goods, bottled items, choco-
of soda and water is also good for cleaning late/cocoa, tea and coffee. Fruit and vegetables
refrigerators) not requiring refrigeration (e.g. sacks of potatoes
3 remember to empty and clean any drip trays, and and onions) may also be stored here. Refrigerated
clean door seals thoroughly storage may be available for items needing temper-
4 rinse then dry with kitchen paper ature-controlled storage. The room should be large
5 make sure the refrigerator front and enough to allow for the correct storage of stock. It
handle is cleaned and disinfected to avoid needs to be cool (10–15°C is ideal), well ventilated,
cross-contamination a light colour, well lit, protected to prevent entry of
6 check that the refrigerator is down to temperature pests, and easy to clean/disinfect efficiently.
(1 to 4°C), before replacing the food in the proper When fitting out the room:
positions (see above)
●● the surfaces of walls, ceilings and floors need to
7 check dates and condition of all food before
be smooth, impervious and easy to clean; edges
replacing.
where walls join the floor or ceiling should be
Frozen foods coved if possible to prevent build-up of debris in
corners
Store in a freezer running at –18°C or below. Make
●● doors should be protected by metal kick-plates
sure that food is wrapped or packaged. Separate
and a plastic or chain curtain to prevent pests
raw foods from ready-to-eat foods in the freezer
from gaining entry (but also check the packaging
and never allow food to be re-frozen once it has
on deliveries for possible pests)
defrosted. In a specific ice cream freezer, ice cream
●● windows should be well protected with wire
can be kept at –12°C or below for up to one week
gauze or netting, and food items should not be
before use.
stored in direct sunlight from windows
406 Legislation
●● shelves/racking must be made of a non-corrosive, as ‘the greenhouse effect’ and also applies to glass
easy-to-clean material (e.g. tubular stainless or perspex display cabinets. Because of concerns
steel); shelving must be deep enough to store about migration of chemicals into food it is recom-
the items required and the bottom shelf should mended that foods are never cooked or reheated
be well raised from the floor to allow for ease of when wrapped in clingfilm unless a film specifically
cleaning underneath; never store items directly on recommended for this is used.
the floor as this prevents effective cleaning from
taking place and packaging can get wet when ‘First in, first out’
the floor is cleaned, causing contamination and This term is used to describe stock rotation and is
deterioration of the contents. applied to all categories of food. It simply means that
foods already in storage are used before new deliver-
Where possible, store dry goods in covered con-
ies (providing stock is still within recommended dates
tainers or bins but make sure the stock is rotated
and in sound condition). Food deliveries should be
effectively – that is, ‘first in, first out’ (see below); this
labelled with delivery date and preferably the date
will ensure that existing stock is always used first.
by which they should be used. Use this information
When new packages of dry stock are delivered do
along with food labelling codes (see below). Written
not empty them into the container on top of what is
stock records should form a part of a food safety
already being stored.
management system.
To avoid any possible cross-contamination, store
high-risk (ready-to-eat) foods well away from any
raw foods such as dirty vegetables, and make sure all
items remain covered.
Canned products
Cans are usually stored in the dry store area and,
once again, rotation of stock is essential. Canned
food will carry best before dates and it is not advis-
able to use after this. ‘Blown’ cans must never be
used, and do not use badly dented or rusty cans.
Once opened, transfer any unused canned food to a Figure 14.9 Date labelling stickers
clean bowl, cover and label it, and store in the fridge
for up to two days. Food labelling codes
Cooked foods The main UK food date labelling codes to ensure the
safety, quality and fitness for purpose of food are as
These include a wide range of foods (e.g. pies, pâté,
follows.
cream cakes, desserts and savoury flans). They will
usually be high-risk foods, so correct storage is ●● Use-by dates: these appear on perishable foods
essential. For specific storage instructions see the with a short life that usually need refrigerated
labelling on the individual items, but generally keep storage. Legally, the food must be used by this
items below 5°C. Store foods carefully, wrapped and date and not stored or used after it, or it could be
labelled, where possible in a refrigerator used only for a danger to health. The date will appear as ‘use
high-risk items. If a multi-use fridge needs to be used, by’ plus day, month and year. It is an offence to
store well away from and above raw foods to avoid change this date.
any cross-contamination. ●● Best before dates: these apply to foods that are
expected to have a longer life, e.g. dry products
Using clingfilm or canned food. A best before date advises that
Clingfilm is a very useful product for storing food food is at its best before this date and to use it
hygienically, protecting from cross-contamination and after the date is still legal but not advised. Dates
preventing food from drying out. However, because will appear as follows:
clingfilm seals in moisture it can encourage growth –– three months or less – ‘best before’ day and
of moulds on food. Do not leave clingfilm-wrapped month only
or covered foods in direct light as this can increase –– three to 18 months – ‘best before’ day, month
the temperature of the food inside. This is referred to and year, or ‘best before end’ month and year
–– more than 18 months – ‘best before’ month

and year, or ‘best before end’ and year only.
Some foods are exempt from date marking. These
include uncut fresh vegetables, sugar or high-alcohol
drinks. With both use-by and best before dates it is
essential to follow the food storage advice and guid-
ance on the packaging observed.
Food preparation
Food should not be prepared too far in advance of
cooking. If food is prepared a significant time before it
is to be cooked control measures must be in place to
ensure that this is safe. Preparation areas for raw and
cooked food should be well separated, as should dirty Figure 14.10 Use-by and best before dates
and clean processes. Food being prepared should
only be out of temperature control (refrigeration or Staff should be aware of the danger zone tempera-
cooking processes) for the shortest time possible. tures (5–63°C) and the need to heat food through
Avoid handling food unnecessarily; use disposable this temperature range quickly to avoid the forma-
gloves, tongs, slices, spoons, etc., where possible. tion of spores. It is also good practice to use lids
High standards of personal hygiene are essential for on cooking pans to prevent heat escaping, and to
those handling food; approved kitchen clothing must stir food frequently to keep temperatures even. Hot
be worn, and changed if it becomes dirty or badly food can be kept out of temperature control for up
stained as this could contaminate food and equip- to two hours on any single occasion, such as a hot
ment. It is essential to develop and monitor ‘clean as buffet. Food must be disposed of at the end of the
you go’ methods of work to help avoid microbial and two hours.
physical contamination of food. Also take care when
preparing food not to allow any chemical contamina- Low temperatures
tion from sanitiser sprays, disinfectants and so on, As bacteria can multiply only very slowly at low tem-
and be aware of allergenic contamination, whether peratures (see Figure 14.5), good practice is to keep
some foods need to be prepared in a separate area refrigerators running at 1–4°C. The legal requirement
or eliminated altogether. Use of colour-coded equip- is at or below 8°C.
ment is very helpful in food preparation areas, to Refrigerator and freezer temperatures should be
avoid cross-contamination. checked and recorded at least once daily, and the
recorded temperatures kept as part of food safety
Use of temperature management records. Cold food can be kept out of
Cooking is one of the best measures available to temperature control for up to four hours on any single
destroy and control bacteria in food. The usual recom- occasion (e.g. a buffet). This time includes prepara-
mendation is to cook to a core temperature of 75°C tion time in the kitchen, and food must be disposed
for at least two minutes, but cooking at a slightly lower of at the end of the four hours.
temperature for a longer time can be as effective. In
addition, dish specifications or personal preference Holding temperatures
may require lower temperatures than this, as in rare Hot cooked food being held for service must not fall
beef and some fish dishes. However, avoid under- below 63°C. Make sure that there is adequate equip-
cooked dishes when dealing with groups vulnerable ment to keep food above this temperature; check
to the effects of food poisoning (see page 394). The the temperature frequently and record it. Make sure
usual way to check if the required core temperature that equipment for keeping food hot such as bains-
(the temperature in the centre or thickest part of the marie or hot cabinets are pre-heated and cleaned/
food) has been achieved is with a calibrated and disin- disinfected; do not overfill food containers and allow
fected temperature probe, but visual checks can also all of the food to be used from them before topping
be used – for example, amounts of steam and, in a up. Use lids on open containers to keep the heat in.
cooked chicken, no part should be pink and the juices For cold food being held for service or displayed
running off should be clear. there are similar rules. The food being held for service
408 Legislation
Temperature probes of these temperatures they need to be repaired or

Electronic temperature probes are extremely useful replaced. Record when temperature probes have
in food production to measure the temperature been checked for accuracy and store this informa-
in the centre of both hot and cold food. They are tion with food safety records.
also very useful for recording the temperature of Infrared thermometers
deliveries and checking the uniformity of food tem-
peratures in fridges. Make sure the probe is clean These are also very useful in kitchen area and give
and disinfected before use (disposable disinfectant instant readings as they work by measuring radiant
wipes are useful for this). Place the probe into the energy. They are very hygienic to use as they do not
centre of the food, making sure it is not touching actually touch the food, so there is no chance of
bone or the cooking container. Allow the tempera- cross-contamination or damaging the food.
ture to ‘settle’ before reading. Data loggers
Check regularly that probes are working cor-
rectly (this is called calibration). This can be done These will record information about the tempera-
electronically, but a simple and low-cost check is to tures of refrigeration over a set period. They record
place the place the probe in icy water; the reading highs and lows of temperature in individual or dif-
should be within the range –1 to 1°C. To check ferent fridges/freezers, and can provide a graph of
accuracy at high levels place the probe in boiling trends. Systems are available that record all refrig-
water and the temperature reading should be in erator, chill units and freezer temperatures in a busi-
the range of 99 to 101°C. If probes read outside ness and send the information to a central computer.
should not be above 5°C (legal requirement 8°C). Reheating

Make sure that refrigeration/display cabinets run at Reheating should be done thoroughly and quickly
the correct temperature, check the temperature and to a core temperature of at least 75°C (Scottish law
keep a record. Cold food above 8°C for four hours requires 82°C). Reheated food should also be served
on one occasion must be thrown away (this includes quickly and never reheated more than once.
preparation time).
Serving food
Cooling cooked food
Food must also be protected when it is being served.
When food is cooled either to be served cold or to Do not keep food unprotected and out of tempera-
be reheated, this must be done carefully and quickly, ture control in service areas longer than necessary.
to avoid the formation/germination of spores, and Make sure that all service equipment and surfaces
to reduce the risk of cross-contamination as food is are suitable for food service and are clean. Staff train-
cooling. It is recommended that food is cooled to 8°C ing in food safety is essential for food service staff as
within 90 minutes; this is best done in a blast-chiller. well as for those preparing food.
If this is not available, food in containers can be
plunged into ice water baths or placed on trays and High temperatures
surrounded with ice or ice packs. Place cooling food Normal cooking temperatures of 75°C1 will kill most
in the coolest place available; fans can also be useful pathogens (but not toxins and spores). Use of heat to
to speed up cooling time. make food safe and to preserve it is one of the most
To allow food to cool more quickly it is recom- useful procedures available in food production and
mended that: manufacture. Table 14.1 shows some temperatures
●● items such as soups, stews and sauces are commonly used for this purpose.
placed in small containers; also use shallow
containers – the increased surface area allows Surplus prepared food
food to cool more quickly Some food businesses, as a matter of policy and in
●● cook smaller joints of meat because these will the interests of food safety, dispose of all unused
cool more quickly; a maximum weight of 2.5 kg is prepared foods after set times, and always at the end
recommended. of service. This is especially important when serv-
ing food to high-risk, vulnerable groups of people. management system. Staff must be fully trained and
Policy and procedures for using surplus food need to retrained in these procedures and made aware of the
be planned and recorded as part of the food safety potential hazards involved.
Personal hygiene
All humans are a potential source of food poisoning Anyone suffering from or who is a carrier of any
bacteria, and everyone working with food must be disease that could be transmitted through food must
aware of the importance of personal hygiene when not handle food. This includes diarrhoea and/or vom-
handling food. Staphylococcus aureus may be pre- iting, or any food poisoning symptom, infected cuts,
sent in the nose, mouth, throat, on skin and hair, and burns or spots, bad cold or flu symptoms. Food han-
could easily be transferred on to food where it could dlers with any such illness, infection or wound must
then multiply and cause illness. It is very important report this to their supervisor before starting work.
that hair, nose ears mouth, etc., are not touched while They should also report any illness that has occurred
preparing food. Cuts, burns and boils are also likely to on a recent holiday overseas, and illnesses suffered
be a source of bacteria so must be covered. by other members of their family.
Table 14.1 Temperatures used to make food safe and for food preservation
Cooking This is the most common of ‘heat treatments’ for food. Cooked food does generally keep for
75°C for 2 longer than raw equivalents. However, treat cooked items with care as, once cooked, foods may
minutes then be in the high-risk category. Normal cooking to 75°C for 2 minutes at the core of the food
will kill most pathogens but not spores and toxins.
Pasteurisation This involves heating food to a temperature similar to cooking temperatures but for a very short
72°C for 15 time, i.e. milk is heated to 72°C for 15 seconds, then rapid cooling takes place.
seconds These temperatures will kill most pathogens, bringing them to a ‘safe level’. Toxins and spores
will not be killed. Because relatively low temperatures are used, milk that has been pasteurised
will spoil more quickly than milk preserved by some of the methods described below and must
be kept at refrigerator temperatures. Pasteurisation is also used for liquid egg, cream, ice
cream, some fruit juices and wine. Because of the temperatures used in pasteurisation the
taste of the product remains mostly unchanged, though vitamin content is reduced by about
25%. Unpasteurised milk products can legally be sold in the UK as long as they are clearly
labelled as such.
Sterilisation The sterilisation of milk and other food items destroys all micro-organisms. Sterilisation involves
100°C for heating to 100°C for 15–30 minutes by applying steam and pressure. Because very high
15–30 minutes temperatures are used over a relatively long time some caramelisation occurs, taste is altered
and vitamin content is significantly reduced. Unopened sterilised milk lasts much longer than
pasteurised milk. Liquid or semi-liquid food such as soup, stock and sauces sold in pouches
also go through a sterilisation process. These foods have a long shelf life and do not need
refrigerated storage.
UHT UHT (ultra heat treatment) gives milk a long shelf life without the need for refrigeration (until
135°C for 1 the package is opened). The milk is heated under pressure to very high temperatures, i.e.
second 135°C, for just 1 second, then cooled rapidly and sealed in sterile containers. UHT is also used
for cream.
Canning Canning is an efficient method of food preservation using very high temperatures along with
121°C for 3 sealing the food in a can, pouch or bottle. A concern with canning is the survival of anaerobic
minutes bacteria, especially Clostridium botulinum, which is particularly dangerous, as food poisoning
from this organism can be debilitating and even fatal. This is because any surviving anaerobic
bacteria could thrive inside a can where there is no oxygen; also, sources of Clostridium
botulinum include some fish and vegetables, foods that are frequently canned. To overcome
this, canned food is subjected to ‘botulinum cook’: a time/temperature combination – e.g.
121°C – for 3 minutes or a time/temperature combination calculated to be as effective as this,
dependent upon the acidity and texture of the food.
410 Legislation
All supervisors must be aware that food handlers

