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Oxford Textbook of
Cancer Biology
Oxford Textbook of
Cancer Biology
EDITED BY
Francesco Pezzella
Nuffield Division of Clinical Laboratory Sciences,
Radcliffe Department of Medicine,
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Mahvash Tavassoli
Department Mucosal and Salivary Biology,
King’s College London,
London, UK
David J. Kerr
Nuffield Division of Clinical Laboratory Sciences,
Radcliffe Department of Medicine,
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK;
Weill Cornell College of Medicine,
New York, USA
1
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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© Oxford University Press 2019
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2019
Impression: 1
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Preface
The textbook is dead. Long live the textbook! With increased output understand that without novel basic science and the generation of
of rapidly published new data and availability of teaching material new knowledge, there cannot be sustainable innovations in cancer
on the web, it has often been predicted that the textbook will be- diagnosis and therapy. We have structured this book logically and
come extinct. However, in our experience, it has also become in- trust that the inquisitive reader will select which chapters to explore
creasingly difficult to find a comprehensive text which enables us in greater depth.
to catch up with the current state of art in multiple fields, within There is a difference between the textbooks of today and yes-
a wider contextual framework. While the high number of research terday: before, publication was the terminus or end of the work for
and review papers provide a continuous update on increasingly its authors; now, because of the integration between the printed
narrow and specialized topics in cancer biology, we think there will book and online resources, this is no longer the case. This will allow
be always a need for concise, coherent descriptions of the funda- us to annually review, revise, and update the chapters on the online
mentals on areas like cell cycle or cell death. This is particularly im- version of the book to reflect recent developments in the field.
portant for students who require a platform of basic information Finally, as this is a cancer textbook, we would like to remember
before venturing more deeply into the literature. We have assembled our parents, relatives, friends and, of course, patients whose lives
a fantastic cast of authors, each of whom are outstanding in their have been affected and in many cases, ended too soon by this dis-
field, and have attempted, when relevant, to make the translational ease. We hope this book is another small step forward in the right
link to the application of cancer biology for patient benefit. We must direction.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank our friends Sandor Paku, Balazs Dome, and of creating this book: Andrea, Caroline, Janine, Sree, and Anya.
Andrew Reynolds for granting us permission to use the picture on We also would like to thank all the authors for their work and their
the cover of the book, illustrating a non-angiogenic tumour growing willingness and commitment to write.
in a mouse model.
We would also like to acknowledge the help and support by
Oxford University Press staff that guided us through the process
Contents
4. Genetics and genetic instability in cancer 43 15. Telomerase and immortalization 209
Mark A. Glaire and David N. Church Laura Collopy and Kazunori Tomita
7. Chemical carcinogens 79 18. Oxygen and cancer: The response to hypoxia 255
David H. Phillips Adrian L. Harris and Margaret Ashcroft
SECTION IV SECTION VI
Cancer microenvironment The biology of cancer treatment
21. Cancer-associated stroma 303 28. Principles of chemotherapy 413
Wilma Mesker and Rob Tollenaar David J. Kerr, Daniel Haller, and Jaap Verweij
22. Blood vessels and cancer 314 29. Immunotherapy and tumour resistance to
Francesco Pezzella and Robert Kerbel immune-mediated control and elimination 423
Gwennaëlle C. Monnot and Pedro Romero
23. Cancer immunology 330
Herman Waldmann 30. Biological effect of radiotherapy
on cancer cells 438
Anna Dubrovska, Mechthild Krause, and Michael Baumann
SECTION V
Global vision of cancer
SECTION VII
24. Molecular profiling in cancer research and Conclusions
personalized medicine 347
Pieter-Jan van Dam and Steven Van Laere 31. Benign tumours: The forgotten neoplasms 453
Francesco Pezzella, Adrian L. Harris, and Mahvash Tavassoli
25. Proteomics and metabolomics applications in
cancer biology 363 32. Conclusions: Cancer biology, a moveable
Pedro Cutillas and Benedikt M. Kessler feast 463
David J. Kerr, Francesco Pezzella, and Mahvash Tavassoli
26. Cancer systems biology: From molecular
profiles to pathways, signalling networks, and
therapeutic vulnerabilities 375 Index 469
Lieven Verbeke and Steven Van Laere
FRS2 fibroblast growth factor receptor substrate 2 mTOR mammalian target of rapamycin
GAB2 GRB2 associated binding protein MYC MYC proto-oncogene
GADD45 growth arrest and DNA damage 45 MYCN MYCN protooncogene, neuroblastoma derived
GATA4 GATA-binding protein 4 MYH9 non-muscle heavy chain
GC germinal centre NAD nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
GF growth factor NBS Nijmegen breakage syndrome
GFR growth factor receptors NER nucleotide excision repair
GG-NER global genome nucleotide excision repair NF-kB nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of
GGR global genome repair activated B cells
GRB2 growth factor-receptor-bound protein 2 NHEJ non-homologous end-joining
HAV hepatitis A virus NPC nasopharyngeal carcinoma
HBV hepatitis B virus NPM nucleophosmin
HCV hepatitis C virus NPM-ALK nucleophosmin-anaplastic lymphoma kinase
HDAC histone deacetylase NSCLC non-small cell lung cancer
HER2 human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 p53BP1 p53 binding protein 1
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus p130CAS breast cancer anti-estrogen resistance 1
HIF-1 hypoxia-inducible factor p130Cas breast cancer anti-oestrogen resistance protein 1
HNSCC head and neck squamous cell carcinoma pAMPK phosphorylated 5’ adenosine monophosphate-
HPV human papilloma virus activated protein kinase
HR homologous recombination PAR poly-ADP-ribose
HRP horseradish peroxidase PARG poly (ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase
HSC haematopoietic stem cells PARP poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase
HTLV human T-lymphotropic retrovirus PCAF P300/CBP-associated factor
HVS herpesvirus saimiri PCNA proliferating cell nuclear antigen
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer PDGF platelet-derived growth factor
ICL interstrand DNA crosslink PI3K phosphoinositide 3-kinase
IDL insertion and deletion loop PKB protein kinase B
IMT inflammatory myofibroblastic tumours PLC-g phospholipase C-gamma
IR ionizing radiation PLK1 polo kinase 1
IR Insulin receptor PLWHA people living with HIV/AIDS
IRF-4 interferon regulatory factor 4 PML promyelocytic leukaemia
IRS-1 insulin receptor substrate 1 PR progesterone receptor
JAK3 Janus kinase 3 PTEN phosphatase and tensin homologue
JNK-C Jun N-terminal kinase p16 cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A
KAP-1 KRAB-associated protein-1 p53 TP53 or tumour protein
KEGG Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes p56 phosphoglycerate kinase
KIF5B kinesin/family member 5B P53R2 p53-inducible ribonucleotide reductase small
KRAS Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homologue subunit 2-like protein
KS Kaposi’s sarcoma RAD51, radiation repair 51 and 52
KSHV Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus RAD52
LC3 microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light RANBP2 Ran-binding protein 2
chain 3 KRAS rat sarcoma viral oncogene homologue
LFS Li-Fraumeni syndrome Rb retinoblastoma protein
LUCA last unknown common ancestor Redd1 regulated in development and DNA damage
MAP MUTYH-associated polyposis response 1
MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinase RISC RNA-induced silencing complex
MCD multicentric Castleman disease RNA ribonucleic acid
MCL mantle cell lymphoma ROS reactive oxygen species
MCPV Merkel cell polyomavirus RPA replication protein A
MDC1 mediator of DNA-damage checkpoint 1 RSV rouse sarcoma virus
MDM2 mouse double minute 2 homologue RTK receptor tyrosine kinase
MIN microsatellite instability SAC spindle assembly checkpoint
MLH1 MutL homologue 1 SASP senescence-associated secretory phenotype
MMR mismatch repair SEC31L1 SEC31 homologue A
MMP matrix metalloproteinase SH2 src homology 2
MRN Mre11/Rad50/Nbs1 complex SHM somatic hypermutation
MSH2 MutS homologue 2 SHP2 protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1D or protein-
MSN moesin tyrosine phosphatase 2C
Abbreviations xiii
Balkees Abderrahman, Department of Breast Carus, Technische Universität Dresden; and Mechthild Krause, Department of Radiotherapy
Medical Oncology, University of Texas, MD Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, and Radiation Oncology, Faculty of Medicine
Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, USA Institute of Radiooncology-OncoRay; Cancer and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus,
Margaret Ashcroft, Department of Medicine, Consortium (DKTK), partner site Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden; German Cancer
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Consortium (DKTK), partner site Dresden,
Germany and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ);
Nicholas Athanasou, Nuffield Department
Nadège Gaborit, Institut de Recherche en OncoRay – National Center for Radiation
of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Research in Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and
Musculoskeletal Science, University of Oxford, Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194,
Université de Montpellier, Institut régional du University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische
Oxford, UK
Cancer de Montpellier, Montpellier, France Universität Dresden, Helmholtz-Zentrum
Michael Baumann, German Cancer Research Dresden - Rossendorf; Helmholtz-Zentrum
Center (DKFZ); and Department of Radiotherapy Kevin Gatter†, Nuffield Division of Clinical
Dresden - Rossendorf, Institute of Radiooncology
and Radiation Oncology, Faculty of Medicine Laboratory Sciences, Radcliffe Department of – OncoRay, Dresden, Germany; National Center
and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK for Tumor Diseases (NCT), Partner Site Dresden;
Technische Universität Dresden, Germany Mark A. Glaire, Cancer Genomics and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ); Faculty
Karim Bensaad, Department of Oncology, Immunology Group and NIHR Comprehensive of Medicine and University Hospital Carl Gustav
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Biomedical Research Centre, The Wellcome Carus, Technische Universität Dresden; and
Centre for Human Genetics, University of Helmholtz Association / Helmholtz-Zentrum
Jessica Bullenkamp, Molecular and Clinical
Oxford, Oxford, UK Dresden - Rossendorf (HZDR), Germany
Sciences Research Institute, St. George’s
University London, London, UK Betty Gration, MRC Molecular Haematology Unit, Nicholas La Thangue, Department of Oncology,
Radcliffe Department of Medicine, Weatherall University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Giacomo Buscemi, Department of Biosciences,
Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Andrew P. Mazar, Monopar Therapeutics,
University of Milan, Milan, Italy Oxford, Oxford, UK Wilmette, USA
Simon Carr, Department of Oncology, University
Daniel Haller, Department of Medicine, Perelman Wilma Mesker, Department of Surgery, Leiden
of Oxford, Oxford, UK School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
David N. Church, Cancer Genomics and Philadelphia, USA
Kingsley Micklem, Nuffield Division Clinical
Immunology Group and NIHR Comprehensive Adrian L. Harris, Department of Oncology, Laboratory Science, Radcliffe Department of
Biomedical Research Centre, The Wellcome University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Centre for Human Genetics, University of
Oxford, Oxford, UK Edward Hookway, Nuffield Department Gwennaëlle C. Monnot, Ludwig Cancer Research
of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Center, Department of Fundamental Oncology,
Laura C. Collopy, Cancer Institute, Faculty of
Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of
Medical Sciences, University College London, Oxford, UK Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
London, UK
Jiangting Hu, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, Udo Oppermann, Nuffield Department of
Pedro Cutillas, Cell Signalling and Proteomics
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal
Group, Barts Cancer Institute (CRUK Centre),
V. Craig Jordan, Department of Breast Medical Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Francesco Pezzella, Nuffield Division of Clinical
Blossom Damania, Lineberger Comprehensive
Cancer Center, Houston, USA Laboratory Sciences, Radcliffe Department of
Cancer Center and Department of Microbiology
Robert Kerbel, Biological Sciences Platform, Medicine, University of Oxford; and Cellular
and Immunology, School of Medicine, University
Sunnybrook Research Institute, Department Pathology Clinical Service Unit, Oxford
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA
of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, University Hospitals, Oxford, UK
Dirk P. Dittmer, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer
Toronto, Canada David H. Phillips, Department of Analytical,
Center and Department of Microbiology and
David J. Kerr, Nuffield Division of Clinical Environmental and Forensic Sciences, School of
Immunology, School of Medicine, University of
Laboratory Sciences, Radcliffe Department of Population Health and Environmental Sciences,
North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA
Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; and King’s College London, London, UK
Tom Donnem, Department of Oncology,
Weill Cornell College of Medicine, New York, Karen Pulford, Emeritus Reader in
University Hospital of North Norway and the USA Immunodiagnostics, Nuffield Division
Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
Benedikt M. Kessler, Target Discovery Institute, of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Radcliffe
Anna Dubrovska, OncoRay-National Center for Department of Medicine, University of Oxford,
Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of
Radiation Research in Oncology, Faculty of Oxford, UK
Oxford, Oxford, UK
Medicine and University Hospital Carl Gustav
† It is with regret we report the death of Kevin Gatter during the preparation of this textbook.
xvi Contributors
Chao-Nan Qian, Department of Nasopharyngeal Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Lieven Verbeke, Department of Information
Carcinoma, State Key Laboratory of Oncology University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Technology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Mahvash Tavassoli, Department Mucosal and Jaap Verweij, Department of Medical Oncology,
Center, Guangzhou, China Salivary Biology, King’s College London, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam,
Lynn Quek, MRC Molecular Haematology Unit, London, UK the Netherlands
Radcliffe Department of Medicine, Weatherall Rob Tollenaar, Department of Surgery, Leiden Paresh Vyas, MRC Molecular Haematology Unit,
Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of University Medical Center, Leiden, the Radcliffe Department of Medicine, Weatherall
Oxford, Oxford, UK Netherlands Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of
Andrea Rasola, Department of Biomedical Kazunori Tomita, Cancer Institute, Faculty of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy Medical Sciences, University College London, Herman Waldmann, Sir William Dunn School of
Pedro Romero, Ludwig Cancer Research Center, London, UK Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Department of Fundamental Oncology, Faculty Andrey Ugolkov, Division of Hematology and Yan-Qun Xiang, Department of Nasopharyngeal
of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Oncology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Carcinoma, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer
Lausanne, Switzerland Northwestern University, Chicago, USA Center, Guangzhou, China
Almut Schulze, Department of Biochemistry and Pieter-Jan van Dam, Faculty of Medicine and Yosef Yarden, Department of Biological
Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Health Sciences, University Antwerp, Antwerp, Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science,
Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany Belgium Rehovot, Israel
Connor Sweeney, MRC Molecular Haematology Steven Van Laere, HistoGeneX NV, Antwerp,
Unit, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, Belgium
SECTION I
The multicellular organism
Coiled
DNA
Nuclear
Endoplasmic membrane
reticulum black
Rough, with
NUCLEUS
ribosomes
Nucleolus
Ribosomes
Golgi
Cytoplasm
Free ribosomes
Mitochondria
Fig. 1.1 The prokaryotic and the eukaryotic cells. (A) The prokaryotic cell is defined by the cell membrane. Inside the space delimitated by this
membrane is the cytoplasm in which all the molecules are contained in one unique space. (B) The eukaryotic cell is also defined by the cell membrane,
however the cell membrane is also present inside the cells where defines different organelles. The most prominent is the nucleus, in which the genetic
material, the DNA, is segregated. Other cell membrane-defined organelles are the mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER). The former is divided into the ER rough, when ribosomes are attached to its membrane, and smooth, when ribosomes are not present.
