MBA 2ND SEMESTER

KMBN203: BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

MEANING OF RESEARCH
 The word “Re”means again and again and “search” means voyage of knowledge.
 Research in common parlance (word) refers to a search for knowledge.
 Research facilitates original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge, making for its
advancement for the better of this universe.
 Research may be defined as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
 In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem is research.
 As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and
reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem
or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
 Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
 According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as
“the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend,
correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the
practice of an art.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies).
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies).
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies).
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

IMPORTANCE / SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

 A Tool for Building Knowledge and Efficient Learning.

 Means to Understand Various Issues related to all disciplines.
 A quality research works is an Aid to Business Success.
 A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths with the help of quality research.
 Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities.
 A Seed to Read, Write, Analyse, and Sharing Valuable Information.
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organisation.
 The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to
the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. Research, as an aid to
economic policy, has gained added importance, both for government and business.

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  Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

The basic types of research are as follows:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical research: The major purpose of descriptive research is

description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.In social science and business research
we quite often usethe term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main
characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are
used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for
example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data.

In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

2. Applied vs. Fundamental research: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research.

Applied or Action research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organisation. .Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a
solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research.
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution
or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and
understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied
research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem.

Fundamental or pure or basic Research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with
the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or
‘basic’ research. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning
human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are
also examples of fundamental research. Basic research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing
organized body of scientific knowledge.

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research: Quantitative research is based on the measurement

of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
Research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is especially important in the
behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human
behaviour.

4. Conceptual vs. Empirical Research: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract
idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or
to reinterpret existing ones.

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 Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts first-hand, at their source, and
actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In
such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess
as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his
hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons
or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus
characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate
manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof
is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through
experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible
for a given hypothesis.

5. Some other types of Research: Form the point of view of time; research either as one-time
research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single
time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any
remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-
oriented. While doing conclusion-oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem,
redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-
oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is
not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an
example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive
departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

QUALITIES OF RESEARCH

Research is defined as a process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information to answer

questions or solve a problem. But to qualify as good research, the process must have certain
characteristics and properties: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and
verifiable, empirical and critical. The main characteristics for good quality research are listed below:

1. It is generalizable to other settings.

2. It is based on some logical rationale and tied to theory. In a way that it has the potential to
suggest directions for future research.
3. It generates new questions or is cyclical in nature.
4. It is incremental.
5. It addresses directly or indirectly some real problem in the world.
6. It clearly states the variables or constructs to be examined.
7. Valid and verifiable such that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and
can be verified by you and others.
8. The researcher is sincerely interested and/or invested in this research.

Meanwhile, bad research has the following properties:

1. The opposites of what have been discussed.

2. Looking for something when it simply is not to be found.
3. Plagiarizing other people’s work.
4. Falsifying data to prove a point.
5. Misrepresenting information and misleading participants.

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RESEARCH APPLICATIONS IN FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF BUSINESS

Management research includes various functions of management such as planning, organizing,

staffing, communicating, coordinating, motivating, and controlling. Various motivational theories are
the result of research. Production (also called manufacturing) research focuses more on materials and
equipment rather than on human aspects. It covers various aspects such as new and better ways of
producing goods, inventing new technologies, reducing costs, improving product quality.

Research in personnel management may range from very simple problems to highly complex
problems of all types. It is primarily concerned with the human aspects of the business such as
personnel policies, job requirements, job evaluation, recruitment, selection, placement, training and
development, promotion and transfer, morale and attitudes, wage and salary administration, industrial
relations. Basic research in this field would be valuable as human behaviour affects organizational
behaviour and productivity.

Research in Financial Management includes financial institutions, financing instruments (example,

shares, debentures), financial markets (capital market, money market, primary market, secondary
market), financial services (example, merchant banking, discounting, factoring), financial analysis
(e.g. investment analysis, ratio analysis, funds flow / cash flow analysis) etc.

