Module 3

18ARC82 July/Aug 2022

What is the purpose of life cycle assessment of buildings? What are the aspects
included in life cycle assessment?
Life cycle assessment (LCA) of buildings serves as a comprehensive tool to evaluate and understand
the environmental impacts associated with the entire life cycle of a building, from its initial conception
to its end-of-life phase. This assessment considers various factors, including raw material extraction,
manufacturing processes, transportation, construction, operation, maintenance, and eventual
demolition or reuse.
The primary purpose of conducting LCA for buildings is to provide stakeholders, such as designers,
architects, engineers, developers, and policymakers, with valuable insights into the environmental
implications of different building materials, construction methods, and design choices. By assessing
the environmental impacts at each stage of a building's life cycle, LCA enables informed decision-
making to minimize resource consumption, energy usage, emissions, and waste generation while
promoting sustainable practices.

Aspects included in life cycle assessment of buildings typically cover the following stages:

1. Raw Material Extraction and Processing: This stage includes the extraction of raw materials such
as timber, steel, concrete, and other building materials, as well as their processing and
transportation to the construction site.

2. Construction: This stage covers the environmental impacts associated with the construction
process, including energy use, water consumption, and waste generation.

3. Operation and Maintenance: This stage considers the energy consumption, water use, and
emissions associated with the building's operation and maintenance over its lifespan, including
heating, cooling, lighting, and regular upkeep.

4. End of Life: This stage assesses the environmental impacts of demolishing or deconstructing the
building, as well as the potential for recycling or reusing materials.

5. Transportation: This aspect considers the transportation of materials and occupants to and from
the building, as well as the transportation of waste materials.

6. Embodied Energy: This refers to the total energy consumed throughout the building's life cycle,
including energy used in material production, construction, operation, and disposal.

7. Emissions: This includes the emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants associated with
the building's life cycle, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and volatile organic compounds.

What are some common repairs to buildings?

Roof Repairs: Repairing leaks, replacing damaged shingles or tiles, and addressing issues with
flashing or gutters.

Foundation Repairs: Fixing cracks, waterproofing, and addressing settlement issues.

Window and Door Repairs: Repairing or replacing damaged frames, seals, or hardware.

Plumbing Repairs: Fixing leaks, repairing or replacing fixtures, and addressing drainage issues.

Electrical Repairs: Fixing faulty wiring, replacing outlets or switches, and addressing electrical
system issues.

HVAC Repairs: Repairing or replacing heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems.

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 Painting and Exterior Wall Repairs: Repainting, repairing or replacing siding, stucco, or brickwork,
and addressing issues with insulation or weatherproofing.

Flooring Repairs: Repairing or replacing damaged flooring, such as hardwood, tile, or carpeting.

Structural Repairs: Repairing or reinforcing structural elements, such as beams, columns, or walls,
to ensure the building's stability and safety.

Water Damage Repairs: Addressing issues related to water infiltration, such as mold remediation,
drywall repair, and waterproofing.
Discuss in detail any four methods of building crack repair techniques.

4our methods of building crack repair techniques.

1. Epoxy Injection: Epoxy injection is a common method used to repair cracks in concrete structures.
It involves injecting epoxy resin into the cracks under pressure to fill and bond the cracks. This
method is effective for repairing both narrow and wide cracks and can restore the structural
integrity of the concrete.
Procedure:

Surface Preparation: Clean the crack to remove any dirt, debris, or loose material.

Drilling Holes: Drill holes along the crack at regular intervals to allow for the injection of epoxy.

Injection: Inject epoxy resin into the crack using a low-pressure pump, starting from the lowest
point and working upwards.

Curing: Allow the epoxy to cure and harden, typically for 24 hours.

Surface Sealing: Seal the surface of the crack to prevent moisture ingress.

Advantages: Effective for repairing both narrow and wide cracks, restores structural integrity.
Disadvantages: Requires careful surface preparation, may not be suitable for all types of cracks.

2. Stitching: Stitching is a method used to repair cracks in masonry or concrete walls by stitching
them together using metal or carbon fiber stitching rods. This method is effective for repairing
cracks that are actively moving or expanding.

Procedure:

Drilling Holes: Drill holes on either side of the crack.

Inserting Stitching Rods: Insert stitching rods into the holes and secure them with epoxy resin.