LUCA
Last common unknown ancestor
Bacteria Archea
Aquifex
Eukarya
?
Diplomonodas
? Microsporidia
Cyanobacteria
Gram-positive Crenarchaeota
bacteria
Euryarchaeota
Flagellate
Amoebe
Thaumarchaeota
Slime molds
Spirocheta
Fungi
Fig. 1.2 The three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota. The last unknown common ancestor (LUCA) evolved into the first two domains,
Bacteria and Archaea, which, as far as the anatomical structure is concerned, are prokaryotic cells. Subsequently from the Archaea, the third domain
evolved: the Eukaryota. Each of these three domains evolved into several kingdoms.
Adapted from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phylogenic_Tree-en.svg © Conquistador /Wikimedia Commons /CC BY-SA 3.0
1 The multicellular organism and cancer 5
Present
543 248 65 time
mya mya mya
Present
6 2.58 time
65
mya mya mya
Tertiary Quaternary
1.98 mya Oldest
6 mya Last Common Ancestor benign tumour
to Humans and Chimpanzee known
in an hominid
5.8-6 mya Oldest hominids:
(Australopithecus
Orrorin tugenensis, Ardipithecus
Sediba)
ramidus kadabba and
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
1.7 mya Oldest
malignant tumour
known in an hominid
(Homo genus or
Paranthrapus).
0.2 mya
Homo
Sapiens
characteristics of the eukaryotic cells, when not dividing, are repre- molecules and 10,000 (ten thousand) proteins are involved in the
sented in Fig. 1.1. making of the cell membrane. The main structures formed by
intramembranous proteins are channels (e.g. ion pumps) and re-
The cell membrane ceptors (e.g. epidermal growth factor receptor). Some molecules
The cell membrane is a bilayer of phospholipids, each with a however, like oxygen, can diffuse through the membrane without
hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. In aqueous environ- needing a specific pump.
ments, the phospholipids spontaneously organize themselves The plasma membrane is a highly dynamic fluid structure and
as a double layer with the hydrophobic tails inside and the head all the protein complexes are ‘floating’ wtihin it and also the very
outside, so originating the cell bio membrane (Fig. 1.4). In a cell, same lipid molecules are continuing moving within the membrane.
the membranous network is divided into two main components: Groups of lipids can also form units called ‘rafts’, which move among
the cell surface membrane, the plasma membrane delimiting the other lipids. This dynamic nature of the plasma membrane was
the actual cell and representing the border with the extracel- firstly described in 1972 as the fluid mosaic model (Singer and
lular world, and those membranes delimiting the internal cellular Nicolson, 1972; Edidin, 2003). The external cell membrane is in
compartments. In the plasma membrane within the scaffolding continuity with the internal membranes that not only defines the
formed by the phospholipid bilayer are numerous different struc- internal organelles of the cells, but also provides a framework for
tures. These are made by proteins, 500 (five hundred) types of lipid countless biochemical reactions and trafficking of molecules.
6 SECTION I The multicellular organism
Table 1.1 Comparison of the main biological characteristics of Eubacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota
Extracellular space
Glycolipid
Glycoproteins
Charbohydrate
Protein channel
Hydrophilic head
Glycero-phosphate
group
Cytoplasm
Fig. 1.4 The cell membrane. The cell membrane is made up by phospholipid molecules with a hydrophilic head (orange) and a hydrophobic
tail (yellow). Within the membrane are several different structures that can ‘float’ across the membrane, which has fluid property. Transmembrane
proteins span all thickness of the membrane and the main types are the protein channels, the integral protein, and the alpha-helix proteins.
Glycoproteins and carbohydrates are present on the external surface.
Reproduced with permission from Saikat R. /socratic.org /CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Available from:
https://socratic.org/questions/in-the-cell-membrane-plasma-membrane-phospholipid-bilayer-what-do-the-peripheral
1 The multicellular organism and cancer 7
The two major compartments inside the cells are the nucleus When not dividing, approximately half of the nuclear volume is
and the cytoplasm; the latter includes all the intracellular volume occupied by chromatin made of the unfolded DNA packed around
which is not nucleus. histone proteins. There are two types of chromatin: heterochromatin,
more packed and less transcriptionally active, and euchromatin,
The cytoplasm which is not so condensed and in which most of the transcription
The cytoplasm is occupied by cytosol, an aqueous medium rich in occurs (Lammerding, 2011). The aggregates of DNA and histones
proteins and salts accounting for approximately 50% of the cyto- form structures called nucleosomes: packaged DNA from different
plasm. The main site of protein synthesis and degradation and of chromosomes occupy distinct areas in the non-dividing nucleus.
intermediate metabolism, forms the cytosol that permeates all the Nucleoli are discrete bodies formed by proteins and nucleic acids
organelles. The main reason for different organelles is the need and are the production site of the ribosome. Cajal bodies are lo-
for keeping apart different biochemical reactions. A single mem- cated in the proximity of the nucleoli and contain different forma-
brane delimits all the organelles, with the only exceptions being the tions: for example, the snurposome and spliceosome are involved in
mitochondria and the nucleus, which have an outer and one inner the processing of the recently transcribed mRNA. Finally, there is the
membrane. nucleoskeleton, a protein scaffolding supporting the different nuclear
Mitochondria are organelles formed by an external and one components. All these structures are immersed in the nucleoplasm, a
internal membrane filled with matrix. It is where the oxidative very protein rich aqueous medium equivalent to the cytosol.
phosphorylation (i.e. respiration), occurs and where adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) is produced. ATP is the source of energy for
all cellular functions: such an energy is liberated when an ATP The life of the single cell
molecule is hydrolysed producing adenosine diphosphate (ADP),
phosphate, and energy. The endoplasmic reticulum, or ER, forms All the unicellular organisms tend to grow without limitation ac-
the major cytoplasmic network, most of which is Rough ER where cording to the availability of resources. The life cycle of each of
ribosomes are located and protein synthesis occurs. The remaining these organisms therefore coincides with the time required to du-
one is called the Smooth ER. plicate (i.e. to complete the cell cycle), the cell cycle being a complex
Another prominent function of the ER is lipid synthesis. The of events that brings one cell to divide into two. Prokaryotes do not
Golgi apparatus is another system of cisterns where simpler mol- age: their life cycle is very simple. They die when conditions became
ecules are packaged into more complex ones: it is also where lyso- adverse and food is scanty, although this is not always the case: in
somes are built. The lysosomes are spherical membrane vesicles determinate conditions, some cells can become ‘dormant’ and re-
containing a wide range of hydrolytic enzymes able to degrade many sume growth when the environment becomes permissive again. In
molecules and their purpose is to eliminate any damaged or un- most eukaryotic cells ageing does appear: their lifespan is regulated
wanted molecules. Such molecules are transported to the lysosome by an internal clock made up by telomeres and telomerase. The main
by specialized vesicles called endosomes. Peroxisomes are instead physiological events in the life cycle of a single cell are reproduction
involved in several metabolic and catabolic functions. The most im- through mitosis, response to damage, cell death, and movement.
portant are catabolism of very long chain fatty acids into branched Cells divide through mitosis, a process in which the genetic code is
chain fatty acids, D-amino acids, and polyamines with reduction of duplicated and then the cells divide into equal new cells. As cells are
reactive oxygen species. They are also the place where phospholipids exposed to external insults, either chemical or physical, repair mech-
are synthesized and the pentose phosphate pathway, critical for the anisms are present that can block the further division until the neces-
energy metabolism, is located. Finally, free ribosomes are also pre- sary corrections are made. Should the repairs fail, the cells can trigger
sent within the cytoplasmic matrix. their own death through apoptosis. Apoptosis does not only follow
damage within a multicellular organism but can also be triggered at
The nucleus appropriate moments during the organism’s development or life.
The nucleus is the largest organelle. A double bilayer membrane,
the nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope, in which numerous
pores (nuclear pore complexes) are present, thus allowing com- Multicellular organisms and the development
munication with the cytoplasm, which delimits it. Within the nu- of cancer
cleus is the genome (with only the exception of mitochondrial
DNA) and its transcriptional machinery. It can be divided into two During the evolution of life, multicellularity has appeared independ-
main structures: the nuclear membrane and the nuclear interior ently at several different times, exploiting different strategies (Kaiser,
(Lammerding, 2011). 2001). There are therefore several mechanisms leading to the forma-
Between the two layers of the nuclear membrane is the perinuclear tion of multicellular organisms. For example, while plants relied on
space. Under the nuclear membrane is the nuclear lamina, mainly the formation of a rigid cell wall which brings different cells into one
made up by laminin filaments. This membrane is perforated by the organism, the animal cells, which do not have cell walls, had to rely
nuclear pore complexes which cause the inner and outer membranes on membrane proteins called adhesion molecules to provide a mech-
to fuse. Nuclear pore are large complexes made of approximately 50 anism allowing the cells to stick to each other (Bonner, 1998).
nucleoporins and regulate the trafficking between nucleus and cyto- When confronted by an aggregate of cells, the first issue is how
plasm. Nuclear pore complexes are not the only protein structure to differentiate a multicellular organism from a colony. The most
within the nuclear membrane, with some spanning the whole thick- commonly used, and the broadest criteria, is the existence of a
ness (Lammerding, 2011). spatial division of work in multicellular organisms, compared
8 SECTION I The multicellular organism
to the colony in which each unicellular member performs the presence of oxygen and therefore cyanobacteria had to find a way
same tasks. According to this definition, the oldest known unam- to be able to perform oxygen-producing photosynthesis and, at the
biguous multicellular organisms belong to the Bacteria domain same time, to maintain nitrogenase function. This problem has been
and are the filamentous cyanobacteria. These emerged, as sug- solved by multicellularity: formation of filaments, made up by a line
gested by fossil dating, 3,465 million years ago (mya), approxi- of cyanobacteria in which two differently evolved cyanobacteria
mately 1,000 million years after the Earth’s formation, which is can be found. Those containing chlorophyll, performing photosyn-
estimated at 4,500 mya (Fig. 1.3). thesis, and releasing oxygen, are more numerous. These differenti-
Cyanobacteria were the first organisms to develop photosynthesis ated into a form called heterocysts, in which nitrogenase function is
and release oxygen. However, these bacteria also rely on the enzyme maintained in the absence of photosynthesis, as they do not contain
nitrogenase to convert nitrogen gas into ammonia, necessary to chlorophyll (Fig. 1.3). Therefore, a simple prokaryotic multicellular
build their proteins and other essential structural components when organism containing two types of cells was formed (Bonner, 1998;
combined nitrogen (i.e. reactive molecules containing nitrogen), Adams, 2000; Flores and Herrero, 2010).
like nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, urea, and amino acids, are not avail- The time of the emergence of eukaryotic multicellular organ-
able (Fig. 1.5). However, nitrogenase is irreversibly destroyed in the isms as assessed today is still a broad estimate, possibly sometime
between 2,100 (Donoghue and Antcliffe, 2010) and 1,200 (Rokas,
2008) mya. Red algae are so far considered as the first eukaryotic
Symbiosis multicellular organisms, appearing 1,200 mya (Fig. 1.3). The main
strategies employed by eukaryotic cells to build a multicellular entity
include: lack of cell separation after mitosis; mostly found in aquatic
Hormogonia
organisms; and aggregation of single cells prevalent in terrestrial
creatures. A final fundamental characteristic in the classification of
multicellular organisms is complexity. The easiest and most practical
approach to ‘measure’ complexity is the number of cells making up
the organism (Rokas, 2008).
Heterocyst
Combined Combined Hallmarks of multicellularity
Nitrogen Nitrogen Multicellularity required the acquisition of functions not present or
present absent
diversely utilized in single cell organisms. Up to seven hallmarks of
multicellularity have been described (Rokas, 2008; Srivastava et al.,
2010; Aktipis et al., 2015).
contact with the immune system. Multicellular entities need to pro- potential anticancer activity of the immune system (see Chapters 23
tect themselves from the intrusion of external pathogenic organisms and 29).
and, at the same time, to maintain tolerance against ‘self ’ antigens.
