Homoeopathic Pharmacy - by D.D.banerjee - 2nd Edition

Homeopathy | Pharmacy
This is an augmented work of Dr. Banerjee and is complete in all aspects - starting from basic concepts,
illustrations, mechanism, development, scope and research in pharmacy.
The work is divided into sections for easy reference and all the chapters have been rearranged in a
systematic manner under the respective sections.
The information in each chapter has been updated and elaborated.
The chapter on "Vehicles" is now a complete revised section with 5 chapters in this topic namely :
l Vehicles - in general l Solid vehicles l Liquid vehicles
l Semisold vehicles l Standardization of vehicles
The section "Laboratory" is complete with information on :
l Laboratory premises l Homeopathic laboratory l Laboratory methods
l Instruments l Hazardous instruments l Cleaning of utensils
Each section in this edition provides complete knowledge on the respective subject without any need to
look further. Several new sections & chapters have also been introduced like :
Section on :
l Principles of pharmacy l Analysis of drug
Chapters :
l Methods of preparation - G.H.P. l Methods of preparation - H.P.U.S.
l Preparation of sarcodes and nosodes l Posology and homeopathy
l Table of drugs l Relationship of remedies with duration of action, etc.
Also this edition has explanation with tables, illustrations and examples.
All in all, it a complete textbook for all associated with the field of homeopathy, be it students; graduate or
post graduate, doctors, professors, pharmacists or manufacturer.
Reviews :
I went through the entire book and found some important additions in this edition. These would be quite
useful to the pharmacy students and seem very much user friendly.
Dr. Pravas K. Pal
H.O.D. Dept. of Pharmacy,
Father Muller Homoeopathic Medical College, Manglore
The newly introduced 'Augmented Textbook of Homeopathic Pharmacy' by Dr. D.D. Banerjee (2nd
Edition) is an excellent augmented work, which covers and fulfills most of the important topics in the
subject of Pharmacy. We wish to thank Dr. D.D. Banerjee & appreciate all the work done by him into such a
wonderful book as a 'Text' for the students.
Dr. R.V. Ghanekar
Principle Medical Foundation
Lokmanya Homoeopathic Medical College, Chinchwad, Pune-33
ISBN: 978-81-319-0291-2
B. Jain Large Print
An Imprint of
9 788131 902912
Rs. 299.00
AUGMENTED T EXTBOOK
Of
HOMOEOPATHIC
PHARMACY
Dr. D.D. Banerjee, M.B.S. (Hom.)

Formerly
Principal: P.C.M. Homoeopathic Hospital & College, Calcutta;
Member: Central Council of Homoeopathy, New Delhi;
Ex-member: Council of Homoeopathy, West Bengal;
Examiner: Council of Homoeopathy, West Bengal;
Punjab and Haryana; University of Bihar.
Author: Concise Dissection Manual.
Second Edition
B. Jain Publishers (P) Ltd.

An ISO 9001 : 2000 Certified Company
USA—EUROPE—INDIA
AUGMENTED TEXTBOOK OF HOMOEOPATHIC PHARMACY
First Edition: 1986

Second Edition: 2006
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted,

in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without any prior written permission of the publisher.
© All rights are reserved with the publisher.
Price: Rs. 299.00

Published by Kuldeep Jain for
B. Jain Publishers (P) Ltd.
An ISO 9001 : 2000 Certified Company
1921, Street No. 10, Chuna Mandi,
Paharganj, New Delhi 110 055 (INDIA)
Phones: 91-11-4567 1000 • Fax: 91-11-4567 1010
Email: info@bjain.com • Website: www.bjain.com
Printed in India by
J.J. Offset Printers
ISBN : 978-81-319-0291-2
ii
Publisher’s Note to the Second Edition
It gives me great privilege to introduce a much awaited work in homoeopathic pharmacy where
much progress has taken place, yet very less has come on paper. Amongst the pioneers who have
devoted and dedicated their time and energies to Homoeopathic Pharmacy, stands the name of
Dr. D.D. Banerjee, whose “Textbook of Homoeopathic Pharmacy” has been read by generations of
homoeopathic students and practitioners.
This is an augmented work of Dr. Banerjee and the book is complete in respect of covering the
subject right from introduction, illustrations, mechanism, pharmacopoeias , development, scope and
research in pharmacy.
The work is divided into sections for easy reference, as the chapters, which were placed
haphazardly in the earlier edition have been rearranged in a systematic manner under the respective
sections.
All the topics in Volume II of Dr. Banerjee’s textbook have been incorporated in this new
edition under the respective topics.
Most importantly, the information in each chapter has been updated and elaborated, like the
chapter on “Vehicles” is now a complete section with 5 chapters under it:
• Vehicles - in general.
• Solid vehicles.
• Liquid vehicles.
• Semisolid vehicles.
• Standardization of vehicles.
Similarly, the section “Laboratory” is complete with information on:
• Laboratory premises.
• Homoeopathic laboratory.
• Laboratory methods.
• Instruments.
• Cleaning of utensils.
• Hazardous instruments.
iii
Hence, each section in this augmented edition provides complete knowledge on the respective
subject without any need to look further.
Several new sections and chapters have also been introduced.
Naming a few Sections:
• Principles:
- Principles of prescription.
- Principles of medication.
- Principles of dispensing.
- Principles of external application.
- Principles of drug proving.
• Analysis of drugs:
- Limit tests.
- Chromatography.
- Sampling and methods of analysis.
• Development, scope and research in homoeopathy.
