Nov 9, 2020

SECTION –II

BUSINESS AND LEGAL WRITING SKILLS

Repetition:

Repetition is the act of repeating or restating something more than once. It is a literary device
that involves intentionally using a word or phrase for effect, two or more times in a speech or
writing. For repetition to be noticeable, the words or phrases should be repeated within close
proximity of each other. Repeating the same words or phrases in a literary work of poetry
or prose can bring clarity to an idea and/or make
it memorable for the reader.

Repetition, in writing can occur at many levels:

individual letters, sounds, words, phrases, or
even ideas. Repetition can be problematic in
writing if it leads to dull work, but it can also be
an effective poetic or rhetorical strategy to
strengthen your message.

Avoiding Repetitions: Some people are clueless about the problem of repetition and harm it
does to their writing. They repeat their keywords again and again, and at times the whole
sentence without noticing, but repetition, weakens writing, bores readers and damages a writer‘s
argument and at times reputation.

In speaking and writing, we can avoid repeating words, phrases or clauses. Substitute forms can
be used do this.

1.Use Pronouns: Pronouns help you avoid repetition in writing. Use them to replace nouns
when you are writing.

Example: The children love hockey. Hockey is the children‘s favourite sport.

The children love hockey. It is their favourite sports.

Personal (I, me, you, him, it, they, etc.) Personal pronouns are used in place of noun phrases,
to refer back to people and things already mentioned. Possessive pronouns ( mine, yours etc)
are used in a similar way

Example: I can speak Japanese quite well. I‘ve been learning it for several years.

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 To enhance our sales staff’s communication, management will send them on a training

course next week.

Indefinite quantifying pronouns include words like little, many, enough, none, few

Example: There were two choices on the menu but I didn‘t like either.

The company spent a lot of money for the staff trip but only a few signed up to go.

2. Substituting -- do

Do, do so, do it, do the same - are used to substitute for a verb and whatever accompanies it
(complement):

Example: None of the team understood the problem at first, but they did after a few days.

I always have a shower before breakfast and my wife does the same.

3. One, some, ones

These are used to substitute for countable nouns

Example: They looked at several houses but couldn‘t find one they both liked.

4. This, that, these, those as pronouns

We use this, that, these and those as pronouns to refer to things or ideas:

Examples: The College decided to hire more part-timers. The full-time staff was not happy
with that.

The fossil has a similar shape and size to that of a horse.

Don‘t touch the chocolate cookies. Those are mine.

5. Ellipsis: Ellipsis is used when we omit words or phrases which can be understood from the
context.

Examples: She went to office and worked all day. (She is ellipted in the second clause).

I would like to move to a larger house but I can‘t afford to. (move to a larger house

is ellipted).

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6. Verb-noun/ noun-verb transformations

We can avoid repetition of a verb or noun in a following sentence by replacing the verb with its
noun equivalent and vice-versa. Change verb forms to nouns and vice versa to avoid repetition
in sentences.

Example: If we analyze the figures for this period, we will know the profit and loss incurred.

We can see from this analysis the profit and loss incurred.

From this analysis we can see the profit and loss incurred.

7. Use Synonyms: Substitute synonyms sparingly to prevent repetitive use of adjectives and
verbs, ensuring they improve rather than diminish the writing.

Example: He pays annual dues to his athletic club yearly.

He pays annual dues to his athletic club.

Synonyms can also be used in avoiding unnecessary repetition.

Example: My favourite sports are soccer and rugby. I play both these games at school.

8. Remove Redundancies: Redundancy means the state of being no longer needed or useful. It
can also mean unnecessary words.

Example: They had never seen a dead corpse.—All corpses are dead; therefore dead is

unnecessary. So dead corpse is redundant.

She spoke the honest truth.

Nov 11, 2020

Legalese in Writing

Legalese is the language used by lawyers that is difficult for most people to understand. It is the
specialised language of the legal profession. Legalese is characterized by long sentences,
modifying clauses, complex vocabulary and is insensitive to the layman‘s need to understand
the documents gist.

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When it comes to legal writing, the risks are high. Hard-to-read or incomprehensible court
filings can harm cases and, sometimes, lead to sanctions from the court. It‘s vital, therefore, that
legal writing is as clear and succinct (brief) as possible.

#1 Avoid writing in the passive

Prefer active voice over passive. Bryan Garner, in his essential book "Legal Writing in Plain
English," emphasizes this principle for aspiring legal professionals.

―Consider this analogy: in the active voice, subjects perform actions ("The court dismissed the
appeal"), while in the passive voice, subjects undergo actions ("The appeal was dismissed by
the court"). This distinction reflects whether you're the doer or the receiver of an action.

#2 Beware of ambiguous pronouns

An ambiguous pronoun arises when it could refer to multiple antecedents, (a prior word in the
sentence), leaving readers uncertain regarding the intended meaning

Consider this sentence: "Laura has a letter for Diane, but couldn‘t deliver it because Petra was
blocking her way." Who was blocking whose way? This sentence is confusing as readers must
carefully discern to whom the pronouns refer.

To enhance clarity, it's advisable to rephrase sentences containing pronouns like "her" and
"him." For instance: "Laura has a letter for Diane, but couldn‘t deliver it because Petra was
blocking Laura‘s way."

#3 Watch out for unnecessary wordiness

A legal document that gets straight to the point in fewer words is better than a long, rambling
one. When you want to communicate something, be direct! Adding unnecessary words or fillers
only makes your message confusing. Aim for sentences that are 15-20 words long on average.
Breaking up long sentences will make your meaning clear and keep the reader happy.