Specialization of cell types and division of work
Specialization of cell types and division of work Cancers develop from specific tissues but the ability to reproduce
As discussed before, the need for specialized cells cooperating is the the structure and specialization of the cells seen in the normal
very reason for which multicellularity developed. Different tissues tissue is lost to a variable degree across different malignancies (see
need to perform a huge variety of different tasks, allowing the multi- Chapter 20).
cellular organisms to development degrees of complexity well out-
side the reach of single cell living forms. Again, this requires a strict Resources transport and allocation
control as each different tissue needs to differentiate in a very precise Disruption of the normal blood supply is followed by the estab-
way according to its designated function. lishment of a new relationship between the neoplastic cells and the
blood vessels. Cancer needs a resource transport system, which
Resources transport and allocation can be achieved in a variety of ways (Chapter 22). Also, a meta-
According to the work each cell needs to do, different resources are bolic reprogramming of the cancer cell follows these changes (see
required. While smaller organisms can rely on diffusion, the larger Chapters 16 and 18).
ones have different approaches with some relying on body cavities
providing the required transport system, while the most complex Cell–cell and cell–matrix adhesion
have developed a branching vascular network. This is of course the Disruption or inhibition of these functions leads to the formation of
case in humans, where the vascular and the lymphatic systems carry abnormal neoplastic organ-like structures and to metastatic dissem-
out this function. ination throughout the body (see Chapter 19).
(Schlumberger and Lucke, 1948; Scharrer and Lochhead, 1950; Sponges are the oldest surviving metazoans and appeared ap-
Leroi et al., 2003; Aktipis et al., 2015). proximately 650 million years ago (Srivastava et al., 2010) and al-
As shown in Fig. 1.6, ‘cheating’ of multicellular cooperation ready contain all the pathways characterizing both metazoans and
has been observed already in multicellular bacterial organisms, cancer (Domazet-Loso and Tautz, 2010; Srivastava et al., 2010;
like overgrowing due to loss of proliferative inhibition. ‘Cheating’ Aktipis et al., 2015). Sponges do not have distinct organs but have
describes ‘the breaking of shared rules, including genetically en- specialized structures like pores, canals, ostia, chambers, and a rudi-
coded phenotypes or behaviour, that leads to a fitness advantage mentary immune system. No cancer has been observed in sponges.
for the cheater’ (Aktipis et al., 2015). Cheating has been described Cancer-like lesions and/or cheating, a clear distinction between
as early as bacteria multicellular organisms (Fig. 1.6), involves the two being sometime difficult, has been seen in other early
mostly the functions of proliferation and/or apoptosis, and leads Metazoa such as hydra and corals, where fast-growing, destructive
to forming a ‘mass’ of cells. Cancer is instead defined as a primary lesions with loss of architecture grow. Proper malignant tumours
mass causing metastases and is mostly occurring in Metazoan but such as lymphoid, epithelial, neuronal, and those from gonad cells
not only, as some plants have cancer-like lesions. Actually, the are instead commonly seen in protostomes, invertebrates, and occur
simplest organism in which lesions appear, sharing many char- in all the more complex types of Metazoa (Aktipis et al., 2015).
acters of what we call cancer, is red algae. In these plants, pri- However it must be noted that as complexity, dimensions, and
mary tumours due to loss of proliferation and apoptotic control lifespan increases, not all the species are susceptible to cancer
occur. These lesions can ulcerate and propagate in a metastasis- (Aktipis et al., 2015): the so-called Peto’s paradox (Peto et al., 1975;
like fashion. Caulin and Maley, 2011; Roche et al., 2013).
Fig. 1.6 Cancer across the tree of life. Black, grey, or white boxes at branch tip indicates the cellularity status as unicellular (white), aggregative
multicellularity (grey), or complex multicellularity (black). Red, yellow, or green boxes represent whether a cancer phenotype (invasion or metastasis)
was reported or cancer-like/‘cheating’-type lesion was observed (abnormal proliferation or differentiation) such as callus or galls (yellow box). If no
cancer or cancer-like/cheating lesions were reported, there is a green box.
Reproduced with permission from Aktipis C et al., ‘Cancer across the tree of life: cooperation and cheating in multicellularity’, Philosophical Transaction Royal Society London B,
Volume 370, Issue 1673, 20140219, Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0.
1 The multicellular organism and cancer 11
The Peto paradox this order belong animals with a great variability of longevity, body
Every time that a cell proliferates, there is risk of an error at the time mass, and cancer incidences. Naked mole rats are the longest living,
when the DNA is copied. Different types of mistakes can happen, in excess of 30 years, while mice and rats live approximately 3 or
like single mutations, duplication, and/or redistribution of the gen- 4 years. The difference in cancer incidence is striking: mice, among
etic material among the daughter cells. Consequently, as Metazoa the smallest rodents, are prone to cancer and in some strains the in-
increased in complexity and size and the lifespan got longer and cidence goes up to 95% while the larger naked and the blind mole
longer, the risk of cancer was expected to grow in direct proportion; rats are virtually cancer free.
the larger and long-lived the animal, the higher the number of mi- Systemic studies on rodents have started to unravel the mechan-
tosis occurring in its body, and therefore the higher the chance of isms behind these differences. Small but long-lived rodents appear
DNA damage to occur. However, this turned out not to be the case as to have cells which proliferate more slowly than small short-lived
large dimensions and longer life do not necessarily means increased animals, while larger long-lived rodents are protected by shorter
risk of cancer (Aktipis et al., 2015): this is the ‘Peto’s paradox’, which telomerases and therefore enhanced replicative senescence. Long-
get its name from a study published in 1995 by Richard Peto et al. lived animals also show higher levels of expression of DNA repair
(Peto et al., 1975). In this experiment a large cohort of mice of dif- genes, raising the hypothesis of a more efficient DNA repair activity
ferent ages were exposed to topical application of the carcinogen. The (Gorbunova et al., 2014).
rate of appearance by epithelial tumours was related to the duration Resistance to cancer evolved several times independently as dem-
of exposure to the chemical but not to the mouse’s age: it was the onstrated by the comparison of two long-lived cancer-resistant ro-
time of exposure to the carcinogen dictating the risk of developing dents: the Naked mole rat (Heterocephalus glaber) and the blind
cancer and not the age of the exposed mouse—and neither the span mole rat (Spalax ehrenbergi). These two species are phylogenetically
of survival after the exposure. This study demonstrated that, against distant from each other. In naked mole rats, there are large levels of
the then current wisdom, increased lifespan per se can be irrelevant high molecular mass hyaluronan polysaccharides, five times longer
as far as increase in cancer risk is concerned. More broadly, ‘Peto’s than those of humans. These longer forms bind to CD44 triggering
paradox’ is now a term to indicate a counter-intuitive event. cell cycle arrest, while the low molecular mass hyaluronans promote
As far as cancer is concerned, two classic examples are those of cell cycle. When the Has2 gene responsible for hyaluronan synthesis
the blue whales and the elephants. Blue whales are approximately six is knocked down or when the hyaluronoglucosaminidase 2 (Hyal2)
million times larger than mice; however, variation in cancer in non- gene, responsible for breaking down hyaluronan, is overexpressed,
laboratory animals varies in average for no more than a factor of two, naked mole rat cells start forming tumours. Furthermore, in these
independently of the mass. In the whale’s case, the paradox is even rodents the 28S rRNA is cleaved in two, increasing the fidelity of
more remarkable as only very rarely do they die of cancer (Leroi et al., translation. The mechanisms in the blind mole rat are different;
2003). Calabrese and Shibate (Calabrese and Shibata, 2010), using a one is the secretion of interferon by premalignant cells, which
mathematical model, have been able to correctly approximate the causes a massive necrosis in the surrounding tissue eliminating the
risk of colorectal cancers in humans: their equation resulted in an premalignant cells. The second is again linked to hyaluronan, but
overall risk of approximately 2.5% by the age of 90 years while the this time the hyaluronan present is not able to block mitosis but is
risk actually observed is 5 (Caulin and Maley, 2011). However, using rather a powerful antioxidant (Gorbunova et al., 2014).
the same model they predicted a risk for the blue whales of 100% of
getting this cancer by the age of 80 years while they can live beyond
Conclusion
100 years and cancer of any type is a rare event.
The question raised by Peto’s paradox is therefore how some
Cancer is a disease due to the malfunctioning of the biological func-
large long-lived animals manage to have such a low rate of cancer.
tions necessary for cell growth and for the formation and mainten-
According to natural selection, this is because the mechanisms
ance of the multicellular organisms. Because of the complexity of
giving protection from cancer must have been selected in order to
large multicellular animals, this means that many different types of
allow large animals to exist and to have a long life span. However,
errors and damages can lead to what is known as cancer leading to
the nature of these mechanisms remains unclear. While no studies
malignant lesions with varied and complex biology and clinical be-
are available for blue whales, some have been carried out on other
haviour. Cancer must be regarded from a practical point of view as
animals and the main mechanisms involved in low susceptibility to
many different diseases, each to be individually unravelled to fully
cancer are concerned with telomerases replicative senescence and
understand it and produce an effective treatment.
cell proliferation control, tumour suppressor activity, and genome
stability.
One example is the elephant, which is notoriously a large mammal
but can live in the wilderness to 60–70 years with a low cancer inci- TAKE-H OME MESSAGE
dence. In this pachyderm, the protective mechanism is suggested to • Cancer is a disease due to the malfunctioning of the pathways neces-
be redundancy of tumour suppressor function as both the African sary to the life of a multicellular organism.
and the Asian species have 20 copies of the tumour suppressor TP53 • It is a disease of information, as genetic damage alters the informa-
gene (Abegglen et al., 2015). Gain and loss of genes involved in DNA tion blueprint of the organism: the DNA.
repair, cell–cycle regulation, and ageing could be responsible for the • Evidence of cancer-like behaviour has been found even in the sim-
plest prokaryotic multicellular organisms.
lack of malignancies in the bowhead whale, possibly the longest-lived
• To be prone to cancer is not inevitable for a multicellular organism
mammal, which is estimated to live in excess of 200 years (Keane
as some are very resistant to the disease, as per the Peto paradox.
et al., 2015). The largest wealth of data is available for rodents. To
12 SECTION I The multicellular organism
Senescence Apoptosis
DNA repair
DDR DDR
DNA repair activation activation
Chromothripsis
DNA rep
air DDR activation
Fig. 2.1 DDR activities on the route to cancer. A schematic representation showing how alterations of DNA damage response (DDR) activity promote
critical steps during carcinogenesis. Cells are under the constant assault of endogenous and exogenous sources of damage. A healthy cell has a
plethora of DDR processes to protect DNA. Nonetheless, a mutation could occur by error or due to defects in DNA repair pathways. This may directly
or indirectly result in oncogene activation, which leads to replicative and oxidative stress and damage. Normal activation of DDR processes will
lead cells accumulating lesions to apoptosis or premature senescence. Defects in DDR will dismantle this barrier promoting progression from this
precancerous state to inappropriate growth. The genome instability deriving from DNA repair and DDR defects could also fuel the activation of later
stage of tumorigenesis. A more dramatic event of damage and defective repair, like chromothripsis, could accelerate this process.
• To transiently arrest cell cycle progression at checkpoints imple Damages affecting only one of the two DNA strands are gener-
menting time to restore the correct DNA structure; ally corrected by excision repair systems. Base excision repair (BER),
• To act at different cellular level providing an opportune environ- nucleotide excision repair (NER) and mismatch repair (MMR)
ment to enable DNA repair. mechanisms (Fig. 2.3) all show steps in which the injury is cut out
The main steps regulated by DDR in presence of DNA damage and the resulting gap refilled using, as template, the complemen-
are: DNA lesion recognition; transduction of damage signal; DNA tary DNA strand. Specifically, base modification due to oxidation,
repair; and eventual activation of secondary activities like cell cycle deamination, or alkylation are all recognized and excised by the
arrest, apoptosis, and senescence (Fig. 2.2). same protein family: glycosylases of the BER system (Krokan and
Bjoras, 2013). Differently, lesions distorting the helix, including UV-
DNA lesion detection induced damage and bulky adducts, are fixed by global genome NER
DDR activation is induced when sensor proteins, which constantly (GG-NER), or, if occurring in transcribed region, by a specialized
control the DNA, find structural base distortions or breaks (Ciccia NER system, named transcription coupled repair (TC- NER).
and Elledge, 2010). The sensitivity of the system is so high that a Finally, base incorporation errors are mainly resolved by mismatch
single base modification or misalignment is detected within bil- repair (MMR).
lions of normal base pairs tightly packed inside chromatin. To de- In particular, during NER the damage is generally detected
tect the myriad of possible base alterations too many sensors would by proteins of the xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) group (in par-
be necessary, so it was proposed that a limited number of proteins ticular XPE, C, and A, Fig. 2.3), known to be mutated in XP.
recognizes, more than the lesion itself, distortions of the double However, the same lesion occurring in transcribed regions are
helix structure commonly produced by base alteration, mispairing, detected through arrest of the transcriptional machinery and
or DNA cross-link. DNA unwinding and free ends are instead the require proteins mutated in Cockayne syndrome (CS; Fig. 2.3).
signal of DNA breaks presence. In the MMR pathway, the sensor of mismatches is the MSH2
2 DNA repair and genome integrity 15
Endogenous: ROS
DNA Radicals and ROS Replication errors
damage
sources
Exogenous:
UV from Pollution Radiations Chemicals
sunlight and drugs
DNA
lesions
SSBs ICL Stalled Pyrimidine DSBs
replicative dimers
forks
MRN
Sensors
PARP FANCM RPA XPC
(DNA lesion
KU
recognition)
Apical
transducers DNA-PK
(signal ATR
ATM
transduction)
Distal
transducers
(signal CHK1 CHK2
amplification)
G1
Biological M
outcomes Apoptosis
Premature G2 S DNA repair
cellular
senescence
with SASP Cell cycle arrest
at checkpoints
Fig. 2.2 Schematic view of the essential DDR steps. Schematic representation of the main steps of DDR activity in multicellular organism, in response
to endogenous or exogenous nuclear DNA damage. The signalling cascade is essentially constituted by sensors, a limited number of apical and distal
kinases and hundreds of effectors that activate in a fine-tuned way the correct biological response in relation to damage characteristics.
protein in a heterodimeric association with MSH3 or MSH6, thus factors. Then PAR chains are rapidly degraded by PARG, an hydro-
forming the MutS complex. lysing enzyme, thus providing a transient response that lasts for
Single-strand breaks (SSBs) directly produced by radiation and minutes only. This transient nature of the response is an essential
radicals or, in some cases, indirectly left during defective BER or feature of the DDR.