Accounting research though narrow in its scope, but is a highly significant area of business
management. Accounting information is used as a basis for reports to the management, shareholders,
investors, tax authorities, regulatory bodies and other interested parties. Areas for accounting research
include inventory valuation, depreciation accounting, generally accepted accounting principles,
accounting standards, corporate reporting etc.

Marketing research deals with product development and distribution problems, marketing
institutions, marketing policies and practices, consumer behaviour, advertising and sales promotion,
sales management and after sales service etc. Marketing research is one of the very popular areas and
also a well-established one. Marketing research includes market potentials, sales forecasting, product
testing, sales analysis, market surveys, test marketing, consumer behaviour studies, marketing
information system etc.

Business policy research is basically the research with policy implications. The results of such
studies are used as indices for policy formulation and implementation. Business history research is
concerned with the past. For example, how was trade and commerce during the Moghul regime.

RESEARCH AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.
 In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific method is one and same in the branches
(of science) and that method is the method of all logically trained minds … the unity of all
sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of any
kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the
Scientific Method and is a man of science. Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as
determined by logical considerations.
 Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical
arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.
 In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that
their possible alternatives become clear.
 The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;

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 3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated
by the demands of logic and objective procedure.”

Characteristics of Scientific Method

1. Empirical: The scientific method is empirical. That is, it relies on direct observation of the
world, and disdains hypotheses that run counter to observable fact. This contract with
methods that rely on pure reason with methods that rely on emotional or other subjective
factors.
2. Replicable: scientific experiments are replicable. That is, if another person duplicates the
experiment, he or she will get the same results.
3. Provisional: results obtained from the scientific method are provisional; they are open to
questions and debate. If new data arise that contradicts a theory, that theory must be modified.
4. Objective: The scientific method is objective. It relies on facts and on the world as it is,
rather than on beliefs, wishes or desires.
5. Systematic: the scientific method is systematic, that is, it relies on carefully planned studies
rather than on random or haphazard observation. Nevertheless, science can begin from some
random observation.
6. Verifiable: Observations made through scientific method are to be verified again by using the
senses to confirm or reuse the previous findings.
7. Cumulative: prior to the start of any study the researcher try to scan through the literature
and see that their study is not a repetition in ignorance. Also the researchers do not leave their
findings into scattered bits or pieces. The results are to be organised and systematised.
8. Deterministic: Science is based on the assumption that all events have antecedents’ causes
that are subject to identification and logical understanding. For the scientist nothing just
happen it happens for a reason.
9. Ethical and Ideological Neutrality: The conclusion drawn through interpretation of the
results of data analysis should be objective; that is they should be based on the facts and
findings derived from actual data, and not on your own subjective or emotional values.
10. Statistical Generalisation: Generalisability refers to the scope of the research findings in one
organizational setting to other settings. Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of the
solution generated by research, the more useful the research is to users.
11. Rationalism : Science is the fundamentally a rational activity, and the scientific explanation
must make sense. Religion may rest on revelations, custom or traditions, gambling on faith,
but science must rest on logical reason.

Formulation of Research Problem

Formulating the research problem acts as a major step in the research process. In research, the
foremost step that comes into play is that of defining the research problem and it becomes almost a
necessity to have the basic knowledge and understanding of most of its elements as this would help a
lot in making a correct decision. The research problem can be said to be complete only if it is able to
specify about the unit of analysis, time and space boundaries, features that are under study, specific
environment condition to prerequisite of the research process. Formulating a research problem shows
a researcher where previous researchers have been deficient and identifies possibilities of study that
have not yet been pursued.

