Mechanical wave Rayleigh waves are much slower than body waves, at roughly 90%

of the velocity of bulk waves [clarify] for a typical homogeneous elastic

medium. Rayleigh waves have energy losses only in two dimensions
and are hence more destructive in earthquakes than conventional
A mechanical wave is a wave that is an oscillation of matter, and therefore
transfers energy through a medium.[1] While waves can move over long
bulk waves, such as P-waves and S-waves, which lose energy in all
distances, the movement of the medium of transmission—the material—is three directions.
limited. Therefore, the oscillating material does not move far from its initial A Love wave is a surface wave having horizontal waves that are
equilibrium position. Mechanical waves transport energy. This energy
propagates in the same direction as the wave. Any kind of wave (mechanical
shear or transverse to the direction of propagation. They usually
or electromagnetic) has a certain energy. Mechanical waves can be travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves, at about 90% of the body
produced only in media which possess elasticity and inertia. wave velocity, and have the largest amplitude.
A mechanical wave requires an initial energy input. Once this initial energy is
added, the wave travels through the medium until all its energy is transferred. Electromagnetic Wave
In contrast, electromagnetic waves require no medium, but can still travel
through one.
One important property of mechanical waves is that their amplitudes are Definition: Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are
measured in an unusual way, displacement divided by (reduced) wavelength. created as a result of vibrations between an electric field and a
When this gets comparable to unity, significant nonlinear effects such magnetic field. In other words, EM waves are composed of
as harmonic generation may occur, and, if large enough, may result in oscillating magnetic and electric fields.
chaotic effects. For example, waves on the surface of a body of water break
when this dimensionless amplitude exceeds 1, resulting in a foam on the Description: Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric
surface and turbulent mixing. Some of the most common examples of
mechanical waves are water waves, sound waves, and seismic waves.
field comes in contact with a magnetic field. They are hence known
as ‘electromagnetic’ waves. The electric field and magnetic field of
There are three types of mechanical waves: transverse waves, longitudinal an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular (at right angles) to each
waves, and surface waves. other. They are also perpendicular to the direction of the EM wave.

Transverse wave EM waves travel with a constant velocity of 3.00 x 108 ms-1 in
vacuum. They are deflected neither by the electric field, nor by the
It is the form of wave in which particles of medium vibrates about magnetic field. However, they are capable of showing interference
their mean position perpendicular to the direction of motion of wave. or diffraction. An electromagnetic wave can travel through anything -
To see an example, move an end of a Slinky (whose other end is be it air, a solid material or vacuum. It does not need a medium to
fixed) to the left-and-right of the Slinky, as opposed to to-and-fro. propagate or travel from one place to another. Mechanical waves
[2]
Light also has properties of a transverse wave, although it is an (like sound waves or water waves), on the other hand, need a
electromagnetic wave.[3] medium to travel. EM waves are 'transverse' waves. This means
that they are measured by their amplitude (height) and wavelength
(distance between the highest/lowest points of two consecutive
Longitudinal wave waves).
Longitudinal waves cause the medium to vibrate parallel to the
The highest point of a wave is known as 'crest', whereas the lowest
direction of the wave. It consists of multiple compressions and
point is known as 'trough'. Electromagnetic waves can be split into a
rarefactions. The rarefaction is the farthest distance apart in the
range of frequencies. This is known as the electromagnetic
longitudinal wave and the compression is the closest distance
spectrum. Examples of EM waves are radio waves, microwaves,
together. The speed of the longitudinal wave is increased in higher
infrared waves, X-rays, gamma rays, etc.
index of refraction, due to the closer proximity of the atoms in the
medium that is being compressed. Sound is a longitudinal wave.