NER, are recognized by the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) Interstrand DNA cross links (ICLs) covalently connect the two
family of proteins (Caldecott, 2008) and repaired by SSB repair strands of DNA and constitute a dangerous bidirectional barrier to
(SSBR) pathway. PARP1 and PARP2 activation and the subse- replication or transcription. Understanding the mechanism of ICLs
quent synthesis of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) chains by these pro- repair is extremely important since agents causing this kind of le-
teins occur within seconds at sites of damage (Fig. 2.4). The major sions are widely used in cancer therapy. Indeed, nitrogen mustards
substrates of DNA damage-induced poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation are and derivatives (melphalan, chlorambucil), psoralens, mitomycin
PARP1 itself and histones surrounding DNA lesions. PAR struc- C, platinum- based compounds like cisplatin, and nitrosoureas
tures constitute a platform to start the recruitment of DNA repair such as bis-chloroethylnitrosourea are clinically useful interstrand
16 SECTION I The multicellular organism
Damage
detection Damage
and base detection
removal
Incision
Damage
detection
Local and incision
unwinding
Gap
filling Incisions and
strand excision
Resection
ssDNA
Nick
protection
sealing
Gap
filling
Gap filling
OGG1 Nick
sealing
APE1
XRCC1
PCNA/polβ
LigIII
RNA pol II RPA
CSA/CSB
XPF/ERCC1
XPC
PCNA/polδ
TFIIH complex
MutS EXO1/BLM
XPA LigIII
MutL PCNA/polδ
Fig. 2.3 Excision repair systems. Simplified schematic view of base excision repair (BER), global genome (GG-) and transcription coupled (TC-)
nucleotide excision repair (-NER), and mismatch repair (MMR). (In red = neosynthesis.)
SSBR ICL repair
G1 phase S phase
Damage
Damage
detection
detection
and incisions
Damage
Gap detection
filling and factor
Unhooking and
recruitment
translesion
DNA synthesis
Nick
sealing
Incision
Incisions
Gap
filling
PARP1
(parylated)
XRCC1
Unhooking
Nick
PCNA/polβ sealing
LigIII
NER?
HR
PCNA/polζ
LigIII
FANCI/FANCD2
BRCA1/FANCJ
MUS81/EME1
FANCM
XPF/ERCC1
FANC core
complex PCNA/TLS pol
RAD51
Fig. 2.4 Single-strand break and interstrand cross-link repair systems. Simplified schematic view of single-strand break repair (SSBR) and interstrand
cross-link repair (ICL repair) during G1 or in the case that a replicative fork reaches an ICL during S-phase. (In red = neosynthesis.) The last step of ICL
repair during S-phase creates a DSB and a hook, repaired, respectively, by homologous recombination and nucleotide excision repair.
18 SECTION I The multicellular organism
cross-linking compounds (Deans and West, 2011). In addition, DNA-PKcs. These proteins belong to the phosphatidylinositol-
environmental agents (like furocoumarins from plants and ni- 3 kinase (PI3K) family and are the apical (initiating) kinases of
trous acid in food) or cellular products (i.e. nitric oxide and lipid the DDR cascade. These three large kinases enhance their basal
peroxidation by-products) are natural sources of ICLs. Central com- activity by an autophosphorylation step, an event facilitated by
ponents of the ICL repair pathway are genes mutated in Fanconi an- sensors ability to recruit huge amounts of these proteins around
aemia (FA) syndrome. In particular, for damage detection FANCM the DNA lesion. Whereas ATM and DNA-PKcs are triggered pri-
shows DNA-binding activity (Fig. 2.4) and has been implicated in marily by DSBs (Shiloh and Ziv, 2013), ATR is activated by the
targeting the Fanconi core complex to DNA (Kim et al., 2008). presence of ssDNA regions directly caused by stalled replication
DSBs, although occurring infrequently (about 10 per cell per forks, or indirectly induced by the processing of DSBs or UV le-
day), can lead to severe chromosomal rearrangements or loss of sions (Shiotani and Zou, 2009). Indeed, in the presence of diffused
genetic material. For this reason human cells have evolved at least and/or clustered amount of UV-induced pyrimidine dimers, the
three partially independent sensors to detect these lesions: Ku70/ NER activity produces sufficient ssDNA/RPA-coated DNA to in-
Ku80, PARP, and the MRE11/RAD50/NBS1 (MRN) complex. duce ATR firing and signalling. On the contrary, with the same rare
DSBs are rapidly surrounded by the Ku complex (formed scattered lesions ssDNA is immediately refilled, thus preventing
by a Ku70/Ku80 heterodimer) toroidal structure (Fig. 2.5; see ATR activation.
Mahaney et al., 2009). Ku complex loads and activates the cata- At the same time, the apical kinases cooperate with two other
lytic subunit of DNA-PK (DNA-PKcs; Fig. 2.5) to initiate the classes of proteins: the mediators and the transducer kinases (Ciccia
main DSB repair pathway in human cells: the non-homologous and Elledge, 2010). Mediators (MDC1, 53BP1, and BRCA1 for ATM;
end joining (NHEJ; see Ciccia and Elledge, 2010). In some cases TopBP1 and claspin for ATR), by indirectly binding the lesions in an
the PARP1/2 complex, beside SSBs, could recognize DSBs and ATM/ATR-dependent way, contribute to further reinforce ATM and
compete with Ku to promote alternative subpathways of NHEJ. ATR activity facilitating the recruitment of specific targets (Lindsey-
DSBs can also be bound by the MRN complex, which preferen- Boltz and Sancar, 2011; Shiloh and Ziv, 2013). A similar function is
tially promotes the preparation of DNA for the homologous re- also carried out by histone modifications: the most widely known
combination (HR) repair system (Fig. 2.5). On the whole, this being phosphorylation of H2AX histone variant in serine139
competition between sensors is a first way towards the choice of (Rogakou et al., 1998), targeted by the apical kinases. Mediators and
an appropriate DSBs repair pathway. histone modifications spread up to megabases around the lesion
In addition, RPA, an essential heterotrimeric complex (RPA1, RPA2, and are detectable by immunofluorescence techniques as foci inside
RPA3) that binds ssDNA during replication, can coat the 3’ ssDNA tail the nucleus, becoming invaluable markers to assess the presence of
deriving from DSB processing by resection, generating a platform for the DNA damage.
activation of the apical kinases of DSBs signal transduction pathways. The second class of proteins, the transducer kinases, trans-
mits the DNA damage signal: CHK2 is the transducer for ATM
DNA damage signal transduction
(Matsuoka et al., 2000) and CHK1 for ATR (Kumagai et al., 2004).
BER, NER, or MMR repair proteins are immediately recruited on Apical and transducer kinases phosphorylate hundreds of effector
DNA lesions by sensors to start their activity. These proteins are proteins, which are the executors of DDR functions to induce the
ready to use inside the cell, and if the damage is not widespread or appropriate biological outcome (Ciccia and Elledge, 2010; Zannini
difficult to fix, repair occurs mainly in a ‘silent way’, without the acti- et al., 2014).
vation of additional responses. The presence of two kinases in the DDR has the advantage of rap-
However, particularly dangerous lesions (e.g. even a single diffi- idly and strongly enhancing the initial signal, since a single molecule
cult to repair DSB, or an extended amount of base modifications, of ATM/ATR and CHK2/CHK1 can phosphorylate several targets.
like a diffuse presence of pyrimidine dimers due to prolonged UV In addition, kinases could be rapidly shut down by phosphatases or
exposure) activate an alarm signal transduction pathway. degradation activities.
This signalling activates secondary biological outcomes (Fig. 2.2) Furthermore, the DDR kinases phosphorylating their targets pro-
such as: mote protein activation, physical interaction, and a cascade of post
• the transient arrest of cell cycle at checkpoints during G1 or translational modifications such as phosphorylation, ubiquitylation,
G2 phase or the slowdown of replicative fork progression during sumoylation, and methylation (Lukas et al., 2011).
S-phase, to avoid that damaged cells could replicate or divide the Recently, new levels of regulation have been discovered for DDR
genetic material before repair, thus enhancing the risk of genomic signalling. Particularly, microRNAs (miRNAs), ∼21-nucleotide-
instability; long RNA regulators, have been found to control, at the post-
transcriptional level, DDR gene expression (Wang and Taniguchi,
• the permanent arrest of cell cycle or the programmed suicide to
2013). ATM protein amount, for example, is controlled by miR-100
exclude the propagation of an altered genetic information;
and miR101. On the other side, the expression of several miRNAs
• the induction of extracellular signals with autocrine and paracrine
is altered in response to DNA damage. ATM itself can control
effects.
miRNA expression at transcriptional or post-transcriptional levels
The signal transduction (Ciccia and Elledge, 2010) starts from but the roles for these molecules in DDR are still poorly under-
sensor proteins that attract to DNA lesions essentially three serine/ stood. miRNAs activity is particularly intriguing since they can act
threonine-protein kinases, namely ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mu- as oncogenes or tumour suppressors with important roles during
tated), ATR (ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related protein), and carcinogenesis.
NHEJ HR
Damage detection
Damage and protection,
detection limited resection,
ends cleaning
Extensive
Ends
resection
protection
ssDNA
protection
Ends
processing
RAD51
assembly
Rejoining
Artemis
Ku70/Ku80
53BP1 XLF/XRCC4/LigIV
Holliday
junction
resolution
RPA
53BP1
RAD51
BRCA2
MRE11/NBS1/RAD50
Fig. 2.5 Double-strand break repair pathways. Simplified schematic view of double-strand break repair by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or
homologous recombination (HR). (Pale blue/blue and pale green/green DNA strands represent sister chromatids, neosynthesis is in red.) The final
outcome of HR repair can significantly differ depending on D-loop and Holliday junction (HJ) formation, migration, and resolution. The activation
of different HR subpathways could influence the presence and extension of crossover between chromatids. The MUS81/EME/SLX1/SLX4 complex is
depicted but HJ resolution can be performed by GEN1 and HJ dissolution by BLM/TopIII/RMI1/RMI2 complex.
20 SECTION I The multicellular organism
DNA repair and lesion repair. This is particularly relevant for cancer studies in
To correct limited base lesions, the core BER function requires es- consideration of the hyper-replicative status of cancer cells and the
sentially only four proteins (Krokan and Bjoras, 2013): a DNA high levels of damages during replication. A lesion occurring in S-
glycosylase that removes the base; APE1 endonuclease that cuts the phase is different from the same lesion in G1, for the presence of
DNA backbone creating a nick; DNA polymerase (Pol) β that fills in active replication forks that change the topological, structural, and
the gap; and DNA ligase III that rejoins the chain (Fig. 2.3). XRCC1 protein-bound features of DNA. For these reasons S-phase cells can
has a relevant scaffold activity. activate dedicated repair systems.
A collective feature of preferred NER substrates is that they are DSBs are mainly repaired by NHEJ and HR (Fig. 2.5). NHEJ is an
bulky and thus they thermodynamically destabilize the DNA du- easy rejoining activity that fuses the broken ends together:
plex. The presence of sensors on this damage allows the formation • It can work during any phase of the cell cycle.
of the preincision complex (Marteijn et al., 2014) formed by XPC, • It is fast, thus reducing the risk of managing highly recombinogenic
XPA, and transcription factor IIH (TFIIH; Fig. 2.3). TFIIH, which free DNA ends.
has a well-known role during transcription, consists of 10 subunits • It could be error prone producing small deletions, particularly
including the two helicases XPD and XPB. The helicase activity of when it works on dirty DNA ends.
TFIIH further opens the double helix around the lesion, while XPA
binds chemically altered nucleotides. In this step RPA is also re- HR is a homology-directed repair system that utilizes as a tem-
cruited and coats the undamaged strand. Successively, the structure- plate to direct the error-free repair the correct identical sequence
specific endonucleases XPF/ERCC1 and XPG are recruited and present in the sister chromatid after DNA replication.
produce two cuts that eliminate the region of the DNA chain con- • It can work almost exclusively during or after S-phase, since, for
taining the lesion. The ssDNA gap created, covered by RPA, is ∼30 steric reasons, it prefers to pair sister chromatids and not homolo-
nucleotides long and is refilled by Polδ, κ, or ε and associated fac- gous chromosomes.
tors. Then DNA ligase III or I seal the nick completing the process • It is slow, since based on many successive preparatory steps.
