Document 3
Document 3
Document 3
Weathering
Chemical and/or physical alteration of rocks. It occurs when these, on the surface, are subject to the action
of climatic factors and pressure and temperature conditions different from those that presided over its
training.
Physical weathering
Rock fragmentation without that there is a change in your composition.
Main agents of
physical weathering: ice, living beings, difference of temperature and pressure, water and wind.
Physical weathering enhances chemical weathering and vice versa. The fragmentation of the rock increases
your surface area of exposure to chemical weathering agents. A rock chemically altered becomes more
easily breakable.
Physical weathering refers to the process by which rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller pieces
without any change in their chemical composition. This type of weathering is primarily caused by
environmental factors such as temperature fluctuations, frost action, pressure, and the abrasion of rock
surfaces by wind, water, or other geological agents.
● Frost action: Water seeps into cracks in rocks, expands when it freezes, and causes the cracks to
widen over time.
● Temperature changes: Alternating heating and cooling of rocks can cause them to expand and
contract, leading to the development of fractures and eventual fragmentation.
● Pressure release: As overlying layers of rock are eroded away, the pressure on underlying rocks
decreases, causing them to expand and fracture.
● Abrasion: Rocks can be worn down and broken apart by the mechanical action of wind, water, ice, or
gravity.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering is a geological process in which rocks and minerals are broken down and altered
through chemical reactions with water, gases, and other substances present in the environment. Unlike
physical weathering, which breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition,
chemical weathering involves the alteration of the minerals within rocks, resulting in new mineral
assemblages.
Dissolution: Dissolution occurs when minerals dissolve in water, forming aqueous solutions. For example,
minerals like halite (salt) and calcite (found in limestone) can dissolve readily in water, leading to the
erosion of rock surfaces.Dissolution corresponds to the reaction of minerals with water or an acid.
Breakage occurs chemical bonds between different ions; the free ions are dissolved in the
solution.Examples: Unlike most minerals, halite is a mineral that is very soluble in water. Dissolves in
contact with water, creating salty water, with dissolved chlorine and sodium ions:NaCℓ + H2O → Na+ +
Cℓ-Calcite, present in limestone rocks, is not soluble in water but reacts easily with acidified water, forming
soluble products. This reaction of chemical alteration and destruction of limestones is called carbonation
and is translated by the following reaction:CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca2+ + 2(HCO3-)
The dissolution of calcite (calcium carbonate) is the main process that leads to the formation of the pattern
karst, sedimentary landscape that includes lapiás fields, caves and sinkholes.
Hydration: Hydration involves the absorption of water molecules into the crystal structure of minerals. This
can cause minerals to expand and become more susceptible to physical weathering processes. An example
of hydration is the absorption of water by certain minerals in clay formation.
Weatherization process that involves the chemical combination of water with minerals (hydration)or its
removal (dehydration). Some more common examples are
Hydrolysis: Hydrolysis involves the reaction of minerals with water, resulting in the breakdown of mineral
structures and the formation of new minerals. For example, feldspar minerals commonly undergo hydrolysis
to form clay minerals, which are stable under Earth's surface conditions Hydrolysis corresponds to the
.
H+ and OH- ions can result from the dissociation of water or an acid. This substitution reactionIonic energy
forms new and different minerals or can lead to the total disintegration of the original mineral.
Chemical weathering is influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture, pH, and the presence of
organic acids produced by plants and microorganisms. Over time, chemical weathering can significantly
alter the composition and appearance of rocks, contributing to the formation of soils, sedimentary rocks,
and other geological features.
Feldspar minerals partially decompose, producing dissolved silica and clay minerals,in this case, kaolinite.
This reaction is called kaolinization. Potassium becomes available to plants or forms a soluble salt
(KHCO3) that can be incorporated in other minerals or be washed into the sea.The silica will precipitate and
fill empty spaces in bodies or be washed into the sea. Kaolinite is a newly formed mineral that is very stable
on the surface.
Oxidation and reduction reactions are linked to each other, not one occurring without the other. Oxidation is
the process by which an atom or ion loses electrons. Reduction is the process which leads to the gain of
electrons. Minerals are oxidised by the action of oxygen.
In caves, dissolved calcite is precipitated and stalactites and stalagmites are formed.
Stalactites and stalagmites result from the following chemical reaction - precipitation, which is, thus, inverse
of dissolution: Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Living beings can also intervene in the process of chemical alteration of rocks, for example:
1.Plants increase water circulation and their roots produce high amounts of CO2 allowing the pH of the
medium to decrease, which favours the hydrolysis and dissolution of minerals.
2.Plants produce fluids and acids that, when they come into contact with rocks and minerals, cause its
chemical change.
3.The chemical action of the feces of some animals, such as pigeons, is particularly aggressive in limestone
rocks.
4.Lichens produce substances that react with rocks, facilitating their disintegration.
Certain bivalves produce corrosive substances that they use to open cracks in rocks.
TERRA ROSSA
Terra rossa is a type of soil that is known for its distinctive red color and its high fertility. The term "terra
rossa" is Italian for "red earth," and it is often found in regions with limestone bedrock.
The formation of terra rossa soil is primarily attributed to chemical weathering processes. It typically occurs
in areas where there is a high concentration of calcium carbonate (limestone) in the underlying bedrock.
Over time, the limestone undergoes chemical weathering, resulting in the release of calcium ions and
carbonate ions into the soil.
The red colour of terra rossa soil is due to the accumulation of iron oxides, particularly hematite (Fe2O3),
which forms as a result of the oxidation of iron-bearing minerals in the soil. The presence of iron oxides
gives the soil its distinctive reddish-brown hue.
Terra rossa soil is known for its high fertility and excellent drainage properties, making it suitable for
agriculture. It is commonly found in regions with a Mediterranean climate, such as parts of Italy, Croatia, and
Australia, where it supports the growth of vineyards, orchards, and other crops.
In addition to its agricultural importance, terra rossa soil is also significant in geological studies as it
provides insights into past environmental conditions and landscape evolution.
Rocks formed at depth, when they emerge, are relieved from the pressure exerted by the materials that were
on top. This leads to decompression and expansion of the rock producing diaclases (fractures)parallel to
the surface. This process is at the origin of the formation of rounded blocks, characteristic of the granite
landscape.
Thermoclasty is a geological process that involves the fracturing and breaking of rocks due to temperature
changes. It's a type of physical weathering, where rocks expand and contract in response to temperature
fluctuations, leading to the development of cracks and fractures.The process of thermoclasty is particularly
prevalent in regions with extreme temperature variations, such as deserts and high-altitude environments.
During the day, rocks absorb heat from sunlight and expand, while at night, they cool down and contract.
Over time, these cycles of expansion and contraction can cause stress within the rock, leading to the
development of fractures and the eventual disintegration of rock surfaces. Thermoclasty is one of the
factors contributing to the breakdown of rocks into smaller particles, which is a critical step in the formation
of soil and sedimentary rocks. It often works in conjunction with other physical weathering processes, such
as frost action and abrasion, to shape landscapes and geological formations.
Erosion
Erosion corresponds to the process of removing materials resulting from weathering.It is made by water,
wind, ice or gravity.Materials can be transported in rivers by current (by suspension, jump, rolling or by
entrainment) or even by dissolution.Wind is an important material transport agent.
Detrital sediments or clasts-Fragments of varying dimensions (from very fine particles to large blocks)Ex.
clay, sand, ballast.
Sediments of chemical origin-Substances transported in solution in the water that precipitatesEx: sodium
chloride, carbonate of calcium
Sediments of biological origin-Formed by the remains of living beings, namely shells and others skeletal
parts.Ex.: Shell fragments, materials plant derivatives.
Diagenesis or Lithification
In SANDS, the size, shape and brightness of the grains are characteristics that indicate the main erosion and
transport agent.
Grain size – varied, depending on wave energy and the distance from the source of the sediments.
Calibration – typically well to very well calibrated.
Rolling – sub-rolled to rolled grains, high polish conferred by the continued action of water on the surface of
the grains;
Composition – mainly quartz and other stable minerals. However, if the source is close, we can find other
minerals like calcite. Fragments of bioclasts of a very varied nature (e.g. bivalves, gastropods,echinoderms
They form mainly in tropical marine environments arid continental regions, from CaCO3
precipitation.Evaporite chemogenic sedimentary rocks.They form in confined basins (for example, shallow
seas, deep), in arid climates (where evaporation is greater than precipitation), due to the evaporation of
supersaturated water from salts.Limestone-Formed by precipitation calcium carbonate,normally in
environments marine. MARGA-Carbonate rock, with 35% to 65% clay.RAVERTINO-Formed by precipitation
quick carbonate calcium, normally in caves.DOLOMITE-carbonated rock, resulting from diagenetic
replacement from calcite to dolomite (calcium carbonate and magnesium).