Surface waves
This type of wave travels along the surface or interface between two
media. An example of a surface wave would be waves in a pool, or
in an ocean, lake, or any other type of water body. There are two
types of surface waves, namely Rayleigh waves and Love waves.
Rayleigh waves, also known as ground roll, are waves that travel as
ripples with motion similar to those of waves on the surface of water.
Periodic Trends electrons. As a result, the elements on the left side of the periodic
table generally lose electrons when forming bonds. Conversely,
elements on the right side of the periodic table are more energy-
Periodic trends are specific patterns that are present in the periodic efficient in gaining electrons to create a complete valence shell of 8
table that illustrate different aspects of a certain element, including electrons. The nature of electronegativity is effectively described
its size and its electronic properties. Major periodic trends thus: the more inclined an atom is to gain electrons, the more likely
include: electronegativity, ionization energy, electron that atom will pull electrons toward itself.
affinity, atomic radius, melting point, and metallic character.
Periodic trends, arising from the arrangement of the periodic table,  From left to right across a period of elements,
provide chemists with an invaluable tool to quickly predict an electronegativity increases. If the valence shell of an
element's properties. These trends exist because of the similar atom is less than half full, it requires less energy to lose an
atomic structure of the elements within their respective group electron than to gain one. Conversely, if the valence shell
families or periods, and because of the periodic nature of the is more than half full, it is easier to pull an electron into the Figure 2. Periodic Table showing Electronegativity Trend
elements. valence shell than to donate one.
 From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity
Electronegativity Trends decreases. This is because atomic number increases down Ionization Energy Trends
a group, and thus there is an increased distance between
the valence electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from
Electronegativity can be understood as a chemical property a neutral atom in its gaseous phase. Conceptually, ionization energy
radius.
describing an atom's ability to attract and bind with electrons. is the opposite of electronegativity. The lower this energy is, the
Because electronegativity is a qualitative property, there is no  Important exceptions of the above rules include the
noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides. The noble gases more readily the atom becomes a cation. Therefore, the higher this
standardized method for calculating electronegativity. However, the energy is, the more unlikely it is the atom becomes a cation.
most common scale for quantifying electronegativity is the Pauling possess a complete valence shell and do not usually attract
electrons. The lanthanides and actinides possess more Generally, elements on the right side of the periodic table have a
scale (Table A2), named after the chemist Linus Pauling. The higher ionization energy because their valence shell is nearly filled.
numbers assigned by the Pauling scale are dimensionless due to the complicated chemistry that does not generally follow any
trends. Therefore, noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides Elements on the left side of the periodic table have low ionization
qualitative nature of electronegativity. Electronegativity values for energies because of their willingness to lose electrons and become
each element can be found on certain periodic tables. An example is do not have electronegativity values.
cations. Thus, ionization energy increases from left to right on the
provided below.  As for the transition metals, although they have periodic table.
electronegativity values, there is little variance among
them across the period and up and down a group. This
is because their metallic properties affect their ability to
attract electrons as easily as the other elements.

According to these two general trends, the most electronegative

element is fluorine, with 3.98 Pauling units.

Figure 1: Periodic Table of Electronegativity values

Electronegativity measures an atom's tendency to attract and form

bonds with electrons. This property exists due to the electronic Figure 3: Graph showing the Ionization Energy of the Elements from
configuration of atoms. Most atoms follow the octet rule (having Hydrogen to Argon
the valence, or outer, shell comprise of 8 electrons). Because
elements on the left side of the periodic table have less than a half- Another factor that affects ionization energy is electron shielding.
full valence shell, the energy required to gain electrons is Electron shielding describes the ability of an atom's inner electrons
significantly higher compared with the energy required to lose to shield its positively-charged nucleus from its valence electrons.
When moving to the right of a period, the number of electrons
increases and the strength of shielding increases. As a result, it is
easier for valence shell electrons to ionize, and thus the ionization
energy decreases down a group. Electron shielding is also known
as screening.