Naming a few Chapters:
- Methods of preparation - G.H.P.
- Methods of preparation - H.P.U.S.
- Preparation of drugs from sarcodes and nosodes.
- Posology and homoeopathy.
- Plant collection with preparation of herbarium.
- Table of drugs.
- Relationship of remedies with duration of action, etc.
Also, this edition is respondent with Tables, Illustrations and Examples. The font too has been
improved to make it more reader friendly.
All in all, it is an augmented textbook in the literal sense of the word making it a complete
textbook for all associated with the field of homoeopathy, be it students, at the graduate or post
graduate level, doctors, professors, pharmacists or manufactures.
We wish to thank Dr. Amar Bodhi R. and Dr. Beena Bodhi for their valuable contribution in
upgrading this book.
A special mention and thanks to Dr. Taru Bhagat, for putting in the excellent work in accom-
plishing this task.
We wish all the readers a happy reading to richer knowledge.
Kuldeep Jain
CEO, B. Jain Publishers
iv
Introduction
Homoeopathy was founded by Dr. Christian Frederick Samuel Hahnemann. He was born
in Meissen, Germany in 1755 and died in Paris in 1843. The experimental and practical founda-
tion for homoeopathy was carried out between the years 1790 and 1810.
In the year 1790 he observed that real cures were effected by drugs which produced simi-
lar symptoms on healthy human beings. For six years he continued his studies, till in 1776, he
wrote about fifty drugs and an essay suggesting a new way of ascertaining the specific curative
power of a drug. It was published as an article in Hufelands Journal under a title “An Essay on
a New Principle for Ascertaining the Curative Power of a Drug.”
Hahnemann’s fundamental propositions peculiar to homoeopathy are:
(a) The action of drugs is demonstrable by observing the subjective symptoms, objective symp-
toms and pathological changes that occur when they are administered to healthy human
subjects.
(b) The action of drugs so observed on healthy human beings constitutes their therapeutic
potentiality with respect to the sick individual.
(c) A similarity between disease processes in a particular individual and the known effects of
a particular drug on healthy human beings (known as drug proving of homoeopathy) will
lead to its successful application in the treatment of the diseased individual (i.e. to bring a
change in the altered dynamis).
(d) Conception of dynamis (vital force active—driving force) is applicable in respect to health,
disease and cure.
These propositions are fully expressed in the Law of Similars, which is the foundation of
homoeopathic practice. It is said as “Similia Similibus Curentur”—let likes be treated with
likes. The Law of Similars is a natural law. The term homoeopathy is in fact, derived from the
Greek, meaning like suffering.
In the early days of homoeopathy, the physician would have been expected to prepare his
own medicinal remedies. Now-a-days, with the increased demand for homoeopathic remedies,
we obtain our remedies from the properly trained homoeopathic pharmacists.
v
vi
Man and Medicine
The first doctor was the first man and the first nurse, the first woman. History of medicine
is as old as history of mankind. It accounts man’s efforts to deal with human illnesses and
diseases from primitive to the present complex array of treatments. It has had its share of many
developments and setbacks.
The healing art was taught and practised from primitive times. He then discovered that
plants might be used as food, some being poisonous and some being medicinal. Folk medicine
or domestic medicine consisting largely of plants and its products originated in this way and it
still persists. Diseases were considered to be supernatural, the work of demons or offended
Gods. The ‘medicine men’ or ‘priest doctors’ were considered as sorcerers. They themselves
prepared the medicines (this practice of doctors preparing their own medicines is rarely seen
now). Administration of vegetable drugs by mouth was accompanied by dancing, grimaces and
all magical tricks.
HISTORY OF PHARMACY
The history of pharmacy is the history of medicine. It is very difficult to begin or to point
out the just beginning. It is related with the beginning of mankind. No documentary writings or
evidences in respect of historical development of pharmacology can be traced out.
Fighting disease with drugs is a timeless struggle. Its beginning echoed out of primitive
ages when man used to stay in a jungle.
Man’s survival and enjoyment of better health either individually or community-wise has
depended partly upon the success of pharmacology.
The invention of writing marked the dawn of recorded history. Earliest writings were
those of Egyptians. ‘Ebers’, an Egyptian papyri is a list of remedies with appropriate spells or
incantations.
The medicine chest box of an Egyptian queen of that period, containing vases, spoons,
dried drugs and fruits is an important finding in interpreting their medical thoughts. It was
based on magical and religious beliefs connected with the entry of the evil spirit into the body
of the patient.
The earliest concepts of medicine in India are seen in the sacred writings of Vedas, especially
‘Atharvaveda’, which according to some authorities dates back to the second millennium B.C.
vii
The period of Vedic medicine lasted until about 800 B.C. The Vedas are rich in magical practice
in the treatment of diseases.
From Atharvaveda, developed the science of ayurveda around 1800 - 500 B.C. Most
important medical treatises of that period are ‘Charaka Samhitha’ and ‘Susrutha Samhitha’.
Indian therapeutics were largely dietetic and medicinal. Dietetic treatment was important and
preceded any medical treatment. The Indian materia medica was extensive and consisted mainly
of vegetable drugs, all of which were from indigenous plants. Charaka knew 500 medicinal
plants and Susrutha knew 760. Animal remedies such as milk of various animals, bones, gallstones
and minerals like sulphur, arsenic, gold, lead, etc. were also employed. The physicians collected
and prepared their own drugs. Many medicinal plants like cardamom, cinnamon, etc. later
found their way into the western pharmacopoeias. Alcohol seems to have been used as a narcotic
during operations.