Lithification is the process by which loose sediment is transformed into solid rock. It involves several key
steps:
Deposition: Sediment is initially deposited by various geological processes such as erosion, transportation, and
deposition by wind, water, or ice.
Compaction: Over time, the weight of overlying sediment and sedimentary layers causes the sediment grains to
become more tightly packed. Pressure from the weight of overlying material squeezes out water and air from the
sediment pores, reducing pore spaces and increasing sediment density.
Cementation: Minerals dissolved in groundwater can precipitate out and fill in the remaining pore spaces between
sediment grains. These minerals, such as calcite, silica, and iron oxides, act as cementing agents, binding the
sediment grains together to form a coherent rock matrix.
Crystallization: As cementation progresses, the cementing minerals crystallize and grow, further consolidating the
sediment into solid rock. This process helps strengthen the rock and stabilize its structure.
Diagenesis: Throughout the process of lithification, diagenetic changes may continue to occur. Diagenesis
involves the physical, chemical, and biological alterations of sedimentary rocks, including compaction,
cementation, and mineral alteration, which further contribute to the transformation of loose sediment into solid
rock.
Formation of Sedimentary Rock: Once the sediment has been compacted, cemented, and lithified, it becomes a
sedimentary rock. The type of sedimentary rock formed depends on factors such as the composition of the original
sediment, the nature of the cementing minerals, and the environmental conditions under which the sediment was
deposited and lithified.
Biogenic sedimentary rocks are a type of sedimentary rock that forms from the accumulation and deposition of
biological material. They are primarily composed of remains of marine organisms such as shells, coral skeletons,
calcareous algae, and microorganism shells. These organisms deposit calcium carbonate or silica in their
skeletons or shells, and when they die, these remains accumulate on the ocean and lake floors. Over geological
time, the accumulated biological remains are compacted and cemented, forming biogenic sedimentary rocks. Two
common examples of biogenic sedimentary rocks are limestone, primarily composed of calcium carbonate, and
diatomite, composed of microscopic silica diatoms.These rocks often contain fossils and are important for
understanding Earth's life history, as well as for the construction industry, cement manufacturing, and various other
industrial and commercial uses.
INCARBONIZACAO
Deposition of organic matter plant in basins (environment swampy continental- anaerobes).Anaerobic bacteria lead
the release of chemical groups that mainly contain oxygen, leading to the enrichment of organic matter in
carbon.Materials are subject to reduction or subsidence, leaving the vegetable matter under conditions of higher
pressure and temperature.Under the new conditions, the materials decrease in volume and the percentage of
carbon, through loss of other components (e.g.: H and O); decreases the concentration of volatiles (and water). A
density of materials increases.
Peat [turfa] - It is the first stage of coal formation mineral. In peat it is possible to identify roots, stems and
seeds. It's the least carbon-rich kind of coal, and for this reason, with a lower energy value.
Lignite - It is relatively close to the surface area. In geological terms, it's a recent coal. it is possible to observe
some plant remains. Its extraction is relatively easy and inexpensive, but its energy value is still low.
[Hulha] Coal (or bituminous coal) - It is the most common type of coal abundant and most used. It is high in
carbon, so has higher calorific value than the previous ones.
Anthracite [Antracite] - It is the most advanced stage in the formation of and is therefore the form with the
highest carbon content of carbon. It is the most compact and hardest, possessing also the highest calorific
value.
FORMATION OF PETROL
Petroleum is the term used to describe the liquid products that are generated in the deposits of
hydrocarbons, being synonymous with crude oil.The formation of hydrocarbons occurs from
of partially decomposed organic matter (mainly phytoplankton and zooplankton, buried little by little by
sediment deposited in the bottom of ancient in conditions of oxygen deprivation.For large quantities of
hydrocarbons form, the presence of three simultaneous factors: continuous sediment deposition,
principally clays; accumulation of dead beings in the bottom of basin;
Progressive subsidence (sinking) of seabed.As sediments are deposited, subsidence of the seabed occurs,
once
accumulated organic matter. With subsidence, increases the temperature and the press.
A sedimentary rock formed by the sediments and organic remains since the oil formed is the
mother rock.
So that the hydroscarbons remain in the reservoir rock, that is, so that they form
hydrocarbon deposits have gone through some exploited, it is necessary that there is a
armed, that is, an impermeable rock-cover that prevents the hydroscarbons from
escape from the reservoir rock.
If the hydroscarbons do not contradict an impermeable rock that prevents their migration,
these reach the superspecies and volatize, eventually getting lost.
River environment sand