MODULE 1 (INTRODUCTION)

Q1) What is a compiler? Define the different phases of a compiler.

A compiler is a computer program that translates source code written in one programming
language (the source language) into another language (the target language), typically a more
machine-readable language (assembly language, object code, or machine code).
The different phases of a compiler are:
1. Lexical analysis is the process of breaking down the source code into tokens. A token
is a sequence of characters that has a meaning in the source language. For example, in
the source code int x = 5;, the tokens are int, x, =, 5, and ;
2. Syntactic analysis is the process of determining the structure of the source code. The
compiler builds a parse tree, which is a representation of the source code in a tree-like
structure.
3. Semantic analysis is the process of checking the source code for errors and determining
its meaning. The compiler checks for errors such as syntax errors, type errors, and
logical errors. It also determines the meaning of the source code by looking up the
meaning of identifiers, operators, and keywords in the symbol table.
4. Intermediate code generation is the process of generating an intermediate
representation of the source code. The intermediate representation is a form of code that
is easier for the compiler to optimize and generate machine code from.
5. Code optimization is the process of improving the performance of the generated code.
The compiler can perform a variety of optimizations, such as removing unnecessary
instructions, inlining functions, and using more efficient data structures.
6. Code generation is the process of generating machine code from the intermediate
representation. The compiler generates machine code that can be executed by the target
machine.
Q2) State the differences between compiler and interpreter.

Q3) Describe the structure of a compiler.

-The structure of a compiler can be classified into two parts:
i. Analysis phase
ii. Synthesis phase

Q4) What is a token? Give examples.

A token in a compiler is a sequence of characters that has a meaning in the source language.
Tokens are created by the lexical analyser, which is the first phase of a compiler. The lexical
analyser breaks down the source code into tokens by recognizing patterns of characters. For
example, the lexical analyser would recognize the following tokens in the source code int x =
5;:
• int: A keyword that represents the integer data type.
• x: An identifier that represents a variable.
• =: An operator that represents the assignment operation.
• 5: A literal that represents the number 5.
• ;: A punctuation mark that marks the end of the statement.
Different types of tokens are: Keywords, Identifiers, Literals, Operators, Punctuation marks.
Tokens are also known as lexemes.
Q5) What is a scanner generator? Give examples.
-A scanner generator is a tool that automatically generates a lexical analyser, also known as a
scanner, for a programming language. A lexical analyser is a program that reads source code
and breaks it down into tokens. Tokens are the basic units of data that are processed by the
compiler.
There are two popular scanner generators: LEX and flex.
LEX is the original scanner generator, while flex (Fast Lexical Analyzer Generator) is an open-
source alternative to LEX. Both LEX and flex use a regular expression language to specify the
tokens that should be recognized by the lexical analyser. Regular expressions are a powerful
tool for specifying patterns of text. Once a regular expression has been specified, LEX or flex
will generate a C program that implements the lexical analyser. The C program will read source
code and break it down into tokens. The tokens will then be passed to the parser, which is the
next phase of the compiler.
Scanner generators are a valuable tool for compiler developers. They can save a lot of time and
effort by automating the process of generating lexical analysers.
Q6) Define regular expressions. What are the two different types of regular expressions?
Regular expressions are a powerful tool for specifying patterns of text. In the context of
compiler design, regular expressions are used to specify the tokens that should be recognized
by the lexical analyser. There are two main types of regular expressions:
• Basic regular expressions are a simple and straightforward way to specify patterns of
text. They are easy to learn and use, but they are not very powerful. E.g.- [0-9]+
• Extended regular expressions are more powerful than basic regular expressions. They
can be used to specify more complex patterns of text. However, they are also more
difficult to learn and use. E.g.-\d+
A regular language is a set of strings that can be described by a regular expression. Regular
languages are a powerful tool that can be used to describe the set of tokens that can be generated
by the lexical analyser.

MODULE 2 and 3 (SYNTAX ANALYSIS and SEMANTIC ANALYSIS)

Q1) State the differences between top-down parsing and bottom-up parsing.