#4 Don’t try to save words at the expense of the reader

One common way to save words is using "respectively" at the end of a sentence. This means "in
the order given." However, it can make the reader go back and read the sentence again to
understand what belongs to what.

Example: Oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen detector flows were set at 85, 7, and 4 mL/min,
respectively.

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 #5 Check that you’re using the right homophones

Spotting homophones, words that sound the same but have different meanings and spellings,
can be challenging. Even if the spelling is correct, they might be used incorrectly, and
spellcheckers may not catch these errors. Here are some commonly misused words:

▪ Allude / Elude — ―allude‖ means to make an indirect reference, while ―elude‖ means to evade
or escape from.
▪ Ensure / Insure — ―ensure‖ means to confirm that something will happen, while ―insure‖
refers to the monetary insurance of something or someone.
▪ Formerly / Formally — ―Formerly‖ means in the past, previously, or in earlier times, while
―formally‖ means conforming to convention, ceremony, and proper etiquette.
▪ Their / There / They’re — ―their‖ is the possessive case of the pronoun ―they‖, while ―there‖
is an adverb that means in or at that place, and ―they‘re‖ is a contraction of the words ―they‖
and ―are.‖
▪ Its / It’s — ―Its‖ is the possessive form of ―it‖, while ―it‘s‖ is the contraction of ―it‖ and ―is‖.

#6 Get rid of synonyms

Legal documents often contain unnecessary synonyms that only add unnecessary padding to the
text. Remove these synonyms to simplify the language.

#7 Avoid Doublets and triplets

To simplify legal language, avoid unnecessary doublets or triplets of words. Instead of saying
"null and void," just use "null." Instead of writing "convey, transfer, and set over," just use
"convey." For example, in a will, instead of saying "I give, devise, and bequeath my property to
my son," simply say "I give my property to my son." While a few of these phrases are necessary
in statutes, most serve little or no purpose and should be removed.

#8 Don‘t use provisos (condition – provided that)

A proviso in an agreement is a condition. Using provisos can unnecessarily lengthen sentences

and create ambiguity, as they can imply various meanings -- such as "with exception that," "if,"
"also," or "on the condition that."

For instance, ‗He was released from prison with the proviso that/provided that he doesn‘t leave
the country.‘ (Here it is a condition)

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#9 Avoid word numeral doublet

The term "numeral doublet" holds no special power. It appears in nearly every contract we
encounter. Initially, it likely served as a precaution against tampering with documents.
However, modern legal documents are less vulnerable to manipulation. Draft and Cheques
contain both numeral and the word.

#10 Delete shall

Lawyers often use the word "shall" in writing, even though they wouldn't typically use it in
conversation. The primary reason is that "shall" signifies a mandatory action. It means "has a
duty to" or "command," but we don't always use it in this sense.

For example, in the sentence "Neither party shall assign this agreement, directly or indirectly,
without the prior written consent of the other party," the writer is indicating that neither party is
allowed to assign the agreement. To convey this, the writer could simply use "must" or "will."

#11Don’t neglect to proofread

We often spend so much time working on a piece of writing that we become tired of looking at
it and sometimes consider submitting it as is. However, it's always a mistake to skip the
proofreading stage.

When dealing with important documents, it's usually advisable to have someone else proofread
them. If that's not an option, take a brief break of at least 30 minutes. Upon returning, consider
printing the document and reviewing it on paper with a pencil. Alternatively, try reading it
aloud for a comprehensive check. If you encounter stumbling blocks while reading aloud,
chances are there are spelling or grammar mistakes that require correction.

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 Nov 12, 2020

Passive Voice Minimalization

Voice is the term used to describe whether a verb is active or

passive.

What Is the Active Voice?

If the subject is performing the action, the verb is in

the active voice. Look at the example:

What Is the Passive Voice?

If the subject undergoes the action, the verb is in the passive
voice. Look at the example:

Minimizing passive voice does not mean eliminating

it entirely; rather, it means avoiding excessive or
unjustified use of passive voice. Using too many
passive sentences makes the writing less effective.

DEFINING PASSIVE VOICE

To reduce passive voice, one must first be able to identify it. Look at the sentence below:
Example: ‘The results were analyzed by the executive committee.‘
What makes this sentence passive? Look for the following characteristics:
1. In this example, the grammatical subject "results" receives the action of the verb. In other
words, the results are acted upon rather than performing any action themselves..
2. The verbs include the following:
a) a form of the verb be (were, in this case). Besides ‗were’, the other forms of be are: am,
is, are, was, be, been, and being.
b) a past participle (here, the word analyzed)
3. There will be a prepositional phrase and the phrase begins with the preposition ‗by‘-- in the
above example, by the executive committee.

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A sentence can contain passive voice without including this information, though. Deleting ‗by
the executive committee’e from the sample sentence does not eliminate the passive voice. The
following is still a passive construction:
The results were analyzed.
As you look for passive voice, keep in mind that a form of the verb be does not automatically
signal a passive construction. For example, how many of the following three sentences contain
passive voice?
1. The meeting was not productive for me.
2. The meeting was led by Edna. --- Passive
3. The meeting was boring the attendees.
Only the second sentence illustrates passive voice. In Sentence 1, ‗productive’ is an adjective,
not a past participle. In the third sentence, ‗boring’ is not a past participle either. In addition, the
subject of the sentence — meeting — is performing the action, namely, boring the attendees.
Sentence 3 is actually a perfect example of active voice.

REDUCING PASSIVE VOICE

Many passive-voice constructions would benefit from being rewritten in the active voice.

Passive Voice
The results were analyzed by the executive committee.
Active Voice
The executive committee analyzed the results.
❖ Active voice is generally superior to passive voice, because it is more direct. The
reader learns first who or what performed the action, then what the action was, and
finally who or what was acted upon.
❖ By replacing passive with active voice in the example above, we reduced the number
of words by two. Active voice is more economical in structure.