TRENDS

 The ionization energy of the elements within a period

generally increases from left to right. This is due to
valence shell stability.
 The ionization energy of the elements within a group
Figure 4. Periodic Table Showing Ionization Energy Trend Figure 5. Periodic Table showing Electron Affinity Trend
generally decreases from top to bottom. This is due to
electron shielding.
Ionization energies decrease as atomic radii increase. This Electron affinity generally decreases down a group of elements
 The noble gases possess very high ionization energies
observation is affected by nn (the principal quantum number) because each atom is larger than the atom above it (this is the
because of their full valence shells as indicated in the
and ZeffZeff (based on the atomic number and shows how many atomic radius trend, discussed below). This means that an added
graph. Note that helium has the highest ionization energy
protons are seen in the atom) on the ionization energy (I). The electron is further away from the atom's nucleus compared with its
of all the elements.
relationship is given by the following equation: position in the smaller atom. With a larger distance between the
negatively-charged electron and the positively-charged nucleus, the
Some elements have several ionization energies; these varying force of attraction is relatively weaker. Therefore, electron affinity
energies are referred to as the first ionization energy, the second I=RHZ2effn2(3)(3)I=RHZeff2n2
decreases. Moving from left to right across a period, atoms become
ionization energy, third ionization energy, etc. The first ionization smaller as the forces of attraction become stronger. This causes the
 Across a period, ZeffZeff increases and n (principal
energy is the energy requiredto remove the outermost, or highest, electron to move closer to the nucleus, thus increasing the electron
energy electron, the second ionization energy is the energy required quantum number) remains the same, so the ionization
energy increases. affinity from left to right across a period.
to remove any subsequent high-energy electron from a gaseous
cation, etc. Below are the chemical equations describing the first  Down a
and second ionization energies: group, nn increases and ZeffZeff increases slightly; the NOTE
ionization energy decreases.
First Ionization Energy:  Electron affinity increases from left to right within a
Electron Affinity Trends period. This is caused by the decrease in atomic radius.
X(g)→X+(g)+e−(1)(1)X(g)→X(g)++e−  Electron affinity decreases from top to bottom within a
As the name suggests, electron affinity is the ability of an atom to group. This is caused by the increase in atomic radius.
Second Ionization Energy: accept an electron. Unlike electronegativity, electron affinity is a
quantitative measurement of the energy change that occurs when an Atomic Radius Trends
electron is added to a neutral gas atom. The more negative the
X+(g)→X2+(g)+e−(2)(2)X(g)+→X(g)2++e−
electron affinity value, the higher an atom's affinity for electrons.
The atomic radius is one-half the distance between the nuclei of two
Generally, any subsequent ionization energies (2nd, 3rd, etc.) atoms (just like a radius is half the diameter of a circle). However,
follow the same periodic trend as the first ionization energy. this idea is complicated by the fact that not all atoms are normally
bound together in the same way. Some are bound by covalent bonds
in molecules, some are attracted to each other in ionic crystals, and
others are held in metallic crystals. Nevertheless, it is possible for a
vast majority of elements to form covalent molecules in which two
like atoms are held together by a single covalent bond. The covalent
radii of these molecules are often referred to as atomic radii. This
distance is measured in picometers. Atomic radius patterns are
observed throughout the periodic table.
Atomic size gradually decreases from left to right across a period of Generally, the stronger the bond between the atoms of an element, Zeff, as stated above) of the atom that allows the outer
elements. This is because, within a period or family of elements, all the more energy required to break that bond. Because temperature is electrons to ionize more readily.
electrons are added to the same shell. However, at the same time, directly proportional to energy, a high bond dissociation energy  Metallic characteristics increase down a group. Electron
protons are being added to the nucleus, making it more positively correlates to a high temperature. Melting points are varied and do shielding causes the atomic radius to increase thus the
charged. The effect of increasing proton number is greater than that not generally form a distinguishable trend across the periodic table. outer electrons ionizes more readily than electrons in
of the increasing electron number; therefore, there is a greater However, certain conclusions can be drawn from the graph below. smaller atoms.
nuclear attraction. This means that the nucleus attracts the electrons
more strongly, pulling the atom's shell closer to the nucleus. The  Metallic character relates to the ability to lose electrons,
 Metals generally possess a high melting point. and nonmetallic character relates to the ability to gain
valence electrons are held closer towards the nucleus of the atom.
As a result, the atomic radius decreases.  Most non-metals possess low melting points. electrons.
 The non-metal carbon possesses the highest boiling point
of all the elements. The semi-metal boron also possesses a Another easier way to remember the trend of metallic character is
high melting point. that moving left and down toward the bottom-left corner of the
periodic table, metallic character increases toward Groups 1 and 2,
or the alkali and alkaline earth metal groups. Likewise, moving up
and to the right to the upper-right corner of the periodic table,
metallic character decreases because you are passing by to the right
side of the staircase, which indicate the nonmetals. These include
the Group 8, the noble gases, and other common gases such as
oxygen and nitrogen.

 In other words:
 Move left across period and down the group: increase
Figure 6: Periodic Table showing Atomic Radius Trend
metallic character (heading towards alkali and alkaline
metals)
Down a group, atomic radius increases. The valence electrons Figure 7. Chart of Melting Points of Various Elements  Move right across period and up the group: decrease
occupy higher levels due to the increasing quantum number (n). As metallic character (heading towards nonmetals like noble
gases)
a result, the valence electrons are further away from the nucleus as
‘n’ increases. Electron shielding prevents these outer electrons from
Metallic Character Trends
being attracted to the nucleus; thus, they are loosely held, and the
resulting atomic radius is large. The metallic character of an element can be defined as how readily
an atom can lose an electron. From right to left across a period,
metallic character increases because the attraction between valence
NOTE electron and the nucleus is weaker, enabling an easier loss of
electrons. Metallic character increases as you move down a group
 Atomic radius decreases from left to right within a period. because the atomic size is increasing. When the atomic size
This is caused by the increase in the number of protons increases, the outer shells are farther away. The principal quantum
and electrons across a period. One proton has a greater number increases and average electron density moves farther from
effect than one electron; thus, electrons are pulled towards nucleus. The electrons of the valence shell have less attraction to
the nucleus, resulting in a smaller radius. the nucleus and, as a result, can lose electrons more readily. This
 Atomic radius increases from top to bottom within a causes an increase in metallic character.
Figure 8: Periodic Table of Metallic Character Trend
group. This is caused by electron shielding.
NOTE
Melting Point Trends
 Metallic characteristics decrease from left to right across a
period. This is caused by the decrease in radius (caused by
The melting points is the amount of energy required to break a
bond(s) to change the solid phase of a substance to a liquid.
 What Weather Means
Weather is basically the way the atmosphere is behaving, mainly
with respect to its effects upon life and human activities. The
difference between weather and climate is that weather consists
of the short-term (minutes to months) changes in the atmosphere.
Most people think of weather in terms of temperature, humidity,
precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, visibility, wind, and
atmospheric pressure, as in high and low pressure.