can be carriers of dangerous pathogens that could
get into the food they prepare. All known carriers
must not handle food. Convalescent carriers are
those recovering from an illness, but they still carry
the bacteria and can pass it on to the food they
handle. Healthy carriers show no signs of illness
but can still contaminate the food as above; these
people can remain carriers for long periods, or even
all of their lives, and should not do work that involves
handling food.
Before starting a job involving food handling, man-
agers, supervisors/head chefs must make all staff
aware that they must practise high standards of per- Figure 14.11 Drying hands on a paper towel
sonal hygiene: they must always arrive at work clean
(daily bath or shower) and with clean hair. They must ●● after application of or changing a dressing on a
also be aware of the following factors. cut or burn
●● after cleaning preparation areas, equipment or
Hands contaminated surfaces
Hands can potentially be a major cause of con- ●● after handling kitchen waste, external food
tamination in food areas; if not kept clean they can packaging, money or flowers.
very easily transfer harmful bacteria to food and
Jewellery/rings/watches
equipment. Hands must be washed thoroughly and
frequently, particularly after using the toilet, before The wearing of jewellery is not acceptable when han-
commencing work, during the handling of food, and dling food. Jewellery can trap particles of food and
especially between different tasks. New staff need provide a warm, damp environment for bacteria to
to be instructed in the correct procedure in washing grow; bacteria can then be transferred to food being
hands properly, and existing staff will need periodic prepared. This is particularly relevant to items worn
update training. on the hands such as rings and watches. Generally
The procedure should be: a plain wedding band is permissible, but be aware
that this too can be a breeding ground for bacteria.
1 use a basin provided just for hand washing Jewellery or parts of jewellery can fall into food, espe-
2 wet hands under warm running water cially as in some food preparation hands need to be
3 apply liquid soap plunged into water.
4 rub hands together, and between fingers and
thumbs Fingernails
5 remember, fingertips, nails and wrists These should always be kept clean and short as dirt can
6 rinse under the running water easily lodge under the nails and be transferred to food,
7 dry hands on a paper towel and use this to turn introducing bacteria. Nails should kept neatly trimmed
off the tap and nail varnish should never be worn in food areas.
8 dispose of the paper towel in a foot-operated
waste bin. The head
Staff involved in food handling must know that thor- Hair
ough hand washing should take place:
Hair must be washed regularly and kept covered with
●● when they enter the kitchen, before starting work a suitable hat and/or net to prevent loose hair falling
and handling any food into food. The head/hair should never be scratched,
●● after a break (using the toilet, in contact with combed or touched in the kitchen, as bacteria and
faeces) loose hair could be transferred via the hands to the
●● between different tasks, but especially between food, and loose hair could also fall into food.
handling raw and cooked food
●● after touching hair, nose, mouth, or using a tissue Nose
for a sneeze or cough The nose should not be touched when food is being
handled. If a handkerchief/tissue is used, the hands Smoking

should be washed thoroughly afterwards. The nose Smoking is now illegal in most buildings and certainly
is an area where there are vast numbers of harmful where there is food. If food handlers smoke at break
bacteria; it is therefore very important not to sneeze times, their hands must be washed thoroughly after-
on food, other people or working surfaces. If a sneeze wards because when a cigarette is taken from the
or cough is unavoidable, turn away and sneeze into mouth, bacteria from the mouth can be transferred
the shoulder area. via the fingers on to food.
Mouth
Use of kitchen cloths
The mouth also harbours large numbers of bacteria,
therefore the mouth or lips should not be touched Cloths used for holding hot dishes or removing
when working with food. Do not use cooking utensils hot items from the oven should be kept clean and
such as wooden spoons for tasting food, nor should dry, and should not be used for other purposes.
fingers be used for this purpose as bacteria may be Tea towels and dishcloths are often used in many
transferred to food. A clean teaspoon (or disposable ways, such as wiping surfaces or knives, wiping
plastic spoon) should be used for tasting. plate edges and pans. All such uses could transfer
bacteria on to food and be the cause of cross-
Ears contamination. Where cloths are used, they must be
Ears, too, are a source of bacteria and should not be clean and changed frequently; use different cloths
touched when handling food. for raw and cooked food areas (colour-coded cloths
are useful for this). Do not place cloths over the
Cuts, burns and other skin abrasions shoulder because they will transfer bacteria from
the neck and hair to food and equipment. Probably
It is particularly important to keep all cuts, burns, the best practice is to use disposable cloths or
scratches and similar abrasions covered with a water- kitchen paper.
proof dressing (e.g. a blue plaster). Where the wound
has become infected there are vast numbers of Protective clothing
harmful bacteria that must not be permitted to get on
to food; in most cases people suffering in this way Clean whites (protective clothing) and clean under-
should not handle food. Report this to a supervisor wear should be worn at all times; whites should
before handling food. completely cover any other clothing and should be
worn only in the kitchen. Dirty protective clothing can
Cosmetics cause cross-contamination and enable multiplication
of bacteria, which could then get on to food or food
Cosmetics should be used sparingly by food han- equipment.
dlers, but ideally their use should be discouraged Outdoor clothing, and other clothing that has been
altogether. Cosmetics must never be applied in the taken off before wearing whites, should be kept in
kitchen and the hands should be washed thoroughly a locker, away from the kitchen. Kitchen protective
after applying them. clothing needs to provide a barrier between the
Figure 14.12 Sample newspaper reports of hygiene breaches

412 LEGISLATION
wearer and the food, and should protect the body A hat is essential
from excessive heat. Clean teeth Long hair is tied back
●● Chefs’ jackets are usually made of cotton or a Men should be

clean shaven
cotton mixture, are double-breasted and mostly
have long sleeves; these protect the chest and A chef’s jacket,
preferably with
arms from the heat of the stove, and prevent long sleeves
hot foods or liquids burning or scalding the

body. Keep a cloth
handy
●● Aprons are designed to protect the body from
being scalded or burned, and particularly to Clean hands
protect the legs from any liquids that may be An apron helps
Use a blue plaster
if you cut yourself
spilled; for this reason the apron should be of to protect you
from waist to knee
sufficient length to protect the legs.
●● The main purpose of the chef’s hat is to prevent
loose hairs from falling into food and to absorb Chef’s trousers
are baggy
perspiration on the forehead. As well as the
traditional chef’s toque (tall white hat), a variety
of designs is now available, some with a net Safe shoes with
steel toe caps
incorporated to contain the hair fully. Lightweight
Figure 14.13 A chef in whites
disposable hats are now used in many
establishments. kitchen must be strong enough to make them
‘protective’, and able to withstand the hard wear
Kitchen clothing needs to be:
and frequent washing needed; they also need to
●● washable – the clothing should be of an easily be absorbent, to deal with perspiration caused by
washable material because many frequent working in a hot kitchen.
changes of clothing may be needed; with white
clothing it is easy to see when it is stained or Footwear
dirty and needs changing; kitchen clothing must This should be strong, and kept in good repair so as
be easy to wash, and cotton or a cotton mixture to protect and support the feet. As kitchen staff are
is preferable to enable frequent changing and on their feet for many hours, suitable, clean, com-
laundering fortable kitchen footwear is essential. Kitchen staff
●● light and comfortable – clothing must be light should not wear any open-top shoes or sandals, and
in weight, comfortable and not too tight or too ‘trainers’ are also unsuitable as they offer no protec-
long tion from the spillage of hot liquids, falling knives or
●● strong and absorbent – clothes worn in the heavy items that could be dropped on the feet.
A clean and hygienic food environment
Cleaning and disinfection ●● create a pleasant and hygienic working

Clean food areas play an essential part in the produc- environment that is safe and attractive, allowing
tion of safe food. Clean premises, work areas and for efficient and effective working methods
equipment are essential to: ●● assist in reducing maintenance costs and damage
to equipment.
●● control the organisms that cause food poisoning
●● reduce the possibility of physical and chemical Effective cleaning uses one or more of the following:
contamination ●● physical energy/human effort of the cleaner
●● make accidents less likely, e.g. slips on a greasy floor carrying out the task
●● create a positive image for customers, visitors and ●● chemicals, i.e. detergents
employees ●● mechanical methods – machines
●● comply with the law ●● turbulence – movement of liquids
●● avoid attracting pests to the kitchen ●● thermal energy – hot water and steam
●● What needs to be both cleaned and

CIP (clean in place), e.g. for very large equipment.
There are different products designed to complete disinfected?
different tasks, as described below. ●● Direct food contact surfaces: such as chopping
boards, knives, work surfaces, mixing bowls,
Chemicals used in cleaning and serving dishes, display counter inserts and slicing
disinfection machines.
●● Detergent is designed to remove grease and dirt ●● Hand contact surfaces: such as taps, door
and hold them in suspension in water. Detergents handles, drawer handles, oven doors, refrigerator
may be in the form of liquid, powder, gel or foam, doors, light switches, telephones.
and usually need to be added to water to use. ●● Hands: disinfection achieved by bactericidal soap,
Detergent will not kill pathogens (although the hot alcohol-based disinfectant.
water it is mixed with may help to do this), however ●● Cleaning materials and equipment: mops,
it will clean and degrease so disinfectant can work cleaning cloths, scrapers, brushes.
properly. Detergents work best in hot water. Disinfection needs to be carried out carefully to
●● Disinfectant is intended to destroy bacteria ensure that it is effective and safe. All chemicals in
when used properly. Disinfectants must be left on kitchens and food premises must be ‘food safe’ and
a cleaned, grease-free surface for the required it is important to follow manufacturers’ instructions.
amount of time to be effective, and usually work Careless use of chemicals can be dangerous, and
best in cool water. can cause skin irritation, respiratory problems and
●● Sanitiser cleans and disinfects, and usually comes burns. A number of cleaning substances are regarded
in spray form. Sanitiser is very useful for work as hazardous to health. Therefore, a number of pre-
surfaces and equipment, especially between tasks. cautions have to be taken to control their use:
●● Sterilisers can be chemicals (or the action
of extreme heat) and will kill all living ●● read the label and identify the substance and its
micro-organisms. potential hazards
●● follow dilution instructions carefully
When done properly, cleaning is effective in removing ●● use only the right substance for the appropriate
dirt, grease, debris and food particles. Areas will look job
better, be tidier and allow work to be carried out more ●● use the necessary and recommended protective
efficiently. However, cleaning alone is not effective clothing
in the removal of micro-organisms – this will require ●● do not mix different chemicals
disinfection. Disinfection is often carried out after the ●● always store chemicals in their original containers.
cleaning process, but sometimes the two are done
together (i.e. use of sanitiser). It is unlikely that dis- Always use a fresh solution of disinfectant every
infection will kill all micro-organisms, but it will bring time a new cleaning task is carried out. Do not top
them to a safe level. up existing solutions. Mops and cloths should not
Disinfection may be completed with: be soaked in disinfectant solutions for long periods,
as the solution will weaken and can allow bacteria
●● chemicals – use only those recommended for to grow. The disinfectant must be allowed to remain
kitchen use on the surface for the ‘contact time’ recommended
●● hot water – e.g. 82°C1 for 30 seconds, as by the manufacturer. Always rinse thoroughly, unless
occurs in a dishwasher the manufacturer’s instructions state that rinsing is
●● steam – use of steam disinfection is good for unnecessary.
equipment and surfaces that are difficult to
dismantle or reach, e.g. clean in place (CIP). Dangers from chemicals
All food contact surfaces, equipment and hand con- It is essential for all staff to be aware of the pos-
tact items (e.g. fridge handles) should be cleaned sible dangers and hazards from cleaning chemi-
and disinfected regularly according to the cleaning cals. Recognised COSHH (Control of Substances
schedule. Other areas and items may need thorough Hazardous to Health) training will increase staff
cleaning but not disinfection (e.g. floors and walls). It awareness of the risks of the possible dangers from
is important to clean and disinfect the actual cleaning the chemicals they use as part of their job role. They
equipment too after use. must be made aware through ongoing training and
414 Legislation
supervision of the correct use of chemicals, use of more difficult to handle than a regularly emptied bin.
PPE (personal protective equipment) and of proper Waste should never be left in kitchen bins overnight
chemical storage procedures. Chemicals must be (this needs to be part of closing checks).
kept well away from food preparation areas in sepa- Outside waste bins also need to be strong, pest-
rate and lockable storage; the chemicals must be proof and impervious, with a closely fitting lid. Bins
kept in their original containers. Disposal of chemicals should stand on hard surfaces that can be easily
must be carried out in the correct manner according hosed down and kept clean. Planned regular emp-
to company policy, health and safety regulations and tying of the bins and cleaning of the area should
advised COSHH procedures. be recorded in the cleaning schedule/management
As part of kitchen training, it is important to train all system.
staff in the importance of ‘clean as you go’, and not
to allow waste to accumulate in the area where food Dishwashing
preparation and cooking are being carried out. Staff The most efficient and hygienic method of cleaning
need to understand that it is very difficult to keep dishes and crockery is the use of a dishwasher, as
untidy areas clean and hygienic, and it is more likely this will clean and disinfect items, which will then
that cross-contamination will occur in untidy areas. air-dry, removing the need for cloths. The dishwasher
The cleaning of areas and equipment needs to be can also be used to clean/disinfect small equipment
planned and recorded on a cleaning schedule. The such as bowls and chopping boards. The stages in
cleaning schedule needs to include the following machine dishwashing are:
information.
●● remove waste food, pre-rinse or spray
●● What is to be cleaned. ●● load on to the appropriate racks
●● Who should do it (name if possible). ●● the wash cycle will run at 50–60°C using a
●● How it is to be done and how long it should take. detergent
●● When, i.e. time of day. ●● the rinse cycle will run at 82–88°C.
●● Materials to be used, including chemicals,
dilution, cleaning equipment, protective clothing to This very high rinse temperature will disinfect items
be worn. and allow them to air dry so no drying cloths will be
●● Safety precautions necessary to complete the needed. In most commercial dishwashers the wash,
task safely. rinse and water-softening chemicals are fed auto-
●● Signatures of cleaner and supervisor checking matically into the machine.
the work; also date and time.
Dishwashing by hand
The cleaning process must be monitored regularly If items need to be washed by hand the recom-
and inspected to ensure that the schedule is being mended way to do this is:
followed, in order to maintain standards. Checking can
include the use of rapid bacterial tests or swabbing. ●● scrape/rinse/spray off residue food
●● wash items in a sink of hot water; the
Training temperature should be 50–60°C, which
For effective cleaning to take place, staff involved means rubber gloves need to be worn; use a
must be properly trained, with emphasis given to use dishwashing brush rather than a cloth (the brush
of the cleaning schedule, correct methods and use will help to loosen food particles and is not such
of chemicals, and use of PPE (personal protective a good breeding ground for bacteria)
equipment). ●● rinse in very hot water – if rinsing can be done at
82°C for 30 seconds it will disinfect the dishes
Kitchen waste ●● allow to air dry, do not use tea towels.
Kitchen waste should be placed in suitable waste Before dishwashers were so widely used, a double-
bins with lids (preferably foot-operated). Bins should sink system of dishwashing was often used. Dishes
be made of a strong material, be easy to clean, pest- were washed by hand in one sink using hot water and
proof and lined with a suitable bin liner. They should detergent, then loaded on to racks and plunged into a
be emptied regularly to avoid waste build-up as this second sink of very hot rinse water (up to 80°C). The
could cause problems with multiplication of bacteria water in this sink was often heated by heating ele-
and attract pests. An over-full heavy bin is also much ments or pipes under the sink. Although this system
Table 14.2 Recommended methods for cleaning a kitchen surface
Six-stage Four-stage
Remove debris and loose particles Remove debris and loose particles
Main clean to remove soiling and grease Main clean – use hot water and sanitiser
Rinse using clean hot water and cloth to remove Rinse using clean hot water and cloth if recommended
detergent on instructions
Apply disinfectant, leave for contact time recommended Allow to air dry or use kitchen paper to dry
on container
Rinse off disinfectant if recommended
Allow to air dry or use kitchen paper
Figure 14.14 Vacuuming Figure 14.15 Cleaning trolley
can still be seen in some establishments it has fallen Pests