Chinese medicine is also of great antiquity. Most of the Chinese medicinal literature is
founded on an ancient work called the ‘Nei-ching’. Emperor Huang-ti was the author. Li-shi
Chen is the author of the great Chinese pharmacopoeia. In addition to this there were elements
of sympathetic magic and doctrine of signatures. Among the drugs taken over by the western
medicine from the Chinese are aconite, camphor, cannabis sativa, iron, rhubarb, etc. Their
moxibustion and acupuncture techniques are now practised around the world today. Hydrotherapy
and vaccinations were probably introduced by the Chinese.
Early Greek and Roman medicine believed in supernatural influences. However, later
Greek philosophy refused to believe the supernatural theory and set out to find for themselves
the causes and reasons for the strange ways of nature. The medical fraternity was in the process
of shedding off the concept of magic and religion by the time Hippocrates was born (460 B.C.).
He viewed disease with respect to the patient and his environment. He studied the patient and
not the disease. He found the logical method of clinical observation. Interestingly, in one of his
works, he states the application of ‘Similia Similibus’. In his book, ‘Demorbis Popularis’, he
mentions about ‘dolor dolorum solicit’, meaning, one pain to cure another.
Then came the pupil of Plato and tutor to Alexander the Great, Aristotle. He laid the
foundation of comparative anatomy and embryology.
A great physician of the second century was Galen. He laid great stress on the study of
anatomy and physiology. After the fall of Rome, in the early middle ages, the field of medicine
remained stagnant for a long time. Revival of medicine took place during the Renaissance
movement of 14th, 15th and 16th century.
Paracelsus was the strange alchemist of the 16th century. He simplified prescribing and
introduced chemical drugs in place of vegetable remedies.
17th century onwards there were rapid strides in the field of medicine. William Harvey
discovered circulation of blood; Marcelo Marphigi saw a network of tiny blood vessels in the
lung of a frog; Richard Lower traced interaction between air and blood; Lavoisere discovered
oxygen; Antony Von Leeuvenhook invented the microscope. The greatest finding of the 18th
viii
century was the science of homoeopathy by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann. Another important discovery
was vaccination by Edward Jenner.
By the beginning of the 19th century, the structure of the human body was fully known and
concentration was on the advancement of knowledge of pathology and the conclusive verification
of the germ theory by Louis Pasteur, Joseph Lister and Robert Koch. By the end of the 19th
century, causes of many mosquito borne diseases were discovered. Sir Ronald Ross, Carlos
Finley, Sir Patric Manson, etc. were involved with these works. Roentgen had discovered X-
ray; Curies had discovered radium and a new field of psychiatry was opened by Sigmund Freud.
The 20th century saw the discovery of antibiotic, Pencillin by Alexander Flemming. It
revolutionized modern medicine.
Isolation of insulin in 1921, came as a boon to the diabetics and many other discoveries
and inventions were made to make this world a better place for mankind. Beginning of 20th
century also saw the formulation of ‘Laws of Heredity’ by Gregor Johann Mendel. Today
biotechnology is the buzz word. It came into limelight because of the breathtaking break through
of recombinant DNA technology, with which we have entered into an era of gene therapy and
genetic engineering.
Will genetic engineering prove to be the elixir of cure? Are ‘designer babies’ for real?
Time will have its answer.
The genius of Dr. Samuel Hahnemann is that he bestowed medical science for the first
time with laws like that in pure science. This fact makes homoeopathy, a finding of the 18th
century, a better option, even today.
HISTORY OF HOMOEOPATHIC PHARMACY

Birth of homoeopathic pharmacy is from the day of discovery of homoeopathy. The excel-
lence of homoeopathic pharmacy lies in exploring the latent curative power of a substance,
even from a substance that is pharmacologically inert (i.e. Lycopodium-Club moss spores) and
retaining the therapeutic potentiality when no molecules of the original substance are left in the
preparation.
The experimental and practical foundation studies were carried out between the year 1790
and 1810. As such, the discoverer of homoeopathic pharmacology is Dr. Samuel Hahnemann.
In 1805 Hahnemann announced his new method of pharmacological process in a trea-
tise—“Fragmenta de Viribus Medicamentorum”. With each edition of Organon of Medicine
there was an evolution of homoeopathic pharmacy. The basic principles of homoeopathic phar-
macology are incorporated in the practical portion of different aphorisms of the Organon of
Medicine and in the writings of “Chronic Disease”
Except Dr. Constantine Hering, no body has added much to homoeopathic pharmacology.
He discovered a new method of potentisation called “decimal scale.” The first original scale of
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serial dilution is “centesimal”. Later in the sixth edition of Organon of Medicine, which was
published after the death of Hahnemann the “millesimal scale” was introduced. In the treatise
of Materia Medica Pura and Chronic Diseases, different advises and directions for homoeopathic
pharmacology were given.
Previously, homoeopathic medicines were prepared by the physicians themselves. In 1825,
Dr. C. Casparo of Leipzig established a homoeopathic dispensary with a manual.
Gradually different homoeopathic establishments or associations published their pharma-
copoeia. They are :
1. German Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia: First Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia in the world,
published in 1825 by Dr. C. Caspari of Leipzig.
2. British Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia: Published in 1870 by the British Homoeopathic
Society.
3. Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America: Its first edition was pub-
lished by the American Institute in 1897 with the help of Otis Clap and Sons. It became the
official pharmacopoeia in 1938.
4. Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India: Government of India accepted homoeopathy af-
ter the Homoeopathic Enquiry Commission Report in 1948, and published 4 volumes of
Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia with the help of Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Commit-
tee appointed in September 1962.
Prior to that, a homoeopathic pharmacist M. Bhattacharya Co. compiled a homoeopathic
pharmacopoeia which was very helpful.
x
Contents
Section 1
Introduction to Pharmacy
1-1 Pharmacy and Pharmacopoeia ............................................................................... 3
1-2 Pharmacology ........................................................................................................ 9
1-3 Sources of Homoeopathic Drugs ......................................................................... 15
1-4 Process of Collection of Drug Substances ........................................................... 45
1-5 Preservation of Drugs and Potencies ................................................................... 51
1-6 Standardisation of Drugs ..................................................................................... 55
Section 2
Vehicles
2-1 Vehicles - In General............................................................................................ 67
2-2 Solid Vehicles ...................................................................................................... 71
2-3 Liquid Vehicles .................................................................................................... 81
2-4 Semisolid Vehicles ............................................................................................. 111
2-5 Standardisation of Vehicles ............................................................................... 119
Section 3
Laboratory
3-1 Laboratory Premises .......................................................................................... 125
3-2 Homoeopathic Laboratory Premises .................................................................. 135
3-3 Laboratory Methods ........................................................................................... 139
3-4 Instruments......................................................................................................... 149
3-5 Cleaning of Utensils .......................................................................................... 211
3-6 Hazardous Instruments ...................................................................................... 215
Section 4
Metrology
4-1 Basic System of International Unit .................................................................... 233
4-2 Systems of Measuring ........................................................................................ 235
4-3 Comparison of Thermometric Scale .................................................................. 239
4-4 Conversion Units and Conversion Factors ........................................................ 241
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Section 5
Preparation to Preservation
5-1 Explanation of Some Terms ............................................................................... 245
5-2 Methods of Preparation of Homoeopathic Drugs .............................................. 247
5-3 Modern Methods of Preparation of Drugs ......................................................... 269
5-4 Comparison: New Method and Old Method ...................................................... 277
5-5 Preparation of Medicines from Sarcodes and Nosodes ..................................... 281
5-6 Methods of Preparation - German Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia ................... 285
5-7 Methods of Preparation—H.P.U.S. ................................................................... 299
5-8 Standardisation of Medicine ............................................................................... 309
Section 6
Dynamisation
6-1 Study of Different Scales of Preparation ........................................................... 325
6-2 Study of Potentisation ........................................................................................ 335
6-3 Drug - Medicine - Remedy ................................................................................ 345
6-4 Posology and Homoeopathy .............................................................................. 347
Section 7
Principles
7-1 Principles of Prescription ................................................................................... 357
7-2 Principles of Medication .................................................................................... 365
7-3 Principles of Dispensing .................................................................................... 369
7-4 Principles of Drug Administration ..................................................................... 371
7-5 Principles of External Application ..................................................................... 377
7-6 Principles of Drug Proving ................................................................................ 397
Section 8
Analysis of Drugs
8-1 Sampling and Methods of Analysis ................................................................... 417
8-2 Limit Tests ......................................................................................................... 427
8-3 Identification of Some Chemicals and Their Tests ............................................ 433
8-4 Chromatography ................................................................................................ 443
Section 9
Pharmacognosy
9-1 Identification of Some Drugs ............................................................................. 457
9-2 Constituents in Plant Substances ....................................................................... 493
9-3 Chemotaxonomy and Active Principles ............................................................. 499
9-4 Drug Action of Some Important Substances ...................................................... 501
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Section 10
Law and Ethics
10-1 Homoeopathic Pharmacy Acts ........................................................................... 539
10-2 Conduct and Etiquette........................................................................................ 547
Section 11
Development, Scope and Research
11-1 Scope of Homoeopathic Pharmacy .................................................................... 557
11-2 Development of Homoeopathy in India ............................................................. 577
Section 12
Miscellaneous
12-1 Plant Collection and Preparation of Herbarium ................................................ 583
12-2 Drugs of Plant Kingdom: Its History and Authority ........................................... 589
12-3 Drugs and Their Local Names ........................................................................... 597
12-4 Table of Drugs ................................................................................................... 605
12-5 Relationship of Remedies with Duration of Action ............................................ 611
12-6 Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... 625
12-7 Indigenous Homoeopathic Drugs ....................................................................... 629
12-8 Preparation of Some Drugs ............................................................................... 633
Section 13
13-1 Glossary ............................................................................................................. 657
Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 671
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Section 1
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INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACY
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1.1 Pharmacy and Pharmacopoeia.
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1.2 Pharmacology.
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1.3 Sources of Homoeopathic Drugs.
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1.4 Process of Collection of Drug Substances.
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1.5 Preservation of Drugs and Potencies.
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1.6 Standardisation of Drugs.
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Future age will wonder at us as the present age wonders at us now.
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1-1
Pharmacy and Pharmacopoeia
PHARMACY legal and professional aspects, and regulates the

proper distribution of drugs and medicines.
Pharmacy is the art and science of collecting,
Monopharmacy, pharmacodynamics and
combining, compounding, preparing, preserving
potentisation are the basis of homoeopathic
and standardising drugs and medicines from
pharmacy. Homoeopathic pharmacy should be
natural and synthetic sources. It also includes
fully consistent with the holistic and
dispensing medicines.
individualistic philosophy of homoeopathy based
In ‘A Compend of the Principles of on the theory of dynamis.