(Fig. 2.3). • It can produce loss of heterozygosity since it works by exchanging/
The specificity of MMR is primarily for base–base mismatches copying between sister chromatids.
and insertion/deletion mispairs that have escaped the proofreading
• It is a high-fidelity repair system, but since mammalian genomes
activity of replication polymerases or have been produced during
are characterized by about 25% of repetitive sequence, it can fail
recombination. Since the parental strand carries the correct genetic
during homology search, inducing rearrangements and loss of
sequence, the repair process must be directed to the nascent DNA
genetic material.
strand containing the error. The presence of Okazaki fragments and/
or the positioning of PCNA replication factor allows MMR to dis- NHEJ is the dominant repair pathway in mammalian cells (Polo
criminate the parental and newly synthesized DNA strand (Kunkel and Jackson, 2011), as it is estimated that HR is used to repair only
and Erie, 2015). Degradation of the strand containing the error is 15–30% of DSBs.
performed by exonuclease 1 (EXO1) helped by the endonuclease NHEJ is initiated by DNA-PKcs that translocates with Ku to the
activity of MutLα, which is enhanced by PCNA presence (Kunkel DNA ends of the break (Fig. 2.5). The presence of DNA-PKcs mol-
and Erie, 2015). Gap filling and sealing occurs using NER factors ecules on opposing DSB termini promotes synapsis or tethering of
(Fig. 2.3). the two DNA molecules. At the same time DNA ends cleaning (i.e.
Since ICLs engage both DNA strands, repair mechan- eliminate single-stranded overhangs or altered bases or even pro-
isms involving a single round of excision followed by template teins blocked on damage) is supported by DNA polymerases (Polμ
resynthesis are not sufficient. Therefore, in G1 phase of the cell and λ), nucleases (Artemis, EXO1, WRN, CtIP, MRN complex), or
cycle the NER elements XPF and ERCC1, with the help of FANCP BER enzymes. Extended DNA resection on the other side is limited
and the MMR factor MutSβ (Hashimoto et al., 2016) perform two by 53BP1 localization on the lesion. After accurate (but sometimes
rounds of incisions on both DNA strands (Fig. 2.4). Since the first inappropriate) DNA ends processing, a ligation step is performed
incision creates a ssDNA gap, this is filled by translesion polymer- by DNA ligase IV in conjunction with its binding partners XRCC4
ases (like Polκ or ζ or REV1) before the excision of the opposite and XLF.
strand. If an ICL occurs during DNA replication or is produced in Differently, much of our current knowledge about the mechanism
G1 or G2, but left unrepaired up to S-phase, the presence of an open of eukaryotic HR derived from studies in budding yeast, where
replicative fork crashing against the lesion promotes a different this pathway is more efficient (Ciccia and Elledge, 2010). The DNA
NER pathway. In this case the ICL is processed with the participa- ends of the DSB are initially processed through 5’ to 3’ end resec-
tion of FA proteins (Hashimoto et al., 2016; Fig. 2.4). The FANCM tion performed by the MRN complex together with CtIP, to gen-
sensor complex recruits the Fanconi core complex, consisting of erate molecules with 3’-single-stranded tails (Fig. 2.5). CtIP activity
seven FANC proteins (A, B, C, E, F, G, and L). This complex mono- is enhanced by the presence of BRCA1 that has also the ability to
ubiquitinates both FANCD2 and FANCI promoting the incisions hinder the 53BP1 antiresection function. The resected trait is suc-
of the ICL using structure-specific endonucleases such as XPF/ cessively extended by the combined action of EXO1 and/or DNA2
ERCC1, MUS81/EME1, SLX4/SLX1 or FAN1. This first incision exonuclease with BLM (mutated in Bloom syndrome) helicase
step is sufficient to introduce a DSB at replicative fork (Fig. 2.4), (Fig. 2.5). Then, ssDNA ends are coated by RPA, subsequently re-
which is repaired by HR. The specificity of this pathway underlines placed by Rad51, an event facilitated by mediator proteins such
another feature of the DDR: the correlation between cell cycle phase as Rad52 and BRCA2 (Fig. 2.5). Rad51 plays a central role in the
2 DNA repair and genome integrity 21
homology search and promotes the processes of strand invasion Main additional biological outcomes of the DNA damage
and heteroduplex formation. While DNA synthesis is carried out by response: cell cycle arrest, premature senescence,
DNA Polη, strand ligation creates a cross-shaped structure known apoptosis
as a Holliday junction (Fig. 2.5): This intermediate is resolved, alter-
Cell cycle arrest
natively, by the BLM/TopIIIα, GEN1 or SLX4/SLX1/MUS81/EME1
endonucleolitic complexes, a step that defines HR subpathways and By transiently arresting the cell cycle at checkpoints, the DDR pro-
the entity of crossover between chromatids. Finally, DNA ligase vides the necessary time for the repair of a lesion before the crit-
I performs the ligation step. ical phases of DNA replication and mitosis. DNA repair is tightly
Current models suggest that the decision between NHEJ and interconnected with cell cycle progression and unrepaired DNA
HR is regulated essentially by a competition between pro-and lesions induce signalling pathways that arrest the cell cycle before
antiresection factors presence and positioning: if resection is ex- DNA replication (G1/S arrest) or cell division (G2/M arrest) phases
tensive the ssDNA tail will promote HR (Huertas, 2010). In turn (Warmerdam and Kanaar, 2010). These mechanisms are relevant
resection is regulated by the combination of several events like when damaged cells are cycling and not resting, or terminally dif-
chromatin status around the break, sensors binding competi- ferentiated. To arrest cell cycle progression ATM/CHK2 and ATR/
tion, cell cycle phase, and exo-and endo-nuclease local activities. CHK1 act, directly or indirectly, on the cyclin/Cdk complexes, the
For example, resection is promoted by MRN/CtIP/BRCA1 and master regulators of cell cycle. Indeed, for example, they can target
counteracted by 53BP1/Rif1. The competitive binding of these and inhibit the CDC25 family of phosphatases that are required to
complexes is cell cycle-regulated by the S-phase specific cyclin promote Cdk activity. The p53/p21 axis (p21 is a CDK inhibitor) is
dependent kinases (CDKs), that phosphorylate CtIP promoting also important to prolong G1 and G2 cell cycle arrest. Cells suffering
BRCA1- CtIP binding and HR (Huertas and Jackson, 2009). damages during S-phase can only slow down replication to avoid
However, 53BP1 recruitment and positioning is also strongly forks stalling and collapse.
dependent on histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) Premature senescence
and it has been recently hypothesized that actively transcribed
Normal diploid cells have the ability to proliferate in cell culture
genes, characterized by an open chromatin status and specific his-
for a limited period of time, then they cease to divide and enter a
tone modifications, are preferentially repaired by HR (Aymard
state of cellular senescence. This phenomenon (replicative sen-
et al., 2014). This will help to preserve relevant genes from the
escence; Ohtani et al., 2009) has been for a long time considered
mutation-prone NHEJ.
the result of an exhaustion of the proliferative lifespan. More re-
DNA structure condensation through histone and non-histone
cently, the senescence programme has been identified as a bar-
proteins is a barrier for an efficient repair. While in the past DNA
rier to the replication of cells suffering a chronic damage derived
repair studies were focused on DNA molecule integrity restoration,
from genotoxic agents’ exposure (premature senescence) or from
almost considered as a ‘naked entity’, more recently we started to
oncogene- induced hyperproliferation (oncogene- induced senes-
consider the complexity of genome structure and epigenome as
cence, OIS; Gorgoulis and Halazonetis, 2010). In these conditions,
a target of DDR and as an important step during repair. The im-
senescence seems preferred to apoptosis for those cells characterized
pact of chromatin structure on DNA repair was first described in
by essential structural functions. The molecular mechanisms char-
the ‘access-repair-restore’ model (Smerdon, 1991). In the last few
acterizing senescence are mainly unknown, but there are evidences
years several remodelling factors, histone chaperones, histone-
that crucial players are the p53/p21 pathway and p16, whose activ-
modifying enzymes, and histone covalent modifications (including
ities converge on the cell cycle regulator protein Rb (Munoz-Espin
phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, and ubiquitylation)
and Serrano, 2014).
have been identified as involved in opening chromatin structures,
The senescent phenotype is not limited to an intracellular
DNA repair enhancement, and pre-existing chromatin restoration
signalling that arrest cell proliferation. Indeed, in the context
(Polo and Almouzni, 2015). For example, in DSBs repair two steps
of higher organisms, cells have evolved intricate mechanisms of
have been extensively studied: chromatin PARylation performed
intercellular communication that the DDR employs to trigger
by PARP proteins, which promotes the transient recruitment of
extracellular alarm signals. Senescent cells suffering chronic
chromatin-remodellers to DSBs; and the ATM/CHK2-dependent
damages are metabolically active and can secrete cytokines,
delocalization of KAP-1, a repressor protein that interacts with
chemokines, and proteases (Rodier et al., 2009) on the whole
histone-modifying enzyme maintaining heterochromatin (Iyengar
named the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP).
and Farnham, 2011).
The SASP can have both positive or negative effects, depending on
Despite all these repair systems it is likely that some lesions
the context (Tchkonia et al., 2013). For example, the SASP cyto-
will be misrepaired or left unrepaired. In this situation, toler-
kines IL-6 and IL-8 can reinforce the growth arrest prompted by
ance mechanisms mitigate the interference of the persisting le-
senescence as a helpful defence against cancer but can also in-
sions with replication and transcription. The translesion DNA
duce epithelial- to-mesenchymal transitions, thus promoting
synthesis (TLS), for example, causes the bypass of base damage
carcinogenesis. Furthermore, SASP can alert nearby cells to po-
by the replication machinery, allowing normal DNA replica-
tential danger and promote the immune clearance of the damaged
tion and gene expression downstream of the unrepaired damage
cells. Conversely, it might cause local and systemic inflammation,
(Sale et al., 2012). TLS represses cell cycle arrest and requires
disrupt tissue architecture, and stimulate the growth of nearby
specialized low- fidelity DNA polymerases to permit replica-
malignant cells. The molecular mechanisms that drive SASP are
tion, but nevertheless TLS introduces mutations into the newly
under investigation, but a role for CHK2, p53 and NF-κB has
synthesized DNA sequence.
22 SECTION I The multicellular organism
been ascertained (Rodier et al., 2009; Chien et al., 2011). SASP Additionally, the ATM interactor FOXO3a regulates transcrip-
is a late response to the original injury, but there is also evidence tion of autophagy-related genes, including LC3. On the other side
that damaged cells can rapidly transmit a DDR-dependent stress autophagy specifically degrades DDR components like p62 (in-
signal to neighbouring healthy cells, thus causing the paracrine volved in Rad51 binding to DNA damage), HP1α (a protein pro-
activation of a bystander DDR (Najafi et al., 2014). Bystander ef- moting chromatin condensation, displaced from DNA breaks by
fects, particularly detected upon radiation-induced DNA damage, DDR) and CHK1.
include a wide range of biological processes, such as secondary Furthermore, a prolonged DDR response might activate
DNA damage, malignant transformation, chromosomal aberra- autophagy through energy consumption. Indeed, PARP- 1
tions, cell death, apoptosis, and adaptive responses. These events hyperactivation can cause adenosine triphosphate (ATP) deple-
implicate various clastogenic factors and signalling molecules, tion and the consequent adenosine monophosphate (AMP) in-
transmitted through gap junctions, as well as released outside crease (Huang and Shen, 2009), thus promoting the activation
cells. Moreover, also reactive oxygen/nitrogen species as well as of AMPK, a well-known inhibitor of mTOR and therefore an
cytokines are involved in mediating the bystander effect. autophagy promoter.
Interestingly, other connections between ATM and autophagy
Autophagy seem more related to ROS presence than to ROS-deriving DNA
Autophagy (from the Greek, ‘self-eating’) is a catabolic process, damage. For example, a cytoplasmic fraction of ATM, in re-
tightly regulated and evolutionary conserved, in which damaged sponse to elevated ROS, can induce autophagy (Alexander et al.,
proteins and organelles are degraded in lysosomes, finally resulting 2010) while another ATM localized in mitochondria regulates
in the release of amino acids and fatty acids that can be used again by mitophagy (autophagy of damaged mitochondria). Of note, the
the cell. Autophagy is triggered in response to various stress stimuli, loss of one Beclin-1 allele in an ATM-null mouse induces a sig-
including: nutrient and energy stresses, hypoxia, redox stress, and nificant delay in the tumour-prone phenotype of these mutants
mitochondrial damage (Kaur and Debnath, 2015). Autophagy is a reducing mitochondrial abnormalities more than improving
protective and pro-survival mechanism, but extensive autophagy the DDR function (Valentin-Vega and Kastan, 2012). Therefore,
may lead to cell death. the absence of ATM could promote genome instability directly
The best described pathway leading to autophagy is activated through defects in DNA repair but also indirectly through a dys-
during starvation (Kaur and Debnath, 2015). In this pathway mTOR functional mitochondrial clearance that enhances free ROS and
(mammalian target of rapamycin) plays a central role since the DNA damage.
mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) inhibits autophagy through the phos- Recent data suggest that sirtuins, a family of NAD+-dependent
phorylation of ULK1 (Unc-51-like kinase 1) and Atg13. During star- protein deacetylases, may also play an important role in autophagic
vation, mTORC1 inhibition leads to dephosphorylation of ULK1 control of DDR. Indeed, SIRT1 can induce the formation of
and Atg13 and the formation of an active complex of Atg13, ULK1, autophagosome or it can directly regulate autophagy by targeting
and FIP200. This event, in combination with Vps34 (a PI3K) activa- mTOR and FOXO. At the same time SIRT1 interacts with many pro-
tion, mediated by Beclin-1 and other factors, starts autophagosome, teins which can be, directly or indirectly, involved in DDR, like p53
a double membrane structure, maturation. Autophagosome speci- (Lin and Fang, 2013).
ficity for targets and lysosomes are all events regulated by lipidated Finally, a cross talk between senescence and autophagy was re-
LC3 recruitment both at inner and outer membrane. cently described (Kang et al., 2015) since ATM and ATR can sup-
In principle, autophagy and DDR should be usefully intercon- press the autophagic degradation of GATA4 transcription factor,
nected. Indeed, sources of damage, like ROS or radiations, hit, even promoting NF-κB transcription. NF-κB has a crucial role in SASP
before nuclear DNA, cytoplasmic macromolecules, and organelles initiation and facilitate senescence induction. The accumulation of
structure, that should be promptly removed. Furthermore, senes- GATA4 in tissues of aged humans may contribute to inflammation
cence should be positively regulated by autophagy, while apop- in age related diseases including cancer.
tosis and autophagy seem alternative. Therefore, it is not surprising Apoptosis
that increasing evidences suggest an interplay between DDR and
autophagy, but up to now the presence of a direct correlation re- Cells with an irreparable damage activate suicide by apoptosis
mains elusive. to prevent the replication and propagation of a modified, and
The DDR could exert a control (positive or negative) on autophagy thus potentially harmful genome. The induction of apoptosis
through transcriptional regulation (Czarny et al., 2015). Indeed, sev-proceeds through at least two main routes, the extrinsic and
eral ATM/ATR kinases targets can influence the expression of genes intrinsic pathways, and the activation of a series of cysteine-
associated with autophagy: aspartic proteases, named caspases. Effector caspases cleave the
inhibitor of the DNAse (iCAD) inducing nuclear DNA fragmen-
a. NF-κB upregulates Beclin-1 tation and promote the degradation of kinases, DNA repair, and
b. p53 transcriptionally regulates adenosine- monophosphate- cytoskeletal proteins, contributing to the typical morphological
activated protein kinase (AMPK) subunits and activators, PTEN alterations of apoptotic cells. To activate apoptosis the DNA
(an mTOR inactivator), DAPK (phosphorylates Beclin-1) and damage signalling exploits primarily the p53 pathway, but ATM
DRAM (as a role in a late step of autophagy) and CHK2 can also promote proapoptotic p53- independent
c. ΔNp63α transcribes ULK1, several Atg family genes, and Beclin-1 pathways targeting, respectively, NF-κB and c-Abl, or p38 and
d. Che-1 upregulates Redd1 and Deptor (two mTOR inhibitors) E2F1 (Zannini et al., 2014).
