IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Let p and q be the propositions “The election is decided” and “The votes have been counted,” respectively.
Express each of these compound propositions as an English sentence. (Any Six)
A) ¬P B) P ∨ Q C) ¬P ∧ Q D) Q → P E) ¬Q →¬P F) ¬P → ¬Q
G) P ↔ Q H) ¬ Q ∨ (¬P ∧ Q)
Answer :

A) ¬P: "The election is not decided."

B) P ∨ Q: "The election is decided or the votes have been counted."

C) ¬P ∧ Q: "The election is not decided, and the votes have been counted."

D) Q → P: "If the votes have been counted, then the election is decided."

E) ¬Q → ¬P: "If the votes have not been counted, then the election is not decided."

F) ¬P → ¬Q: "If the election is not decided, then the votes have not been counted."

G) P ↔ Q: "The election is decided if and only if the votes have been counted."

H) ¬Q ∨ (¬P ∧ Q): "Either the votes have not been counted or the election is not decided and the votes

have been counted."

2. Without using truth table find the PCNF of P → (Q ∧ P) ∧ (¬ P → (¬ Q ∧ ¬ R))

Answer
3. Among 100 students, 32 study Mathematics, 20 study Physics, 45 study Biology, 15 study Mathematics
and Biology, 7 study Mathematics and Physics, 10 study Physics and Biology, and 30 do not study any of
the three subjects.
A. Draw the Venn diagram
B. Find the number of students studying all three subjects
C. Find the number of students studying exactly one of the three subjects
Answer:

B. 05 are studying all subjects

C. The number of students studying exactly one of the three subjects
• 7 - 5 = 2 study Maths and Physics but not all three
• 15 - 5 = 10 study Maths and Biology But not all three
• 10 - 5 = 5 study Biology and Physics But not all three
• 32 - (10 + 2 + 5) = 15 study Maths Only
• 20 - (2 + 5 + 5) = 08 study Physics Only
• 45 - (10 + 5 + 5) = 25 study Biology Only
Hence, Number of Students studying exactly one of the three subjects = 15 + 8 + 25 = 48

4. X = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36} R on X = {(x, y) ϵ R, x divides y}

(a) Construct Hasse diagram.
(b) Find maximal and minimal element?
(c) Is POSET a lattice? Justify.
Answer:
(a) Construct Hasse diagram.
For the set X = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36}, if x divides y.
R= {(2,2), (2,6),(2,12), (2,24), (2,36), (3,3), (3,6), (3,12), (3,24), (3,36) (6,6), (6,12), (6,24), (6,36), (12,12),
(12,24), (12,36), (24,24), (36, 36)}.
(b) Find maximal and minimal element?
The maximal elements of a poset are the elements that have no greater elements. The minimal elements of a
poset are the elements that have no smaller elements.
In the Hasse diagram above, the maximal elements are 36 and 24, and the minimal elements are 2 and 3.
(c) Is POSET a lattice? Justify.
A POSET is a lattice if every pair of elements has a least upper bound (LUB) and a greatest lower bound
(GLB).
In the Hasse diagram above, the LUB of 2 and 3 is 6, and the GLB of 24 and 36 is 12.
Therefore, every pair of elements in the POSET has a LUB and a GLB.
Therefore, the POSET is a lattice.

5. Explain Surjective, Injective, Bijective and Inverse function each with example.
Answer:-
1. One to one function (Injective): A function is called one to one if for all elements a and b in A, if f(a)
= f(b),then it must be the case that a = b.

2. Onto Function (surjective) : If every element b in B has a corresponding element a in A such that f(a)
= b. It is not required that a is unique; The function f may map one or more elements of A to the same
element of B.

3. One to one correspondence function (Bijective): A function is Bijective function if it is both one to
one and onto function.
 4. Inverse Functions: Bijection function are also known as invertible function because they have inverse
function property. The inverse of bijection f is denoted as f-1. It is a function which assigns to b, a unique
element a such that f(a) = b. hence f-1 (b) = a.

6. Consider the set X ={1,2,3,4} and the relation R defined on X as follows: R={(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4),
(1,2), (2,1), (2,3), (3,2)}
a) Draw the Relation Matrix.
b) is reflexive, symmetric or transitive. Justify your answer.
c) Draw its directed graph.
Answer:
A) Relation Matrix.

1 2 3 4
1
1 1 0 0
1
2 1 1 0

3 0 1 1 0

4 0 0 0 1

b) is Reflexive – All Diagonal MR are equal to 1. (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), and (4, 4) are present in R. The
relation R is reflexive
is Symmetric – (2,1) and (1,2) , (3,1) and (1,3) and (4,2) and (2,4) are equal. (1, 2) is in
R, and (2, 1) is also in R. The relation R is symmetric.
is Transitive - The relation R is not transitive. For example, (1, 2) and (2, 3) are in
R, but (1, 3) is not in R. Therefore, R lacks the transitive property.
c) directed graph.
7. (a) Draw the graph K3, 5.