from favour because it is labour intensive, creates When there are reports of food premises being for-
condensation problems, and causes health and safety cibly closed down, an infestation of pests is often
concerns (open sinks of very hot water). Dishwashers the reason. As pests can be a serious source of
are much the favoured way of cleaning and disinfect- contamination and disease, they must be eliminated
ing dishes, cutlery and small equipment. from food premises for food safety reasons and to
Cleaning surfaces comply with the law. Pests can carry food poisoning
bacteria into food premises on their fur/feathers or
Because kitchen surfaces are likely to come into direct feet/paws, or in saliva, urine and droppings. Other
contact with food it is essential that they undergo problems caused by pests include damage to food
planned and recorded cleaning and disinfection. stock and packaging, damage to buildings, equip-
Avoiding hazards ment and wiring, and blockages in equipment and
piping.
Cleaning is essential to prevent food safety hazards,
but if not managed properly can become a hazard in
itself. Do not store cleaning chemicals in food prepa-
ration and cooking areas, and take care with their use
(chemical contamination). Make sure that items such
as cloths and paper towels, and fibres from mops,
do not get into open food (physical contamination).
Bacterial contamination can occur by using the same
cleaning cloths and equipment in raw food areas then
in high-risk food areas, or not cleaning/disinfecting
cleaning equipment properly. Figure 14.16 Pests
416 Legislation
Pests can be attracted to food premises because Wasps can also frequent dirty and decaying objects
there are food, warmth, shelter, water and possible before they land on food, so should be excluded from
nesting materials; kitchens and food stores provide kitchen areas.
all these conditions and, therefore, are very appeal- An electronic fly killer (EFK) is an effective way
ing environments to pests. All reasonable measures to deal with flying insects: the blue light attracts the
must be put in place to keep them out. Staff must insects, which are then killed by an electrical charge.
be made aware of possible signs that pests may be They fall into a collecting tray, which must be emptied
present, and any sightings must be reported to the regularly.
supervisor or manager immediately. Common pests Cockroaches like warm, moist, dark places. They
that may cause problems in food areas are rats, mice, leave their droppings and a liquid that gives off a very
cockroaches, wasps, flies, ants (e.g. pharaoh’s ants), unpleasant smell. They can carry harmful bacteria
birds and domestic pets. on their bodies and deposit them on anything with
Pest management needs to be planned as part of which they come into contact. They tend to hide away
the food safety management system. Regular visits during the day and come out at night, so it is essential
from a recognised pest control company are recom- that no food is left out to attract them.
mended because they will offer advice as well as deal Silverfish are small silver-coloured insects that
with problems arising. Companies conducting a regu- feed on starchy foods (among other things); they
lar audit will provide a pest audit report, which should are found on moist surfaces. They thrive in badly
be kept and could be used as part of due diligence ventilated areas, so improving ventilation will help to
(see page 421). control them.
Beetles are found in warm places and can also
Rats and mice (rodents) carry harmful bacteria from place to place.
Rats and mice are a dangerous source of food infec- Insects are destroyed using an insecticide, and it
tion because they carry harmful bacteria on their is usual to employ people familiar with this work. The
bodies and in their droppings. Rats infest sewers British Pest Control Association (see www.bpca.org.
and drains, and since excreta is a main source of uk) has a list of member companies.
food-poisoning bacteria, it is possible for any surface
touched by rats to be contaminated.
Rats and mice like warm, dark corners and can
be found in lift shafts, meter cupboards, lofts, Possible diseases from pests
pipe lagging, openings in walls where pipes enter, The presence of pests in and around kitchens
under low shelves and on high shelves. They enter and food can result in contamination and disease.
premises through any holes, defective drains, open Rodents/birds Insects
doorways and in sacks of food. Signs to look for Salmonella/Typhoid Salmonella
are droppings, smears, holes, runways, gnawing Clostridium perfringens Clostridium perfringens
marks, grease marks on skirting boards and above E. coli 0157 E. coli 0157
pipes, claw marks, damage to stock and also rat Leptospirosis (Weil’s) Dysentery
odour. Cholera
Rats spoil ten times as much food as they eat, and Trichinosis/parasites
there are at least as many rats as human beings. They Campylobacter
are very prolific, averaging ten offspring per litter and Listeria
six litters per year. If any problem with rats or mice
is suspected it is essential to contact a pest control Pest infestations are a frequent reason for prem-
contractor immediately. ises being closed and often lead to prosecution.
Contamination of food by pests is also a common
Insect infestation reason for prosecution.
Common house flies probably spread more infection The law (Regulation (EC) 852/2004) requires
than any other insect. Flies land on animal excreta, there to be pest control in premises:
refuse and decaying matter, and contaminate their ●● ‘Effective pest control procedures must be
legs, wings and bodies with harmful bacteria, which implemented’
could be deposited on food. They also contaminate ●● ‘Food must be protected from contamination’
food with their excreta and saliva.
Cats and dogs ●● reporting any damage to buildings and fittings,

Domestic pets should never be permitted in kitchens and organising prompt repair
or any food premises as they carry harmful bacteria ●● windows and other openings to the outside
and may also introduce fleas. environment to be fitted with insect-proof screens
●● keeping entrances to the building clean and clear,
Birds with undergrowth well cut back
Entry of birds into food premises must also be pre- ●● keeping food areas clean (especially under/
vented to avoid areas being contaminated by drop- behind equipment and in corners), and not
pings and pathogenic bacteria carried by birds. leaving out any traces of food or liquids overnight
(closing checks)
Pest control ●● making sure refuse areas are regularly checked
The role of managers and supervisors in pest control and cleaned, and that refuse containers have
is mainly about good practice, good housekeep- tight-fitting lids and are emptied regularly
ing and working with pest control contractors. This ●● effective stock control and regular cleaning
includes: of storage areas, dry commodities in sealed
containers off the floor
Table 14.3 Signs of pest presence and how to keep them out
Pest Signs that they are present Ways to keep them out
Rats and Sightings of rodent, droppings, unpleasant Wherever possible, block entries, e.g. no holes
mice smell, fur, gnawed wires, etc. around pipe work, avoid gaps and cavities where
Greasy marks on lower walls, damaged food rodents could get in
stock and packaging, paw prints and tail Sealed drain covers, wire guards on top of pipes
marks and soil stacks, metal kick plates on doors
Flies and Sighting of flies and wasps, hearing them, Make sure any damage to building, fixtures and
wasps dead insects fittings repaired quickly
Maggots Check deliveries/packaging for pests.
Cut back outside vegetation
Baits and traps, inside and outside
Window/door screening/netting
Cockroaches Sighting, dead or alive, also nymphs, eggs,
Electronic fly killer
larvae, pupae, egg cases
No holes around pipes, windows, etc.
Live cockroaches often seen at night
Sealed containers, no open food left out
Unpleasant smell
Regular checks of ducting pipe lagging, etc.
No build-up of waste in kitchen
Ants Sightings and present in food and food Outside waste not kept too close to kitchen
stores. The tiny, pale coloured Pharaohs ants Dry goods in sealed containers
are difficult to spot but can still be the source No open food left in kitchen or store rooms
of a variety of pathogens. Effective stock control
Block entry to building, use of screens, netting,
Weevils Sightings of weevils in stored products, e.g.
flour/cornflour etc.
Very difficult to see – tiny black insects Make sure outside refuse bins have close-fitting
moving in flour etc. lids
Keep them out
Birds Sighting, droppings, in outside storage areas
and around refuse.
Domestic These must be kept out of food areas as they
pets carry pathogens on fur, whiskers, saliva, urine,
etc.
Professional and organised pest management control, surveys and reports in place allows for organised
management of pests
Note: Pest control measures can themselves introduce food safety hazards: the bodies of dead insects or even rodents
may remain in the kitchen (physical and bacterial contamination); pesticides, insecticides and baits could cause chemical
contamination if not managed properly. Pest control problems are best managed by professionals.
418 Legislation
●● checking deliveries for any possible signs of pests Floors

●● discouraging suppliers from delivering items very Kitchen floors have to withstand a considerable
early in the morning and leaving them outside amount of wear and tear, therefore they must be:
where pests could get into them.
●● capable of being cleaned easily
It is also good practice to employ a pest control con- ●● even, smooth and non-slip
tractor to inspect the site regularly and give advice as ●● without cracks or open joints
well as a written report. ●● impervious (non-absorbent).
Kitchen premises Quarry tile, vinyl sheet or epoxy resin floors, properly
laid, are suitable for kitchens since they fulfil the
Ventilation above requirements. Where possible the join between
Adequate ventilation must be provided so that fumes the floor and wall should be coved, making cleaning
from stoves are taken out of kitchen areas. This is usu- easier and more efficient.
ally achieved by use of hoods over stoves and extractor
fans. Hoods and fans must be kept clean; grease and Walls
dirt are drawn up by the fan and, if they accumulate, Walls should be strong, smooth, impervious, wash-
can block vents and the grease and dirt can drop on to able and light in colour. Suitable wall surfaces include
food. Windows used for ventilation should be screened ceramic tiles, heat-resistant plastic sheeting, stainless
to prevent the entry of dust, insects and birds. Good steel sheeting and resin-bonded fibreglass.
ventilation makes for a much more comfortable work- Clean with hot detergent water and dry. Food surface
ing environment and can lead to greater staff efficiency. ‘splash-backs’ need to be cleaned/sanitised frequently;
this could be done at the same time as the work surface.
Lighting
Good lighting is essential so that kitchen staff can Ceilings
work efficiently; it will also keep premises safer and Ceilings must be free from cracks and flaking. They
help to prevent accidents. Natural lighting is prefer- should not be able to harbour dirt, condensation or
able to artificial lighting. Good lighting is also neces- grease that could fall on to food.
sary to enable staff to see into all areas so that the
kitchen can be cleaned properly. Doors and windows
Doors and windows should fit correctly into their
Plumbing frames and doors should have metal kick plates.
Adequate supplies of hot and cold water must be Doors and windows need to be kept clean and glass
available for keeping the kitchen clean, for cleaning should be clean inside and out so as to admit maxi-
food and equipment, and for staff use. Hot water is mum light. Remember to include the cleaning and
essential for cleaning so the means of heating water disinfection of door handles on the cleaning schedule
must be capable of meeting cleaning requirements. as these are hand contact surfaces so could cause
Hand-washing facilities (separate from food prepara- cross-contamination.
tion sinks) must also be available in the kitchen, with
a suitable means of drying the hands – preferably Hygiene of kitchen equipment
paper towels. Kitchen equipment must be so designed to allow
ease of cleaning and ease of inspection, to check it is
clean and in good repair. Failure to do this could lead
to food poisoning. Manufacturers’ instructions must
always be followed. Material used in the construction
Coved of equipment must be:
Wall
Floor floor joint
finish ●● hard and impervious, so that it does not absorb
food particles and moisture
●● smooth, so cleaning can take place easily
●● resistant to rust
Floor ●● resistant to chipping or cracking.
Figure 14.17 Coved floor joint Containers, pipes and equipment made from toxic
materials, such as lead and zinc, should not be in requirement that attempts to deal with the reduc-
direct contact with food or drink. Food must always tion of packaging. Large businesses must register
be protected from machine lubricants. with the Environmental Protection Agency and make
efforts to reduce the amount of packaging they gen-
Control and disposal of waste erate as waste.
Waste material is a potential threat to food safety
because it is a source of contamination that can Recycling
provide food for a variety of pests. There is a ‘duty of In most businesses there will be a significant amount
care’ under the Environmental Protection Act 1990 of waste suitable for recycling, provided that the recy-
that makes the catering organisation responsible for cling meets health and safety and hygiene require-
its waste. It is a legal requirement to use licensed ments. Separation of different items is necessary
waste contractors, which must issue a waste transfer depending on local authority/contractors’ policies,
notice. Any special waste might need dealing with and regular collections by reliable collectors are
separately (e.g. chemicals, flammable substances, essential.
potentially infectious material). There is also a legal
HACCP and food safety management systems