2 DNA repair and genome integrity 23
The p53 network protein is under the control of a negative feedback, since MDM2 is
The p53 protein is considered the ‘master gatekeeper’ protein and a target of p53 transcriptional activity. As a consequence, single cells
the ‘guardian of the genome’ in human cells. p53 is one of the most exposed to DSBs inducing agents show p53 pulses of fixed ampli-
important and studied tumour suppressor, with more than 2000 art- tude, duration and period, and the mean number of pulses increases
icles per year in the last two decades. This is legitimated by the fact with the extent of DNA damage (Lev Bar-Or et al., 2000; Lahav
that the p53 gene (TP53) is mutated in around 50% of tumour cells, et al., 2004). This effect combined with specific mRNA decay of p53-
with the rate varying from 10–12% in leukaemia to 38–70% in lung transcribed genes generates different profiles of protein expression
cancers, and 43–60% in colon cancers (Murray-Zmijewski et al., (Porter et al., 2016). Consistently, altering p53 dynamics pharmaco-
2008). Indeed, p53 knockout mice develop tumours with short la- logically changes patterns and extension of target genes expression
tency and 100% penetrance. and, ultimately, cell fate (Purvis et al., 2012). Differently, UV radi-
This protein performs its function primarily as a transcription ation triggers a single p53 pulse with a dose-dependent amplitude
factor, controlling the expression of more than 100 target genes, re- and duration; this well correlates with the observation that IR and
sponding to a great variety of stresses. Among p53 targets the most UV activate a different set of p53-dependent genes.
abundant are involved in DNA repair, cell cycle arrest, and apoptotic Another important interactor and repressor of p53 activity is
programme. Various PTMs, over 100 cofactors, and p53 cellular lo- HDMX. Normally this protein shuttles between the nucleus and the
calization can contribute to determine when and what kind of pro- cytoplasm, but in response to DSBs, nuclear HDMX is phosphor-
teins are produced. ylated by ATM and CHK2 and retained there, where it is degraded
Differently from other tumour suppressor genes, most TP53 mu- (Pereg et al., 2006).
tations in tumours are missense, predominantly affecting those res- However, p53 activity is not only regulated by the time of ac-
idues that are located in the DNA-binding domain of the protein, cumulation or the interaction with HDMX, but also by several
causing the loss of its tumour suppressor function and, in some PTMs and cofactors, that modulate the ability of p53 to bind spe-
cases, the gain of novel oncogenic activities. cific sequences to the promoters of its target genes. Indeed, the
Treatment of normal cells with either genotoxic agents or non- ATM-and ATR-dependent DDR signalling induces directly or
genotoxic agents stresses results in the phosphorylation of p53 at indirectly a multitude of different p53 posttranslational modifi-
about 20 serine and threonine residues throughout the protein, and cations that can determine an appropriate and proportionate re-
acetylation at about a half-dozen lysines in the C-terminus (Fig. 2.6; sponse according to the type of damage and stress intensity. An
see Appella and Anderson, 2001). Phosphorylation by ATM or ATR example of this mechanism is serine46 phosphorylation by the
at serine15 is a key priming event for the phosphorylation of several ATM/ATR-activated HIPK2 kinase which drives p53 towards a
other residues at the N-terminus (serine15 cluster). These events are ‘killer’ activity, stimulating the transcription of proapoptotic tar-
specific to genotoxic stresses and principally promote p53 protein gets (D’Orazi et al., 2002). Furthermore, phosphorylation of the
stabilization. Indeed, a protein so relevant for cell life is practically serine15 cluster also promotes the recruitment of acetyltransferases
absent in unstressed conditions. In normally growing cells, nuclear like p300, CBP e PCAF, that acetylate several C-terminal lysines
p53 has low activity and a short half-life because it is complexed with on p53. Acetylation of p53, which is counteracted by deacetylases
the E3 ubiquitin protein ligase (MDM2) which causes p53 ubiquitin- like SIRT1, regulates promoter specificity, driving damage response
ation and degradation by the proteasome (Fig. 2.7). Only very low towards apoptosis.
p53 levels and activities allow a normal growth. After DNA damage, As for p53 stability, p53 activity is under the control of a nega-
serine15 phosphorylation promotes MDM2 displacement, allowing tive feedback loop. Wip1 phosphatase, a p53 transcription target,
p53 accumulation in the nucleus where it can perform its function dephosphorylates and deactivates both ATM and p53 (Shreeram
as transcription factor (Cheng and Chen, 2010). The stability of p53 et al., 2006), while activates MDM2, thus enhancing p53 degradation.
p300/CBP/PCAF
HIPK2
Tip60
CKII
Cdk
JNK
Ney saisi d'un trouble fébrile, ne fit aucune de ces remarques, et marcha à
l'ennemi en tenant toute sa ligne à la même hauteur, sa droite vers la chaussée de
Namur, son centre vers les Quatre-Bras, sa gauche vers le bois de Bossu. Au
moment où ce mouvement s'exécutait, le prince d'Orange qui voyait s'avancer la
division Foy, voulut l'arrêter en jetant sur elle la cavalerie Collaert composée des
hussards hollandais et des dragons belges. Il lança d'abord sur notre infanterie les
hussards hollandais, en tenant en réserve les dragons belges. Mais à peine avait-il
lancé les hussards, que le 6e chasseurs conduit par le colonel de Faudoas se
précipita sur eux, les culbuta sur l'infanterie placée derrière, et sabra même les
canonniers d'une batterie. Les dragons belges ayant voulu soutenir les hussards
hollandais furent culbutés à leur tour par nos chasseurs, et rejetés sur un bataillon
anglais qui, les prenant pour ennemis, tira sur eux et compléta ainsi leur déroute.
Après cet incident notre ligne entra tout entière en action sous la protection d'une
nombreuse artillerie. À droite la division Bachelu, composée
Violent engagement
de la division de quatre régiments d'infanterie, s'avança déployée au delà de
Bachelu contre la la ferme de Gimioncourt que nous avions conquise. Elle avait
division anglaise à franchir plusieurs ravins bordés de haies, qu'elle fit abattre
Picton. par ses sapeurs, et marcha résolûment sans essuyer de
grandes pertes, secondée qu'elle était par le feu de nos
canons. Après le premier ravin s'en trouvait un deuxième qu'elle franchit
également. Mais à cette distance notre artillerie, dont les coups auraient porté sur
elle, cessa de l'appuyer. Elle gravissait néanmoins le bord du deuxième ravin pour
s'emparer d'un plateau couvert de blés mûrs, lorsque tout à coup elle essuie à
l'improviste un feu terrible. C'était celui des six bataillons anglais de Picton, qui
étaient cachés dans ces blés hauts de trois à quatre pieds, et qui attendaient pour
tirer que nous fussions à bonne portée. Sous ce feu exécuté de près et avec une
extrême justesse, nos soldats tombent en grand nombre. Picton avec beaucoup de
présence d'esprit, ordonne alors une charge à la baïonnette. Notre infanterie
poussée vivement sur un terrain en pente, ne peut soutenir le choc, descend pêle-
mêle dans le fond du ravin, et se retire sur le bord opposé. Mais là un heureux
hasard vient lui fournir soudainement le moyen de se rallier.
La division Bachelu
menace la grande Des quatre régiments d'infanterie composant la division
chaussée de Bachelu, trois seulement s'étaient portés en avant. Le
Namur à Bruxelles. quatrième à gauche, qui était le 108e de ligne, commandé par
un officier aussi ferme qu'intelligent, le colonel Higonet, avait
été retenu par une haie trop épaisse, et il était encore occupé à la couper, lorsqu'il
aperçoit nos trois régiments en retraite. Sur-le-champ il fait face à droite, et déploie
ses bataillons en leur recommandant d'attendre son signal pour tirer. Dès que nos
soldats en retraite ont dépassé la pointe de ses fusils, il ordonne le feu sur les
Anglais animés à la poursuite, et couvre la terre de leurs morts. Puis il se précipite
sur eux à la baïonnette et en fait un épouvantable carnage. À cette vue, les soldats
du 72e, placés immédiatement à la droite du 108e, se rallient les premiers; les
autres suivent cet exemple, et les Anglais sont ramenés au point d'où ils étaient
partis. La division Foy qui avait aperçu ce mouvement, le soutient en s'avançant sur
la chaussée, et contribue à refouler la gauche anglaise en arrière. Le terrain est
couvert d'autant d'habits rouges que d'habits bleus. Cependant, pour forcer la
gauche anglaise, il faudrait de nouveau braver le feu plongeant des six bataillons
de Picton, et des quatre bataillons hanovriens qui les soutiennent. Bachelu
reconnaissant la difficulté, prend la résolution fort bien entendue de porter son effort
tout à fait à droite, vers la ferme dite de Piraumont, adossée à la chaussée de
Namur.
À l'instant même où il donne cet ordre irréfléchi, Ney reçoit la lettre écrite à trois
heures un quart de Fleurus, et apportée par M. de Forbin-Janson, dans laquelle
Napoléon lui prescrit de se rabattre sur les hauteurs de Bry, lui disant pour l'exciter
que s'il exécute ce mouvement, l'armée prussienne sera anéantie, que par
conséquent le salut de la France est dans ses mains. Si le maréchal avait eu son
sang-froid, il aurait fait une réflexion fort simple, c'est qu'en ce moment l'action
principale n'était pas aux Quatre-Bras, mais à Ligny, que l'armée prussienne
détruite, l'armée anglaise le serait infailliblement le lendemain, qu'il fallait donc
obtempérer à la volonté de Napoléon, y obtempérer sur-le-champ, renoncer dès
lors à emporter les Quatre-Bras, s'y borner à la défensive, qui était possible,
comme il le prouva une heure après, et envoyer tout de suite à d'Erlon l'ordre de se
diriger sur Fleurus. En une demi-heure un officier au galop pouvait transmettre cet
ordre, et une heure après, c'est-à-dire à sept heures et demie, d'Erlon se serait
trouvé sur le revers du moulin de Bry, en mesure de mettre l'armée prussienne
entre deux feux. Mais cette réflexion si simple, Ney ne la fait point. Préoccupé
uniquement de ce qu'il a sous ses yeux, la seule chose qu'il considère, c'est qu'il
faut d'abord se hâter de vaincre là où il est, pour se rabattre ensuite sur Napoléon.
Il ne songe donc qu'à surmonter en furieux l'obstacle qui
Ney tente avec les
cuirassiers de l'arrête. Il a vu les prodiges effectués dans le cours de la
Valmy un coup de journée par notre cavalerie. Se rattachant à l'espérance de
désespoir contre tout emporter avec elle, il appelle le comte de Valmy, dont il
les Quatre-Bras. avait fait approcher une brigade, et lui répétant les paroles de
l'Empereur, Général, lui dit-il, le sort de la France est entre vos
mains. Il faut faire un grand effort contre le centre des Anglais, et enfoncer la masse
d'infanterie que vous avez devant vous. La France est sauvée, si vous réussissez.
Partez, et je vous ferai appuyer par la cavalerie de Piré.—Le général Kellermann,
qui aimait à contredire, oppose plus d'une objection à ce qu'on lui ordonne; il cède
néanmoins aux instances convulsives du maréchal, et se prépare à exécuter
l'attaque désespérée qu'on attend de son courage.