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Problem Formulation Process
A brief review of the relevant literature helps enormously in broadening this knowledge base. Without
such knowledge it is difficult to clearly and adequately “dissect” a subject area. Problem formulation
involves the following steps:
STEP 1: Identify the broad field or Subject Area of Interest: In the first step, the researcher
should ask himself that what really interests him as a professional. This will help him to find an
interesting topic, and one which may be use to.
STEP 2: Dissect the broad area into sub-areas: At the outset, the researcher will realise that all the
broad areas have many aspects. So, he can select any subject area from other fields such as
commodity health or consumer research and go through this dissection process.
STEP 3: Select what is of most interesting :it is neither advisable nor feasible to study all areas and
sub-areas. Out of the list the researcher should select issues and sub-areas about which he is
passionate. That is because his interest should be the most important determinant for selection, even
though there are other considerations.
STEP 4 : Raise research questions: At this step the researcher asks himself, what is it that I want to
find out about in this sub area? Within his chosen sub-area, the researcher first list whatever questions
he want to find answers to.
STEP 5: Formulate Objectives: In this step, the researcher formulates his main objectives and his
sub-objectives. The objectives grow out of the research question. The main difference between
objectives and research questions is the way they are written. Research questions are obviously that
questions, objectives transform these questions into behavioural aims by using action-oriented words
such as “ to find out” to determine, to ascertain and to examine.
STEP 6: Assess the objectives: now the researcher should examine the objectives to ascertain the
feasibility of achieving them through the research endeavour. He should consider them in the light of
the time, resources and technical expertise at the disposal.
STEP 7: Double Check: Here the researcher should go back and give final consideration to whether
or not he is sufficiently interested in the study and have adequate resources to undertake it. He should
ask himself.” Am I really enthusiastic about this study? And do I really have enough resources to
undertake it? Once the researcher answers these questions thoughtfully and realistically, if the answer
is one of them is “no”, he should re-assess the objectives.

STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.

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A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful.
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those
which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At
the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must
decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire
into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if
any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be
considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a
general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific
enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from
an analytical point of view. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with
one’s own colleagues or with those having some expertise in the matter.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should
be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to
write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board
for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals,
conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the
nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to
another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully
studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such
the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they
provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be

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 conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the
analysis. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an
important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting
the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses
attention on the more important facets of the problem.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state
the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a
design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other
words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved
depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four
categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A
flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of
a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration.
But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association
between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises bias and maximises the
reliability of the data collected and analysed. There are several research designs, such as,
experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either
informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-only with control, before-
and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized
block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the
researcher must select one for his own project.
5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all
the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in
practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get
larger and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of
checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this,
census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood
testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the
universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a
sample. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known
as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any
data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. A brief mention of
the important sample designs is as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or
non-probability sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or
deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a
sample which represents the universe. When population elements are
selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be
called convenience sampling.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance
sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the
population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one
of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same
probability of being selected.

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 (iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of
sampling is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one
side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic
sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind
of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to
start.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn
does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling
technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample. In this
technique, the population is stratified into a number of nonoverlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum.
If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random
sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random
sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples
from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply
given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items
for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota
sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally
proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota
sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota
samples generally happen to be judgement samples rather than random
samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping
the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are
several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected
either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he
observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the
truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one
or more of the following ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of
investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The
information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by
either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method
is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also
very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are
concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks
answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method
of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends
upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method
but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly,
when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact
with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the

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 respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most
extensively used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying
this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which
reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be
prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant
information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given
training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These
enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up
the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much
depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some
occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to
test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or
they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing
hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of
such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will
result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses
to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be
tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
10. Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of
fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis
of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often
trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: The main text of the report should have the following
parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the
study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also
be given specially in a published research report.

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Research Proposal
A research proposal is a document proposing a research project, generally in the sciences or
academia, and generally constitutes a request for sponsorship of that research. Proposals are
evaluated on the cost and potential impact of the proposed research, and on the soundness of the
proposed plan for carrying it out.

Elements of a Research Proposal

Introduction and Theoretical Framework

The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background information for the
research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so that readers
can understand how it is related to other research.

Statement of the Problem

The problem statement describes the context for the study and it also identifies the general analysis
approach.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the
study.

Review of the Literature

The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It should
establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the area.