Since January 2006 it has been a legal requirement of potential hazards and prevent them from causing
for all food businesses to have a food safety manage- harm.
ment system in place. Article 5 of the Food Hygiene The CCPs that would typically apply to a food busi-
(England) Regulations 2005 gave effect to the EU ness might be:
Regulations and states that:
●● selecting suppliers and delivery
Food business operators shall put into place, imple- ●● various methods of food storage
ment and maintain a permanent procedure based ●● preparation
on the principles of hazard analysis critical control ●● chilled storage
points (HACCP). Food handlers must receive ade- ●● cooking
quate instruction and/or training in food hygiene to ●● serving, hot holding, cooling.
enable them to handle food safely. Those responsi-
All food safety systems adopted for a business must
ble for HACCP based procedures in the business
be based on the principles of HACCP. This is an
must have enough relevant knowledge and under-
internationally recognised food safety management
standing to ensure the procedures are operated
system that looks at identifying the critical points, or
effectively.
stages, in any process and identifying hazards that
This gave strength to the Food Standards Agency’s could occur, i.e. what could go wrong, when, where,
commitment to significantly reduce food poisoning how. Controls are then put in place to deal with the
cases by 2020. risks – making possible risks safe. Controls are carried
Ensuring that a suitable food safety management out – if something goes wrong, do staff know what to
system is in place is a management responsibility, and do about it? What checks are in place and what should
the HACCP approach provides a means of ensuring be done to put things right? Procedures are kept up to
the provision of safe food for customers (HACCP date – confirm that they are still working. Documents
is the cornerstone of maintaining good food safety and records are kept to show the system is working
standards). From January 2006, a documented food and is regularly reviewed – a wide range of documents
safety system is a legal requirement for every size of are used as part of the HACCP system.
food business.
Hazard analysis identifies all the factors that could Prerequisites
lead to harm to the consumer: all ingredients, stages Before setting up a new HACCP system, certain
in the processing of foods, environmental features prerequisites need to be considered (i.e. what needs
and human factors that could lead to unsafe food to be in place).
being served. Critical control points (CCPs) are the
points at which control is essential to reduce the risk ●● Suppliers: these should be approved suppliers
420 Legislation
and, wherever possible, they should provide The system needs to provide a documented record
written specifications. of the stages all food will go through, right up to the
●● Traceability: systems in place along with time it is eaten, which is why it will need to include
suppliers to trace the source of all foods. purchase and delivery, receipt of food, storage, prepa-
●● Premises, structure and equipment: records
that premises are properly maintained; a flow
diagram needs to be produced showing the Conduct a hazard analysis
Decide which operations, processes,
process from delivery to service, avoiding any products and hazards to include.
cross-over of procedures that could result in Prepare a flow diagram, identify the hazards
cross-contamination. and specify the control measures.
●● Storage and stock control: raw ingredients to
finished product; effective stock control, stock
rotation and temperature-controlled storage must Determine the critical control points (CCPs)
be in place. Control measures must be used to prevent, eliminate
●● Staff hygiene: protective clothing, hand-washing or reduce a hazard to an acceptable level.
facilities, toilets and changing facilities need to be
provided; a policy for personal hygiene needs to
be established, with appropriate training on the Establish critical limits
standards to be achieved. The limits must be measurable, e.g. temperature,
time, pH, weight and size of food.
●● Pest control: a written pest control policy, ideally Set a target limit and a critical limit; the difference
as part of a pest management system and between the two is called the tolerance.
involving a recognised contractor.
●● Cleaning/disinfection/waste: a documented
system in place that includes cleaning schedules Establish a system to monitor control of each CCP
and how waste removal will be managed. What are the critical limits? How, where
●● Staff training: records of all staff training, with and when will the monitoring be undertaken?
dates completed. Who is responsible for monitoring?
Setting up HACCP
●● A team of people suitably trained in HACCP Establish corrective actions when
monitoring indicates that a particular
procedures will be established to set up the CCP is not under control
system. If the business is small, just one person Deal with any affected product and bring the CCP
may be responsible. There are also a number of and the process back under control.
specialist HACCP consultancy companies that
can complete and monitor the procedure.
●● The hazards identified and the controls put Establish procedures for verification to confirm
in place will be essential to food safety and that the HACCP system is working effectively
safe production methods, e.g. core cooking Validation: obtain evidence that the CCPs
and critical limits are effective.
temperatures, possible multiplication and survival Verification: ensure that the flow diagram remains
of bacteria, time food spends in danger zone (see valid, hazards are controlled, monitoring is satisfac-
page 398), cooling food. tory, and corrective action has been, or will be, taken.
●● Food handlers must receive food safety training
and effective supervision commensurate with
the tasks being completed. Staff training records Establish documentation and records of
must be kept. all procedures relevant to the HACCP
●● There must be awareness that physical and principles and their application
This will be proportionate to the size and type of
chemical hazards could occur at any stage in the business.
process and controls must include these. Documentation is necessary to show that food safety
is being managed. Managers need records when
The stages of the HACCP system auditing; enforcement officers and external auditors
will also need to see them.
The HACCP system involves seven stages (see
Figure 14.18). Figure 14.18 Seven principles of HACCP
Possible hazards when dealing with recorded; hot holding equipment checked and tem-
the fresh chicken perature recorded; record any corrective measures
necessary
Cooking a fresh chicken
For the cold storage of the chicken after
Hazard: pathogenic bacteria are likely to be pre- cooking/chilling
sent in raw chicken
Hazard: cross-contamination, multiplication of
Control: the chicken needs to be cooked thor- micro-organisms in cooked chicken
oughly to 75°C1 to ensure pathogens are killed
Control: protect from cross-contamination, store
Monitor: check the temperature where the thigh below 5°C
joins the body with a calibrated temperature probe
(75°C), make sure no parts of the flesh are pink Monitor: check temperature of the chicken is
and juices are running clear, not red or pink below 5°C
Hot holding: before service the chicken must be Corrective action: if the chicken has been above
kept above 63°C; this can be checked with a tem- 8°C for four hours or more it should be thrown
perature probe away; investigate why the temperature control has
not worked so it can be put right if there is a fault
Or chill and refrigerate: chill to below 10°C within
90 minutes; cover, label and refrigerate below 5°C Documentation: record temperatures at least
once a day and record any corrective action
Documentation: temperatures measured and
ration, cooking, cooling, hot holding, reheating, chilled To prove due diligence, the written documents nec-
storage and serving. Once the hazards have been essary could include:
identified, corrective measures are put in place to con-
●● staff training records, including dates completed
trol the hazards and keep the food safe.
and topics covered
The system must be updated regularly, especially
●● temperature records (delivery, cooking and cold
when new items are introduced to the menu or
storage)
systems change (e.g. a new piece of cooking equip-
●● details of suppliers and contractors, and the
ment). Specific new controls must be put in place
traceability of the food they supply
to include them. A flow diagram will need to be
●● pest control policy and audits
produced for each dish or procedure showing each
●● cleaning schedules and deep-clean reports
of the stages (CCPs) that need to be considered for
●● maintenance schedules and records of repairs
possible hazards (see Figure 14.19).
●● CCP monitoring activities (only CCPs, to avoid
As an example, when dealing with fresh chicken, it
excessive paperwork)
is necessary to recognise the possible hazards at all
●● deviations, corrective actions and recalls
the identified stages (CCPs) (see box).
●● modifications to the HACCP system
●● customer complaints/investigation results
Due diligence
●● calibration of instruments
Due diligence is the main defence available under ●● prerequisite programme records.
food safety legislation. It means that a business took
all reasonable care and precautions, and did every-
‘Safer Food Better Business’ and
thing reasonably practicable to prevent an offence
or food poisoning outbreak – that is, it exercised all other systems
due diligence. The HACCP system described above may seem
Every food business has a responsibility to make complicated and difficult to set up for a small or
sure that food is safe to eat. If the food is found to fairly limited business. With this in mind, the Food
be unfit to eat, prosecution can take place unless it Standards Agency launched its ‘Safer Food Better
can be proved that all reasonable precautions were Business’ system for England and Wales. This is
taken. Thus written records that are part of the food based on the principles of HACCP but in an easy-
safety management system will be essential to prove to-understand format with no complicated jargon. It
due diligence. has pre-printed pages and charts to enter the rel-
422 Legislation
Table 14.4 Example of a HACCP control chart
Process Corrective
steps Hazards Controls Critical limit Monitoring action
Purchase Contamination, Approved supplier Change supplier
pathogens, mould
or foreign bodies
present
Transport Multiplication of Refrigerated Check delivery Reject if > 8°C or
and delivery harmful bacteria vehicles vehicles, out of date
date marks,
temperatures
Refrigerate Bacterial growth Store below 5°C Food below 5°C Check and record Discard if signs
Further Separate raw and temperature of spoilage or
contamination – cooked foods twice a day past date mark
bacteria, chemicals, Stock rotation Check date
etc. marks
Prepare Bacterial growth No more than 30 Supervisor to Discard if > 8°C
Further minutes in ‘danger audit at regular for 6 hours
contamination zone’ intervals
Good personal Visual checks
hygiene Cleaning
Clean equipment, schedules
hygienic premises
Cook Survival of harmful Thorough cooking 75°C Check and record Continue cooking
bacteria temperature/ to 75°C
time
Prepare for Multiplication of No more than 20 2 hours Supervisor to Discard if > 8°C
service bacteria minutes in ‘danger audit at regular for 2 hours
Contamination zone’ intervals
Chill Multiplication of Blast chiller 90 minutes to Supervisor to Discard if > 20°C
bacteria below 10°C audit at regular for 2 hours
Contamination intervals
Refrigerate Multiplication of Store below 5°C 8°C for 4 hours Check and record Discard if > 8°C
bacteria Separate raw and temperature for 4 hours
Contamination ready-to-eat foods twice a day
Reheat Survival of bacteria Reheat to 75°C in 75°C (82°C in Check and record Continue
centre Scotland) temperature of reheating to 75°C
each batch
evant information, such as temperatures of individual of any problems occurring and what will be done
dishes. There are two main parts: the first is about about them. If no problems have occurred that day,
safe methods, such as avoiding cross-contamination, nothing needs to be entered. This is called ‘manage-
personal hygiene, cleaning, chilling and cooking; the ment by exception’ or ‘exception reporting’. A copy
second covers opening and closing checks, proving of ‘Safer Food Better Business’ is available from
methods are safe, recording safe methods, training www.food.gov.uk.
records, supervision, stock control, and the selection A similar system, called CookSafe, has been devel-
of suppliers and contractors. oped by Food Standards Agency (Scotland), and
Once the basic information has been recorded Safe Catering in Northern Ireland.
(e.g. suppliers and staff training), the actual diary Scores on the Doors is another strategy that has
pages are very easy to complete and just need been piloted by the Food Standards Agency to raise
confirmation that opening and closing checks have food safety standards and help reduce the incidence
been completed, and have been dated and signed. of food poisoning. The piloted areas tested various
The only other entries in the diary are the recording schemes where a star rating of food safety was
Purchase
important food safety issues in the job role; the food
handler will also need to be supervised. The initial
training should then be followed up within a month
Transport with more formal training.
Specific training sessions, both formal and informal,
Delivery may be delivered by supervisors and managers to
meet the needs of the actual business and specific
Refrigeration
staff, as well as to satisfy legal requirements. Planned
retraining/refresher sessions are also essential at all
levels.
Preparation The training methods chosen will depend on the
type of business, the activities carried out and any
previous training staff have taken. Training could take
Cooking Chilling place by:
Prepare for service Refrigerate Reheat