PASSIVE VOICE IS ACCEPTABLE

Nonetheless, passive voice is sometimes acceptable, even preferable. It is appropriate in the
following cases:

1. WHEN THE ENTITY PERFORMING THE ACTION IS UNKNOWN

If your friend injured his hand and you're unsure of the cause, you might say, ‗My friend was
injured last night.‘
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2. WHEN THE EMPHASIS IS PROPERLY ON THE ENTITY RECEIVING THE
ACTION
Example, ―Our website hasn‘t been updated in nearly six months.‖
Here, passive voice emphasizes that your website isn‘t updated.
The dog was hit by the car" draws attention to the dog, evoking empathy and
concern.
Alternatively, "The car hit the dog" shifts the focus to the car, eliciting a less
intense emotional
response towards the dog.
It's best to minimize passive sentences, yet using them intentionally can soften the voice and
vary the pacing. In the hands of a good writer, the occasional passive sentence can be powerful,
colorful and effective.
13 Nov 2020

Removing unnecessary words / Eliminating Words

The written word is one of the most important tools of

the legal profession. Words are used to advocate, inform,
persuade, and instruct. Although mastering legal
drafting takes time and practice, superior writing skills are
essential to success, and you can take steps to improve
yours.
Remember Your Audience
Organize Your Writing
Avoid the Legalese
Be Concise
Use Action Words
Avoid Passive Voice
Edit Thoroughly

How to be concise?

1. Replace Redundant Adjectives

A good first step in reducing wordiness is pruning redundant adjectives. Long lists of
synonymous descriptors should often be cut down to only one, and maybe two if needed. Take
this sentence:
“The big, loud, angry, violent crowd broke windows and flipped cars.”
The sentence above uses four adjectives to describe what could just as effectively be relayed by
the words ‗mob‘ or ‗angry mob‘. Here‘s another example:
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“He quickly, carefully, and quietly walked past the guards.”
In this sentence ―slowly, carefully, and quietly‖ could be replaced with ‗crept‘, saving two
words and improving the flow of the sentence. A single evocative noun or verb is always
preferable to a long list or adjectives or adverbs.

2. Eliminate words that explain the obvious or provide excessive detail

Always keep your readers in mind when writing and revising. Remove or rephrase passages that
explain details already obvious to readers. Readers are skilled at filling in non-essential aspects
of a narrative. Look at the example.

Wordy: I received your inquiry that you wrote about tennis rackets yesterday, and read it
thoroughly. Yes, we do have. . .
(19 words)
Concise: I received your inquiry about tennis rackets yesterday. Yes, we do have. . .
(12 words)

Wordy: Imagine a mental picture of someone engaged in the intellectual activity of trying to
learn what the rules are for how to play the game of chess.
(27 words)
Concise: Imagine someone trying to learn the rules of chess.
(9 words)
3. Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiers
Writers often clog their writing with unnecessary words or phrases that appear to modify a
noun but don't actually contribute to the sentence's meaning. While these words and phrases can
be meaningful in certain contexts, they are often used as "filler" and can be removed easily.

Wordy: Any particular type of dessert is fine with me.

(9 words)
Concise: Any dessert is fine with me.
(6 words)

Wordy: Balancing the budget by Friday is an impossibility without some kind of extra help.
(14 words)
Concise: Balancing the budget by Friday is impossible without extra help.
(10 words)

List of some words and phrases that can often be pruned away to make sentences clearer:

● kind of
● sort of
● type of
● really
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 ● basically
● for all intents and purposes
● definitely
● actually
● generally
● individual
● specific
● particular

4. Omit repetitive wording

Watch for phrases or longer passages that repeat words with similar meanings. Words that don't
build on the content of sentences or paragraphs are rarely necessary.

Wordy: I would appreciate it if you would bring to the attention of your drafting officers the
administrator's dislike of long sentences and paragraphs in messages to the field and in other
items drafted for her signature or approval, as well as in all correspondence, reports, and
studies. Please encourage your section to keep their sentences short.
(56 words)

Concise: Please encourage your drafting officers to keep sentences and paragraphs in letters,
reports, and studies short. Dr. Lomas, the administrator, has mentioned that reports and memos
drafted for her approval recently have been wordy and thus time-consuming.
(37 words)

Wordy: The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter an unneeded luxury.
(10 words)
Concise: The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter a luxury.
(9 words)

5. Omit redundant (unnecessary or not needed) pairs

Many pairs of words imply each other. Finish implies complete, so the phrase completely finish
is redundant in most cases.
So are many other pairs of words:

● past memories
● various differences
● each individual
● basic fundamentals
● true facts
● important essentials
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 ● future plans
● terrible tragedy
● end result
● final outcome
● free gift
● past history
● unexpected surprise
● sudden crisis

6. Omit redundant categories

Specific words already imply their general categories, so there's often no need to state both. We
understand that a period is a segment of time, that pink is a color, and that shiny describes an
appearance. Therefore, we can drop the general category term from each of the following
phrases, leaving just the specific descriptive word.

 large in size
● often times
● of a bright color
● heavy in weight
● period in time
● round in shape
● at an early time
● economics field
● of cheap quality
● honest in character
● of an uncertain condition
● in a confused state
● unusual in nature
● extreme in degree
● of a strange type

Wordy: The microscope revealed a group of organisms that were round in shape and peculiar
in nature.
(16 words)
Concise: The microscope revealed a group of peculiar, round organisms.
(9 words)

7. Avoid overusing qualifiers

Qualifiers come directly before an adjective or adverb and are used to either increase or
decrease the quality of the modified word. For example, in the phrase "John is very cool," the
qualifier is "very." The overuse of such qualifiers can distract readers.
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Qualified words can often be replaced by a single more potent word. For example, "Sue is
extremely angry" could be shortened to "Sue is furious."