In most places, weather can change from minute-to-minute, hour-

to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate, however, is
the average of weather over time and space. An easy way to
remember the difference is that climate is what you expect, like a
very hot summer, and weather is what you get, like a hot day with
pop-up thunderstorms.

Things That Make Up Our Weather

There are really a lot of components to weather. Weather includes
Latest three month average temperature and precipitation anomalies for the United States. sunshine, rain, cloud cover, winds, hail, snow, sleet, freezing rain,
Credits: NOAA flooding, blizzards, ice storms, thunderstorms, steady rains from a
The difference between weather and climate is a measure of time. cold front or warm front, excessive heat, heat waves and more.
Weather is what conditions of the atmosphere are over a short
period of time, and climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over In order to help people be prepared to face all of these, the
relatively long periods of time. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA)
National Weather Service (NWS), the lead forecasting outlet for
When we talk about climate change, we talk about changes in the nation's weather, has over 25 different types of warnings,
long-term averages of daily weather. Today, children always hear statements or watches that they issue. Some of the reports NWS
stories from their parents and grandparents about how snow was issues are: Flash Flood Watches and Warnings, Severe
NASA - What's the Difference always piled up to their waists as they trudged off to school. Thunderstorm Watches and Warnings, Blizzard Warnings, Snow
Advisories, Winter Storm Watches and Warnings, Dense Fog
Children today in most areas of the country haven't experienced
Between Weather and those kinds of dreadful snow-packed winters, except for the
Northeastern U.S. in January 2005. The change in recent winter
Advisory, Fire Weather Watch, Tornado Watches and Warnings,
Hurricane Watches and Warnings. They also provide Special
Climate? snows indicate that the climate has changed since their parents
were young.
Weather Statements and Short and Long Term Forecasts.