●● using food safety management companies,
which undertake part or all of the food safety
requirements for a business, including training at
Serve to customers different levels
Figure 14.19 Example of a flow diagram
●● partaking in food safety qualifications accredited
by CIEH, RSPH, City & Guilds EDI, Highfield
and others; courses are available at colleges
awarded based on the following three criteria taken and universities, through independent training
from the Food Standards Agency’s statutory risk providers, local authorities and adult education
rating system: centres; training and testing for these can also
take place in the workplace.
1 level of compliance of food hygiene practices and
procedures Food safety training at the different levels will cover
2 level of compliance relating to structure and all or most of the following topics with different
cleanliness of premises degrees of complexity, depending on the level of the
3 confidence in management of the business and training taking place:
food safety controls.
●● food poisoning micro-organisms – sources and
The intention is to place the given star rating in a types, together with simple microbiology
prominent position on the door or window of prem- ●● common food hazards – physical, chemical and
ises, but it is not mandatory to do so. microbiological
After the successful pilot scheme, the Food ●● prevention of food contamination and
Standards Agency decided on a standard system for cross-contamination
England and Wales based on zero to five stars. It is ●● personal hygiene – responsibilities
expected that the Scores on the Doors scheme will ●● pest prevention and control
have a lasting positive impact on food safety stand- ●● cleaning and disinfection
ards. No matter how good the food in a particular ●● design of premises
establishment, few people will want to eat there if the ●● food storage and preparation, including
food safety score is low! temperature control
●● food safety management systems
Food safety training ●● supervision/management
As well as being a legal requirement, food safety ●● legal requirements.
training for staff ‘commensurate’ to their job roles is The different levels for these qualifications are usually
essential in any food business. Food safety training as follows.
needs to be planned, monitored and managed for
staff, making sure that training records are accurate ●● Level 1: often completed in the workplace
and up to date. for those new to food handling tasks or those
Before any new member of staff handles food, employed on non-complex or limited tasks.
initial training must be carried out covering the most ●● Level 2: this is the most popular food safety
424 LEGISLATION
qualification and is designed for those handling a ●● food safety training packs that could include
wide variety of foods, including ‘open’ and high- books, workbooks, DVDs, activities, etc.
risk foods. ●● as part of another qualification such as an NVQ
●● Level 3: a qualification for supervisors of food or VRQ
premises (food operations), and for those ●● use of a variety of materials now widely available,
completing more complex tasks and requiring a including, posters, leaflets, films, interactive
greater depth of knowledge. games and puzzles
●● Level 4: a management-level qualification ●● food safety consultants/trainers delivering
that may also be completed by more senior different levels of training
supervisors and anyone requiring a high-level ●● training delivered by the EHO (EHP).
food safety qualification.
Just one or a selection of these methods could be
The training can be carried out in a number of differ- used, and some training materials are now available
ent ways. For example: in a number of different languages with visual expla-
nations. There are also training materials in the ‘Safer
●● online or computer package training, often with
Food Better Business’ packs.
end tests and certification
The role of management in food safety

Effective planning and management of food safety Communication
is essential to ensure that high standards are main- Effective communication of food safety matters to
tained, there is compliance with the 2006 food staff is of great importance and can be achieved
safety laws and the proceeding legislation, and to through induction procedures, ongoing staff training,
avoid the possibility of food safety-related problems. supervision, mentoring, information posters, leaflets,
Management need to work closely with staff, taking films, and so on, information/training from the EHO
preventative measures to protect against possible (EHP), and by making food safety issues part of staff
occurrences of food poisoning in connection with the meetings, briefings and handover. Effective commu-
business. nication to staff of food safety standards and require-
Managers and supervisors are crucial in implement- ments must be ongoing and consistent.
ing and managing effective food safety procedures, Those managing or supervising the day-to-day food
and provide an important link between business operations are in the ideal position to communicate
owners/directors and the actual food operation. In a food safety matters to business owners, senior manag-
large business, managers and supervisors may not ers, other department heads, suppliers, contractors and
be the actual policy-makers but it is likely that they enforcement officers. Keeping up-to-date and accu-
will be involved in devising, setting and running the rate records is essential for effective communication.
day-to-day food safety procedures. This will involve
implementing the food safety management system
(HACCP or similar) including: Monitoring, control and auditing
Because food safety must be organised and planned,
●● overseeing formal and informal staff training
it is necessary to complete monitoring, control and
●● managing the various temperature controls, and
auditing procedures.
recording
●● putting measures in place to avoid contamination ●● Control involves making sure that the agreed and
of food and cross-contamination recorded food safety policies are taking place
●● setting required standards for personal hygiene in the day-to-day operations of the kitchen. This
and requirements for protective clothing could be implemented by training, staff meetings,
●● monitoring standards for premises and equipment, spot checks, posters and information sheets,
and safe disposal of waste training update sheets, short information films, etc.
●● monitoring and managing the correct storage of ●● Monitoring involves the manager/supervisor
food and rotation of stock and others checking (and recording, where
●● managing cleaning and disinfection of premises appropriate) that controls are being adhered
and equipment, and the proactive control of pests. to and are working properly. Many monitoring
procedures will be part of the food safety
E. coli puts
management system (e.g. monitoring fridge
temperatures or the cleaning schedule). Other
ten in hospital
methods of monitoring may include visual
inspections, organoleptic checks of food stocks,
checklists, walk-through checking procedures and
hospital last night
checking that required tasks are completed, e.g. TEN people were in been
eak.Two cases have
temperature recording. In some establishments after an E. coli outbr ted .
16 are suspec
bacterial monitoring is completed by swabbing confirmed and up to
surfaces, equipment or processes to establish One of these inv olves a boy of ten.
with
investigating a link
specific pathogens that may be present, i.e. Health authorities are clo sed its
rday the store
total viable counts – TVCs. (Swabbing kits a supermarket. Yeste it an d
and fresh fru
are available from food safety management/ delicatessen counter
equipment companies for checking and recording vegetable stand.
asked to return all
the levels of bacteria on a surface or piece of Customers have been
produce bought there
equipment. This may be done at regular intervals, meat, dairy and fresh fatal
E. coli is a potentially
and the findings used to improve cleaning and since 1 November. on fro m
ection passed
disinfection of areas. The findings also provide a gastro-intestinal inf
good tool for staff training and meetings.) contaminated foo d.
okesman said none
Auditing is often a more formal procedure, taking Last night an NHS sp
was dangerously ill.
●●
the form of an inspection. This could be done by of those in hospital
an internal auditor (someone who is part of the
organisation), or an external auditor or consultant Figure 14.20 Extract from a newspaper report on food
may be used, but it should be someone who is poisoning
not involved in carrying out or monitoring the day-
to-day systems. Auditing is often used to verify
that the HACCP or similar system is working
properly.
The Food Standards Agency

The Food Standards Agency (FSA) was established ●● relevant news and current information about food,
in April 2000, when it took over UK responsibility for including any withdrawn items.
food safety and food quality from the Department
It also has a question-answering service, and provides
of Health (DoH) and the Ministry of Agriculture,
free leaflets, DVDs and posters for food businesses,
Fisheries and Food, and the equivalent organisations
as well as ‘Safer Food Better Business’ packs on
in Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland.
request (see page 421).
Its role is ‘to protect public health from risks which
may arise in connection with the consumption of food Industry Guide (to good hygiene
and otherwise to protect the interest of customers in
relation to food’.
practice)
A wide variety of information can be found on the The Industry Guide to good hygiene practice gives
FSA website (www.food.gov.uk). This includes: advice (in plain, easy-to-understand English) to food
businesses on how to comply with food safety law.
●● various food safety topics Most industries have similar guides and, while the
●● nutritional information guides have no legal force, food authorities must
●● product and ingredient information (including food give them due consideration when they enforce
additives) regulations.
●● information on food and products causing concern, It is the intention that industry guides will help busi-
and those that have been withdrawn from sale ness owners and managers understand and use the
●● academic papers and reports linked to food information to meet legal obligations and to ensure
safety topics food safety. Printed industry guides are available from
426 Legislation
HMSO Publications Offices or can be downloaded at Some references to food safety elsewhere in
www.archive.food.gov.uk. this book:
More information on food safety law is available on
✎✎ Cook-chill. . ........................................................................................ 208
Dynamic Learning.
✎✎ Cutting boards............................................................................ 196
✎✎ Food preservation.. .................................................................. 140
✎✎ Food spoilage.. ............................................................................. 139
✎✎ Refrigeration................................................................................. 187

1 What have been the impacts of the Food 7 Discuss the importance of time/temperature
Hygiene (England) Regulations 2006 on food control of food in relation to food safety. How
businesses? could you effectively convey this to staff?
2 How has the introduction of ‘Safer Food Better 8 What could be the implications for a food
Business’ assisted smaller food businesses? business if staff had poor/careless personal
3 Apart from formal food safety training courses, hygiene standards?
how can management ensure the ongoing and 9 Why is it necessary to be able to trace back
up-to-date training of staff? the sources, treatment and storage of food
4 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of purchased from suppliers?
the ‘Scores on the Doors’ scheme. 10 Illnesses caused by the organism E. coli have
5 Discuss the implications an outbreak of food received extensive coverage in the press in
poisoning would have on: (a) a five-star hotel; (b) recent years. Discuss why this organism has
a takeaway food outlet; (c) a home for the elderly. generated such interest.
6 In food businesses, why should waste be recy-
cled wherever possible? Are there any disad-
vantages to recycling?
Appendix: Useful
websites
Ask a Chef – www.askachef.com Induced Energy Limited – www.inducedenergy.com