Q2) What is operator Grammer.

An operator precedence grammar is a type of grammar that is used to describe the syntax of a
programming language. It is a context-free grammar that has the property that no production
has either an empty right-hand side or two adjacent nonterminal in its right-hand side.
Operator precedence grammars are used in compiler design to parse expressions. A parser is a
program that takes a stream of tokens and produces a parse tree, which is a representation of
the syntactic structure of the expression.
There are two main types of parsers: top-down parsers and bottom-up parsers. Top-down
parsers start at the top of the expression and work their way down, while bottom-up parsers
start at the bottom of the expression and work their way up.
Operator precedence grammars are typically used with bottom-up parsers. The parser maintains
a stack of tokens and operators. As it reads tokens from the input stream, it pushes them onto
the stack. When it encounters an operator, it pops the top two tokens off the stack, performs the
operation, and pushes the result back onto the stack.
This process continues until the parser reaches the end of the input stream. At that point, the
stack should contain a single token, which is the result of the entire expression.

Q3) State the differences between ambiguous and non-ambiguous Grammer.

Q4) Write short notes on LALR (1) parse generators.

YACC and bison are two popular LALR(1) parse generators. They are both written in the C
programming language and can be used to generate parsers for a wide variety of programming
languages. In the context of compiler design, LALR(1) parse generators are used to create the
front-end of the compiler. The front-end is responsible for parsing the source code of the
program and converting it into an internal representation that can be used by the back-end of
the compiler.
The front-end of a compiler typically consists of two parts: a lexical analyser and a parser. The
lexical analyser is responsible for breaking the source code into tokens, while the parser is
responsible for constructing a parse tree from the tokens. YACC stands for "Yet Another
Compiler Compiler". Bison is a parser generator that is compatible with YACC. To use YACC
or bison, you first need to write a grammar file. The grammar file describes the syntax of the
programming language that you want to parse. Once you have written the grammar file, you
can use YACC or bison to generate a parser.
The generated parser will be a C function that takes a stream of tokens as input and produces a
parse tree as output. The parse tree is a representation of the syntactic structure of the program.
Q5) What is a syntax table?
In the context of compiler design, a syntax table is a data structure that is used to store the
information about the syntax of a programming language. It is used by the parser to determine
the syntactic structure of the program. It is also known as parsing table. The syntax table is
typically implemented as a two-dimensional table. The first dimension of the table represents
the non-terminal symbols of the grammar, and the second dimension represents the terminals
of the grammar. Each entry in the table contains a list of productions that can be used to
generate the non-terminal symbol from the terminals.
Q6) Write short notes on “Run time environment” in compiler design.
A run-time environment in compiler design is the state of the target machine during the
execution of a program. It includes software libraries, environment variables, and other
resources that provide services to the processes running in the system . The run-time
environment is responsible for managing the processor stack, layout and allocation of memory
for various variables used in the source program, linkages between procedures, and passing
parameters among other concerns
• Procedure activation: When a procedure is called, a new activation record is created on
the stack. The activation record stores the local variables, parameters, and return
address for the procedure.
• Parameter passing: Parameters can be passed to procedures in three ways: by value, by
reference, and by output. By value parameters are copied into the activation record of
the called procedure. By reference parameters are pointers to the actual variables in the
calling procedure. By output parameters are pointers to variables in the called procedure
that are used to return values to the calling procedure.
• Value return: When a procedure returns, the value of the return expression is stored in
the return address on the stack. The stack pointer is then decremented by one, and the
return address is transferred to the program counter.
• Memory allocation: Memory is allocated for local variables and parameters on the
stack. Memory for global variables is allocated in the data segment of the program.
Memory for heap-allocated objects is allocated using a memory allocator.