When every adjective or adverb is preceded by "very," "extremely," "barely," or "hardly," the
qualifiers begin to lose their meaning. Always try to use one good word rather than two or three
mediocre ones. This will instantly improve your writing.

16 Nov 2020

Parallelism: Use of parallel constructions

Parallelism is a device used to make moments in literature memorable and alluring.

Martin Luther King Jr.‘s ‗I Have a Dream‘ is a memorable speech.

I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be
judged by the colour of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream
today…

While we may not have memorized the entire speech, we do know some of it. The speech‘s
success is due to King‘s fantastic use of parallelism.

Parallel structure, or parallelism, repeats a chosen grammatical form within a sentence, making
components grammatically similar. This repetition enhances readability by creating easily
followed word patterns. It adds balance, clarity, and emphasis to writing, aiding in the
presentation of important information. Parallelism is a persuasive tool, making sentences
symmetrical and memorable for readers.

For instance, in the famous translated line from Julius Caesar, "I came, I saw, I conquered,"
each phrase begins with "I" followed by a verb, enhancing its appeal and memorability.

Lack of parallel structure disrupts sentence rhythm and balance, while proper parallelism
establishes flow and clarity. Overall, it demonstrates structural and grammatical correctness,
enhancing the quality of writing.

Let’s look at an example:

Not Parallel: The President traveled to several cities meeting voters, to give speeches,
and ask for campaign funds.
Parallel: The President traveled to several cities meeting voters, giving speeches,
and asking for campaign funds.

Example:
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 Not Parallel: Ellen likes hiking, attend the rodeo, and to take afternoon naps.

Parallel: Ellen likes hiking, attending the rodeo, and taking afternoon naps.

OR Ellen likes to hike, attend the rodeo, and take afternoon naps.

How can a sentence be revised to reflect parallel structure?

1.Find a list within a sentence: Look for words or phrases of equal importance that are
separated by commas and joined by a conjunction

Not parallel: Dr. Kall challenged his students to initiate their own learning, be creative
problem-solvers, and think independently. (In this sentence, Dr. Kall wants his students to do or
be three things, but the items in this list are not parallel in structure.)

2. Evaluate the word forms within the list.

1. Do the verbs appear as infinitives (to + verb), or gerunds (-ing words)? As present tense or
past tense? (Choose the voice and tense of the verb that is consistent with surrounding
sentences.)
2. Do the nouns or pronouns and their modifiers appear in consistent form?

3. Alter the words in the list to create proper parallel structure.

Parallel: Dr. Kall challenged his students to become self-motivated learners, creative problem-
solvers, and independent thinkers. (In this sentence, Dr. Kall wants his students to be three
things instead of a combination of being and doing. Additionally, the list follows a pattern since
the nouns and adjectives all appear in parallel form.)

Relative Pronoun – Fixing Remote Relative Pronoun

A relative pronoun is a type of pronoun that often introduces dependent (or relative) clauses in
sentences. They also can stand alone as the subject or object of a sentence.
There is a specific list of relative pronouns, and here they are: who, whoever, whom,
whomever, that, which, when, where, and whose. (Sometimes, what and where can also serve
as relative pronouns.)

Why Are Relative Pronouns Important?

Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, which is a group of words that has both a subject
and a verb and modifies a noun in a sentence. Without the relative pronoun, the relative clause

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would not exist. In fact, the relative pronoun is a 'clue' word to let us know that the relative
clause is beginning.

Examples of Relative Pronouns in Sentences

Here are two examples of how relative pronouns are used in sentences. Let's start with the
simple sentence:
The fly landed.
Now let's build it up with a relative clause:
The fly that had been buzzing around Sam's head landed on the cake.
In this case, the relative pronoun that introduces the relative clause that had been buzzing
around Sam's head. At first, we only knew that a fly landed. Now, by adding the relative clause,
we have more information about the fly. The whole clause that had been buzzing around Sam's
head modifies the noun and subject, fly.
Let's try another:
The girl whose leg was bruised in the soccer game is my sister.
The subject of this sentence is the word girl. We know that the word whose is a relative
pronoun. It introduces the relative clause whose leg was bruised in the soccer game. This
relative clause modifies the subject, girl.
Every relative pronoun should immediately refer to its antecedent (Antecedent means the
noun or noun phrase that a pronoun refers to in a sentence.) in a way that's clear to the
reader, without any doubt.

Remote Relative Pronoun: is a pronoun that is positioned too far away from its antecedent.
The separation of the relative pronoun (that, which, who) from its antecedent.

For example, in the sentence ―The files in the office that I was talking about yesterday are in
disarray,‖ the word that—technically—modifies office, not files. But many writers today
would intend to have it modify files. They would loosely employ a 'remote relative.'‖

Reason for fixing remote relative pronouns: When we use relative pronouns remotely they
are likely to cause confusion.

So, fix every remote relative pronoun – ensure that, ‗that or which‘ immediately follows the
antecedent.

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 17 November 2020

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

A sign is a type of language used to convey specific information. Signs

typically provide information, regulations, warnings, or prohibitions.
They are essential to follow as they communicate important information.
For instance, a red traffic light signals to stop, while signs like "DO
NOT ENTER," "DO NOT PARK," or "HANDICAP parking" convey
important messages.

Many signs often have a universal meaning that is shared by people from various backgrounds.

Symbol is a form of a sign that may have deep meaning. It can be interpreted in different ways
since its meaning may not be universally shared by different people.

Sign Symbol

A sign is a form of language that is A symbol represents something that are

descriptive in nature. ex. Road signs ( DO accepted by certain subjective areas.
NOT ENTER) Example of a symbol could be a letter or
letters standing for a chemical element or a
character in musical notation. Symbol for a
A sign could stand for something and it may religious cults or groups.
be mandatory to be followed.
May only target certain group of people. May
be interpreted differently by different people.

Sign and a symbol are not synonymous. The main difference

between the two is that a sign is a form of language that
directly communicates with the targeted audiences. Sign
could also mean a usage of gestures to convey information or
instructions.

In contrast, a symbol is a conventional representation of an

object, function, or process. It is a form of a sign that may
have deep meaning. It can be interpreted in different
ways since its meaning may not be universally shared by
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different people.

A sign and a symbol are not the same. A sign communicates directly with its audience,
sometimes through gestures. On the other hand, a symbol represents an idea, object, or
relationship. Symbols allow connections between different concepts and experiences.
Communication relies on symbols, which can be words, sounds, gestures, ideas, or visual
images. For example, a red octagon symbolizes "STOP," blue lines on maps represent rivers,
and a red rose symbolizes love. Numerals represent numbers, letters represent phonemes, and
personal names represent individuals. In mathematics, 'x' can symbolize the position of a
particle. The study of symbols is called semiotics.

Symbols are complex communication tools with multiple meanings. They form the basis of
human understanding and help us navigate the world, guiding our judgments. People use
symbols to comprehend their surroundings and to cooperate in society.

Human cultures utilize symbols to convey particular

ideologies, social structures, and elements of their culture.
Therefore, the meanings of symbols are culturally
dependent and not inherent in the symbols themselves but
learned within specific cultural contexts.

Examples of legal symbols employed by law firms include

Symbol Used for

§ Section (Silcrow)

§§ Sections

¶ Paragraph (Pilcrow)

© Copyright

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Symbol Used for

® Registered Trademark

™ Trademark

— Em Dash

– En Dash

Ππ∏ Plaintiff (Pi)

Δ Defendant (Delta)

& Ampersand (and)

18 November 2020

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a written word or phrase. Abbreviations may be used to

save space and time, to avoid repetition of long words and phrases, or simply to conform to
conventional usage.

Abbreviations may be nearly as old as writing itself; they allow a writer to save time, space and
effort. The cost of materials like parchment, paper and ink was another major impetus to shorten
words and phrases. Even with the invention of the printing press, cost remained important, and
printers looked for ways to save space without diluting the message. Many abbreviations have

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become standard, including abbreviations for days of the week (Mon., Tue./Tues) and months
of the year (Jan., Feb.); common Latin terms(lb., e.g.); units of time and measurement (min. for
minute and ft. for foot); titles of individuals (Mr., Mrs., Rev.); titles or names of organizations
(UNESCO, SAARC); government bodies (SCOTUS for Supreme Court of the United States,
PWD, KHS); states and cities (Pa. for Pennsylvania, NYC)

The styling of abbreviations is inconsistent and arbitrary and includes many possible
variations.

1. Abbreviations of single words are typically formed using the first letter or letters of the
word.
n. for noun
v. for verb
adj. adjective
Oct. for October
univ. for university,

Such abbreviations usually end in a period.

The usual practice in American English is to use a period to end any abbreviation that
stands for a single word. Example: assoc./assn. for association) whereas in British
English the period is omitted if the abbreviation includes the last letter of the word.
Example: association can be abbreviated as assoc. or assn. (without period), fr is an
abbreviation for France (no period) while Fr. is the abbreviation for Father (title for a
priest).

2. Phrases are abbreviated by using the first letters or initial portions of each word or
each important word, usually without any periods. The ordinary abbreviation for single
words is almost always read as the word is spelled out - Dr. as doctor, lb as pound.

Abbreviations consisting of initials are usually read as written -- either letter by letter or
as a single word. An abbreviation that is pronounced letter by letter, like FBI for
Federal Bureau of investigation, PWD for Public Words Department is referred to as
Initialism.

Many abbreviations for phrase are pronounced as words: for example, NATO for North
Atlantic Treaty Organization. This type of abbreviation is called an Acronym.

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 Some acronyms like radar (Radio Detecting and Ranging), laser (Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation), scuba (Self-contained Underwater Breathing
Apparatus) etc. have become so accepted as normal words that most people are unaware
of their acronymic origins. In many cases an official name may be chosen purely to create
an appropriate and catchy acronym, as the CALM (Commercial Advertisement Loudness
Mitigation Act) Act of 2010.

In an informal sense/loose sense, initialism can refer to any abbreviation composed of

initials, even if pronounced as a word and acronym to refer to any abbreviation, even if it
pronounced letter by letter.

The distinction between true acronyms (pronounced as word) and pure initialisms (said
letter by letter) is a useful one.

With increasing popularity of email, text messaging and social media especially the young
people have found new ways to save time and space through the use of in-group jargons and
keep their communication opaque to the prying parental eyes, by using initialism for common
expressions —the most popular among them are: OMG – oh my God, BTW – by the way,
TTYL – talk to you later, bff – best friends forever.

Ways to Abbreviate while Note Taking

One of the most difficult aspects of taking notes during lectures is that you cannot both listen
and write at the same time. When you stop to write down an idea, you might miss something
else which is important. This means you need to find a way to write down the main ideas
as quickly as you can, so that you can maximise the amount of time you spend listening. This is
where symbols and abbreviations can help.

Ways to abbreviate words

Almost any word can be shortened during note-taking. Below are some ideas about
how to do this.

Use the beginnings of words

One way to shorten a word is to use just the beginning of the word, for example:
● pol - politics
● subj - subject
● info - information
● intro – introduction

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Use the beginnings of words with the final letter
Sometimes it can be useful to add the final letter of the word. Some people prefer to
also add an apostrophe ('), others don't. For example:
● govt - government
● gov't - government
● interl - international
● inter'l - international

Omit vowels
Sometimes you might need to write out the whole word, but even so, you can
probably leave out the vowels and still understand the word, for example:
● prblm - problem
● schl - school
● bkgd - background

Abbreviate -ing
The ending -ing is very common, so find a way to abbreviate it, for example:
● ckg - checking
● ckng - checking
● ck'g - checking
Abbreviate specific words from the lecture
If there are words which are commonly used in a particular lecture you are listening
to, you should try to abbreviate them. For example, in a lecture about acid rain, the
speaker might frequently talk about sulphur, nitrogen, pollution, factories. The
following abbreviations could be used:
● AR - acid rain
● S - sulphur
● N - nitrogen
● pol - pollution
● facs - factories

Common symbols & abbreviations

There are many common abbreviations and symbols which you can use for note-taking. You
probably already know many of these (especially the mathematical symbols), but perhaps had
not thought about using them before. Try to learn some of these and start using them when you
take notes.

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SYMBOLS ABBREVIATIONS

Symbol Meaning Abbrev Meaning

leads to, causes (showing e.g. for example

→
result)

i.e. that is
caused by, because of (showing
←
reason)
etc. etcetera, and so on

↑ increase, more, go up, up

C century, e.g. C20: 20th century

↓ decrease, less, go down, down

approx approximate(ly) (see symbol)

= equal to, is, are

difference, different, difficult,
diff
difficulty
not equal to, is not, are not, is
≠
the opposite of imp important, importance

≈ approximately lang language

> greater than max maximum

>> much greater than min minimum

< less than 1st first (similarly 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc.)

∴ therefore United Kingdom (similarly US

UK for America(n), Aus for
Australia(n), Eur for Europe(an))
∵ because

Q question

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″″ ditto (same as above) A answer

&+ and no. number (see also # symbol)

# number poss possible, possibly

$ money prob problem, probable, probably

@ at sts students

′ minutes/feet v very

″ seconds/inches w/ with

♂ man, men, male w/o without

♀ woman, women, female

Personal symbols & abbreviations

You should also try to develop your own list of personal abbreviations and symbols, which
might use different rules from the ones above. Probably, from your Native language.

November 19, 2020

Sexist Language

Sexist language is discriminatory language that implies unfair bias based on gender, typically
against women but sometimes against men. It excludes or suggests superiority of one gender
over the other. For instance, traditionally using "he," "him," and "his" to refer to both sexes may
make "she," "her," and "hers" seem less important or inferior. It's best to avoid sexist language
to prevent offending people.
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Gender Bias

Underlying sexist language is gender bias, which can occur consciously or unconsciously.
When unconscious, the gender bias in language can be considered to be the product of society:
other people use sexist language, and repetition normalizes it until the speaker unconsciously
produces his or her own sexist language where men are the norm and women the "other‖.

Reasons to Avoid Sexist Language

Not only does sexist language lead to discriminatory ideas about certain occupations, it can also
be a barrier to effective communication.

Fostering Job Role Stereotypes

Sexist language fosters discrimination and can deter individuals from pursuing their aspirations.
For example, when engineers are consistently portrayed as male, young girls aspiring to become
engineers may feel disheartened, believing that their gender prevents them from achieving this
career.

Similarly, referring to flight attendants exclusively as stewardesses may dissuade males

interested in this profession, reinforcing the stereotype that it is exclusively for women.
Additionally, labeling a female doctor as a "lady doctor" while simply referring to a male
counterpart as a doctor perpetuates the notion that women in these roles are inferior to men.

Interfering With Effective Communication

Sexist language can also cause people to feel excluded. Using language that excludes or offends
people can hinder effective communication. If your language is offensive to a significant
portion of your audience, your message may not be well-received. Therefore, it's important to
consider the impact of your words to ensure your message is understood and accepted by all.

Replace Sexist Language in Your Vocabulary

The point isn't to avoid mentioning someone's gender when you know it. It's about being
inclusive when talking about groups of people, whether they're mixed-gender or include
transgender or non-binary individuals.

Use genderless collective references: Use humanity or the human race instead
of man or mankind when you are referring to all people.

Avoid nonspecific pronouns: Avoid using nonspecific pronouns like "he." Instead, use
appropriate articles such as "the," "a," or "an." Rather than "his," use "one's" or "a person's."
When referring to a hypothetical individual, use "person" or "individual" instead of "man."
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Example:

Original: "If a student wants to succeed, he must study diligently."

Revised: "If a student wants to succeed, the individual must study diligently."

―If a student wants to succeed, the person must study diligently."

―If a student wants to succeed, he/she must study diligently."

Describe roles without specifying gender: Use genderless titles whenever possible, such
as meterologist instead of weatherman, firefighter instead of fireman, and homemaker instead
of housewife.

Don’t add gender markers: Avoid adding gender markers to genderless titles, such as male
nurse; use the genderless title alone (i.e., nurse). This should apply to all occupations; there is
no reason to pair a person‘s gender with the individual‘s job title.

Use plural where possible: Rework sentences in the plural to avoid gendered pronouns and
possessive adjectives. This will create smoother and more grammatically correct prose than
using a plural pronoun with a singular subject. For example:

Sexist: Each student makes up his own schedule.

Grammatically incorrect: Each student makes up their own schedule.

Gender-neutral and grammatically correct: Students make up their own schedules.

Include both male and female pronouns: When sentences cannot be rewritten in the plural
form, use "he or she" or "his or her" to ensure inclusivity. For example, "The winning contestant
must claim his or her prize by Tuesday." However, avoid overusing this construction, as it may
disrupt the flow of your writing.

Use gender neutral letter greetings: Don‘t address letters as: Dear Sir(s). Contact the
company to get the actual name of the letter recipient or use ―To Whom it May Concern‖ or
similar.

Suffixes -man, -master -woman and -ess

Many people feel that traditional uses of the suffixes -man, -master, -woman and -ess are sexist
and outdated, so alternative, neutral forms are often used (m = male; f = female).

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traditional form neutral alternative

fireman (m) fire-fighter

policeman (m) policewoman (f) police officer

headmaster (m) headmistress (f) Head teacher or head

waiter (m) waitress (f) server (American English)

In many cases, we can use the traditional male suffix for both sexes.

traditional form neutral alternative

Nouns, adjectives and verbs with man

actor (m) actress (f) actor Some nouns, adjectives and verbs which
include man are considered sexist nowadays. We
can often use neutral alternatives:
manager (m) manage
manager
ress (f)

poet (m) poetess (f) poet

waiter (m) waitress (f

waiter
)

traditional form neutral alternatives

manpower (noun) workers, workforce, staff, personnel, human resources

man (verb) staff, be at, attend to

manmade (adjective) artificial, synthetic

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The firm is hoping to take on more workers (or staff). (preferred to … more manpower …)

Somebody will have to be at the entrance to take the tickets as people come in. (preferred
to Somebody will have to man the entrance …)

Synthetic fibres are never as nice to wear as natural ones. (preferred to Manmade fibres )

Dashes

Writers use dashes in a lot of different situations. For example, a sudden break is an instance of
when to use dashes. They may also use dashes in dialogue to show when one character‘s speech
is interrupted by another‘s. Dashes help writers set off long explanatory statements, or
statements that give more information about someone or something. Dashes also help set off
introductory lists.

A dash is a punctuation mark that is similar to a hyphen or minus sign, but differs from both of
these symbols primarily in length and function. The most common versions of dash are the en
dash (–) longer than the hyphen and the em dash (—)longer than the en dash; and
the horizontal bar.

Historically, the names of en dash and em dash came from the width of an uppercase N and
uppercase M, respectively, in commonly used fonts.

Types of dashes

Usage varies both within English and in other languages, but the usual convention in printed
English text is as follows:

● An em dash or an en dash can be used to mark a break in a sentence, and a pair can be
used to set off parenthetical statements. Often in this function en dashes are used with
spaces and em dashes are used without them.

Glitter, felt, yarn, and buttons—his kitchen looked as if a clown had exploded.
A flock of sparrows – some of them juveniles – alighted and sang.
● The em dash is used to set off the sources of quotes:

Seven social sins: politics without principles, wealth without work, pleasure without
conscience, knowledge without character, commerce without morality, science without
humanity, and worship without sacrifice.

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 — Mahatma Gandhi

● The en dash is used to indicate spans or differentiation, where it may be considered to

replace "and" or "to".

The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was fought in western Pennsylvania and along the
present US–Canada border (Edwards, pp. 81–101).

Dashes, like commas, semicolons, colons, ellipses, and parentheses, indicate added emphasis,
an interruption, or an abrupt change of thought. Experienced writers know that these marks are
not interchangeable.

November 23, 2020

Quotation marks

Quotation marks, also known as quotes, quote

marks, speech marks, inverted commas,
or talking marks, are punctuation marks used in
pairs in various writing systems to set off direct
speech, a quotation, or a phrase. The pair consists
of an opening quotation mark and a closing
quotation mark, which may or may not be the same character.

tYPES
Quotation marks, are of two types: single and double. British practice is normally to enclose
quoted matter between single quotation marks, and to use double quotation marks for a
quotation within a quotation:

'Have you any idea', he said, 'what "dillegrout" is?'

This is the preferred Oxford University Press (OUP) practice for academic books. The order is
often reversed in newspapers, and uniformly in US practice:

"Have you any idea," he said, "what 'dillegrout' is?"

Americans, use double quotation marks at all times unless quoting something within a quotation, you
use single. The British use singles in books and doubles in newspapers.

Uses of Quotation Marks

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Quotation marks are used to indicate the beginning and end of a quote. They tell the reader
when you've used written material from other sources or direct speech.

Direct quotations
A direct quotation tells the reader when words are taken directly from another text or source.
Use quotation marks at the beginning and end of a direct quotation.
― You are the last person on earth I'd ask,‖ she told him.

Quotations within quotations

Use single quotation marks within double ones to indicate a quotation within a quotation.
― My father began by saying, 'I refuse to listen to any excuses,'‖ he told the psychiatrist.
If you are indenting and single spacing a long quotation, use the same punctuation marks that
appear in the original passage. In this example, the writer is quoting a passage from the critic
Martin Esslin, who in turn is quoting the playwright Ionesco.
Martin Esslin describes Ionesco's attitude toward spontaneity in this passage:

Miscellaneous uses of quotation marks

There are a few other situations that call for quotation marks.
● To distance yourself from an offensive term or expression (quoting someone else).
The disappointed body builder blamed the “fat slobs” who judged the contest.
● To refer to a word as a word.
She repeatedly used the term “irregardless,” not realizing that no such word exists.
● To indicate a nickname written as part of a formal name.
Ray “Shorty” Johannsen was the unanimous choice for committee chair.
To set off titles of poems, essays, and articles that is part of a longer work. (For this use, as for
bibliographical and footnote information, check to see whether you are required to use a
specific style guide for your writing.)
Place commas and periods inside the quotation marks. Place all other punctuation outside
quotation marks unless it was contained in the original source. Follow this whether the comma
is part of the original quotation.
The general rule is that commas and periods should be inside the quotation marks at all
times, while all other forms of punctuation, such as question marks, colons, semicolons
and exclamations marks, should be outside the quotation marks, unless they are in the
original quotation.
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Example:
The court held that, ―Physical injury is not a required element of a sexual harassment claim”,
and the plaintiff went on to win her case. ---- incorrect
The court held that, ―Physical injury is not a required element of a sexual harassment claim,”
and the plaintiff went on to win her case. ---- correct
How dare you call me a ―bad apple!‖ ---- incorrect
How dare you call me a ―bad apple‖! ---- correct
November 25, 2020

SPELLING OUT NUMBER ONE TO TEN

Numbers don't just show up in math assignments, but also in everyday writing. Like many
facets of the English language, there are rules for writing numbers. There are certain numbers
that we spell out in letters and others we only write as numerals. You've probably come across
more than your fair share of 'Top 10' lists.

As is often the case in English, there are some exceptions to the rules outlined below. As with
other grammar rules, rules for writing numbers change according to certain style guides
(i.e. Chicago Manual of Style, AP, MLA, etc.). However, here are some general rules for
spelling out numbers.

1. Spell out Numbers under 10:

● Martin has two younger sisters and five older brothers.

● Mary read four new books last week and seven newspaper articles.

2. Spell out Numbers at the beginning of a sentence:

● Sixty children came to the class trip last year but, this year, there were 80.
● Fifty-two miles were all she had left on her journey to Scotland.

3. Fractions:

● About one-third of the group comes from China.

● She filled her gas tank with two-thirds of a gallon.

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The exception to this rule pertains to mixed fraction. We then use numerals (unless, of course, it
comes at the beginning of a sentence):

● The recipe calls for 2½ cups of nuts.

● Our class art project calls for 1¼ cups of glitter.

4. To express time, except when using the terms am and pm (AM, PM)

● The class ends at three O‘ clock.

5. Some experts say that one word number should be written out.

● Twelve, twenty, thirty

6. Short sentences involving numbers can be spelled out.

● She made forty dollars.

7. Centuries and decades should be spelled out but can also be written in numerals.
Don’t capitalize them.

● During the eighties and nineties, the US economy grew.

● Nineteenth century was an age of Uncertainty.
● She lived in San Francisco in the '80s.

8. If the number is rounded spell it out. Rounded numbers over a million are written
as numeral plus a word.

● About 400 million people speak Spanish.

● Instead of -- About 400,000,000 people speak Spanish.

9. When writing out numbers above 999, do not use comma.

● One thousand, one hundred fifty four dollars, and sixty one cents --- incorrect
● One thousand one hundred fifty four dollars and sixty one cents --- correct

Numbers That Require Numerals

Numbers 10 and above:

● She's bought about 12 pairs of shoes and 16 dresses in the last three months.

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When numbers are in a list, it's best to keep all the numbers in the list consistent, even if some
numbers are under 10 and some are over:

● Incorrect: She has four brothers aged seven, nine, 12, and 15.
● Correct: She has four brothers aged 7, 9, 12, and 15.

● Incorrect: Mary's traveled to three European countries and 14 deserted islands.

● Correct: Mary's traveled to 3 European countries and 14 deserted islands.

Dates:

● Are you coming to the game on May 21st?

● Join our spooky Halloween party: 10/31/2018.

We do not use ordinal numbers (i.e. 1st, 2nd, 3rd) with full dates:

● Incorrect: The play is on March 23rd, 2010.

● Correct: The play is on March 23, 2010.

Percentages:

● According to the latest survey, 52% of teachers live in the city.

● It's good to know that only 7% of Americans say they are unhappy.

If a percentage begins a sentence, it should be spelled out:

● Fifty-two percent of teachers live in the city.

● Ninety-three percent of Americans say they are happy.

Decimals:

● There were 3.73 inches of rain last month.

● The mountain accumulated 8.98 inches of snow today.

Numbers and Money

When it comes to money, numbers follow their own set of rules. Money is usually written as
numerals, but can be written out when the amount is small or rounded up - "it cost two or three
dollars." Here are some of the most important guidelines to keep in mind:

● Currency symbols should be placed before the number, with no spaces.

Example: She earned $2,750 for that project.

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 ● Thousands should be separated by commas.
Example: Marcy inherited $35,000 from her late uncle.

● Decimals should be separated by periods.

Example: Seamus only spent $149.99 on that new smart TV.

● When you reach numbers in the millions and billions, write out the full word (instead of
all those zeros).
Example: That new company earned $10 million in 2018.

● Do not write out the currency if you've already indicated an amount with a currency
symbol.
Example: I have $895 left in my checking account.

The following are special instances that may be written in multiple ways.

Time:
We usually spell out the time when it is followed by o'clock or when a.m. or p.m. is not
mentioned. Use numerals when we need to emphasize the exact time and when using am and
pm
Using o'clock:

● Incorrect: We have to get up at 6 o'clock to be on time for school.

● Correct: We have to get up at six o'clock to be on time for school.

Using a.m. or p.m.

● Incorrect: They did not leave the party until two a.m.
● Correct: They did not leave the party until 2 a.m.

Also, it's common to spell out noon and midnight instead of writing 12:00 p.m. and 12:00 a.m.

● We came home around midnight and slept until noon the next day.

● At midnight, the countdown for our trip will last until takeoff at noon tomorrow

When in doubt, whether to spell out or write a number, it's usually best to spell it out.

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