(b) Define the following terms:

(i) Planar Graph:-
A graph (or multigraph) G is called planar if G can be drawn in the plane with its edges intersecting
only at vertices of G, such a drawing of G is called an embedding of G in the plane. A graph which can
be drawn in the plane so that its edges do not cross is called planar.

(ii) Bipartite Graph

A bipartite graph, also called a bigraph, is a set of graph vertices decomposed into two disjoint sets such
that no two graph vertices within the same set are adjacent.
A bipartite graph is a special kind of graph with the following properties-
• It consists of two sets of vertices X and Y.
• The vertices of set X join only with the vertices of set Y.
• The vertices within the same set do not join.
(c) Draw the 3-regular graph with 6 vertices.

Or
8. Show that following graphs are isomorphic. Also give correspondence between edges and vertices of two
graphs.

Answer:-
1. Number of vertices are same 5
2. Number of edges are same 8
3. An equal number of vertices with given degree
A=3 1= 3
B= 3 3=3
C=4 2=4
D=3 4=3
E= 3 5=3
The correspondence between the vertices and edges of the two graphs could be as follows:
Vertices:
A corresponds to 1
B corresponds to 3
C corresponds to 2
D corresponds to 4
E corresponds to 5
This correspondence preserves the adjacency between vertices, so the two graphs are isomorphic.
9. What is Graph Coloring and Chromatic Number? Find chromatic number of the following graph-

Answer:
Graph Coloring is also called as Vertex Coloring. No two adjacent vertices are colored with the same color.
Graph Coloring is a process of assigning colors to the vertices of a graph.
Chromatic Number is the minimum number of colors required to color any graph such that no two adjacent
vertices of it are assigned the same color.
Chromatic number: least number of colors needed to color the graph

Vertex a b c d e f g

Color C1 C2 C1 C3 C2 C3 C4

• Minimum number of colors used to color the given graph are 4.

Therefore, Chromatic Number of the given graph = 4
10. Construct a minimum spanning tree (MST) for the given graph using Kruskal’s algorithm, write each
step-in details.

Answer:-
Kruskal's Algorithm-
• Kruskal's Algorithm is a famous algorithm. It is used for constructing the Minimal Spanning Tree
(MST) of a given graph.
• To apply Kruskal's algorithm, the given graph must be weighted, connected and undirected.
Algorithm: The steps of the algorithm are
• The edges of the given graph G are arranged in the order of increasing weights.
• An edge G with minimum weight is selected as an edge of the required spanning tree.
• If adding an edge creates a cycle, then reject that edge and go for the next least weighted edge.
• This procedure is stopped after n-1 edges have been selected
• Finally we got a Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
11. Construct a Binary Search Tree by inserting the following sequence of numbers: 45, 15, 79, 90, 10,
55, 12, 20, 50. Also Find Pre-order, In-order and post-order traversal of Binary Search Tree.
Answer:-

Pre-order Traversal (Root, Left, Right): 45, 15, 10, 12, 20, 79, 55, 50, 90

In-order Traversal (Left, Root, Right): 10, 12, 15, 20, 45, 50, 55, 79, 90

Post-order Traversal (Left, Right, Root): 12, 10, 20, 15, 50, 55, 90, 79, 45

12. Define the following terms with reference to tree.

1. Internal vertices of the tree.
2. Leaves of the tree.
3. Siblings of h.
4. Ancestors of e.
5. Descendant of g.
6. Level of the tree at vertices d.
Answer:-
1. Internal vertices of the tree: a, b, c, g, h, j
2. Leaves of the tree: d, e, f, k, i, l, m
3. Siblings of h: i, j
4. Ancestors of e: c, b, a
5. Descendant of g: h, i, j, k, l, m
6. Level of the tree at vertices d: 03
13. The set G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is an abelian group with respect to addition modulo 6. Find the addition
table of G and prove addition modulo satisfy an abelian group.
Answer:-
- The composition table of G is

+6 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the given set, the
set G is closed under +6 .
2. Associativity: The binary operation +6 is associative in G.
for ex. (2 +6 3) +6 4 = 5 +6 4 = 3 and
2 +6 ( 3 +6 4 ) = 2 +6 1 = 3
3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top row.
The element heading that row , i.e., 0 is the identity element.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
0, 1, 2, 3, 4. 5 are 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical. Therefore the binary
operation +6 is commutative.
Hence, (G, +6 ) is an abelian group.

14. Show that the set of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian group under the composition *
defined by a * b = (ab)/2.
Answer:-
Let A = set of all positive rational numbers.
Let a, b, c be any three elements of A.
1. Closure property: Product of two positive rational numbers is again a rational number.
i.e., a *b ∈ A for all a, b ∈ A .
2. Associativity: (a * b) * c = (ab/2) * c = (abc) / 4
a * (b * c) = a * (bc/2) = (abc) / 4
3. Identity : Let e be the identity element.
We have a * e = (a e)/2 …(1) , By the definition of * again,
a*e=a …..(2) ,
Since e is the identity.
 From (1) and (2), (a e)/2 = a ⇒ e = 2 and 2 ∈ A .
∴ Identity element exists, and ‘2’ is the identity element in A.
4. Inverse: Let a ∈ A
let us suppose b is inverse of a.
Now, a * b = (a b)/2 ….(1) (By definition of inverse.) Again, a * b = e = 2 …..(2)
(By definition of inverse)
From (1) and (2), it follows that (a b)/2 = 2
=> b = (4 / a) ∈ A
∴ (A ,*) is a group.
5. Commutativity: a * b = (ab/2) = (ba/2) = b * a Hence, (A,*) is an abelian group.