Homoeopathy’ by Dr. W.M. Boericke, pharmacy
is, ‘The art of preparing drugs for use, and Sources of Homoeopathic Pharmacy
dispensing them as medicines’. The main sources are Hahnemann’s writings:
The word ‘pharmacy’ also implies the place Essay on a New Principle for Ascertaining
where medicines are made and distributed. the Curative Powers of Drugs and Some
Examinations of the Previous Principles,
HOMOEOPATHIC PHARMACY
published in Hufeland’s Journal.
It is an art and science of collecting, 1808: On the Value of Speculative Systems
compounding, combining, preparing, preserving of Medicine, Especially in Connection With the
and standardising drugs and medicines from Various Systems of Practice.
vegetable, animal, mineral kingdoms and certain
1810-1921: Organon of Medicine, 1st to 6th
physiological substances and morbid substances,
edition.
according to homoeopathic principles (as given
in the Organon of Medicine, Materia Medica 1811-1821: Materia Medica Pura, Vol. 1-6.
Pura and Chronic Diseases), and also dispensing 1820: On the Preparation and Dispensing of
medicines according to the prescriptions of the Medicines of Homoeopathic Physicians.
homoeopathic physicians. It also embraces the
4 Textbook of Homoeopathic Pharmacy
1828 to 1830: Chronic Diseases, Vol. 1 to • Quality Control During Preparation: Mother
Vol. 4. tincture, mother solution, mother substance
and their potencies are prepared according
Homoeopathic Pharmacy Includes to the old method (Hahnemann’s method) and
• Collection: Gathering or procuring the the new method (Homoeopathic
required drug substances. Pharmacopoeia of U.S.A.)
• Identification:Ascertaining the genuineness • Quality Control: It is to ensure that drug
and purity of the drug substance. It is done substances and other preparations contain
by macroscopical, microscopical and essential compounds within a pre-determined
chemical studies. range of composition and the impurities do
• Qualitative Analysis: The process of not exceed certain specified limits.
ascertaining the presence or absence of • Dispensing: It means preparing and serving
certain substances in a sample; what the medicinal preparation as per the direction
impurities are present or confirming the of a physician.
absence of certain impurities, etc.
• Quantitative Analysis: Having ascertained Genius of Homoeopathic Pharmacy
the nature of the constituents of a given • It has a philosophical background.
sample, the process of determining how • It treats the patient as a whole and not the
much of each component, or of specified disease alone. According to Hahnemann,
components, is present is quantitative “There is no disease but sick people”.
analysis. Homoeopathy is based on the holistic and
• Preserving: Drug substances have to be kept individualistic approach of disease.
from destruction of their medicinal powers. • Homoeopathic pharmacy is a specialised
• Standardising: Medicines prepared should system of therapeutical art and science, with
conform to the official homoeopathic a particular mode of preparation,
pharmacopoeia or any other authoritative text administration and modus operandi.
so as to maintain a uniformity in the • The theory of dynamisation is the basis of
preparation of medicines. homoeopathic pharmacy.
• Combining: Act of uniting two or more • Preparing homoeopathic medicines is simple
substances physically (mixtures) or and easy, there being only two methods—
chemically (compounds). trituration and succussion.
• Compounding: Act of uniting two or more
• Homoeopathic pharmacy preserves as far as
elements in fixed proportion to form an
possible the healing powers of a drug.
altogether new product. This new product
will have properties different from those of • In drug proving:
constituents. Calcarea sulph., Magnesium a. A drug is only included in our materia
mur., Natrium ars., etc. are all compounds. medica after, “complete proving” on
Note: Combining and compounding is advocated prior healthy persons (§ 108), in both males
to potentization and proving. Law of simplex is and females (§ 127), of different age
concerned with drug proving and drug groups.
administration in sick.
Pharmacy and Pharmacopoeia 5
b. During drug proving, subjective symp- Branches of Homoeopathic Pharmacy

toms are noted with great accuracy by
There are two branches of homoeopathic
the examining physician and the prover.
pharmacy:
c. The natural form of drugs is used in drug
1. Pharmacy proper.
proving though attempts are being made
to prove alkaloids or artificial chemical 2. Galenical pharmacy.
substances. 1. Pharmacy Proper:
d. For the purpose of homoeopathic drug It consists of:
proving, minute infinitesimal potencies a. Official Pharmacy: This is the first part
to the crude drug are used in doses. All of official pharmacy as it includes
drugs are proved in different doses. The preparation of drugs according to the
symptom picture obtained from provings official pharmacopoeia. Hence this part
are accurately recorded. is concerned with the pharmacopoeia.
• Homoeopathic drug action: There are some important drugs which
a. Homoeopathic medicines acts on a are not included in any official
dynamic plane to heal the deranged vital pharmacopoeia but are prepared
force. according to the conventional methods,
e.g. Alstonia constricta, Liatris spicata,
b. Pharmacodynamics specialises in
Micromeria, Yohimbium, etc. The
studying individual drug actions along
procedures described under this part are
with its general (i.e. physical and
performed in a pharmaceutical
chemical) action.
laboratory.
• Nosodes, sarcodes and imponderabilia form b. Extemporanous Pharmacy: It forms the
a specific aspect of homoeopathic pharmacy. latter or last part which is concerned with
• There are no injurious or harmful side-effects prescription and dispensing.
or after-effects on the human system as a This consists of the preparation and
whole or in any part. distribution of medicines according to
• In homoeopathy a drug is accepted in its the prescription of a physician.
entire entity and totality, without attempting The procedures described under this part
to separate a drug into its specific chemical are practised in the dispensary.
constituents. 2. Galenical Pharmacy:
• The aim of homoeopathic pharmacy is to Pharmacy which follows the methods and
prepare medicines, in a way that all the theories of Galen, a 2nd century Greek physician
healing provers, or the active virtues of the is known as Galenical pharmacy. This branch is
drug substance are present in a suitable form related to the preparation of crude drugs only,
for administration (Richard Hughes). hence it is not acceptable to true homoeopaths.