• Scope: The scope of a variable is the part of the program where the variable can be
referenced. Variables declared at the top level of a program have global scope. Variables
declared inside a block have local scope.
MODULE 4 (INTERMEDIATE CODE GENERATION)
Q1) What is intermediate code generation? State its importance along with the
advantages and disadvantages.
Intermediate code generation is the process of converting the source code of a program into an
intermediate representation, which is a more abstract form of the code that is easier to process
by the compiler. The intermediate representation is then used by the compiler to generate the
machine code for the target platform.
There are many different types of intermediate representations, but some of the most common
ones include:
• Three-address code: This is a representation of the code that uses three addresses for
each instruction. The first address is the operand, the second address is the operator,
and the third address is the result.
• Quadruples: This is a representation of the code that uses four addresses for each
instruction. The first address is the operator, the second address is the first operand, the
third address is the second operand, and the fourth address is the result.
• Abstract syntax tree: This is a tree-like representation of the code that shows the
structure of the program.
Intermediate code generation is a critical step in the compilation process. It allows the compiler
to perform a number of important tasks, such as:
• Error detection: The compiler can use the intermediate representation to detect errors
in the source code. For example, the compiler can check to make sure that all variables
are declared before they are used.
• Optimization: The compiler can use the intermediate representation to optimize the
code. For example, the compiler can remove unnecessary instructions and combine
instructions that can be executed together.
• Code generation: The compiler can use the intermediate representation to generate the
machine code for the target platform.
Intermediate code generation is a complex process, but it is essential for the production of
efficient and high-quality compilers.
Here are some of the advantages of using intermediate code generation in compiler design:
• It allows for better error detection and recovery.
• It allows for better optimization.
• It makes the compiler more modular.
• It makes the compiler easier to maintain.
Here are some of the disadvantages of using intermediate code generation in compiler design:
• It can add an additional layer of complexity to the compiler.
• It can slow down the compilation process.
• It can require more memory.
Q2) Explain how different language features are translated in the context of intermediate
code generation in compiler design.
 ❖ Control flow: Control flow statements, such as if statements, while loops, and switch
statements, are translated into instructions that control the flow of execution of the
intermediate code. For example, an if statement is translated into an instruction that
checks the value of a condition and then branches to the appropriate code block
depending on the value of the condition.
❖ Data types: Data types, such as integers, floats, and strings, are translated into
corresponding data types in the intermediate representation. For example, an integer is
translated into a register or memory location that can store an integer value.
❖ Operators: Operators, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, are
translated into corresponding instructions in the intermediate representation. For
example, the addition operator is translated into an instruction that adds two operands
and stores the result in a register or memory location.
❖ Functions: Functions are translated into a call graph, which is a data structure that shows
how functions are called and how they call each other. The call graph is used by the
compiler to generate code for the function calls and to resolve any errors that may occur
when calling functions.
❖ Variables: Variables are translated into symbols, which are names that refer to objects
in the intermediate representation. For example, a variable called x is translated into a
symbol called x that refers to the memory location where the value of x is stored.
Following are some of the challenges of translating different language features into
intermediate code:
• The different language features can be complex and have different semantics. This can
make it difficult to translate them into a single, consistent intermediate representation.
• The different language features can interact with each other in complex ways. This can
make it difficult to generate correct and efficient code for the intermediate
representation.
• The different language features can be implemented in different ways by different
compilers. This can make it difficult to port code from one compiler to another.

Q3) Write short notes on code optimisation.