À tenter ce que demandait le maréchal Ney, il fallait le faire avec les quatre
brigades réunies du comte de Valmy, formant 3,500 cuirassiers et dragons; il fallait
y employer Lefebvre-Desnoëttes lui-même avec la cavalerie légère de la garde, et
après avoir tout renversé sous les pieds de nos chevaux, compléter ce mouvement
avec une masse d'infanterie qui pût prendre possession définitive du terrain qu'on
aurait conquis. Au lieu de laisser la belle division Jérôme, forte de près de huit mille
combattants, s'épuiser contre un bois, où l'énergie des hommes allait expirer
devant des obstacles physiques, il aurait fallu ne laisser qu'une brigade d'infanterie
pour entretenir le combat de ce côté, et avec les quatre mille hommes restants de
la division Jérôme, avec les cinq mille de la division Foy, avec les cuirassiers et les
dragons de Valmy, les lanciers, les chasseurs de Piré et de Lefebvre-Desnoëttes,
c'est-à-dire avec neuf mille cavaliers et neuf mille hommes d'infanterie, enfoncer le
centre des Anglais comme Masséna en 1805 enfonça le centre des Autrichiens à
Caldiero. Mais plein à la fois d'ardeur et de trouble, Ney ne songe qu'à des coups
de désespoir! Malheureusement pour réussir le désespoir même ne saurait se
passer de calcul. Tandis qu'il manque aux prescriptions les plus essentielles de
Napoléon en appelant d'Erlon à lui, Ney s'attache à l'ordre qui n'avait plus de sens
de laisser Kellermann à l'embranchement de la vieille chaussée romaine, à l'ordre
plus insignifiant encore de ménager Lefebvre-Desnoëttes, et il se borne à lancer
une brigade de Valmy, en laissant s'épuiser la division Jérôme dans le bois de
Bossu.
Cependant quelque peu raisonnable que soit la pressante invitation qu'il a reçue,
le comte de Valmy après avoir donné à ses chevaux le temps de souffler, se
prépare à charger avec la plus grande vigueur. Piré s'apprête
Prodiges de nos
cuirassiers, qui à l'appuyer à la tête de ses chasseurs et de ses lanciers. Le
enfoncent plusieurs comte de Valmy suivant la grande route gravit au trot la pente
bataillons anglais. qui aboutit aux Quatre-Bras, puis tournant brusquement à
gauche dans la direction du bois de Bossu, il s'élance avec sa
brigade composée du 8e et du 11e de cuirassiers sur l'infanterie anglaise du général
major Halkett. Les balles pleuvent sur les cuirasses et les casques de nos cavaliers
sans les ébranler. Le 8e fond sur le 69e régiment, l'enfonce, tue à coups de pointe
une partie de ses hommes, et lui prend son drapeau enlevé par le cuirassier Lami.
Ce régiment anglais se réfugie dans le bois. Kellermann après avoir rallié ses
escadrons se jette sur le 30e qu'il ne peut enfoncer, mais culbute et sabre le 33e,
après lui deux bataillons de Brunswick, et arrive ainsi aux Quatre-Bras. Pendant ce
temps, Piré donne à droite sur l'infanterie de Picton. Celle-ci formée sur plusieurs
lignes résiste par des feux violents et bien dirigés à toutes les charges de notre
cavalerie légère. Mais le 6e de lanciers, qui en cette journée se signala par ses
exploits, gagne sous la conduite de son colonel Galbois la chaussée de Namur, et
détruit un bataillon hanovrien sur les derrières de Picton. Le duc de Wellington n'a
que le temps de se jeter sur un cheval et de s'enfuir.
Notre cavalerie se maintient ainsi sur le plateau des Quatre-Bras dont elle a
réussi à s'emparer. Si quelque infanterie venait en ce moment l'appuyer, si la
division Foy, si une partie de la division Jérôme venaient
Faute d'appui, nos
cuirassiers sont occuper le terrain qu'elle a conquis, et surtout si les trois
ramenés. autres brigades du comte de Valmy étaient envoyées à son
secours, son triomphe serait assuré. Malheureusement, lancée
par un acte de désespoir au milieu d'une nuée d'ennemis, elle reste sans appui, et
tout à coup elle se sent assaillie par des feux terribles. L'infanterie anglaise réfugiée
dans les maisons des Quatre-Bras, fait pleuvoir sur nos cuirassiers une grêle de
balles. Surpris par ce feu, ne se voyant point soutenus, ils rétrogradent d'abord
avec lenteur, bientôt avec la précipitation d'une panique. Le comte de Valmy veut
en vain les retenir sur la pente du plateau qu'ils ont naguère gravi victorieusement:
la déclivité et l'entraînement de la retraite précipitent leur course. Leur général
démonté, privé de son chapeau, n'a d'autre ressource, pour n'être pas abandonné
sur le terrain, que de s'attacher à la bride de deux cuirassiers, et il revient ainsi
suspendu à deux chevaux au galop. À ce spectacle Ney accourt, et fait barrer la
route par Lefebvre-Desnoëttes, qui rallie en les retenant nos deux régiments de
cuirassiers fuyant après avoir opéré des prodiges.
Il était neuf heures: la nuit enveloppait ces plaines funèbres, de Sombreffe aux
Quatre-Bras, des Quatre-Bras à Charleroy, et dans ce triangle de quelques lieues
plus de quarante mille cadavres couvraient déjà la terre. Aux Quatre-Bras, Ney
avait mis hors de combat près de six mille ennemis, soit par le feu, soit par le sabre
de ses cavaliers, et avait perdu environ quatre mille hommes. À Ligny, comme nous
l'avons dit, onze ou douze mille Français, dix-huit mille Prussiens jonchaient la
terre, sans compter la foule des hommes débandés. Ainsi 40 mille braves gens
venaient d'être de nouveau sacrifiés aux formidables passions du siècle!
Le matin il avait attendu à Gosselies des ordres qui ne lui étaient arrivés qu'à
onze heures, par la communication que le général Reille lui avait donnée du
message de M. de Flahault. À l'instant même il s'était mis en marche sur Frasnes,
et conformément aux instructions reçues, il avait dirigé sa division de droite, celle
du général Durutte, vers Marbais. En se voyant sur les derrières des Prussiens les
soldats de cette division avaient battu des mains, et applaudi à la prévoyance de
Napoléon qui les plaçait si bien. Mais à peine avaient-ils fait une lieue dans cette
direction, que les officiers de Ney, partis à l'instant où ce maréchal se décidait à
attaquer les Anglais, étaient venus appeler le corps entier aux Quatre-Bras. La
division Durutte avait donc été comme les autres ramenée vers Frasnes, au milieu
des murmures des soldats désolés d'être détournés de la voie où ils apercevaient
de si beaux résultats à recueillir. Tout à coup vers trois heures et demie le général
La Bédoyère arrivant avec un billet de l'Empereur, avait réitéré l'injonction de
marcher sur Bry. À ce nouveau contre-ordre nouvelle joie des soldats, qui
s'applaudissaient d'être remis sur la voie d'un grand triomphe. D'Erlon obéissant à
l'ordre apporté par La Bédoyère avait alors envoyé, comme on l'a vu, son chef
d'état-major Delcambre à Ney, pour lui faire part de l'incident qui l'éloignait des
Quatre-Bras. Ce général avait rempli sa mission auprès de Ney, qui l'avait renvoyé
porter à d'Erlon l'ordre formel et absolu de rebrousser chemin vers les Quatre-Bras.
Le général Delcambre était donc venu entre cinq et six heures arrêter une dernière
fois le 1er corps dans sa marche sur Bry, pour l'amener aux Quatre-Bras. D'autres
officiers suivant le général Delcambre, étaient venus dire au comte d'Erlon, que sur
la foi de son concours Ney s'était engagé dans un combat inégal contre les Anglais,
que s'il n'était pas secouru il allait succomber, qu'alors tous les plans de Napoléon
seraient renversés, et qu'en n'accourant pas aux Quatre-Bras, le comte d'Erlon
prenait sur sa tête la plus grave responsabilité. Ces assertions étaient exagérées,
et le résultat de la journée prouvait bien qu'en se réduisant à la défensive entre
Frasnes et les Quatre-Bras, on ne s'exposait qu'au danger d'une journée indécise,
laquelle indécise aux Quatre-Bras serait immensément fructueuse à Ligny. Mais
d'Erlon ne connaissait pas le véritable état des choses sur les deux champs de
bataille. Du côté de Ligny on ne lui parlait que de compléter un triomphe: du côté
des Quatre-Bras il s'agissait, lui disait-on, de prévenir un désastre. Ney, son chef
immédiat, le sommait au nom de la hiérarchie, au nom d'une nécessité pressante,
de venir à lui, et il était naturel qu'il penchât du côté de ce dernier. Par le fait il eut
tort, comme on le verra mieux tout à l'heure; mais il céda de très-bonne foi, et sous
l'inspiration de la meilleure volonté, au visage effaré de ceux qui arrivaient des
Quatre-Bras. Ainsi, pour la seconde fois depuis le matin, il abandonna la route de
Bry pour celle de Frasnes. Cependant tandis qu'il se décidait à prendre ce parti, il
tint conseil avec le général Durutte, officier très-distingué, commandant sa première
division qui était la plus avancée sur la route de Bry, et à la suite de ce conseil il eut
recours à un terme moyen. D'une part, Ney semblait avoir un
La journée s'écoule
sans que le corps besoin urgent de secours; d'autre part, une force quelconque
de d'Erlon ait pu paraissant sur les derrières des Prussiens pouvait décider la
être utile ni à victoire du côté de Ligny: en outre, laisser vide l'espace
Napoléon ni à Ney. compris entre Fleurus et Frasnes, présentait de grands
inconvénients, car c'était ouvrir à l'ennemi une issue qui lui
permettrait de pénétrer entre les deux armées françaises. Enfin on était, quant à la
valeur des ordres, entre le chef immédiat qui était Ney, et Napoléon qui était le chef
des chefs. Après avoir pesé ces considérations diverses, d'Erlon prit la résolution
de marcher avec trois divisions aux Quatre-Bras, et de laisser la division Durutte
seule sur la route de Bry. Mais en s'arrêtant à ce parti il recommanda au général
Durutte d'être prudent, et il le lui fit recommander plus fortement encore en
apprenant en route que les choses allaient mal du côté de Ney. D'Erlon était ainsi
parti pour les Quatre-Bras au grand regret de ses soldats, et le général Durutte
avait marché sur Bry en tâtonnant, ce qui avait fourni autour de lui l'occasion de
dire qu'il était de mauvaise volonté, qu'il trahissait même, supposition fort injuste,
car ce général était aussi zélé que sage, et ne cédait qu'à des ordres supérieurs. Il
arriva vers neuf ou dix heures à Bry, où il précipita la retraite des Prussiens sans
faire un prisonnier, et d'Erlon de son côté arriva à Frasnes sur les derrières de Ney,
quand le canon avait cessé de retentir, et qu'il ne pouvait plus lui être d'aucune
utilité.
À Ligny même le temps ne fut pas moins bien employé. Napoléon rendu à
Fleurus avant midi, et trouvant tous les généraux hésitants, n'hésita pas, et résolut
de livrer bataille. Mais les troupes n'étaient pas encore arrivées, celles de droite
notamment (4e corps), et Napoléon dut patienter. À deux heures il était en mesure,
mais ayant conçu la belle combinaison de rabattre sur lui une partie des troupes de
Ney afin de prendre les Prussiens à revers, il voulut laisser à ce maréchal un peu
d'avance, et attendre son canon. Impatient de l'attendre inutilement, il lui dépêcha
ordre sur ordre, et donna enfin le signal du combat vers deux heures et demie.
Même alors, le temps qui restait aurait suffi pour tirer de la victoire tout le parti
désirable, si à cinq heures et demie une fausse alarme conçue par Vandamme
n'eût fait perdre des instants précieux, et différer jusqu'à près de sept heures la
charge décisive que devait exécuter la garde impériale. Exécutée à cinq heures et
demie cette charge aurait laissé le moyen de poursuivre et d'accabler les
Prussiens. On eut néanmoins le temps de les battre complétement, puisqu'en
morts, blessés ou fuyards, on leur fit perdre le tiers des troupes engagées.
Vers les Quatre-Bras on ne saurait prétendre que la journée
Il y eut au contraire
de grandes pertes eût été aussi bien employée. Si à Ligny le temps n'importait
de temps aux pas, du moins dans une certaine mesure, aux Quatre-Bras au
Quatre-Bras. contraire chaque minute perdue était un malheur. De ce côté,
en effet, outre l'immense intérêt de posséder le plus tôt
possible le point de jonction entre les Anglais et les Prussiens, il y avait cet intérêt
non moins grand d'attaquer les Anglais avant qu'ils fussent en force. Or le 15 au
soir ils n'étaient que quatre mille, tous soldats de Nassau. Jusqu'au lendemain 16 à
midi, ils n'étaient pas davantage. Ce ne fut que de midi à deux heures qu'ils
parvinrent à être sept mille, et ils ne comptèrent pas un homme de plus jusqu'à trois
heures et demie. Or Ney avait neuf mille combattants le 15 au soir, il les avait
encore à onze heures le lendemain 16, et à ce moment il aurait pu en avoir 20
mille. Quant aux ordres verbaux qu'il avait reçus dans l'après-midi du 15, il faudrait
admettre les plus fortes invraisemblances pour supposer qu'ils ne portassent pas
l'indication des Quatre-Bras; mais en tout cas le 16 au matin des ordres écrits,
remis à dix heures et demie par M. de Flahault, et réitérés plusieurs fois dans la
matinée, contenaient l'indication formelle des Quatre-Bras, et l'injonction de les
enlever à tout prix. Or de dix heures et demie du matin à trois heures et demie de
l'après-midi il restait cinq heures, pendant lesquelles on aurait pu accabler avec
vingt mille hommes la division Perponcher qui n'en comptait que 7 mille.
À la vérité Ney, vers onze heures, c'est-à-dire après la remise des ordres écrits
de Napoléon, n'avait plus hésité, et avait fini par vouloir fortement l'attaque des
Quatre-Bras; mais le général Reille ayant pris sur lui de retenir les troupes par suite
d'un rapport mal interprété du général Girard, Ney fut obligé de les attendre près de
trois heures. Ainsi à partir de onze heures le tort ne fut plus à lui, et à deux heures
encore lorsqu'il voulait se jeter brusquement sur l'ennemi, le général Reille, la
mémoire toute pleine des événements d'Espagne, le retint, à très-bonne intention
certainement, mais le retint de nouveau. Enfin, quand on entreprit sérieusement
l'attaque, les Anglais étaient déjà en nombre égal, et ils furent bientôt en nombre
supérieur.