• Through homoeopathic pharmacy one can
see the power of an infinitesimal dose in the Classification of Pharmacy
field of therapeutics. It has two major divisions:
• Theoretical Pharmacy: It consist of physical
and biological assessments, as well as descriptions, collections and identification of

professional courses that need to train a drugs. It also provides directions for their
pharmacist and which are mainly of preparation, combining, compounding and
theoretical nature. standardisation.
• Practical or Operative Pharmacy: It consists It also contains information about external
of: applications, posology and monograph of drugs.
- Various aspects of manufacturing, It is the theoretical portion of pharmacy. It is
officially published by the authority i.e. the
- Retail.
government of the country or any medical or
- Professional and hospital pharmacy. pharmaceutical society, either constituted or
- Practical portion of physical and authorised by the government; and revised at
biological assessment. regular intervals.
Uses of Studying Homoeopathic The pharmacopoeia which is published by

the authority or government of a country is termed
Pharmacy
as the ‘official’ pharmacopoeia and that which is
• Studying pharmacy provides us with the published by any person, other than the authority
knowledge of preparing the mother tincture of the government is called ‘unofficial’
and its dilutions. pharmacopoeia.
• Knowledge of pharmacy helps us in selecting
the right dosage to be prescribed to the HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF
patient. HOMOEOPATHIC PHARMACOPOEIA
• Helps in writing a prescription in the proper In 1805, Hahnemann announced his new
form. method of pharmacological process in his treatise
• Knowledge of drugs for external application. ‘Fragmenta de Viribus Medica Mentorum
Positivis Sive in Sano Corpore Humano
Observatis’. The basic principles of
PHARMACIST
homoeopathic preparation of drugs and
A person who is skilled or engaged in a medicines are enshrined in different aphorisms
pharmacy, one who prepares or dispenses of ‘Organon of Medicine’, ‘The Chronic
medicines, a druggist or pharmaceutical chemist Diseases’ and ‘Materia Medica Pura’. These
legally qualified to sell drugs or poisons. have served as the authoritative books for
different pharmacopoeias published so far.
Different homoeopathic establishments or
PHARMACOPOEIA associations have published their pharmaco-
poeias. They are:
DEFINITION
German Homoeopathic
Pharmacopoeia has originated from two
Greek words ‘pharmakon’ meaning ‘a drug’ and Pharmacopoeia (G.H.P.) - 1825
‘poies’ meaning ‘to make’. • In 1825 the first homoeopathic
pharmacopoeia “Dispensatorium Homoeo-
It is the standard authoritative book,
pathicum” was published by Dr. Carl W.
containing a list of drugs and medicines, habitats,
Pharmacy and Pharmacopoeia 7
Caspari of Leipzig, Germany. In 1872, Von Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of

Willmar Schwabe compiled a pharmacopoeia U.S.A. - 1897
titled ‘Pharmacopoeia Homoeopathic
The first pharmacopoeia in U.S.A.,
Polyglotica’. It is considered to be an
‘Pharmacopoeia of the American Institute of
authoritative work. A new homoeopathic
Homoeopathy’ was published in 1897 by Otis
pharmacopoeia is being prepared which is
Clap and Son, Inc. Agent, Boston, U.S.A.
sponsored by the German federal
government. The various editions of the In 1901, the 2nd edition was published and
German homoeopathic pharmacopoeia have the title was changed to ‘Homoeopathic
undergone many changes, but they have Pharmacopoeia of United States’. In June 1938,
always adhered strictly to Dr. Samuel ‘Foods, Drugs and Cosmetic Act’ (commonly
Hahnemann’s method of preparation of known as the Pure Food Law) was passed and
drugs. the H.P.U.S. became the official pharmacopoeia
of U.S.A. for the preparation of all remedies used
British Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia in homoeopathic practice. Since then many
(B.H.P.)-1870 editions have been published. In the 8th edition
(1879), volume one was published with an
The first edition was published in 1870 by
addendum, ‘Compendium of Homoeopathic
the British Homoeopathic Society, London; the
Therapeutics’.
2nd and the 3rd edition were published in 1876
and 1882 respectively. As the society did not have In 1882, Boericke and Tafel, of New York,
the recognisation of the Royal Charter, it was not Philadelphia and Chicago, compiled and
treated as the official pharmacopoeia of the published the ‘American Homoeopathic
country. However, owing to intrinsic merit and Pharmacopoeia’ (A.H.P.). It has 10 editions.
worth, it was accepted by the homoeopathic Several Indian homoeopathic pharmacists used
profession around the world. The Homoeopathic to follow A.H.P.
Pharmacopoeia of United States (H.P.U.S.) uses
it as a basis because of the care taken in making Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India
tinctures, the recognition of the effect of the (H.P.I.) - 1971
natural plant moistures and the prescription of H.P.I. is the official pharmacopoeia of India.
alcohol of different strengths for the preparation Eight volumes have been published by the
of drug tinctures and the general accuracy of the government of India (Ministry of Health and
detailed description of the drug in that work Family Welfare) by the Homoeopathic
(H.P.U.S. - 1941). Pharmacopoeia Committee). (“Homoeopathic
Note: The ‘Companion to the British and Pharmacopoeia Committee”, was appointed by
American Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeias’, arranged the central government, in Sept. 1962 under the
in the form of a dictionary, was compiled by Lawrence chairmanship of Dr. B.K. Sarkar.)