Sealing the Crack: Seal the crack with epoxy or mortar to prevent moisture ingress.

Advantages: Effective for repairing actively moving or expanding cracks, restores structural
integrity.
Disadvantages: Requires careful installation, may not be suitable for all types of cracks.

3. Polyurethane Injection: Polyurethane injection is a method used to repair cracks in concrete

structures. It involves injecting polyurethane resin into the cracks under pressure to fill and seal the
cracks. This method is effective for repairing cracks in concrete walls, floors, and foundations.
Procedure:

Surface Preparation: Clean the crack to remove any dirt, debris, or loose material.

Injection: Inject polyurethane resin into the crack using a low-pressure pump, starting from the
lowest point and working upwards.

Expansion: The polyurethane resin expands to fill and seal the crack.

Curing: Allow the polyurethane to cure and harden, typically for 24 hours.

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 Advantages: Effective for repairing cracks in concrete structures, seals against moisture ingress.
Disadvantages: May not be suitable for all types of cracks, requires careful application.

4. Carbon Fiber Reinforcement: Carbon fiber reinforcement is a method used to repair cracks in
concrete structures and strengthen them against future cracking. Carbon fiber strips are bonded to
the surface of the concrete to provide additional strength and support.
Procedure:

Surface Preparation: Clean the surface of the concrete to remove any dirt, debris, or loose
material.

Application of Epoxy: Apply epoxy adhesive to the surface of the concrete.

Placement of Carbon Fiber Strips: Place carbon fiber strips onto the epoxy adhesive and press
them firmly into place.

Curing: Allow the epoxy adhesive to cure and harden, typically for 24 hours.

Advantages: Provides additional strength and support to concrete structures, prevents future
cracking.
Disadvantages: Requires careful application, may not be suitable for all types of cracks.

18ARC82 Jan/Feb 2023

What are common repairs done for cracks in buildings? Enumerate any four.

4our methods of building crack repair techniques.

Explain structural retrofitting of RCC framed buildings.
Structural retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete (RC) buildings involves strengthening or enhancing the
existing structure to improve its performance, durability, and safety. Retrofitting is often necessary to
address deficiencies in the original design, changes in building codes, or to extend the lifespan of the
building. Several techniques can be used for structural retrofitting of RCC buildings:

1. External Post-Tensioning: This technique involves installing high-strength steel tendons on the
exterior of the building and applying tension to them. This helps to improve the load-carrying
capacity of the structure and reduce stresses in the existing concrete elements.

2. Steel Bracing: Steel bracing systems can be added to the building to provide additional lateral
stability, especially in areas prone to seismic activity. Bracing can be installed internally or
externally, depending on the structural requirements.

3. Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP): FRP materials, such as carbon or glass fibers, can be bonded to
the existing concrete elements to increase their strength and stiffness. FRP wraps are lightweight
and easy to install, making them an attractive option for retrofitting.

4. Jacketing: Jacketing involves adding a new layer of concrete or steel to the existing structural
elements, such as columns, beams, or slabs. This increases the cross-sectional area of the
elements, improving their load-carrying capacity and ductility.

5. Base Isolation: Base isolation involves placing flexible bearings or isolators between the building
foundation and the superstructure. This helps to decouple the building from ground motions during
earthquakes, reducing the forces transmitted to the structure.

6. Localized Strengthening: In some cases, localized strengthening of specific structural elements,

such as columns or beams, may be necessary. This can be done using additional reinforcement,
external steel plates, or concrete jacketing.

7. Seismic Retrofitting: Seismic retrofitting involves strengthening the building to resist seismic
forces. This can include adding shear walls, bracing systems, or dampers to improve the building's

Module 3 3
 seismic performance.
Explain LCA and LCCA.

Life Cycle Analysis

Life cycle assessment (LCA) of buildings serves as a comprehensive tool to evaluate and understand
the environmental impacts associated with the entire life cycle of a building, from its initial conception
to its end-of-life phase. This assessment considers various factors, including raw material extraction,
manufacturing processes, transportation, construction, operation, maintenance, and eventual
demolition or reuse.
The primary purpose of conducting LCA for buildings is to provide stakeholders, such as designers,
architects, engineers, developers, and policymakers, with valuable insights into the environmental
implications of different building materials, construction methods, and design choices. By assessing
the environmental impacts at each stage of a building's life cycle, LCA enables informed decision-
making to minimize resource consumption, energy usage, emissions, and waste generation while
promoting sustainable practices.