Questions and/or Hypotheses

Questions are relevant to normative or census type research (How many of them are there? Is there a
relationship between them?). They are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although their use in
quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent. Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and
are typically used only in quantitative inquiry. When a writer states hypotheses, the reader is entitled
to have an exposition of the theory that lead to them (and of the assumptions underlying the theory).
Just as conclusions must be grounded in the data, hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical
framework .Research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but phrases the
relationship as a question; a hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations between two
or more variables.

The Design—Methods and Procedures

The methods or procedures section is really the heart of the research proposal. The activities should be
described with as much detail as possible, and the continuity between them should be apparent.

Limitations and Delimitations

Significance of the Study
References

Drafting a Research Proposal

A research proposal informs the reader (your advisor) about the scope and scale of the issue or idea
that you wish to explore in your project. Your proposal should include the following sections:

1. THE PROBLEM: provide a succinct statement (one paragraph)

Research is not a summary of what is available on a given topic but an original analysis of a specific
problem. A research problem is distinct from a topic in that it is more specific and orients research
toward an analysis or solution.

Research questions have to be complex. If you already know the answer to the question, or if it can
be obtained through a few simple inquiries, it is not an adequate research problem. It should be a

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puzzle, a mystery that you want to solve. It should also require you to look at multiple sources. In
introducing your problem in a research proposal, you should provide a succinct statement which will
help you to remain focused on the issue that you are addressing and how the information you will be
discussing is related to that issue.

2. BACKGROUND: create a common ground of understanding

In order for the reader to understand the issue you are presenting, it is necessary to provide a context.
In a proposal, that section provides a brief overview of the larger issues and ideas of your topic, and
how this specific research problem relates to these larger issues. Whatever you choose to highlight,
the reader should be convinced that your research will contribute to our understanding of broader
social, historical or cultural issues.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW: enter into the scholarly conversation

A research project should be original, rather than reproducing existing literature on the topic. Yet it is
helpful to consider any current research as part of a scholarly conversation. The literature review
section of your proposal is an opportunity to begin that conversation by reviewing the research to
date, indicating what aspects of it your project will build upon and the ways that your proposed
research differs from what has already been done. You should be able to identify themes that emerge
from the existing research as well as its shortcomings. Or, you may find that what exists on the topic
is truly excellent, but that it doesn’t account for the specific problem you have identified. In this
section, you should also clarify the theoretical orientation of your project and identify specific sources
from which you will draw.

4. OBJECTIVES: preliminary arguments

In order to build an argument, you must begin to lay out for the reader the claims you are making and
the basis on which you are making them. You should also indicate, even in a preliminary fashion, the
“solution” or interpretation you anticipate will result from your analysis of the problem. It’s likely
(perhaps inevitable) that once you’ve completed your research and are writing your final paper, your
“solution” will be rather different than you anticipated. That, in fact, may become a useful point for
you to discuss in the conclusion to your work. But having some sense of the result you expect will
help keep your work focused on the relevant issues and will keep you alert to information which may
lead to conclusions other than what you expected.

Keep in mind that this is an initial proposal for your research. You have not fully worked out the
argument you intend to present. The objectives you are presenting in the proposal are based on your
initial research into the problem. Experienced researchers understand that the objectives of their
problem get refined as their work progresses. Yours will, too.

5. METHODS: how the research will be conducted

Once you have provided a context for your research, you should be able to outline for the reader the
specific steps you will take to address the problem you have identified. This will include a discussion
of research methods. In this section, it is important to be clear about how each step, or how each
specific method you will employ, will help you get at the problem that guides the research. In other
words, if you say you will be doing focus groups, provide a rationale. Why is a focus group a better
way to collect data for your research than a few in-depth interviews?

You should include a timetable for your research in this section. This is not set in stone, but can be
helpful as your work progresses.

6. CONCLUSION

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This is similar to the conclusion of any written piece. You should restate the gist of the problem, its
relationship to larger issues, the information you will use to address this issue and what you anticipate
you will discover.

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