NWS also issues a lot of notices concerning marine weather for

If summers seem hotter lately, then the recent climate may have boaters and others who dwell or are staying near shorelines. They
changed. In various parts of the world, some people have even include: Coastal Flood Watches and Warnings, Flood Watches and
noticed that springtime comes earlier now than it did 30 years ago. Warnings, High Wind Warnings, Wind Advisories, Gale Warnings,
An earlier springtime is indicative of a possible change in the High Surf Advisories, Heavy Freezing Spray Warnings, Small Craft
climate. Advisories, Marine Weather Statements, Freezing Fog Advisories,
Coastal Flood Watches, Flood Statements, Coastal Flood
In addition to long-term climate change, there are shorter term Statement.
climate variations. This so-called climate variability can be
represented by periodic or intermittent changes related to El Niño, Who is the National Weather Service?
La Niña, volcanic eruptions, or other changes in the Earth system. According to their mission statement, "The National Weather
Service provides weather, hydrologic, and climate forecasts and
warnings for the United States, its territories, adjacent waters and of our National Parks and National Forests may be permanently based on a win-win philosophy and aimed at addressing the
ocean areas, for the protection of life and property and the altered. challenge of global warming while, at the same time, strengthening
enhancement of the national economy. NWS data and products the economy. Many university and private scientists also study
form a national information database and infrastructure which can climate change.
be used by other governmental agencies, the private sector, the
public, and the global community." What is the U.S. Global Change Research Program?
The United States Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) was
To do their job, the NWS uses radar on the ground and images created in 1989 as a high-priority national research program to
from orbiting satellites with a continual eye on Earth. They use address key uncertainties about changes in the Earth's global
reports from a large national network of weather reporting environmental system, both natural and human-induced; to
stations, and they launch balloons in the air to measure air monitor, understand, and predict global change; and to provide a
temperature, air pressure, wind, and humidity. They put all this sound scientific basis for national and international decision-
data into various computer models to give them weather making.
forecasts. NWS also broadcasts all of their weather reports on
special NOAA weather radio, and posts them immediately on their An example of a Monthly Mean Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) product produced from Since its inception, the USGCRP has strengthened research on
Interactive Weather Information Network website NOAA polar-orbiter satellite data, which is frequently used to study global climate change. global environmental change and fostered insight into the
Credits: NOAA
at: http://iwin.nws.noaa.gov/iwin/graphicsversion/bigmain.html. processes and interactions of the Earth system, including the
atmosphere, oceans, land, frozen regions, plants and animals, and
What Climate Means The National Academy of Sciences, a lead scientific body in the human societies. The USGCRP was codified by Congress in the
In short, climate is the description of the long-term pattern of U.S., determined that the Earth's surface temperature has risen by Global Change Research Act of 1990. The basic rationale for
weather in a particular area. about 1 degree Fahrenheit in the past century, with accelerated establishing the program was that the issues of global change are
warming during the past two decades. There is new and stronger so complex and wide-ranging that they extend beyond the mission,
Some scientists define climate as the average weather for a evidence that most of the warming over the last 50 years is resources, and expertise of any single agency, requiring instead the
particular region and time period, usually taken over 30-years. It's attributable to human activities. Yet, there is still some debate integrated efforts of several agencies.
really an average pattern of weather for a particular region. about the role of natural cycles and processes.
Some Federal Agencies Studying Climate
When scientists talk about climate, they're looking at averages of Human activities have altered the chemical composition of the In the 1980s the National Weather Service established the Climate
precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, atmosphere through the buildup of greenhouse gases – primarily Prediction Center (CPC), known at the time as the Climate Analysis
phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail storms, and other measures carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. The heat-trapping Center (CAC). The CPC is best known for its United States climate
of the weather that occur over a long period in a particular place. property of these gases is undisputed although uncertanties exist forecasts based on El Niño and La Niña conditions in the tropical
about exactly how Earth's climate responds to them. According to Pacific.
For example, after looking at rain gauge data, lake and reservoir the U.S. Climate Change Science Program
levels, and satellite data, scientists can tell if during a summer, an (http://www.climatescience.gov), factors such as aerosols, land
area was drier than average. If it continues to be drier than normal use change and others may play important roles in climate change,
over the course of many summers, than it would likely indicate a but their influence is highly uncertain at the present time.
change in the climate.
Who Studies Climate Change?
Why Study Climate? Modern climate prediction started back in the late 1700s with
The reason studying climate and a changing climate is important, is Thomas Jefferson and continues to be studied around the world
that will affect people around the world. Rising global today.
temperatures are expected to raise sea levels, and change
precipitation and other local climate conditions. Changing regional At the national level, the U.S. Global Change Research Program
climate could alter forests, crop yields, and water supplies. It could coordinates the world's most extensive research effort on climate
also affect human health, animals, and many types of ecosystems. change. In addition, NASA, NOAA, the U.S. Environmental Image Above: The operational SST anomaly charts are useful in assessing ENSO (El Niño -
Deserts may expand into existing rangelands, and features of some Protection Agency (EPA) and other federal agencies are actively Southern Oscillation) development, monitoring hurricane "wake" cooling, and even major shifts
engaging the private sector, states, and localities in partnerships in coastal upwelling.
Credits: NOAA
CPC was established to give short-term climate prediction a home
in NOAA. CPC's products are operational predictions or forecasts of
how climate may change and includes real-time monitoring of
climate. They cover the land, the ocean, and the atmosphere,
extending into the upper atmosphere (stratosphere). Climate
prediction is very useful in various industries, including agriculture,
energy, transportation, water resources, and health.

NASA has been using satellites to study Earth's changing climate.

Thanks to satellite and computer model technology, NASA has
been able to calculate actual surface temperatures around the
world and measure how they've been warming. To accomplish the
calculations, the satellites actually measure the Sun's radiation
reflected and absorbed by the land and oceans.NASA satellites
keep eyes on the ozone hole, El Nino's warm waters in the eastern
Pacific, volcanoes, melting ice sheets and glaciers, changes in
global wind and pressure systems and much more.

At the global level, countries around the world have expressed a

firm commitment to strengthening international responses to the
risks of climate change. The U.S. is working to strengthen
international action and broaden participation under the support
of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Today, scientists around the world continue to try and solve the
puzzle of climate change by working with satellites, other tools and
computer models that simulate and predict the Earth's conditions.