Aspects included in life cycle assessment of buildings typically cover the following stages:

1. Raw Material Extraction and Processing: This stage includes the extraction of raw materials such
as timber, steel, concrete, and other building materials, as well as their processing and
transportation to the construction site.

2. Construction: This stage covers the environmental impacts associated with the construction
process, including energy use, water consumption, and waste generation.

3. Operation and Maintenance: This stage considers the energy consumption, water use, and
emissions associated with the building's operation and maintenance over its lifespan, including
heating, cooling, lighting, and regular upkeep.

4. End of Life: This stage assesses the environmental impacts of demolishing or deconstructing the
building, as well as the potential for recycling or reusing materials.

5. Transportation: This aspect considers the transportation of materials and occupants to and from
the building, as well as the transportation of waste materials.

6. Embodied Energy: This refers to the total energy consumed throughout the building's life cycle,
including energy used in material production, construction, operation, and disposal.

7. Emissions: This includes the emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants associated with
the building's life cycle, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and volatile organic compounds.

Life Cycle Cost Analysis

Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is a method used to evaluate the total cost of ownership of a building
or infrastructure project over its entire life cycle, from planning and design to construction, operation,
maintenance, and disposal. LCCA considers not only the initial costs of construction but also the costs
associated with operating, maintaining, and eventually decommissioning the project.

Purpose of LCCA:

Decision Making: Helps in making informed decisions by comparing the total costs of different
design and construction alternatives.

Optimization: Identifies cost-effective design and construction options that minimize the total cost
of ownership.

Budgeting: Provides a basis for budgeting and financial planning for the project over its life cycle.

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 Sustainability: Considers the long-term economic and environmental impacts of design and
construction decisions.

Components of Life Cycle Cost:

1. Initial Costs: Includes costs such as design, engineering, construction, and equipment
procurement.

2. Operating Costs: Includes costs for energy consumption, maintenance, repairs, and replacement
of components over the life cycle.

3. Maintenance Costs: Includes costs for routine maintenance, repairs, and replacement of
components to ensure the proper functioning of the building or infrastructure.

4. Energy Costs: Includes costs for heating, cooling, lighting, and other energy consumption.

5. Replacement Costs: Includes costs for replacing major components or systems at the end of their
useful life.

6. Disposal Costs: Includes costs for decommissioning and disposing of the building or infrastructure
at the end of its life cycle.

7. Residual Value: Includes the value of the building or infrastructure at the end of its useful life,
which can offset some of the total costs.
Explain any five causes of damages to buildings.
Water Damage: Water infiltration through roofs, walls, or foundations can cause damage to
building materials, such as rotting wood, rusting metal, and mold growth. This can weaken
structural components and lead to costly repairs.

Repairing Water Damage:

1. Identify and Stop the Source: Locate and repair the source of the water intrusion, such as a
leaky roof or plumbing issue.

2. Remove Water: Use pumps, wet vacuums, and dehumidifiers to remove standing water and
moisture.

3. Dry the Area: Thoroughly dry the affected area to prevent mold growth and further damage.

4. Repair or Replace Damaged Materials: Replace or repair damaged materials, such as drywall,
insulation, and flooring.

5. Mold Remediation: If mold is present, remove it following appropriate guidelines.

6. Prevent Future Damage: Address the underlying issue to prevent future water damage, such as
improving drainage or sealing leaks.

Natural Disasters: Events such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, and wildfires can cause
significant damage to buildings, including structural damage, roof damage, and water infiltration.

Protecting Against Natural Disasters:

1. Design Considerations: Incorporate disaster-resistant design features, such as reinforced

roofs, impact-resistant windows, and elevated structures.

2. Emergency Preparedness: Develop and implement an emergency plan for natural disasters,
including evacuation procedures and building protection measures.

3. Building Materials: Use durable and resistant materials that can withstand natural disasters,
such as concrete, steel, and impact-resistant glass.

Aging and Wear-and-Tear: Over time, buildings naturally deteriorate due to aging and regular use.
This can lead to issues such as cracks in walls and foundations, worn-out roofing materials, and

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 corroded pipes.