BBC Food Pages – www.bbc.co.uk/food Industry Guide to Hygiene Practice –
Beverage Information Group – www.beveragenet.net archive.food.gov.uk/dept_health/pdf/catsec.pdf
British Cleaning Council – Institute of Hospitality –
www.britishcleaningcouncil.org www.instituteofhospitality.org
British Dietetic Association – www.bda.uk.com Into Wine – www.intowine.com
British Hospitality Association – www.bha.org.uk RIDDOR Incident Contact Centre –
British Institute of Innkeeping – www.bii.org www.riddor.gov.uk
British Nutrition Foundation – www.nutrition.org.uk Royal Institute of Public Health – www.riph.org
British Standards – www.bsi-global.com or Royal Society for the Promotion of Health –
www.bsi-uk.com www.rsph.org
Caterer and Hotelkeeper – www.caterersearch.com UK Food Law – www.fst.rdg.ac.uk/foodlaw
Catering Net – www.cateringnet.co.uk Unilever – www.unilever.co.uk
Chartered Institute of Environmental Health – Webtender (online bartender) – www.webtender.com
www.cieh.org Wine and Dine E-zine – www.dine-online.co.uk
ehotelier.com – www.ehotelier.com The Wine Line – www.the-wine-line.com
Food Standards Agency – www.food.gov.uk Wine Spectator – www.winespectator.com
Foodserviceworld – www.foodserviceworld.com Wine.com – www.wine.com
Foodservice.com – www.foodservice.com Yahoo! food websites – www.yahoo.co.uk/
Hospitality Net – hospitalitynet.org society_and_culture/food_and_drink
Index
Page numbers in italics refer to bacon 51, 54–5, 125, 253 brands 10, 13, 24, 25, 205
illustrations, diagrams or charts. bacteria 141, 207, 395–402, 409, 411, brassicas 75
413, 415, 416 bratt pans 179, 376
ACAS (Advisory, Conciliation and see also disinfection brazil nuts 83
Arbitration Service) 44, 45 acidity 145 bread 139, 183–4, 266, 267
accidents 367, 368, 369, 372–3, 380–3, blown tins 266 breadfruit 77
390 cloths 197, 198, 411 break-even point 244, 315
see also health and safety cooking 407 bream 67
accommodation 328–35 food spoilage 139–40, 403 brill 65, 252
guest houses 15, 29, 330 listeria 89, 161, 399, 402, 416 broad beans 75, 126
hotels see separate entry monitoring 425 broccoflower 75
accounting 270–5, 295 bains-marie 180–1, 192, 407 broccoli 75, 267
see also pricing; profits baking powder 95 Brussels sprouts 75, 119, 253
acids 139, 145, 195, 211, 395, 403 bamboo shoots 105 BSE 140
ackee 77 bananas 80, 140, 267, 268 budgeting 352
additives 138–9, 264, 265, 266, 394–5 banquets 146, 158, 181, 208, 224, 240, bulbs (vegetables) 74
advertising 32, 317 241, 242, 243, 280, 286 business and industry
agar-agar 109 see also functions catering for employees 3, 21, 23, 24,
age discrimination 38, 46, 47 barbecues 182 158, 228–9
airlines 8, 15, 332 barley 94 corporate hospitality 28–9
airports 15, 224 barracuda 67 business travel 10
ajowan 105 basal metabolism 123 butter 90, 90–1, 115, 116, 124, 140, 143,
alcohol 96, 99, 113, 126, 136–7, 139, basil 100 267, 268
193–4, 289–92, 407 bass 67 butter beans 75, 100
All-Clad cooking pans 195–6 bay leaves 100 buttermilk, cultured 88
allergies 82, 135–6, 246, 395, 407 bean sprouts 76
alligator 61 beef 50, 51, 52, 61, 125, 144, 253, 401 cabbage 75, 119, 141, 195, 253
allspice 102 beers 13, 99, 139, 290 Cajun spice mix 105
almonds 83 beetroot 73 calcium 119, 120, 121, 132, 138
alto-shaam cook and hold ovens 174 Bengali five spices 105 vitamin D and 118
aluminium pans 195 berbera 105 Calories 23, 61, 83, 90, 112, 113, 122,
anaphylactic shock 136, 395 best-before dates 264, 266, 404, 406–7 123, 136
anchovies 64, 109 beverages 96–9, 193–4, 320–1 camel 61
anise 102 see also food and beverage service Campylobacter 401–2, 416
annatto 105 alcoholic see alcohol cancer and diet 129, 130, 132–5, 403
antioxidants 133–4, 139 coffee 96–7, 126, 186–7, 321, 405 canning 51, 73, 79, 143, 266, 398, 403,
apples 79, 140, 141, 195, 217, 221 tea 97–8, 126, 186, 195, 321, 405 406, 409
apricots 79, 141 billing 279 Cape gooseberries 80, 110
armed forces 16, 24, 127, 150, 332 bin cards (stores control) 270, 271 capsicums 103, 107
arrowroot 94–5 bison 61 carambolas/starfruits 81
artichokes 73, 76, 195 blackbean sauce 105 caraway 103
asafoetida 102, 105 blackberries 79–80 carbohydrates 112, 116–17, 121, 146
Asian cuisine 104–7 blackcurrants 79–80 carcinogenic agents 133, 144
asparagus 76 blacklists 33 see also cancer and diet
aspic 109 blood pressure 107, 120, 130, 131–2, cardamon 103, 105
assembly kitchen concept 225–6 136 cardoon 76
assertiveness 325 blood sugar balance 137–8 carp 67
aubergine 76 boars 54, 61–2 carrots 73, 119, 126
audits 17, 160, 416, 421, 425 body language 321, 324–5, 326 cash accounts 274, 275
avocado 76–7, 267, 268 boilers 179–80, 186–7 cashew nuts 83
bones 57 cassia 103
babaco 80 borage 100 casual workers 31, 35, 286
Bacillus cereus 401, 402 bottling 79, 143, 145, 403 catering cycle 316
back-of-house service areas 288 bouncers 32 cauliflower 75, 253, 267
Index 429
caviar 72, 109, 252 storage of materials for 266, 268, 395, organisation of 261–2
CE marking 170 415 resources, organisation of 263–5
celeriac 73 stores 265, 267, 268, 405–6 storekeeping 265–75
celery or celery seeds 76, 103 tables, kitchen 182 supervisors 165
centralised production 222–4 utensils and small equipment 161, 182, convection ovens 171–2, 176
cephalopods 71–2 194–5, 196, 197 cook-chill 155, 158, 172, 207, 208–14,
cereals 92–5, 126, 266, 401, 403, 405 wooden boards and utensils 161, 182, 215, 220, 222, 223, 421
chain catering organisations 12 196, 197 listeria 402
charcuterie 109 clearing following service 279, 280, 286 sous-vide 146, 155, 207, 221–2, 223
cheeses 88–90, 116, 124, 139, 143, 145, climate change 198, 275, 276 cook-freeze 155, 158, 207, 215–20, 222,
267, 268, 402 see also environment 223
chemicals 279, 370, 379, 394–5, 407, clingfilm 406 cooking 159, 398, 407, 409
413–14, 415 Clostridium botulinum 401, 402 chicken 407, 421
clingfilm 406 Clostridium perfringens 399, 400–1, 402, cook-chill see separate entry
preservation by 145 416 cook-freeze see separate entry
spoilage 140 cloths 197–8, 268, 396, 397, 411, 413, kitchens: cooking area 155–6, 289
cherries 79, 110, 145 415 process management system 174
chervil 100, 102 cloves 103 vitamins and 118, 119, 121, 128, 224
chestnuts 83 clubs, private 12, 330 coriander 101, 103
chicken 59, 216, 253, 400, 401–2, 405, cob or hazel nuts 83 corn salad 74
407, 421 cockles 71 cornflour 94
chicory 74, 76 cocktails 99 corporate hospitality 28–9
children 15, 18–21, 23, 24, 208, 224, cocoa 98, 126, 405 cost-sector catering see public-sector
229, 395, 402 coconut 83 costs
chill rooms 268, 269 milk/cream 86, 105 control of 48–9, 214, 218, 245, 255–8
chilli powder, sauce and oil 105 cod 64, 67, 72, 116, 144, 252 staff turnover 168
chillies 103, 105, 107 codes of practice 83, 232 courgettes 77, 267
chilling see refrigeration coeliac diet 130, 135 courts 47, 393
China 4, 8 coffee 96–7, 126, 186–7, 321, 405 crab 69, 252
Chinese chives 105 coffee shops 15, 224 cranberries 81
Chinese five spice powder 103 cold rooms 187–9, 268, 269 crawfish 69–70
Chinese leaves 74 coley 67 crayfish 70
Chinese mustard greens 75 colour coding 161, 197, 212, 214, 244, cream 87, 124, 267, 268, 404
Chinese rice wine 105 395, 396, 397, 407 credit notes 272–3
chives 100–1 goods requisitions 269, 271 cress 74
chocolate 98, 110, 405 colourings 108, 138 criminal convictions 33, 34
cholesterol 91, 117, 124, 125, 129, 131, combination ovens 159, 172, 174, 213, Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) 34
136, 137 218 crocodile 61
low-cholesterol diet 61, 130, 135 communications 166, 244–5, 303, cross-contamination 214, 396–7, 422,
chopping/cutting boards 161, 182, 308–9, 356, 424 424
196–7 companies 2–3, 45 clingfilm 406
cider 99 competition 244, 315 cloths 197, 396, 411
cinnamon 103 composting waste 17 colour-coding 161, 396, 397, 407
Citizens Advice Bureau (CAB) 45 computerisation 8, 23, 160, 174, 234, 377, door and handles 405, 418
citrus fruits 80 389 multi-use fridge 406
clams 71 cooking process management system salmonella 400
clarified butter 91 174 storage of equipment 268
cleaning 158, 169, 207, 280, 373, 378, hotels 350–1 untidy areas 414
383 stores control 270 vacuum packaging 146, 221
see also dishwashing temperature records 408 work flow 155, 420
chemicals 279, 370, 394, 413–14, 415 condiments 107–8 cruise ships 26–8, 332
chippers and food slicers 185 confectionary 110, 142, 267 crustaceans 69–70
cost control 255 ice cream 87, 95, 110, 186, 267, 405 cucumbers 77, 267
due diligence 421 conferences 10 culaboo 74
food safety 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, consortia 13–14 cumin 103
405–6, 407, 408, 412–15, 418, 420, consultants 157–8, 295–6, 298 curry leaves 105
421 consumer protection 231–2 curuba 81
griddle plates 181 containers 266, 395, 406, 408 custard apples 81
grills and salamanders 181 see also packaging customers 7, 9, 279, 231–2, 288–9, 318
hotels: housekeeping 356–63 contamination of food see cross- care 321–7
non-stick surfaces 196 contamination; food safety complaints 326–7, 421
records 414, 415, 420, 421 contract catering 3, 15, 16, 21, 22–5 experience 240–2, 278, 280–1, 282–3,
refrigerators and deep-freeze 187, 188, control 294 283–4, 286–7, 289, 319
269, 405 costs 48–9, 214, 218, 245, 255–8 space per customer 151–2, 288, 289
self-cleaning 157, 172 food cost and operational 259–61 cutting boards 161, 182, 196–7
six- and four-stage methods 415 food safety 424–5 cuttlefish 71
430 Index
dab 65 employees 29–30, 206, 207, 294 design 160–1, 190, 191–2, 297–8,
dairy products 85–91, 268, 395, 404 accidents 367–9, 372–3, 380–3, 390 418
see also individual products adoption leave 36 dishwashers 159, 189–90, 279–80
food value 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 123–4 casual workers 31, 35, 286 energy efficiency 159, 198–202
damsons 79 children 33–4, 35 finishing kitchens 210, 218
dashi 105 criminal convictions 33, 34 food distribution 181–2
data protection 32, 43, 232 cruise ships 26, 27–8 health and safety 170–1, 186, 374,
dates 81 customer care 321–7 375–7, 380–3
defrosting 187, 188, 269, 397, 399, 405 data protection 32, 43, 232 kitchen design and 150, 154–5, 156–7,
dehydration or drying 73, 79, 139–41, definition of 31 159–60
264, 397, 403 disciplinary procedures 39, 43–4 log book 170, 171
delegation 165, 262, 302 discrimination 32, 33, 37–41, 46–7 ovens and ranges 171–7, 213, 218
delicatessens 12, 109–10 dismissal 41–2, 44 portion control 252
delivery of goods 222–3 dress codes 43 recycling 171
see also receiving goods duties: health and safety 370–1, 373 refrigeration and freezing 187–9, 212,
design 26, 40, 222, 355 fast food 223 217–18, 220
equipment 160–1, 190, 191–2, 297–8, fixed-term 35–6 reheating 213, 218
418 flexible working 37 security marked 389
food service system 150–2, 288–9, food and beverage service staff 283–6 selection criteria 169
292–8 food safety responsibilities 392 self-cleaning 157, 172
kitchen 149–50, 152–60, 161–2 holidays 35 servery area 159, 190–4
menus 229, 233, 292, 295 hotels 338–43, 357–60 sinks 182
servery area 190, 191–2 incapacity for work 35 steam cooking 176, 177–9, 213
deskilling 207 induction programmes 168, 323, 424 utensils and small 194–8, 252, 397,
detoxify, eating to 137 job descriptions 167–8 411
diabetes 130, 131, 135 list of main legal rights 44 vending 320–1
diets 18, 61, 129, 130, 132–5, 403 maternity leave 36 working methods: layout and 162
digestion 113–14 meat production 223 essences and flavourings 108, 138–9,
dill or dill seeds 101, 103 notice periods 41 265
disability 33 parental leave 26 ethics 166
discrimination 32, 39–40, 46–7 part-time workers 35 ethnic minorities 29, 310
disciplinary procedures 39, 43–4 paternity leave 36–7 see also race discrimination
discounts 273–4, 315 pay 34–5, 389 European Union 29, 171, 376, 383
discrimination 32, 33, 37–41, 46–7 performance appraisal 169, 324 event catering 25, 286
dishwashing 159, 189–90, 197, 279–80, recruitment and selection 32–3, 167–8 extracts (meat and vegetable) 109
398, 414–15 redundancy payments 42–3
disinfection 394, 397, 405, 407, 408, searches 389 fair trade 17
412–14, 415 self-employed or 2 fallow wax beans 76
diversity 46, 310 sickness 369, 387 farms 15
dogfish 67 study or training: time off 44 fast food 12, 26, 150, 158, 215, 223–4,
door supervisors 32 supervision, kitchen 163–9 318
dough preparation equipment 183–4 training see separate entry menus 233, 240
Dover sole 66 workers 31–2, 35, 44–5 fats 61, 90–1, 112, 115–16, 121, 268
dragon fruit 81 working time 35 hydrogenated 38, 91, 136, 138
dress codes 43 written statement of terms 33, 39, 43–4 saturated see separate entry
drinking chocolate 98 employers feasibility study 294–5, 296–7
drinks see beverages catering services for employees 3, 21, feijon 81
dripping 91 23, 24, 158, 228–9 fennel or fennel seeds 74, 101, 102, 103
drive-thru restaurants 22 health and safety 371–8, 379, 383, fenugreek 103
drying or dehydration 73, 79, 139–41, 385–8 ferries 22
264, 397, 403 employment tribunals 45, 46, 47 fibre 117–18
Dublin Bay prawns 70 emulsifying agents 139 Fiddlechoke/ostrich fern 76
duck 59–60, 62, 253 energy efficiency 13, 17, 159, 188, figs 81, 141
durian 81 198–202 finance 293, 295
measures and percentage savings fine herbs (fines herbes) 102
E. coli 140, 161, 402, 416 199–200 fines 393
eels 64 environment 13, 49–50, 63, 158–9 fire precautions 385–8
eggs 83–5, 116, 125, 140, 141, 146 energy see energy efficiency first aid 376, 383–5
cook-chill 209 sustainability 17, 23, 171, 275–8 fish 63–72, 109, 125, 141, 145, 146, 252
food safety 395, 398, 399, 400, 404, environmental health officers (EHOs) cook-chill 209, 211
405 16–17, 214, 315, 369, 378, 393, 404 cook-freeze 216–17, 220
storage 84, 267 equality 34, 46 food poisoning 401, 402–3
electronic point of sale (EPOS) systems equipment 169–98, 206, 207–8, 222, oily 64–5, 116, 125
160, 234, 270, 351 418–19 round 67–9
electricity 200, 201, 202, 376, 377, 385 assembly kitchen concept 226 salting and smoking 143–4, 403
emails 303 computer system 160, 174 storage 64, 267, 268, 404
Index 431
sustainability 23, 275 poultry 59, 125 green vegetables 72–3, 125–6, 267, 268
white flat 65–7 pulses 100 greengages 79
flavourings and essences 108, 138–9, sugar 95, 126 grey mullet 67
265 sweetbreads 58 grouper 67
flexible working 37 vegetables 72–3, 125–6 grouse 62
flounder 66 yeast 95 guava 81
flour 92, 93, 105, 126, 136, 143 yoghurt 87, 88 gudgeon 67
improvers 139 food-processing equipment 184–6 guest houses 15, 29, 330
foie gras 109, 252 forecasting 9, 164, 223, 263–4, 352, 353 guinea fowl 60
foils 198, 216 franchising 25–6 gum tragacanth 110
fondant 110 freelancers 2, 45, 377 gurnard 67
food and beverage service 277–81, freeze drying 141
407–9 freezing 141–3, 187–9, 266, 267, 268, haddock 67–8, 144, 252
see also beverages 376, 398–9, 404, 405 haggis 109
customer service specification 286–7 cook-freeze see separate entry hake 68
definition 277–8 cream 87 halal foods 41
designing food service system 150–2, fish 64, 142, 216–17, 267 halibut 64, 66, 72, 116, 144, 252
287–9, 292–8 fruit 79, 142, 143, 217 hams 51, 109, 143, 253
methods 281, 282–3 meat 50, 51, 59, 142, 216, 217, 267 hand washing 156, 268, 396, 399, 410,
outsourcing 10–11, 23 offal 57 413, 418
staff 283–6, 287 poultry 59, 216, 217, 267 harassment 37–8, 39, 40, 42
food miles 275–6 temperature records 160, 407, 408 hare 61
food poisoning 59, 84, 141, 142, 145, vegetables 73, 142, 143, 217 harissa 105
266, 268, 378, 393–403 fromage frais 90 hazard analysis critical control points
bacteria see separate entry front-of-house areas 150–2, 288–9 (HACCP) 392, 419–23
definitions 393–4 fruit 78–82, 116, 125, 140, 145, 195, hazardous substances 369–70, 395,
vulnerable groups 394, 407, 409 394, 395 413–14
food safety 391–3 candied, crystallised and glacé 145 hazel or cob nuts 83
clean and hygienic food environment dried 403 health and safety 34, 35, 367–78, 390,
412–19 freezing 79, 142, 143, 217 415
due diligence 404, 421 juices 79, 99, 108, 126, 139, 143, 186, accidents 367, 368, 369, 372–3,
HACCP and food safety management 403 380–3, 390
systems 392, 419–24 preservation 79, 141, 142, 143, 145, accommodation sector 362, 363
management, role of 424–5 146 electricity 201, 376, 377
methods and procedures 404–9 seasonality 80 equipment 170–1, 186, 374, 375–7,
personal hygiene 207, 396, 400, 407, grading 72 380–3
409–12, 420 local 17, 49 floors 373, 383
food and service management 3, 15, 16, sous-vide 221 gas 170–1, 182, 201, 376, 383, 385,
21, 22–5 storage 78, 79, 267, 268, 405 388
Food Standards Agency (FSA) 23, 120, syrups 99, 139 hazardous substances 369–70, 395,
127, 131, 135, 265, 393, 419, fryers 159, 180, 376, 382 413–14
421–3, 425 functions 242–6, 286 occupational health 379–80
food tourism 7 see also banquets servery area 191–2
food value 123–6 fusion cuisine 104–7 storage area 263
butter 90, 124 healthier catering 127–38, 228, 229
cereals 92, 126 galangal 105 heart 58
cheese 89, 124 game 60–2, 140, 221, 268 herbs 100–2, 141, 405
cocoa 98 gaming 15, 289 herring 64, 72, 109, 116, 145, 252
cream 124 Ganymede dri-heat 224 hoi sin sauce 105
eggs 83, 85, 125 garam masala 103 holiday centres 21
fats 90, 91, 115 garlic 74, 134–5 honey 110
fish 64, 125 gas 79, 146, 200, 202 horseradish 73, 109
fruit 78, 125 safety 170–1, 182, 201, 376, 383, 385, hospitals 16–18, 23, 24, 127, 150, 158,
game 60 388 181, 208, 224, 332
heart 58 gastropubs 12 menus 228
herbs 100 gelatine 109, 217 hot cupboards 180, 407
ice cream 87 ghee 91 hotels 5–7, 9–12, 29, 158, 200, 335–8
kidney 58 ginger 103–4 AA star ratings 331
liquids 126 globalisation 7–8 budget 10, 14, 329
liver 58 goat 62 classifications of 329, 330
margarine 91, 124 goose 59–60, 253 consortia 13–14
meat 50, 59, 60, 125 gooseberries 79–80, 95 country house 13, 15
milk 85, 123–4 gourds (exotic) 77 definition 6
nuts 82, 125 gram flour 105 departmental communications 356
oats 93, 126 granadilla 81 design of front office area 355
oils 92 grapes 81 front office operations 343–51
432 Index
housekeeping 356–63 kiwi fruit 81 security system 389–90