Code optimization is the process of improving the performance, speed, and efficiency of a
program by rewriting its source code. It is a crucial part of compiler design, as it can
significantly improve the performance of the generated code. It is the fifth phase in compiler
design.
Following are some of the ways through which the performance of the code can be increased:
(These are not techniques but rather provide information’s that can be used by the code
optimization techniques to improve the performance of the code)
1. Analysis: Analysis is the process of collecting information about the program and
distributing it to each block of the flow graph. This information can be used to optimize
the code by identifying and eliminating redundant or unnecessary computations,
improving memory access patterns, and performing other optimizations.
 2. Control flow: Control flow refers to the order in which the individual statements,
instructions, or function calls of a program are executed. Code optimization techniques
can be used to improve the control flow of a program, for example by eliminating
redundant or unnecessary computations.
3. Data-flow: Data-flow analysis plays a crucial role in optimizing compilers. By
analyzing the data flow in a program, the compiler can identify and eliminate redundant
or unnecessary computations, improve memory access patterns, and perform other
optimizations.
4. Dependence: Dependence analysis is used to determine the dependencies between
different statements or instructions in a program. This information can be used to
optimize the code by reordering instructions or performing other transformations that
do not change the semantics of the program.
Following are some methods of code optimization:
❖ Dead code elimination: This optimization removes code that will never be executed.
This can be done by analysing the control flow of the program to determine which
instructions are unreachable.
❖ Loop unrolling: This optimization breaks a loop into multiple smaller loops. This can
improve performance by reducing the number of times the loop condition is evaluated
and by allowing the compiler to generate more efficient code for the loop body.
❖ Common subexpression elimination: This optimization removes common
subexpressions from the code. This can improve performance by reducing the number
of times the subexpression is evaluated.
❖ Constant folding: This optimization replaces constant expressions with their values.
This can improve performance by eliminating the need to evaluate the expression at
runtime.
❖ Function inlining: This optimization replaces a function call with the body of the
function. This can improve performance by reducing the number of function calls and
by allowing the compiler to inline other functions that are called from the function body.
❖ Register allocation: This optimization assigns registers to variables in the code. This
can improve performance by reducing the number of memory accesses and by allowing
the compiler to generate more efficient code for the instructions that access variables.
❖ Memory allocation: This optimization determines how to allocate memory for variables
in the code. This can improve performance by reducing the amount of memory that is
allocated and by allowing the compiler to generate more efficient code for the
instructions that access memory.
Q4) Explain the following:

1) Local optimization
2) Global optimization
 3) Loop optimization
4) Peephole optimization

1) Local optimization is a type of optimization that focuses on small sections of code,

typically individual statements or basic blocks. Local optimizations can be performed
without considering the broader context of the program, which makes them relatively
efficient to implement. However, they can also be less effective than global
optimizations, which can take into account the interactions between different parts of
the program. (Eliminates unnecessary computations)
2) Global optimization is a type of optimization that considers the entire program as a
whole. Global optimizations can be more effective than local optimizations, but they
can also be more complex to implement. Global optimizations often require the use of
sophisticated data flow analysis techniques to determine which parts of the program
can be safely modified without affecting the correctness of the program. (Performs
optimizations such as loop unrolling, dead code elimination, and constant folding.)
3) Loop optimization is a type of optimization that focuses on loops in the program. Loops
can often be optimized by unrolling them, which means replacing the loop with a
sequence of statements that execute the body of the loop multiple times. Loop
optimization can improve the performance of loops by reducing the number of times
the loop body is executed. (Reduces the number of iterations)
4) Peephole optimization is a type of optimization that focuses on small, individual
instructions in the program. Peephole optimizations are typically implemented by a
compiler as a pass that scans the generated code for opportunities to perform small
optimizations. Peephole optimizations can improve the performance of the program by
reducing the number of instructions that are executed. (Eliminates redundant
instructions)
Q5) What do you mean by “architecture dependent code improvement”?
Architecture-dependent code improvement is a type of compiler optimization that takes
advantage of the specific hardware and software environment that the code will be running in.
This can lead to improved performance, memory usage, and other metrics.
There are many different types of architecture-dependent optimizations that can be performed.
Some common examples include:
❖ Register allocation: Register allocation is a critical optimization for high-performance
code. The goal of register allocation is to assign variables to registers in a way that
minimizes the number of times that variables are stored to and loaded from memory.
This can significantly improve the performance of the code by reducing the number of
memory accesses.
❖ Instruction scheduling: Instruction scheduling is another important optimization for
high-performance code. The goal of instruction scheduling is to rearrange the order of
instructions in the code so that the CPU can execute them as efficiently as possible.
This can be done by taking into account the instruction pipeline, cache size, and other
factors.
 ❖ Memory access optimization: Memory access optimization is the process of optimizing
the way that the code accesses memory. This can be done by taking into account the
memory hierarchy, cache size, and other factors. The goal of memory access
optimization is to minimize the number of memory accesses and to ensure that the
memory accesses are performed in a way that minimizes the impact on the CPU cache.
❖ Branch prediction: Branch prediction is a technique that can be used to improve the
performance of code that contains branches. Branches are instructions that can cause
the code to execute different instructions depending on the value of a Boolean
expression. Branch prediction works by guessing which way the branch will go and
then executing instructions on that path. If the guess is correct, then the CPU can
continue executing instructions without having to wait for the branch to be resolved. If
the guess is incorrect, then the CPU will have to flush the pipeline and start over. Branch
prediction can significantly improve the performance of code that contains a lot of
branches.
Architecture-dependent code improvement can be a complex and time-consuming process.
However, it can also lead to significant performance improvements. Compiler writers must
carefully consider the target architecture when designing and implementing their compilers.
Q6) Write short notes on “target code generation”.
Target code generation is the final stage of compilation, where the compiler converts the
intermediate code into machine code for a specific target architecture. The target code generator
typically works by first translating the intermediate code into a sequence of assembly language
instructions. The assembly language instructions are then converted into machine code using a
disassembler. The machine code is then optimized for the target architecture using a variety of
techniques, such as instruction scheduling, register allocation, and code hoisting.
Here are some of the key challenges of target code generation:
• Instruction set architecture (ISA) diversity: There are many different ISAs in use today,
each with its own set of instructions, registers, and addressing modes. The target code
generator must be able to generate code for a wide range of ISAs.
• Calling conventions: Calling conventions define how arguments are passed to and from
functions, and how the return value is returned. The target code generator must be aware
of the calling conventions for the target architecture.
• Runtime environment: The target code generator must also be aware of the runtime
environment for the target architecture. This includes things like the memory layout,
the exception handling mechanism, and the debugging facilities.
Here are some of the benefits of target code generation:

❖ Improved performance: The target code generator can generate code that is specifically
optimized for the target architecture. This can lead to significant performance
improvements over code that is generated for a generic architecture.
 ❖ Reduced code size: The target code generator can often generate code that is smaller
than code that is generated by a generic compiler. This can be beneficial for embedded
systems and other applications where code size is a critical factor.
❖ Improved portability: The target code generator can generate code that is portable to a
variety of target architectures. This can make it easier to port applications to new
platforms.

MODULE 5 (TYPE SYSTEM AND DATA ABSTRACTION)

Q1) Explain the following in vivid detail from the context of compiler design:
1) Type systems
2) Data abstractions
3)Compilation of object-oriented features and non-primitive programming languages
• Type systems are a set of rules that assign types to different components of a program.
They are used to ensure that programs are correct and to prevent errors at runtime. There
are many different types of type systems, but they all have the same basic goal: to ensure
that the data in a program is used correctly.
• Data abstractions are a way of hiding the implementation details of data from users.
This makes the data easier to use and to understand. Data abstractions are often used in
object-oriented programming, where they are used to create classes. Classes are a way
of grouping together data and methods that are related to each other.
• The compilation of object-oriented features is the process of translating object-oriented
code into machine code. This process is more complex than the compilation of non-
object-oriented code, because it must take into account the object-oriented features of
the language, such as classes, inheritance, and polymorphism.
• The compilation of non-primitive programming languages is the process of translating
code written in a non-primitive programming language into machine code. This process
is more complex than the compilation of primitive programming languages, because it
must take into account the non-primitive features of the language, such as functional
programming, logic programming, and constraint programming.
In addition to these topics, compiler design also includes the following:
• Lexical analysis is the process of breaking down a program into its smallest
components, such as tokens and keywords.
• Parsing is the process of determining the structure of a program.
• Semantic analysis is the process of determining the meaning of a program.
• Code generation is the process of translating a program into machine code.
• Code optimization is the process of optimizing the code and
• Target code generation