T. Ashwell and were published by Keene and Ashwell,
London in 1881. Its 2nd, 3rd and 4th edition were Volumes No. of Year of
published in July 1883, May 1884, Sept. 1890 Monograph Publication
respectively. These compilations had been accepted Vol. I of H.P.I. 180 1971
by the profession.
Vol. II of H.P.I. 100 1974
Vol. III of H.P.I. 105 1978
Vol. IV of H.P.I. 107 1984 The French pharmacopoeia has the following
Vol. V of H.P.I. 114 1987 categories of products:
• Mother tincture TM (of herbs, animals and
Vol. VI of HPI 104 1991
chemicals).
Vol. VII of HPI 105 1998
• Potencies are in decimal D, DH, X or XH
Vol. VIII of HPI 101 2000 and centesimal C or CH.
Homoeopathic Pharmaceutical Codex was • Combination of the above.
published in 2004, and it contains 1001 drugs. The material source comes from the
H.P.I. is included in the second schedule of following:
“Drugs and Cosmetic Act - 1940”. (Until 1971, • Vegetables or botanicals.
we used to follow the American Homoeopathic • Animals.
Pharmacopoeia). • Minerals and inorganic chemicals.
Note: In India, the first unofficial pharmacopoeia, • Organic substances and chemicals.
named ‘Pharmaceutics Manual’ was published by
• Biologicals and microbiologicals.
M. Bhattacharya and Co. Calcutta, in 1893. Since then
it has run into several editions. The tenth edition Pharmaceuticals forms:
published in 1944 incorporated about 70 of the • Drops and combination of mono-dilutions or
important Indian drugs. tinctures.
A thoroughly revised and enlarged twelfth edition • Triturations.
was published in July 1962, under the name and style • Granules or globules (impregnated).
of, “M. Bhattacharya & Co.’s Homoeopathic
• Tablets and capsules.
Pharmacopoeia”.
• Ampuoles.
French Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia • Suppositories.
F.H.P. is called Pharmacopoeia • Pommades.
Homoeopathique Francaise. The permitted vehicles include a wide range
Acceptance of homoeopathy in France is from purified water, alcohols of different
very high. Homoeopathic medicines are available strengths, glycerol, lactose, sucrose, gelatin,
with almost all pharmacists. Some of the products lanoline, vaseline, gum arabic and magnesium
out-sell conventional medicines. It has its own stearate as pharmaceutical aids.
pharmacopoeia and a prescribing trend which is By and large, Hahnemannian principles are
different from other countries. It has many new adopted and the tincture contains from 40 to 90%
drugs in categories of nosodes, organs, tissues, of alcohol as prescribed in the individual
biochemicals/organo-chemicals and minerals, in monograph. The dilutions contain 70% of alcohol
addition to the normal range of homoeopathic for impregnation and 40% for oral use. Adequate
medicines. precautions have been taken in each monograph
In India, its pharmacopoeia is not recognised for the purity of basic material, procedural
but physicians do believe in the new drugs precautions and technique of preparation of the
introduced in France and they tend to use the tincture or triturate; the controls on the alcohol
product when available. percentage, TLC and drug content, etc.
■
1-2
Pharmacology
DEFINITION In homoeopathy, human proving is the most

preferred source of materia medica, as both
Pharmacology is a science of drugs. It
subjective and objective symptoms can be
includes: Pharmacy, therapeutics, and materia
elicited.
medica. It is derived from two Greek words,
‘Pharmakon’ i.e. drug and ‘logos’ i.e. knowledge. The fundamentals of homoeopathic
pharmacology is to explore the peculiar and
It is the branch of medical science dealing
characteristic pharmacological languages and
with the preparation, uses and effects of drugs
therapeutic potentiality of the drug. The axial
and medicines i.e., the science and theory of
skeleton of homoeopathic pharmacology rests on
pharmacy.
the “Theory of Dynamis”.
Pharmacology imparts knowledge regarding
The dynamicity of the drug which was latent
the drug actions on living organism or the effects
and said to be the curative power, has been
produced on the system as a whole or on any
explored in Hahnemannian pharmacology and
particular organ or organs.
is utilized according to the therapeutic law.
KNOWLEDGE OF DRUGS (SOURCES
BRANCHES OF PHARMACOLOGY
OF MATERIA MEDICA)*
• From collected facts of historical evidences. Two branches:
• Animal experimentation. a. Pharmacognosy.
• Toxicological effects. b. Pharmacodynamics.