maintenance and facilities 364 kohlrabi 76 supervision, kitchen 163–9
performance indicators 353, 354 kosher foods 41 work–life balance 309
quality management 334 krachai 104 mandolins 197
reservations 347, 348–9, 350, 351 kudu 62 mangetout 75
revenue management 352, 353 mango or mango powder 81, 106
security 364–5 La Kama (Moroccan spice mix) 105 mangostine 81
service, cover and minimum charges labelling 146, 218–19, 248, 264–5, 276, maracoya 81
232 404, 405 margarine 91, 124, 139, 140, 143
staffing and structures 338–43 alcohol 291 marine catering 22, 26–8
hotspots 318 colour coding see separate entry marjoram 101
human rights 32, 43 first in, first out 406 marketing 128–9, 243, 293, 314–15
humectants 139 lamb and mutton 50, 51, 55, 56–7, 61, catering cycle 316
humidity 156, 166, 267, 268 253 promotion and selling 316–20
hydrogenated fats 38, 91, 136, 138 lard 91, 115 marmalade 110, 145
hygiene 146, 176, 187, 207, 241, 320 lardo 55 marrons glacés 110
see also cleaning; temperature; storage leeks 74, 125–6 marrow 77
cheese 88–9, 402 lemon grass 101 marzipan 110
design 154, 155, 191, 418 lemon sole 66–7 materials (cloths etc) 197–8, 268, 396,
personal 207, 396, 400, 407, 409–12, lettuce 74, 267 397, 411, 413, 415
420 licensed houses see pubs maternity leave 36
stores 265 licensing 289 mayonnaise 95, 108, 253, 400
washing-up 279 lifting correctly 374 meat 50, 116, 125, 140, 145, 222, 381
lima beans 75, 100 bacteria 398, 399, 400–2, 421
ice cream 87, 95, 110, 186, 267, 405 limited liability companies 2–3, 45 beef 50, 51, 52, 61, 125, 144, 253, 401
ice cream soda 99 ling 68 cook-chill 208–9, 211, 221, 222
immigration control 32 liqueurs 99 cook-freeze 216, 217, 220
induction cooking hobs 159, 176–7 liquorice 105 food value 50, 59, 60, 125
induction programmes 168, 323, 424 listeria 89, 161, 399, 402, 416 game 60–2, 140, 221, 268
insurance 389 liver 57–8, 72, 252 hanging and ageing 50
internet 8, 29 loading bays 222–3 lamb and mutton 50, 51, 55, 56–7, 61,
intolerances, food 135–6, 395 see also receiving goods 253
invoices 246, 270, 272 lobster 70, 72, 252 maximum weight 408
iodine 119, 120–1 local sourcing of food 17, 23, 49, 275–6 pork 50, 51, 53–5, 61, 125, 217, 253
iron 119, 120, 121 loganberries 79 portion control 253
kitchen equipment 194–5 loquat 81 poultry see separate entry
irradiation 145–6 lovage 101 preservation 51, 141, 142, 143, 144,
ISO 9002 205–6 lupin flour 136 145, 146
ISO 14001 23 lychee 81 staff to process 223
storage 50, 51, 54, 59, 61, 267, 268,
jackfruit 81 macadamia nuts 83 404
jams 79, 95, 110, 145, 403 mace 104 substitutes 58
jellies 79, 110, 145, 217 mackerel 64, 116, 252 veal 50, 51, 53, 211
John Dory 68 magnesium 132, 138 meetings 309
jujube 81 mahlebi 105–6 megrim 66
juniper berries 104, 105 maintenance 158, 189, 269, 280, 364, melons 82, 252
jury service 37 376, 378 menus 11, 202, 227, 318, 319, 320, 395
gas safety 383, 388 calorie counts 23
Kaffir lime leaves 105 maize 94 consumer protection 231–2
kale 75 malnourishment 17 cyclical 229
kangaroo 62 management 300–3 descriptive copy 232–3
kidney 58, 253 absence, employee 369 design 229, 233, 292, 295
kingfish 64 decision-making 301–2, 304–6 examples 236–40, 241
kippers 64, 144 developing trust and support 303–6 flexibility 233–5
kitchens 156, 158, 162, 225–6, 231, 418 different types of people 301 healthy eating 136–8, 228, 229
see also health and safety diversity 310 hospital 16, 17
cooking area 155–6, 289 food and beverage service 279, 284, kitchen design and 149, 150, 154, 156
design 149–50, 152–60, 161–2 293–4 length 229
equipment see separate entry food safety 424–5 planning 220, 230
finishing 208, 210, 216, 218 health and safety 373, 377–8, 389–90 pre-planned and pre-designed 229
food preparation areas 155, 161 hotel front office manager 339–41 prior to planning 228
supervision/management 163–9 hotels: executive housekeeper 357, 358 profitable 230–1
ventilation 156–7, 159, 170–1, 202, interpersonal conflict 310–12 schools 20, 23
388, 418 of people 306–9 servery area and 190
work flow 153, 155, 161–2 quality 205–6, 216, 334 types of 228–9
kiwano 81 risk 377–8 merchandising 318–20
Index 433
mice 266, 416, 417 schools 18, 19, 20 perch 68

microbial spoilage 139–40 value of foods in diet see food value performance appraisal 169, 324
micromanagement 166–7 nuts 82–3, 116, 125, 403 perry 99
microsteaming 224 allergy 130, 135, 136, 395, 397 persimmon 81–2
microwave ovens 159, 174–6, 213, 218, personal protective equipment (PPE)
224 oats 93–4 375–6, 392, 407, 411–12, 414
Middle East 8 obesity 129–31 pests/pest control 396, 404, 405,
milk 85–6, 116, 143, 267, 268, 398, 402, octopus 71, 72 415–18, 420, 421
403, 404, 405 offal 57–8, 72, 253 pheasant 62
dried 141 oils 92, 115, 116, 268, 395 phosphorus 120
food value 85, 123–4 okra 75 phytoestrogens 134
UHT 85–6, 143, 404, 409 omega-3 116, 125, 138 pickles/pickling 73, 109, 139, 145
milk drinks 99 omega-6 138 pigeon 60
mincemeat 110 onions 74, 125–6, 135, 141, 267, 269, pike 68
mineral elements 112, 119–21, 138 405 pilchards 64
mineral waters 96, 98–9, 126 open questions 327 pimento 102
mint 101 order sheets 272 pine nuts 83
mirin 106 oregano 101 pineapple 82
miso 106 organic food 17, 49, 86 piping bags 197
modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) organisational skills 164 piping jelly 110
51, 73, 146–7, 403 ostrich 60 pistachios 83
molluscs 71 outside and event catering 25, 286 plaice 64, 66, 252
monkfish 68 outsourcing 10–11, 23, 356 planning 146, 164
monounsaturated fats 91, 115 overweight 129–31 see also design
mooli 73 oxtail 57 functions 244–6
motels 14 oyster sauce 106 menus 220, 229, 230
motivation 163, 165, 200, 307–8 oysters 71 restaurant 287–9
motoring services areas 22 plums 79, 141
moulds 139, 145, 403 packaging 397, 404, 405, 419 poisonous plants 403
multinational enterprises 7–8 cook-chill 146, 211–12, 214, 221–2 pollock 68–9
mushrooms 77, 267, 395 cook-freeze 216, 217, 218 polyphosphates 139
mussels 71, 403 information 91, 135, 276, 395, 406–7 polyunsaturated fats 61, 91, 115, 116
mustard 107 microsteam: vacuum-packed polymer pomegranate 82, 106
mustard and cress 74 224 poppy seeds 104
mutton and lamb 50, 51, 55, 56–7, 61, milk 86 pork 50, 51, 53–5, 61, 125, 217, 253
253 modified atmosphere 51, 73, 146–7, portion control 142, 251–3
myco-protein 58 403 potassium 131–2
mycotoxins 403 vacuum 50, 51, 54, 146, 221–2, 224, potatoes 73–4, 119, 126, 141, 209, 253,
267, 403 403, 405
National Health Service see hospitals pak choi 75, 106 flour 95
national minimum wage 34 palm hearts 76 storage 267
nectarines 79 palm sugar 106 poultry 59–60, 125, 211, 216, 217, 253
negligence 16 pancetta 5 bacteria 399, 400, 401–2
nettles 74 panettone 109 cooking chicken 407, 421
nigella 106 papaya or papaya seeds 81, 106 storage 59, 267, 268, 404
non-profit/cost sector catering see public- papers 198, 396, 411, 415 prawns 70
sector parasites, food 403 preservation 49, 51, 73, 79, 89, 138,
non-stick metal 196 parental leave 26 140–7, 398, 403, 409
noodles 106 parsley 101, 102 salt see under salt
nori 106 parsnips 73, 253 sugar 95, 144–5, 399, 403
nut milk 124 partnerships 2, 25 vinegar 108, 145
nutmeg 104 partridge 62 pricing 255–8, 263, 315
nutrients 112–26, 139 passion fruit 81 accommodation 335
basal metabolism 123 pasteurisation 143, 400, 403, 409 elasticity of demand 235, 244
cooking and 118, 119, 121 pastillage (gum paste) 110 functions 242–4, 245
digestion and absorption 113–14 paternity leave 36–7 menu engineering 233–5
food requirements 122 pawpaw 81 value added tax (VAT) 260
foods in which found 113 pay, meaning of 34 prickly pear 82
functions 114 peaches 79, 268 prisons 15–16, 332
hospital patients 17 peanuts 83, 135, 395 private clubs 12, 330
information on nutritional content 23, pears 79, 141, 217, 221 private companies 2
265 peas 75, 126, 141, 253 problems of catering 206–7
preservation and 141, 143, 146 pecans 83 production runs 223
protective 133–5, 134 pepino 81 profits 230–1, 255
reference nutrient intakes 122–3 pepper 107 break-even point 244, 315
residential establishments 20–1 peppers 77, 267 departmental 265
434 Index
factors affecting profitability 264 meat 50, 51, 59, 142, 404 samphire 76, 102
feasibility study 294–5, 296–7 milk 85–6, 404, 405 sandwiches 267, 398
functions 242, 244, 245 moulds 403 sapodilla 82
gross profit 233–4, 242, 256–8, 259 multi-use 404–5, 406 sardines 64, 65, 109, 116, 136
hotels 335, 352, 353 offal 57 saturated fats 115, 116, 124, 129, 131,
hotels: performance indicators 353, 354 oils 92 136
promotion and selling 316–20 oysters 71 sauces 209, 215, 216, 217, 220, 221,
protein 112, 114–15, 115, 121, 146 poultry 59, 404 398, 408
public companies 2 servery area 192, 193, 194 portion control 252–3
public-sector/cost-sector catering 1, temperature records 160, 407, 408 scallops 71
15–21, 22, 23, 332 types of 269 scampi 70
see also hospitals; schools vegetables 405 schools 18–21, 23, 24, 208, 224, 229
pubs 11, 12–13, 14, 15, 25, 29, 330 yoghurt 88 scorzonera 73
pulses 100, 141 regeneration see cook-chill; cook-freeze sea, catering at 22, 26
pumpkins 77 Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 33, sea urchin 71
purchasing 223, 248–51 34 seasonality 49, 61, 70, 78, 80, 82, 275
methods of 253–4 religion 43 security 214, 219, 364–5, 389–90
portion control 251–3 diets 130, 228, 229 bouncers 32
receiving goods see separate entry discrimination 32, 33, 40–1, 46, 47 self-employment 2, 45, 377
standard recipe 254–5 rennet 110 semolina 93
yield testing 260 residential establishments 20–1, 127, 332 servery area 159, 190–4
restaurants 12, 13, 29, 158, 280 service see food and beverage service
quail 62 design and planning 150–2, 287–9, sesame seeds 104
quality management 205–6, 216, 334 292–8 sex discrimination 32, 37–8, 43, 47
drive-thru 22 sexual harassment 37–8
rabbit 61 economy and 11 sexual orientation
race discrimination 32, 38–9, 47 failure of 315 discrimination 32, 33, 40, 46, 47
radicchio 74 hotel 9–12 shallots 74, 267
radishes 73 menus see separate entry shark 69
railways 22, 224, 332 merchandising 318, 319 Sharon fruit 82
raising agents 95 rhubarb 82, 195, 403 shellfish 63, 69–71, 125, 252, 395, 402,
rambutan 82 rice 94, 398, 399, 401 403
ras el hanout 106 milk 86 sherbet 87
raspberries 79 vinegar 106 shrimps 70, 105
rats 416, 417 risk 205, 390 sieves 197
receiving goods 222, 260–1, 263, 272, assessment 171, 246, 371–3, 376, skate 66
389, 396, 398, 404, 405, 418 386, 389, 390 small businesses 29, 224, 393, 421–2
recipe management 377–8 small to medium sized enterprises (SMEs)
modification 209, 215, 216, 217 rocket 74 2
standard 254–5 rockfish 69 smelt 69
records 160, 261, 263, 270–5, 376, roe 72 smetana 88
377–8, 380 Romanescue 75 smoke-free premises 378, 411
food safety 391, 392–3, 404, 407, 408, root vegetables 72, 126, 267, 269 smoking of foods 54, 144, 174, 403
414, 420, 421–2, 424 rosemary 101–2 snails 110
recycling 171, 268, 276, 419 runner beans 76, 253 snake fruit 82
red bean paste 106 rye 93 snapper 69
red gurnard 69 snipe 62
red kidney beans 403 safety signs 373, 374–5, 376, 404 sodium 120, 124, 131
red mullet 69 saffron 104 see also salt
red salanova 74 sage 102 soft drinks 98–9
redcurrants 79–80, 110, 145 sago 94 sole 64, 66, 252
redfish 69 sake 106 sole traders 2
redundancy payments 42–3 salad bars 12 sorrel 75, 102
refrigeration 139, 141, 147, 159, 187–9, salmon 64, 109–10, 116, 144, 252 soups 209, 217, 252, 398, 408
268–9, 403 salmon/sea trout 65 sous-vide 146, 155, 207, 221–2, 223
bacon 54 salmonella 84, 161, 399–400, 402, 416 soy sauce 106
bacteria 141, 398, 399, 407 salsify 73 soya milk 86, 124
cheese 88–9, 404 salt 107, 120, 121, 182, 398 space requirements 154, 156, 159, 207,
cook-chill 211, 221 blood pressure and 107, 120, 131, 132, 378
cream 87, 404 136 customers 151–2, 288, 289
eggs 84, 404, 405 preservation 51, 54, 55, 58, 64, 73, 90, spas 15
energy efficiency 159 131, 143, 144, 399, 403 special diets 129, 130, 135
fats 90 smoking process and 144 spices 102–7, 401, 405
fish 64, 404 sambaar powder 106 spinach 75, 253
fruit 405 sambal kecap 106 spirits 99
health and safety 376 sambals 106 spoilage 139–40, 143, 145, 235, 403
Index 435
sprats 65 tinned foods 143 milk 86, 267, 268, 404