Quelque regret que pût éprouver Napoléon d'avoir remporté une victoire
incomplète, il avait lieu, nous le répétons, d'être satisfait, car son plan avait jusqu'à
ce moment parfaitement réussi. Il était parvenu à surprendre les armées anglaise
et prussienne, à s'interposer entre elles, à vaincre l'armée prussienne, à contenir
l'armée anglaise, et à les rejeter l'une et l'autre dans des directions assez
divergentes, pour avoir le lendemain ou le surlendemain le temps de battre
séparément le duc de Wellington. Blucher effectivement venant de perdre la
grande chaussée de Namur aux Quatre-Bras, ne pouvait plus rejoindre le duc de
Wellington par cette voie, la seule directe, et il était réduit, ou à se séparer
définitivement des Anglais en se portant par Namur sur le Rhin, ou, s'il voulait
continuer la campagne avec eux, à tâcher de les retrouver aux environs de
Bruxelles. Entre les armées belligérantes et Bruxelles s'étendait une forêt vaste et
profonde, celle de Soignes, enveloppant cette ville du sud-ouest au nord-est,
présentant une bande de bois épaisse de trois ou quatre lieues, longue de dix ou
douze, par conséquent très-difficile à franchir par des armées nombreuses,
pourvues d'un matériel considérable. Si les Prussiens, privés de leur
communication directe avec les Anglais par la chaussée de Namur aux Quatre-
Bras, voulaient les rejoindre, ils le pouvaient en se portant par Gembloux et Wavre
à la lisière de la forêt de Soignes, et en se réunissant à eux en avant, ou en arrière
de cette vaste forêt. Si, pour plus de sûreté, ils s'y enfonçaient, afin d'opérer leur
jonction au delà, c'est-à-dire sous les murs de Bruxelles, il n'y avait pas fort à
s'inquiéter d'eux, car ils arriveraient trop tard pour secourir leurs alliés. S'ils
voulaient au contraire les rejoindre en avant de la forêt de Soignes, le danger
pouvait devenir sérieux, mais Napoléon se trouvant actuellement entre les
Prussiens et les Anglais, et à cinq lieues seulement de la lisière de la forêt, il était
impossible que la jonction s'opérât en avant, c'est-à-dire sous ses yeux, à moins
qu'il ne le permît, ou que ses lieutenants chargés de l'empêcher ne laissassent
faire à l'ennemi ce qu'il voudrait. Étant de plus face à face avec les Anglais aux
Quatre-Bras, il avait la certitude, autant qu'il était possible de l'avoir, de pouvoir le
lendemain les aborder et les battre avant que les Prussiens vinssent à leur
secours. Il était donc bien vrai que jusqu'ici, quoique les Prussiens ne fussent que
battus au lieu d'être détruits, son plan avait réussi, puisqu'il était en mesure de
rencontrer ses ennemis les uns après les autres. D'ailleurs, si les Prussiens
n'étaient pas détruits comme ils auraient dû l'être, ils étaient fort maltraités, et une
poursuite active pouvait produire ce qu'aurait produit la manœuvre manquée de
d'Erlon. Il s'agissait de ne leur laisser aucun repos le lendemain, et de leur tenir
sans cesse l'épée dans les reins, pour que les hommes débandés devinssent des
hommes perdus, et que l'armée prussienne fût diminuée par la poursuite autant
qu'elle aurait pu l'être par la bataille elle-même.
Napoléon prit donc le parti, indiqué par son plan et par les règles de la prudence,
de se diriger avec son centre vers son aile gauche, pour aller combattre les
Anglais, en laissant à sa droite le soin d'observer les Prussiens, d'aggraver leur
défaite, et de les tenir à distance pendant qu'il serait aux prises avec l'armée
britannique. Debout dès cinq heures, il eût voulu marcher tout
Emploi du temps
pendant la matinée de suite pour atteindre le duc de Wellington dans la journée,
du 17. mais la distance où l'on se trouvait de la forêt de Soignes était
si petite qu'il était impossible de gagner le général anglais de
vitesse, et qu'on ne pouvait avoir une rencontre avec lui que s'il le voulait bien, car
s'il songeait à s'enfoncer dans la forêt de Soignes pour rallier les Prussiens au
delà, toute la promptitude qu'on mettrait à le suivre ne ferait que rendre sa retraite
plus hâtive, sans donner une seule chance de le joindre.
Impossibilité de
devancer les Néanmoins Napoléon par caractère, par impatience de
Anglais au passage résoudre la question de vie et de mort posée entre l'Europe et
de la forêt de lui, aurait voulu courir sur-le-champ aux Anglais. Mais on lui
Soignes. objecta l'immense fatigue des troupes qui avaient marché trois
jours, et combattu deux sans s'arrêter. Il n'avait certainement
pas la pensée d'employer Gérard et Vandamme (4e et 3e corps), car leurs soldats,
couchés dans le sang, dormaient encore d'un profond sommeil au milieu de trente
mille cadavres, et on ne pouvait leur refuser quelques heures pour nettoyer leurs
armes, faire la soupe, respirer enfin. Disposant du corps de Lobau qui n'avait pas
tiré un coup de fusil, il voulait naturellement le mouvoir le premier. Mais il était
indispensable d'y ajouter la garde qui avait été vivement engagée la veille, et qui,
toute dévouée qu'elle était, ne pouvait cependant pas se passer de dormir et de
manger. Il combina donc ses mouvements de la journée de manière à concilier la
célérité des opérations avec le besoin de repos éprouvé par ses troupes. Comme il
fallait traverser les Quatre-Bras pour marcher aux Anglais,
Ordre à Ney de
défiler aux Quatre- c'était à Ney qui s'y trouvait, à défiler le premier, et comme il
Bras, et aux divers avait près de quarante mille hommes à faire écouler par un
corps composant le seul débouché, on était sûr, en arrivant à neuf ou dix heures
centre de suivre du matin aux Quatre-Bras, d'y arriver juste à temps pour
Ney. défiler après lui, et comme enfin on pouvait être en deux ou
trois heures à la lisière de la forêt de Soignes, il n'était pas
impossible encore de livrer, ainsi qu'on l'avait fait la veille, une bataille dans l'après-
midi même, si toutefois les Anglais consentaient à l'accepter. Napoléon, sans
espérer beaucoup cette rencontre en avant de la forêt de Soignes qu'il désirait trop
pour croire que les Anglais la désirassent aussi, disposa tout pour se la ménager si
elle était possible, et dans le cas contraire pour entrer à Bruxelles le soir ou le
lendemain matin, ce qui devait produire un grand effet moral, et rejeter les Anglais
bien loin des Prussiens. Il décida donc que Lobau se porterait le premier aux
Quatre-Bras par la grande chaussée de Namur, de manière à défiler
immédiatement après Ney. Il décida que la garde suivrait Lobau, et que la grosse
cavalerie suivrait la garde.
Ces soulagements et ces récompenses étaient bien dus à des soldats qui
s'étaient conduits le jour précédent avec un dévouement sans bornes, et en pareil
cas on peut dire que la reconnaissance est un excellent calcul. Les soldats de
Gérard et de Vandamme étaient occupés en ce moment à nettoyer leurs fusils, à
faire la soupe, et à se remettre un peu de leur formidable lutte de la veille. Dès
qu'ils aperçurent Napoléon, ils se précipitèrent au-devant de lui en agitant leurs
schakos, en brandissant leurs sabres, et en poussant des cris d'enthousiasme. Sa
vue seule les transportait, et les dédommageait de leurs dangers et de leurs
souffrances. Ce n'était vraiment pas un temps perdu que celui que l'on consacrait à
satisfaire et à entretenir de pareils sentiments! Napoléon après avoir salué les
blessés, et répondu de la main aux acclamations des soldats, voulut traverser
successivement les villages de Saint-Amand et de Ligny. Dans
Aspect horrible de
ce champ de l'intérieur de Saint-Amand les morts français et prussiens
bataille. étaient presque en nombre égal, mais au delà du ruisseau, on
ne voyait qu'un monceau de cadavres prussiens. Ces
malheureux s'étant obstinés à reprendre Saint-Amand, avaient couvert de leurs
corps les approches du village. Sur le talus en arrière jusqu'au moulin de Bry,
l'artillerie de la garde ayant pris en écharpe les réserves prussiennes, les cadavres
d'hommes, de chevaux, les débris de canons, couvraient la terre, et présentaient
un spectacle satisfaisant pour nous, mais cruel pour l'humanité. À Ligny, le
spectacle devenait atroce. Là, le combat s'était livré dans l'intérieur du village; on
s'était battu corps à corps, et égorgé avec toute la fureur des guerres civiles. Les
morts français et prussiens s'y trouvaient dans la même proportion, et on ne voyait
pas autre chose que des cadavres, car les habitants avaient fui leurs demeures, ou
s'étaient cachés dans leurs caves. Quelques blessés gémissants étaient les seuls
êtres vivants dans cette espèce de nécropole. En sortant de Ligny, et en gravissant
le terrain sur lequel la garde impériale avait décidé la victoire, les cadavres étaient
encore presque exclusivement prussiens, et en faisant de ces débris humains une
triste comparaison, on pouvait dire que dans l'ensemble il y avait deux ou trois
Prussiens morts pour un Français. Il n'y a donc pas d'exagération à avancer que si
la bataille nous avait coûté environ neuf mille hommes, elle en avait coûté dix-huit
mille aux Prussiens, sans compter les hommes débandés. Nous n'avions pour
prisonniers que les blessés, plus il est vrai mille ou deux mille traînards recueillis
par la cavalerie. Trente pièces de canon étaient restées en notre pouvoir.
Napoléon, après avoir fait ramasser le plus qu'il put de blessés français, soin
auquel les paysans belges se prêtèrent avec empressement, fit aussi relever
quelques officiers prussiens, frappés dans une proportion beaucoup plus grande
que leurs soldats. Ces braves officiers avaient payé de leur sang la violence de
leurs passions. Napoléon leur adressa une allocution
Allocution aux
officiers prussiens. courtoise et généreuse, pour leur dire que la France tant haïe
des Prussiens ne leur rendait pas haine pour haine; que si elle
avait pesé sur eux pendant les dernières guerres, c'était par une juste et inévitable
représaille de leur agression de 1792, de la convention de Pilnitz, du manifeste de
Brunswick, et de la guerre de 1806; que d'ailleurs ils s'étaient assez vengés en
1814, qu'il était temps d'apporter un terme à ces représailles sanglantes, que pour
lui il s'appliquerait à y mettre fin par la paix la plus prochaine, et qu'en témoignage
de ces intentions pacifiques il allait commencer par les faire soigner comme les
officiers de sa propre garde. L'allocution de Napoléon, immédiatement traduite en
allemand, fut fort bien accueillie de ces infortunés qu'il salua en les quittant, et qui
lui rendirent son salut de leurs mains défaillantes. Cette scène, mandée aux
journaux, était destinée à calmer les passions allemandes, si la victoire nous restait
fidèle encore vingt-quatre heures.
Parvenu sur les hauteurs de Bry, Napoléon mit pied à terre pour attendre le
résultat des reconnaissances dirigées vers les Quatre-Bras. Conservant sa liberté
d'esprit accoutumée, il s'entretint avec ses généraux des sujets les plus divers, de
la guerre, de la politique, des partis qui divisaient la France, des royalistes et des
jacobins, paraissant fort content de ce qui s'était fait depuis deux jours, et espérant
encore davantage pour les jours qui allaient suivre[17]. Pendant cet entretien il reçut
un premier avis des officiers envoyés sur la chaussée de Namur aux Quatre-Bras,
et apprit qu'au lieu de rencontrer Ney sur ce dernier point, on n'y avait rencontré
que les Anglais. Il en éprouva un mécontentement assez vif, fit expédier au
maréchal un nouvel ordre de se porter en avant, sans tenir compte des Anglais
qu'on prendrait en flanc s'ils résistaient, enjoignit à Lobau de hâter sa marche vers
les Quatre-Bras, et fit accélérer le départ de la garde. Il se disposa à partir lui-
même pour aller diriger le mouvement en personne. Dans le même instant on lui
remit un rapport du général Pajol, qui dès la pointe du jour s'était jeté sur la trace
des Prussiens. Ce rapport assez singulier disait qu'on avait ramassé des fuyards et
surtout des canons du côté de Namur, par conséquent dans la direction de Liége.
S'il fallait s'en rapporter à ce premier indice, on aurait dû en conclure que les
Prussiens prenaient le parti de regagner le Rhin, et que laissant les Anglais
s'appuyer sur la mer, ils allaient faire campagne avec les Autrichiens et les Russes.
Napoléon ne croyait guère à une pareille résolution de leur part. Il supposait que
Blucher, tel qu'il le connaissait, tâcherait de se réunir avec les Anglais en ayant ou
en arrière de la forêt de Soignes, et que c'était dès lors dans la direction de Wavre
qu'il fallait le chercher. Pourtant à la guerre comme en politique il faut n'être pas
esclave de la vraisemblance, et tout en lui accordant la préférence dans ses
calculs, avoir l'esprit ouvert à toutes les éventualités. C'est ce
Instructions
verbales données à que fit Napoléon. Le maréchal Grouchy était en ce moment
Grouchy pour la auprès de lui. Il lui donna verbalement ses instructions,
conduite de l'aile lesquelles résultaient tellement de la situation, qu'on les
droite. pressent avant qu'elles soient énoncées. Il lui recommanda de