15. Define the following terms

1. Algebraic structures
A non-empty set S is called an algebraic structure w.r.t binary operation (*) if it follows the
following axioms:
❖ Closure: (a*b) belongs to S for all a,b ∈ S.
❖ Example: S = {1,-1} is algebraic structure under *
As 1*1 = 1, 1*-1 = -1, -1*-1 = 1 all results belong to S.
2. Semi Group
A non-empty set S, (S,*) is called a semigroup if it follows the following axiom:
❖ Closure: (a*b) belongs to S for all a, b ∈ S.
❖ Associativity: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c; ∀ (a, b ,c) belongs to S.
3. Monoids
A non-empty set S, (S,*) is called a monoid if it follows the following axiom:
❖ Closure: (a*b) belongs to S for all a, b ∈ S.
❖ Associativity: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c ∀ a, b, c belongs to S.
❖ Identity Element: There exists e ∈ S such that a*e = e*a = a ∀ a ∈ S
4. Group
A non-empty set G, (G,*) is called a group if it follows the following axiom:
❖ Closure: (a*b) belongs to G for all a, b ∈ G.
❖ Associativity: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c ∀ a, b, c belongs to G.
❖ Identity Element: There exists e ∈ G such that a*e = e*a = a ∀ a ∈ G
❖ Inverses: ∀ a ∈ G there exists a-1 ∈ G such that a*a-1 = a-1*a = e
5. Abelian Group
A non-empty set S, (S,*) is called a Abelian group if it follows the following axiom:
❖ Closure:(a*b) belongs to S for all a, b ∈ S.
❖ Associativity: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c ∀ a ,b ,c belongs to S.
 ❖ Identity Element: There exists e ∈ S such that a*e = e*a = a ∀ a ∈ S
❖ Inverses:∀ a ∈ S there exists a-1 ∈ S such that a*a-1 = a-1*a = e
❖ Commutative: a*b = b*a for all a, b ∈ S
6. Ring
Let addition (+) and Multiplication (.) be two binary operations defined on a non empty set R. Then
R is said to form a ring w.r.t addition (+) and multiplication (.) if the following conditions are
satisfied:
1. (R, +) is an abelian group ( i.e commutative group)
2. (R,.) is a semigroup
For any three elements a, b, c € R the left distributive law a.(b+c) =a.b + a.c and the right distributive
property (b + c).a =b.a + c.a holds.

16. Show that the maximum number of edges in a simple graph having n verti-ces is n*(n-1)/2.

17. Let set A = {1, 2, 3}, B= {a, b, c} & C = { x,y,z}.

Consider following relations R & S from A to B and B to C respectively.
R = { (1,b), (2,a), (2,c) } & S = { ( a,y), (b,x) , (c,y) , (c,z)}
(i) Find composition relation R ° S.
(ii)Write matrices MR, MS & M R ° S of relations R, S & R ° S.
(iii) Find product of MR, MS = MP
Compare and comment on contents of M R ° S & MP.
18. Define discrete numeric function. Also state rules for product and sum of two numeric functions
a and b. Find sum of two numeric functions defined as:

19. Consider the second-order homogeneous recurrence relation an = an-1 + 2an-2 with the initial
conditions a0 = 2, and a1 = 7,
(a) Find the next three terms of the sequence.
(b) Find the general solution.
(c) Find the unique solution with the given initial conditions.
20. Solve the following recurrence tn = 6tn-1 - 11tn-2 + 6tn-3 with initial conditions
t0 = 1, t1 = 5, and t2 = 15

21. Determine the sequence {an} where an = 3n for every non-negative integer, n is a solution of the
recurrence relation an = 2a n-1 – a n-2 for n = 2, 3, 4 …

22. Find the shortest path in the given graph using Dijkstra shortest path algorithm.

23. For each of the following, determine whether the binary operation * is commutative or associative?
i) N is the set of natural numbers and a * b = a + b + 2 for a, b ∈N
ii) On N where a * b = min (a, b+2)
iii) On R where a * b = ab
24. Consider the group G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under multiplication modulo 7.
(a) Find the multiplication table of G.
(b) Find the 2-1, 3-1, 6-1.
(c) Find the orders and subgroups generated by 2 and 3.

25. Let A = { 0, 1, 2, 3} & <A, * > be an algebraic system, where ∀ a,b ∈ A and a * b = (a + b) mod 4.
Find ∀ a ∈ A, a2, a3 , a4.