spring onions 74 vegetables 267, 268, 269, 405 monitoring 160, 269
spring roll wrappers 106 vitamins 118 moulds 403
squash 77 wheat 92 mycotoxins 403
squashes (fruit-flavoured drink) 99 yeast 95, 139 offal 57
squid 71–2 strawberries 79, 217, 395 pasteurisation 143
staff 378 subsidy 21, 24, 158 poultry 267, 268, 404, 421
see also employees suet 57, 91, 115 records 160, 407, 408, 421
commitment from 322–7 sugar 95–6, 106, 113, 117, 126, 136, refrigeration 141, 189, 405, 407
cruise ships 26, 27–8 139, 398, 407 reheating 398, 408
customer care 321–7 frozen fruit 142 rye flour 93
food and beverage service 283–6, 287 preservation by 95, 144–5, 399, 403 sandwiches 267
hotels 338–43, 357–60 sumac or sumac seeds 104, 106 servery area 191
kitchen supervision 163–9 supermarkets 11, 24 smoking 144
meat production 223 supervision, kitchen 163–9 sous-vide 146, 221
stainless steel 161, 182, 195, 196, 197 sustainability 17, 23, 171, 275–8 steamers 178
Staphylococcus aureus 400, 402, 409 swedes 73, 126, 253 vacuum packaging 146
starch 117, 121 sweet potatoes 74 vegetables 268, 405
starfruits/carambolas 81 sweetbreads 57, 58, 253 washing-up 189, 279–80, 413, 414
statutory sick pay 34–5 sweetcorn 76 workplace 156, 371, 378
steam cooking 382, 176, 177–9, 213 sweetners 139 textured vegetable protein (TVP) 58
microsteam 224 Swiss chard 75 Thai beans 76
sterilisation 143, 403, 409 swordfish 69 Thai sauces 106
cleaning 197, 279–80, 413 SWOT analysis 314–15, 352 Thai parsley 106
storage 139, 162, 182, 265–75, 417, 420 Szechuan peppercorns 106 Thai red curry paste (krueng gueng phed)
bacon 54 106–7
bread, cakes and biscuits 266 takeaways 12 thyme 102
butter 267 tamarillo 82 time management 302–3
caviar 109 tamarind 82, 106 timeshare villas/apartments 14, 330
centralised operations, small 224 tapioca 94 tins see canning
cereals 92, 266, 405 tarragon 102 toey leaves 107
cheese 88–9, 266, 267, 268 taxation 2, 8 tofu 107
cleaning materials 266, 268, 413, 414, tea 97–8, 126, 186, 195, 321, 405 tomatoes 77, 253, 254, 399
415 brewing times 97 tongue 58, 253
cocoa 98 teal 62 tourism 4–8
cook-chill 209–10, 211, 214 teamwork 279, 287, 301, 306–9, 310, trades union officials 37
cook-freeze 215, 216, 217, 219 323, 325 training 171, 202, 204–5, 261, 298
cream 87 telephone 323, 325–6 control of resources 261, 262
dry goods 266, 267, 405–6 temperature 263, 268, 269, 403, 405, first-aid 384, 385
eggs 84, 267 407–9 food safety 394, 395, 396, 400, 408,
energy efficiency 159 apples 79 409, 410, 413–14, 420, 421, 423–5
fats 90, 268 bacteria 89, 397, 398–9, 400, 402, 407 functions 246
first in, first out 224, 267, 406 canning 398 health and safety 373, 374, 376, 377–8,
fish 64, 267, 268, 404 caviar 109 379, 381, 389, 390
flour 93 climate change 198 induction programmes 168, 323, 424
frozen foods 141–2, 266, 267 cook-chill 208, 209–10, 211, 212, records 420, 421
fruit 78, 79, 267, 268, 405 213–14, 421 security 389
game 61 cook-freeze 215, 216, 217–18, 219, 220 service staff 193, 278, 283, 284, 285,
gas 79, 146 dairy products 267, 404 322, 408
ice cream 110, 267, 405 danger zone 407 time off for study or 44
meat 50, 51, 54, 59, 61, 267, 268, 404 deliveries of food 404 trans fats 138
milk 85–6, 267 dishwashing 189, 279–80, 413, 414 transport 223
nuts 82 disinfection 413 catering 22, 26–8
oats 93 dry food stores 405 travel lodges 14
offal 57 eggs 84, 267, 404 tripe 57
oils 92, 268 electronic probes 408 trout 65, 252
oysters 71 fats and oils 268 truffles 77
poultry 59, 267, 268, 404 fish 64, 267, 404 tumeric 104
pulses 100 frozen foods 141–2, 160, 187, 266, tuna 65
receiving goods see separate entry 267, 404, 405, 407, 408 TUPE transfers 42
records 261, 263, 270–5, 404 fruit 268, 405 turbot 67, 252
rice 94 hot cupboards 180 turkey 60, 253
salad items 405 hot water systems 202 turnips 73, 126, 253
salt 107 ice cream 110, 267, 405
sandwiches 267 meat 50, 51, 54, 59, 267, 268, 404 up/personal selling 9, 278, 317
sugar 96 microsteaming 224 up-to-date 140
436 Index
use-by date 50, 146, 214, 218, 219, 261, vine leaves 75 wheat 92–3, 142, 395
266, 406, 407 vinegar 107–8, 139, 145, 398 whitebait 64, 65, 252
viruses 402 whiting 69, 252
vacuum cooling 72 vitamins 112, 118–19, 121, 138 wine 99, 126, 139, 289–92
vacuum packaging 50, 51, 54, 146, canned foods 143 lists 318, 319, 320
221–2, 224, 267, 403 cooking and 118, 119, 121, 128, 224 wine bars 12
cooking see sous-vide drying fruit 141 winkles 71
value added tax (VAT) 260 freezing fruit and vegetables 143, witch 67
vanilla 110 217 women 29, 34, 36, 46, 129, 130, 310
veal 50, 51, 53, 211 main sources of 119 wonton wrappers 107
vegetables 72–7, 78, 116, 125–6, 141, woodcock 62
394, 407 wafers 110 wooden boards and utensils 161, 182,
bacteria 401, 402 walnuts 83 196, 197
cook-chill 211, 221 wasabi 107 work flow 146, 153, 155, 161–2, 288,
freezing 73, 142, 143, 217 waste 146, 268, 378, 414 298
grading 72 electrical equipment 171 work space 154, 156, 159, 207, 378
local 17, 49 food waste disposers 194 work–life balance 309
portion control 253 management 159, 419, 420 workers 31–2, 35, 44–5
purchase of prepared 222 reduction of 17, 23, 419 working capital 293
storage 267, 268, 269, 405 water 96, 112, 121, 126, 201, 275, 378 working methods 162
vegetarianism 17, 82, 88, 129, 130, 228, bacteria 398, 399 wrasse 69
237 kitchen plumbing 418
cheese 88, 90 management 160 yams 74
menus 228, 237, 240 non-contamination of drinking 171 yard-long beans 107
vegans 86, 129, 130 schools: drinking 19 yeast 95, 139, 145
vending machines 208, 220, 320–1 service 194 yellow bean sauce 107
venison 61 spring 98–9 yoghurt 87, 88, 145, 268
ventilation 156–7, 159, 170–1, 202, 388, water chestnuts 76, 107 youth hostels 15, 330
418 watercress 75
vicarious liability 39, 390 welfare/cost sector catering see public- zedoury 107
victimisation 38, 39, 40 sector zinc 50, 138
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The Theory of

The UK’s biggest food and drink

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN: 978 1444 12376 0

Previous editions published as The Theory of Catering

Copyright © 2011 David Foskett and Patricia Paskins

Cover photo © John Wang/Stockbyte/Getty Images.

Part 1 The hospitality industry 1

Part 2 Food commodities, nutrition and science 48

Part 3 Planning, production and service 149

Part 4 Organisation and business development 300

Part 5 Legislation 367

Appendix Useful websites 427

Additional free material on the web at www.hodderplus.co.uk/catering:

About CESA ●● Study for and pass a comprehensive written test

Level 2 NVQ and VRQ

Level 3 and BTEC

NVQ NVQ BTEC Edexcel Extended Diploma

The UK Hospitality Industry 1

Supporting material available on Dynamic Learning Online:

The UK hospitality industry

Companies Acts. This means that the liability of their 2009

Table 1.1 Number of outlets and meals served (excluding

Source: British Hospitality Association, Trends and Statistics 2009

Northern Total Total

Source: British Hospitality Association, Trends and Statistics 2009

Wyndham Worldwide Food tourism

The hospitality industry: product and service

Table 1.4 Leading restaurant groups in the UK, 2009

Owner No. of outlets Selected brands

Types of catering establishment

Commercial catering in most clubs, particularly in the St James’s area of

Beer and pub facts ●● UK brewers are industry leaders on

made from natural ingredients. run by tenants, licensees and owners.

a day are exported to over 120 different

Table 1.5 The evolution of the pub

Late The themed Men Bitter Youth market

Source: Whitbread Market Research

Motels/travel lodges Timeshare villas/apartments

Coffee shops Spas

To find out more about NHS and hospital

Nutritional standards for school lunches

Dieticians 1 food-based, which will define the types of food

Figure 1.8 School meals

Energy 30% of the estimated average requirement (EAR)

Sample menus for schools Residential establishments

Motoring services 35 minutes. Food and drink is limited to that bought

2009 2008 2007

£0–£25k £26k–£50k £51k–£100k £101k–£500k Over £501k

Many companies that supply caterers with products Cruises

Restaurant Bar Services Hotel

JAP/AP Premier- JAP/SAP

Figure 1.9 The Purser’s Department

Cruise ship staff customised port experiences, changing flights, and

16–19 20–29 30–49 50–64 Over 65 TOTAL

* Includes gambling and youth hostels.

Source: National Statistics website, www.statistics.gov.uk

* Includes self-catering and holiday centres, travel and tourist

Topics for discussion

Supporting material available on Dynamic Learning Online: