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SQL Introduction
SQL- Structured Query Language

➢ SQL is a standard language for storing, manipulating and retrieving

data in databases
➢SQL keywords are NOT case sensitive Ex. SELECT as select
➢ Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in
database systems ex. Select * from employee;
➢ SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1987 2
 What SQL do?
➢ SQL can execute quires, retrieve data , insert records, update
records, delete records, create new tables in a database, create database,
create stored procedures (SP) in a database, create views in a database.

RDBMS-
➢RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
➢ RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems
such as MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft
Access.
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 Creating DB, Creating table, updating data in table, Delete

Tool for database Data in stored in

connection -- SQL Database

Retrieve data from db

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Few Popular Databases Management Studio

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 SQL Command Types
➢ DDL(Data Definition Language): - Allows to work with the Structure or
Definition of the database or tables

•SQL commands are as follows in DDL: CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE

➢ DML(Data Manipulation Language): - To deal with the data itself directly

•SQL Commands come under DML are as follows: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE,
SELECT

➢ DQL(Data Query Language): - Deals with the data but to retrieve thedata

•SQL Commands come under DQL are as follows: SELECT

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 Table name Attribute names/ header

Tables in SQL
Product
Sr no./
Price Category Manufacturer
PName
Gizmo $50 Gadgets GizmoWorks

Powergizmo $40 Gadgets GizmoWorks

SingleTouch $10 Photography Canon

MultiTouch $200 Household Hitachi

Tuples Row
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Data Types in SQL
 Characters / String:
 CHAR(20) -- fixed length
 VARCHAR(255) -- variable length
 Numbers:
 INT
 REAL, FLOAT (10%) -- differ in precision
 Decimal (4.9403)
 Times and dates:
 DATE
 DATETIME -- SQL Server
 Binary data type
 Binary

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SQL operators
Type Operator Description Example

Adds values on either side of the operator. 10+ 20 will

+ (Addition)
give 30

Subtracts right hand operand from left hand 20- 10 will

- (Subtraction) operand. give 10

Arithmetic * Multiplies values on either side of the 5* 5 will give

Operators (Multiplication) operator. 25

Divides left hand operand by right hand 20 / 5 will

/ (Division) operand. give 4

Divides left hand operand by right hand 22 % 5 will

% (Modulus) operand and returns remainder. give 2

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SQL operators
Type Oper Description Example
ator

=, != Checks, values of two operands are equal or not (3 = 6) is not true.

<> Checks, values of two operands are equal or not (10 <> 4) is true.

Checks, value of left operand with greater/lesser (10 > 35) is not
>, < value with right operand true.
Comparison
Operators >=, Checks, value of left operand with greater/lesser (a >= b) is not
<= than or equal to the value of right operand true.

Checks if the value of left operand is not less than

!< the value of right operand (a !< b) is false.

Checks if the value of left operand is not greater

!> than the value of right operand (a !> b) is true.
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SQL operators
Type Oper Description Example
ator

The AND operator allows the existence of multiple

AND Cond AND cond
conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.

Logical The OR operator is used to combine multiple

OR Cond OR cond
Operators conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.

The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the

NOT logical operator with which it is used. Eg: NOT NOT Cond
EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a
negate operator.
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SQL DDL command-
❑ Create – Table & db
Syntax- CREATE DATABASE databasename;
Ex. CREATE DATABASE velocity;
Syntax-
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype, .... );

Ex. CREATE TABLE Persons (

PersonID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255) );
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SQL DDL command-
❑ Drop– The DROP DATABASE, DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an
existing SQL database, existing table in a database with structure of table of
database.

Syntax- DROP DATABASE databasename;

Ex. DROP DATABASE testDB;

Syntax- DROP TABLE table_name;

Ex. DROP TABLE VelocityVV;

❑ Alter - The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, drop, or alter columns in
an existing table.

Syntax- ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype;
Ex. ALTER TABLE VelocitVV
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alter Email varchar(20);
SQL DDL command-
❑ TRUNCATE– The SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command is used to delete
complete data from an existing table but structure of table still remaining
❑ You can also use DROP TABLE command to delete complete table but it would
remove complete table structure form the database

Syntax- TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Ex. TRUNCATE TABLE CUSTOMERS;

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Tables in SQL
Fname Lname Gender Mockresult Location
VCTC
Aditya Patki M 7 Nagpur

Atish Jain M 8 Nagpur

Deepka Roy F 7 Pune

Jason Borges M 7 Bider

Neha Bedre F 8 Pune
Neha Joshi F 9 Pune
Pooja Patil F 8 Abad
Shri Patil Goa
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SQL DML command-
❑ INSERT- INSERT statement is used to insert a single record or multiple records into
a table in SQL Server.

Syntax- INSERT INTO TN. (CN1, CN2, ... )

VALUES (value1, value2, ... );

Syntax- INSERT INTO T.N.

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

Ex. INSERT INTO Velocity

VALUES(101,‘Atul', ‘Patil', 9921374751, 16, ‘Pune’);

INSERT INTO VCTC VALUES('Atish','Jain','M',7,'Ngapur');

Ex. INSERT INTO VCTC (Fname, Lname, Gender)

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VALUES(‘Amol',‘Reddy',‘M‘);
SQL DML command-
❑ SELECT– Select statement is used to fetch the data from a database table.

Syntax- SELECT * FROM TN.;

SELECT CNS. FROM TN.;

TN.– indicates table_name

CNS– indicates Coloumn_names

Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC;

SELECT Fname, Lname FROM VCTC;

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SQL DML command-
❑ DISTINCT clause/keyword is used in conjunction with the SELECT statement
to eliminate all the duplicate records and fetching only unique records.

Syntax- SELECT DISTINCT C.N.S. FROM T.N

SELECT DISTINCT * FROM T.N

Ex. SELECT DISTINCT Fname FROM VCTC

❑ TOP clause is used to fetch a TOP N number or X percent records from a table.

Syntax- SELECT TOP no./ percent C.N.S FROM T.N.

Ex. SELECT TOP 10 * FROM VCTC;

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SQL DML command-
❑ Aggregate Function- Aggregate used with select statements, they will
return some numeric values

❑ COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches.

❑ AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
❑ SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
❑ MAX() function returns the max number of rows that matches a specified criterion.
❑ MIN() function returns the min value of a numeric column.

Syntax- SELECT COUNT (C.N.) FROM T.N.

SELECT AVG (C.N.) FROM T.N.
SELECT SUM (C.N.) FROM T.N.
SELECT MAX (C.N.) FROM T.N.
SELECT MIN (C.N.) FROM T.N.

Ex. SELECT COUNT (Mockresult) FROM VCTC;

SELECT AVG (Mockresult) FROM VCTC;
SELECT SUM (Mockresult) FROM VCTC; 21
SQL DML command-
❑ WHERE clause is used to specify a condition while fetching the data from a single
table
Syntax- SELECT * FROM T.N.
WHERE Condition

❑ Condition we can write as ---- (C.N. operators value)

Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC

WHERE FName = ‘Neha’;

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SQL DML command-
❑ AND, OR, NOT- operators are used to combine multiple conditions to narrow data
in an SQL statement.

Syntax- SELECT * FROM T.N.

WHERE Condition AND Condition
Syntax- SELECT * FROM T.N.
WHERE Condition OR Condition
Syntax- SELECT * FROM T.N.
WHERE NOT Condition

Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC

Where Fname = ‘Aditya’ AND Lname = ‘Patki’ ;
Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC
Where Fname = ‘Aditya’ OR Lname = ‘Shabe’ ;
Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC
Where NOT Fname = ‘Aditya’ ;
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SQL DML command-
❑ LIKE clause is used to find a value to similar values or pattern using wildcard
operators. There are two wildcards used in conjunction with the LIKE operator.
❑ Wildcard operates – 1. percent sign (%) → Matches one or more characters.
2. underscore ( _ ) → Matches one character.
3. [charlist]% → Matches more characters in charlist
4. [ ! charlist]% → Not matches characters sequence

Syntax- SELECT C.N.S FROM T.N.

WHERE C.N. LIKE ‘Pattern‘

Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC A% = AXXXXXX,

where Fname LIKE ‘A%’; %A = XXXXXXA
Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC %A% = XXXAXXX
where Fname LIKE ‘Adi_y’; AM_N = AMXN
Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC _ATIL = XATIL
where Fname LIKE ‘[ AN]% ’; [AN]% = AXXXX , NXXXX
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SQL DML command-
❑ BETWEEN keyword / operator used to selects values within a given range with a
WHERE clause

Syntax- SELECT C.N.S FROM T.N.

WHERE C.N. BETWEEN Value1 AND Value2

Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC

WHERE Mockresult BETWEEN 6 AND 9; RESULT- 6,7,8,9

❑ IN keyword / operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause

Syntax- SELECT C.N.S FROM T.N.

WHERE C.N. IN (Value1, Value2, Value3)

Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC

WHERE Mockresult IN ( 6 , 9); RESULT- 6, 9
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SQL DML command-
❑ IS NULL & IS NOT NULL - keyword / operator used with WHERE clause.
❑ To test NULL values, We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL
operators

Syntax- SELECT C.N.S FROM T.N.

WHERE C.N. IS NULL

Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC

WHERE Mockresult IS NULL ;

FNAME= AMAN, SARIKA, NULL, POOJA, AMAR

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SQL DML command-
❑ Order By- ORDER BY clause is used to sort the records in your result set

Syntax- SELECT C.N.S FROM T.N.

ORDER BY C.N. ASC | DESC;

Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC

ORDER BY Fname ASC;

❑ Alise - COLUMN ALIASES are used to make changes column headings in your
result set easier to read & same as TABLE ALIASES are used to shorten your SQL to
make it easier to read.

Syntax- C.N. [ AS ] alias_name

T. N. [ AS ] alias_name

Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC [AS] VV

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Ex. SELECT Fanme as FN FROM VCTC WHERE FN = “Pooja”
SQL DML command-
❑ Update- UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table in a SQL
Server database.
Syntax- UPDATE T.N.
SET C.N.1 = Value1, C.N. 2= Value2, ...
WHERE condition;

Ex. UPDATE VCTC

SET Fname = ‘Pooja’, Lname= ‘ Patil’
WHERE Fname = ‘ Neha’
❑ Delete- DELETE statement is used to delete a single record or multiple records from
a table in SQL Server.

Syntax- DELETE FROM T.N. WHERE condition;

Ex. DELETE FROM VCTC WHERE Fname = ‘Amol’

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SQL DML command-
❑ Union - UNION operator is used to combine the result sets of 2 or more SELECT
statements. It removes duplicate rows between the various SELECT statements.
❑ Each SELECT statement within the UNION operator must have the same number of
columns in the result sets with similar data types.

Syntax- SELECT C.N.S FROM T.N 1.

UNION
SELECT C.N.S FROM T.N 2;

Ex. SELECT * FROM VCTC.

UNION
SELECT * FROM VKVP;

❑ Union All - UNION ALL operator is used to combine the result sets of 2 or more
SELECT statements. It returns all rows from the query and it does not remove
duplicate rows between the various SELECT statements.
Each SELECT statement within the SQL Server UNION ALL operator must have the
same number of fields in the result sets with similar data types.
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SQL DML command-
❑ SELECT INTO- SELECT INTO statement is used to create a table from an
existing table by copying the existing table's columns.

Syntax- SELECT C.N.S

INTO new T. N.
FROM old T. N. ;

Ex. SELECT *
INTO VCTCViman
FROM VCTC;

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SQL DML command-
Question –

1. What is DDL & DML in SQL

2. What is syntax of select statement
3. What is the Aggregate function in SQL
4. What are wildcard operates present in SQL & use of that
5. What is syntax of update & insert command in SQL

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Simple SQL Query
Product PName Price Category Manufacturer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

Select distinct (Category) from product

PName Price Category Manufacturer

Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks

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SQL Table constrains-
❑ SQL constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table. Constraints can be
used when the table is created with the CREATE TABLE statement

❑ NOT NULL - The NOT NULL constraint forces a column to NOT accept NULL
values. Becz while creating table if value not present it take NULL value in C.N.
❑ UNIQUE - The UNIQUE constraint ensures, all values in a column are different.

❑ PRIMARY KEY - The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record
in a table. Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL
values.
❑ FOREIGN KEY - A FOREIGN KEY is a key used to link two tables together. A
FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table that refers to the
PRIMARY KEY in another table.

❑ CHECK - The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be
placed in a column. If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only
certain values for this column.
❑ DEFAULT - The DEFAULT constraint is used to provide a default value for a
column.
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Tables in SQL
Fname Lname Gender Mockresult Location
VCTC
Aditya Patki M 7 Nagpur

Atish Jain M 8 Nagpur

Deepka Roy F 7 Pune

Jason Borges M 7 Bider

Neha Bedre F 8 Pune
Neha Joshi F 9 Pune
Pooja Patil F 8 Abad
Shri Patil Goa
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SQL Table constrains-
❑ SQL constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table. Constraints can be
used when the table is created with the CREATE TABLE statement

Syntax- CREATE TABLE T.N. (

C.N.1 datatype constraint,
C.N 2 datatype constraint,
C.N.3 datatype constraint, ....);

Ex. CREATE TABLE VCTC (

StudID int Primary Key,
Fname varchar(255) Not Null,
Lname varchar(255) ,
Mockresult int Check (Mockresult < 20) ,
Location varchar(255) Default ‘Punevctc’
Mobileno int Unique );

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Constrains Difference-
Primary Key Foreign Key Unique Key
The PRIMARY KEY A FOREIGN KEY is a key The UNIQUE constraint
constraint uniquely used to link two tables ensures that all values in a
identifies each record in a together. A FOREIGN KEY is column are different.
table. Primary keys must a field (or collection of
contain UNIQUE values fields) in one table that
refers to the PRIMARY KEY
in another table.
Primary key cannot have a Foreign key can accept Unique Constraint may have
NULL value. multiple null value. a NULL value.
Each table can have only one We can have more than one Each table can have more
primary key. foreign key in a table. than one Unique Constraint.
Primary key is clustered Foreign keys do not Unique key is a unique non-
index automatically create an clustered index
index, clustered or non-
clustered

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SQL Join-
❑ JOINS are used to retrieve data from multiple tables. A SQL Server JOIN is
performed whenever two or more tables are joined in a SQL statement.

❑ There are 5 different types of SQL Server joins:

1. INNER JOIN 2. LEFT JOIN
3. RIGHT JOIN 4. FULL JOIN 5. SELF JOIN

Syntax - SELECT TN1 . CN, TN1 . CN, TN2 . CN, TN2 . CN

FROM TN1
INNER JOIN TN2
ON TN1 . CN (Primary Key) = TN2 . CN (Foreign Key)

❑ INNER JOIN - It is the most common

type of join. SQL Server INNER JOINS
return all rows from multiple tables where
two table contains common values in the
join condition is met.
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SQL Join-
❑ LEFT JOIN - join returns all ❑ RIGHT JOIN - This type of join
rows from the LEFT-hand table returns all rows from the RIGHT-hand
specified in the ON condition table specified in the ON condition
and only those rows from the other and only those rows from the other
table where the joined fields are table where the joined fields are equal
equal (join condition is met). (join condition is met).

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SQL Join-
❑ FULL JOIN - This type of join ❑ SELF JOIN - A self join is a join in
returns all rows from the LEFT- which a table is joined with itself
hand table and RIGHT-hand table (which is also called Unary
with nulls in place where the join relationships). The self join can be
condition is not met. viewed as a join of two copies of the
same table. The table is not actually
copied, but SQL performs the command
as though it were.

Syntax -SELECT TN1 . CN , TN2 . CN

FROM TN1 , TN2
WHERE T1 . CN = T2 . CN
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SQL Group By-
❑ Group By - The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions
(COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, AVG) to group the result-set by one or more
columns.

Syntax- SELECT C.N.S, Aggregate_function (CN)

FROM T.N
GROUP BY C.N.S

❑ Having Clause- HAVING clause is used in combination with the GROUP BY

clause to provide a specific condition.

Ex. - SELECT Fname, Count (*)

FROM VCTC
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GROUP BY Fname
HAVING Fname > 1
SQL View & Index & SP -
❑ View –A view is a virtual table whose contents are defined by a query

Syntax- CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT C.N.S
FROM T.N.
WHERE condition;

❑ Index –Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database more quickly than
otherwise. The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up
searches/queries.
Syntax- CREATE INDEX index_name
ON T.N. (C.N);
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Ex- CREATE INDEX Vctclist
ON VCTC (StudentID);
SQL Questions-
1. Explain DML and DDL?
2. How many Aggregate functions are available in SQL?
3. What is the difference in BETWEEN and IN condition operators?
4. What is the difference between the HAVING clause and WHERE
clause?
5. What is the difference between DELETE, TRUNCATE & DROP ?
6. What are different Clauses used in SQL?
7. What are different SQL constraints?
8. What is the difference between UNIQUE key, PRIMARY KEY &
FORGIN KEY constraints?
9. What are different JOINS used in SQL?
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SQL Questions-
10. How to write a query to show the details of a student from Students
table whose name start with K?
11.What is the syntax to add a record to a table?
12. What is the syntax of GROUP BY in SQL?
13. Define the SQL DELETE statement.
14. Write a SQL SELECT query that only returns each name only once
from a table?
15. Write an SQL query to get the first maximum salary of an employee
from a table named employee_table.
16. Write an SQL query to get the second maximum salary of an employee
from a table named employee_table. 44
17. Write an SQL query to get the third maximum salary of an employee
from a table named employee_table.
SQL Questions-
18. Write an SQL query to fetch unique values from a table?
19. Write an SQL query to fetch data from table whose name start with
Vipul & Krishna?
20 Write an SQL query to print details of the Workers whose SALARY lies
between 100000 and 500000.
21. Write an SQL query to print details of the Workers who have joined in
Feb’2014.
22. Write an SQL query to fetch the count of employees working in the
department ‘Admin’.
23. Write an SQL query to fetch worker names with salaries >= 50000 and
<= 100000.

24. What do you mean by Stored Procedures? How do we use it? 45

25. What are the Indexes & Views in SQL?

26. What is schema?
SQL Questions-

For practice see SQL quires in below link

https://www.techbeamers.com/sql-query-questions-answers-for-practice/

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