Repairing Aging and Wear-and-Tear:

1. Assessment: Conduct a thorough inspection to identify areas showing signs of aging and
wear.

2. Repair or Replace: Repair or replace damaged or worn-out materials, such as roofing, siding,
windows, and doors.

3. Maintenance: Implement a regular maintenance program to address ongoing wear-and-tear,

including painting, sealing, and cleaning.

Pests and Insects: Infestations of pests such as termites, ants, or rodents can cause damage to
building materials, particularly wood, compromising the structural integrity of the building.

Protecting Against Pests and Insects:

1. Seal Entry Points: Seal cracks, gaps, and openings where pests can enter the building.

2. Regular Inspections: Conduct regular inspections to detect signs of pest infestation early.

3. Maintain Cleanliness: Keep the building and surrounding area clean and free of debris that can
attract pests.

4. Pest Control Measures: Implement pest control measures, such as traps, baits, and pesticides,
as needed.

Foundation Issues: Problems with the building's foundation, such as settlement, shifting, or
cracking, can lead to structural instability and damage to walls, floors, and ceilings.

Repairing Foundation Issues:

1. Assessment: Inspect the foundation for cracks, settling, or other signs of damage.

2. Repair Cracks: Fill cracks with epoxy or polyurethane injection.

3. Foundation Underpinning: If settling is an issue, underpinning may be necessary to stabilize

the foundation.

4. Waterproofing: Apply waterproofing materials to prevent water infiltration.

5. Improve Drainage: Ensure proper grading and drainage around the foundation to prevent water
damage.

Extreme Temperatures: Extreme temperatures, both hot and cold, can cause expansion and
contraction of building materials, leading to cracks, warping, and other forms of damage.

Poor Design or Construction: Inadequate design or construction practices can result in structural
weaknesses, such as inadequate support beams or improperly installed plumbing and electrical
systems, which can lead to cracks, leaks, and other issues.

Poor Maintenance: Lack of regular maintenance can exacerbate existing issues and lead to further
damage. For example, failing to repair a leaky roof can result in water damage to ceilings, walls,
and insulation.

18ARC82 June/July 2023

Explain Life Cycle Analysis.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) of buildings serves as a comprehensive tool to evaluate and understand
the environmental impacts associated with the entire life cycle of a building, from its initial conception
to its end-of-life phase. This assessment considers various factors, including raw material extraction,
manufacturing processes, transportation, construction, operation, maintenance, and eventual
demolition or reuse.

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 The primary purpose of conducting LCA for buildings is to provide stakeholders, such as designers,
architects, engineers, developers, and policymakers, with valuable insights into the environmental
implications of different building materials, construction methods, and design choices. By assessing
the environmental impacts at each stage of a building's life cycle, LCA enables informed decision-
making to minimize resource consumption, energy usage, emissions, and waste generation while
promoting sustainable practices.
Aspects included in life cycle assessment of buildings typically cover the following stages:

1. Raw Material Extraction and Processing: This stage includes the extraction of raw materials such
as timber, steel, concrete, and other building materials, as well as their processing and
transportation to the construction site.

2. Construction: This stage covers the environmental impacts associated with the construction
process, including energy use, water consumption, and waste generation.

3. Operation and Maintenance: This stage considers the energy consumption, water use, and
emissions associated with the building's operation and maintenance over its lifespan, including
heating, cooling, lighting, and regular upkeep.

4. End of Life: This stage assesses the environmental impacts of demolishing or deconstructing the
building, as well as the potential for recycling or reusing materials.

5. Transportation: This aspect considers the transportation of materials and occupants to and from
the building, as well as the transportation of waste materials.

6. Embodied Energy: This refers to the total energy consumed throughout the building's life cycle,
including energy used in material production, construction, operation, and disposal.

7. Emissions: This includes the emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants associated with
the building's life cycle, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and volatile organic compounds.
Describe the four stages that are assessed in a life cycle assessment.
In a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), four main stages are assessed to evaluate the environmental
impacts of a product or system over its entire life cycle. These stages are:

1. Goal and Scope Definition:

Goal Definition: Establish the purpose and intended application of the LCA, including the
specific questions to be answered and the audience for the results.

Scope Definition: Define the boundaries of the study, including the functional unit (e.g., one
product, one square meter of building material) and the system boundaries (e.g., cradle-to-
gate, cradle-to-grave).

2. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI):

Data Collection: Gather data on all inputs (e.g., raw materials, energy, water) and outputs (e.g.,
emissions, waste) associated with each life cycle stage of the product or system.

Modeling: Develop a model to quantify the inputs and outputs for each life cycle stage, often
using specialized LCA software.

3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA):

Impact Categories: Identify and quantify the potential environmental impacts of the product or
system across a range of impact categories (e.g., global warming, acidification,
eutrophication).

Characterization: Characterize the inputs and outputs from the LCI in terms of their potential to
cause environmental impacts, using established impact assessment methods and factors.

4. Interpretation:

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 Analysis: Analyze the results of the LCA to draw conclusions about the environmental
performance of the product or system.

Sensitivity Analysis: Conduct sensitivity analysis to assess the robustness of the results to
changes in assumptions or input parameters.

Uncertainty Assessment: Assess the uncertainty associated with the LCA results and
communicate this uncertainty to stakeholders.

Recommendations: Provide recommendations for improving the environmental performance of

the product or system based on the LCA results.
Differentiate between repairs and retro fits.
Repairs and retrofits are both processes used to improve or restore the condition of buildings or
structures, but they differ in their scope and objectives:

1. Repairs:

Objective: Repairs are typically done to fix specific issues or damages in a building, such as
cracks, leaks, or structural damage.

Scope: Repairs focus on addressing localized problems and restoring the affected area to its
original condition.

Methods: Repairs often involve patching, sealing, or replacing damaged materials or

components.

Purpose: The purpose of repairs is to maintain the structural integrity, safety, and functionality
of the building.

2. Retrofit:

Objective: Retrofitting involves making significant upgrades or improvements to a building to

enhance its performance, efficiency, or lifespan.

Scope: Retrofitting addresses broader aspects of the building, such as energy efficiency,
sustainability, or compliance with modern standards or regulations.

Methods: Retrofitting may involve installing new systems or technologies, upgrading building
components, or making structural modifications.

Purpose: The purpose of retrofitting is to improve the overall performance, sustainability, and
value of the building.

Explain two techniques for each on repairs and retrofits.

Repairs:

1. Crack Injection:

Technique: Crack injection involves injecting specialized materials, such as epoxy or

polyurethane resins, into cracks in concrete or masonry structures.

Process: The cracked area is cleaned and prepared, and injection ports are installed along the
crack. The resin is then injected under pressure, filling and sealing the crack to restore
structural integrity.

Application: Crack injection is commonly used to repair cracks in concrete foundations, walls,
and floors, preventing water infiltration and further damage.

2. Patching and Grouting:

Technique: Patching and grouting involve filling voids, holes, or damaged areas with
specialized patching or grouting materials.

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 Process: The damaged area is cleaned and prepared, and the patching or grouting material is
applied to fill the void or hole. The material is then allowed to cure or harden, forming a strong
and durable repair.

Application: Patching and grouting are used to repair minor surface defects, such as spalls,
pits, or cracks, in concrete, masonry, or other building materials.

Retrofits:

1. Insulation Retrofit:

Technique: Insulation retrofit involves adding or upgrading insulation materials to improve the
energy efficiency and thermal performance of a building.

Process: Existing walls, roofs, or floors are retrofitted with additional insulation materials, such
as foam boards, spray foam, or blown-in insulation.

Application: Insulation retrofits are commonly done in older buildings with inadequate
insulation to reduce energy consumption, improve comfort, and comply with energy codes or
standards.

2. Window Retrofit:

Technique: Window retrofit involves replacing or upgrading existing windows with more
energy-efficient and weather-resistant options.

Process: Old windows are removed, and new windows with features such as low-emissivity
coatings, multiple glazing layers, and thermal breaks are installed.

Application: Window retrofits are done to improve natural lighting, indoor comfort, and energy
efficiency in buildings, reducing heating and cooling costs and enhancing occupant
satisfaction.

18ARC82 Dec’23/Jan’24
What are causes of cracks in buildings?
Cracks in buildings can occur due to various reasons, including:

1. Settlement: Settlement of the building's foundation can cause cracks, especially in the early
stages of construction or in areas with poor soil compaction.

2. Shrinkage: Concrete and masonry materials can shrink as they cure, leading to cracks, especially
in large concrete slabs or walls.

3. Temperature Changes: Thermal expansion and contraction of building materials due to

temperature changes can cause cracks, especially in materials with low thermal resistance.

4. Moisture Changes: Changes in moisture content in the soil or building materials can lead to
expansion or contraction, causing cracks, especially in clay-rich soils or materials.

5. Poor Construction Practices: Improper construction techniques, such as inadequate

reinforcement, improper joint placement, or poor compaction, can result in cracks.

6. Structural Overload: Excessive loads or stress on the building structure, such as heavy machinery
or improper building use, can cause cracks.

7. Foundation Movement: Movement of the building's foundation, such as heaving, settling, or lateral
movement, can result in cracks in the building above.

8. Earthquakes or Seismic Activity: Seismic forces can cause significant movement in buildings,
leading to cracks in walls, floors, and foundations.

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 9. Chemical Reactions: Chemical reactions within building materials, such as alkali-silica reaction
(ASR) or sulfate attack, can cause expansion and cracking.

10. Tree Roots: Tree roots can exert pressure on building foundations, causing them to crack.

11. Poor Soil Conditions: Weak or expansive soils can exert uneven pressure on building foundations,
leading to cracking.

12. Corrosion of Reinforcement: Corrosion of steel reinforcement within concrete can cause
expansion and cracking of the concrete.
Explain structural retrofitting of RCC buildings.
Structural retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete (RC) buildings involves strengthening or enhancing the
existing structure to improve its performance, durability, and safety. Retrofitting is often necessary to
address deficiencies in the original design, changes in building codes, or to extend the lifespan of the
building. Several techniques can be used for structural retrofitting of RCC buildings:

1. External Post-Tensioning: This technique involves installing high-strength steel tendons on the
exterior of the building and applying tension to them. This helps to improve the load-carrying
capacity of the structure and reduce stresses in the existing concrete elements.

2. Steel Bracing: Steel bracing systems can be added to the building to provide additional lateral
stability, especially in areas prone to seismic activity. Bracing can be installed internally or
externally, depending on the structural requirements.

3. Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP): FRP materials, such as carbon or glass fibers, can be bonded to
the existing concrete elements to increase their strength and stiffness. FRP wraps are lightweight
and easy to install, making them an attractive option for retrofitting.

4. Jacketing: Jacketing involves adding a new layer of concrete or steel to the existing structural
elements, such as columns, beams, or slabs. This increases the cross-sectional area of the
elements, improving their load-carrying capacity and ductility.

5. Base Isolation: Base isolation involves placing flexible bearings or isolators between the building
foundation and the superstructure. This helps to decouple the building from ground motions during
earthquakes, reducing the forces transmitted to the structure.

6. Localized Strengthening: In some cases, localized strengthening of specific structural elements,

such as columns or beams, may be necessary. This can be done using additional reinforcement,
external steel plates, or concrete jacketing.

7. Seismic Retrofitting: Seismic retrofitting involves strengthening the building to resist seismic
forces. This can include adding shear walls, bracing systems, or dampers to improve the building's
seismic performance.

Explain life cycle analysis and life cycle cost analysis with a suitable example.

Life Cycle Analysis

Life cycle assessment (LCA) of buildings serves as a comprehensive tool to evaluate and understand
the environmental impacts associated with the entire life cycle of a building, from its initial conception
to its end-of-life phase. This assessment considers various factors, including raw material extraction,
manufacturing processes, transportation, construction, operation, maintenance, and eventual
demolition or reuse.

The primary purpose of conducting LCA for buildings is to provide stakeholders, such as designers,
architects, engineers, developers, and policymakers, with valuable insights into the environmental
implications of different building materials, construction methods, and design choices. By assessing
the environmental impacts at each stage of a building's life cycle, LCA enables informed decision-

Module 3 10
 making to minimize resource consumption, energy usage, emissions, and waste generation while
promoting sustainable practices.
Aspects included in life cycle assessment of buildings typically cover the following stages:

1. Raw Material Extraction and Processing: This stage includes the extraction of raw materials such
as timber, steel, concrete, and other building materials, as well as their processing and
transportation to the construction site.

2. Construction: This stage covers the environmental impacts associated with the construction
process, including energy use, water consumption, and waste generation.

3. Operation and Maintenance: This stage considers the energy consumption, water use, and
emissions associated with the building's operation and maintenance over its lifespan, including
heating, cooling, lighting, and regular upkeep.

4. End of Life: This stage assesses the environmental impacts of demolishing or deconstructing the
building, as well as the potential for recycling or reusing materials.

5. Transportation: This aspect considers the transportation of materials and occupants to and from
the building, as well as the transportation of waste materials.

6. Embodied Energy: This refers to the total energy consumed throughout the building's life cycle,
including energy used in material production, construction, operation, and disposal.

7. Emissions: This includes the emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants associated with
the building's life cycle, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and volatile organic compounds.

Life Cycle Cost Analysis

Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is a method used to evaluate the total cost of ownership of a building
or infrastructure project over its entire life cycle, from planning and design to construction, operation,
maintenance, and disposal. LCCA considers not only the initial costs of construction but also the costs
associated with operating, maintaining, and eventually decommissioning the project.
Purpose of LCCA:

Decision Making: Helps in making informed decisions by comparing the total costs of different
design and construction alternatives.

Optimization: Identifies cost-effective design and construction options that minimize the total cost
of ownership.

Budgeting: Provides a basis for budgeting and financial planning for the project over its life cycle.

Sustainability: Considers the long-term economic and environmental impacts of design and
construction decisions.

Components of Life Cycle Cost:

1. Initial Costs: Includes costs such as design, engineering, construction, and equipment
procurement.

2. Operating Costs: Includes costs for energy consumption, maintenance, repairs, and replacement
of components over the life cycle.

3. Maintenance Costs: Includes costs for routine maintenance, repairs, and replacement of
components to ensure the proper functioning of the building or infrastructure.

4. Energy Costs: Includes costs for heating, cooling, lighting, and other energy consumption.

5. Replacement Costs: Includes costs for replacing major components or systems at the end of their
useful life.

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 6. Disposal Costs: Includes costs for decommissioning and disposing of the building or infrastructure
at the end of its life cycle.

7. Residual Value: Includes the value of the building or infrastructure at the end of its useful life,
which can offset some of the total costs.
Explain any four passive design strategies for a building in the tropics
Passive design strategies can also be employed to mitigate building damage in the tropics, where
buildings are often exposed to natural hazards such as hurricanes, typhoons, and heavy rainfall. Here
are four passive design strategies to help protect buildings in the tropics from damage:

1. Hurricane-Resistant Design:

Use aerodynamic shapes and streamlined profiles to reduce wind resistance and minimize
uplift forces on the building.

Install hurricane straps, tie-downs, and anchors to secure the roof, walls, and foundation to
resist high winds and prevent structural failure.

Design openings, such as windows and doors, with impact-resistant glazing or shutters to
protect against flying debris.

2. Flood-Resistant Design:

Elevate buildings above flood levels by using raised foundations or stilts to reduce the risk of
inundation during heavy rainfall or storm surges.

Design waterproof barriers, such as flood walls or berms, to divert floodwaters away from the
building and protect vulnerable areas.

Use permeable paving materials and landscaping features, such as rain gardens or swales, to
absorb and redirect stormwater runoff.

3. Earthquake-Resistant Design:

Employ flexible and ductile structural systems, such as reinforced concrete frames or steel
moment frames, to withstand lateral forces generated by seismic activity.

Incorporate seismic isolation devices, such as base isolators or dampers, to reduce the
transmission of ground motion to the building and minimize structural damage.

Design buildings with uniform and symmetrical layouts to distribute seismic forces evenly and
prevent localized failures.

4. Moisture-Resistant Design:

Use moisture-resistant building materials, such as treated lumber, concrete masonry, or fiber
cement siding, to reduce the risk of decay, rot, and mold growth in humid environments.

Install effective waterproofing membranes, flashing, and sealants to prevent water infiltration
through roofs, walls, and foundations.

Design buildings with proper drainage systems, such as gutters, downspouts, and grading, to
channel rainwater away from the building and prevent waterlogging of the soil.

Module 3 12