• Human provings. a. Pharmacognosy: This term originates from
• Clinical experiences or experimentation. the Latin word ‘gnosia’, meaning ‘the
knowledge of drugs’. It deals with crude
* For source of Homoeopathic Materia Medica one should
defenitly read ‘Source of Homoeopathic Materia Medica’ by drugs (i.e. medicinal substances in their
Dr. Richard Hughes in his Pharmacodynamics. natural or unprepared state), secured from
plant and animal sources, including their of different sex and ages who are known as
history, source, collection, distribution, provers with varying doses from crude to
cultivation, identification, composition, highly infinitesimal potencies repeated
quality inspection, preservation and several times. One must take note of the
commerce. sequential order of the phenomena (disease
b. Pharmacodynamics: It is the science or elements and symptoms) which form the true
subject of the powers or effects of drugs and basis of homoeopathic materia medica.
medicines on human beings in health and Drugs are called as ‘artificial disease
disease. Pharmacodynamics carries a special producers or ‘artificial morbific agents’.
significance in homoeopathy as it deals with These findings of poisonings of the
the ‘dynamic action’ of drugs. The object of poisonous drugs reveal the ultimate effects.
pharmacodynamics is to study the It indicates the morbid change in the
‘individual drug action’ over and above the anatomical and physiological sphere. As
general actions. homoeopathy believes in the corporeal and
non-corporeal (mind) states of life, these
METHOD FOR DETERMINING morbid phenomena do not help much in
DISEASE PRODUCING POWER compiling our materia medica but form an
The capacity or power of drugs to produce additional nosological help in the sphere of
an artificial disease is ascertained through the action of a drug and during provings.
following three procedures, especially for Laboratory findings are nothing but
homoeopathic pharmacology: pathological findings with the aid of
1. Homoeopathic Drug Provings: According instruments. These form a part of nosological
to Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, “There is no diagnosis and help indirectly in finding out
other possible way in which the peculiar the simillimum, and diet and regimen.
effects of medicines on the health of Drugs must be proved on both sexes, of
individuals can be accurately ascertained, different age groups and constitutions.
than to administer the several medicines 2. Toxicological Findings (Poisonings and
experimentally in moderate doses to healthy Overdosing): In poisoning, the subject is
persons,” (§ 108). ordinarily a healthy one whereas in over-
Homoeopathic drug provings are a speciality dosing, it must have occured in sick persons
of the experimental pharmacology. No one who were taking the drugs as medicines.
single physician during these two thousand According to Richard Hughes, the
seven hundred years has thought of this knowledge gained from such observations,
natural and genuine mode of listing medicine though sufficiently vague is at the same time
in this way except Albrecht von Haller. He a ‘clue’. It indicates the relative importance
however did not however follow up this of various symptoms and the class of
invaluable practice. diseases to which the drug corresponds. The
Drug proving, is defined as a systematic or revelations of morbid anatomy carry us a step
orderly method of investigating the onwards. They show the organs and tissues
pathogenetic prover of a drug substance. It upon which the poison exerts its influence,
is experimentation on healthy human beings i.e., shows the pathological morbid changes.
Pharmacology 11
From the homoeopathic therapeutical angle, a. Mechanically.

these above changes are not so useful, except b. Chemically.
under certain circumstances. They may only c. Dynamically.
be a correlated factor with the pathological
a. Mechanical Action: Drugs act mechanically
charges or symptoms in an actual diseased
by virtue of their bulk, weight or character
state. In homoeopathy, we carefully record
of surface. This action chiefly involves
the symptoms actually produced by the
violent efforts on the part of the organism to
absorption of poisonous drugs in varying
eject from its cavities the offending
doses and their effects on the dynamic plane.
substance. Richard Hughes gives examples
3. Laboratory Experiments: Drugs are of action of crude Mercury and Mucuna
administered in varying doses on animals pruriens. Mercury was previously given to
like guniea pigs, rabbits, monkeys, force a passage through obstructed bowels
armadillos, rats, etc. to study the effects it is and Mucuna pruriens to detach intestinal
likely to produce on humans. parasites. Also, if Phytolacca in large doses
In homoeopathy, drugs are administered in is administered by the effort of vomiting, the
varying doses upon healthy human beings. body, will throw away the drug from the
Prior to that it is experimented on lower stomach, which exhibits the mechanical
animals, specially the vertebrates to assess action of Phytolacca.
their effects on different organ or organs. b. Chemical Action: Depends on the chemical
Then the actual quantitative and qualitative affinity which exists between the drug and
changes imparted to the human organs, tissue the tissues of the body and independant of
functions and metabolism of the provers are the vitality. Chemical action is by virtue of
carefully observed. These experimental the properties of the molecules present in the
findings are not regarded as of grade one substance and its capacity to undergo a
value but they are treated as common reaction with another substance with which
symptoms and help when our other guiding it comes in contact. Action of acids and
symptoms are not available. alkalies are examples of chemical action.
Observations of poisoning, over-dosing and The above two actions represent primary
experiments on animals constitute the bulk action of drugs.
of pathogenetic material generally available.
c. Dynamic Action: Dynamic action of drugs
Human drug proving is the genuine source
embraces all effects of drugs, which cannot
of curative action of drugs.
be accounted for by physical and chemical
laws. This unlike those of the two former
PHARMACODYNAMICS classes are only produced in the living body.
The dynamic action is contingent upon
The symptoms which drugs produce upon vitality and results from the relation of
the healthy organism vary according to doses. peculiar properties of the drug to the
susceptibilities of the living healthy
ACTION OF DRUGS ON HEALTHY
organism.
HUMAN BEINGS
According to Carroll Dunham, the dynamic
Drugs act on living organisms in three ways: effect may be generic and specific.
i. Generic: Common to all the members of In homoeopathy, the drug action is the sum
a certain class of drugs which serve to total of the action imparted on an individual
distinguish this class from others but do living human being and the sum total of the
not furnish the means to distinguish reaction that it can induce in the vital force of
between different individuals of the the same.
same class. Dynamic effects of Secondary action may be of two types
Arsenicum in certain doses are vomiting namely secondary counter action and secondary
and diarrhea, with cold sweat and curative action.
cramps of the extremities. Though these
are the dynamic effects of Arsenicum, - When the action of the drug is exhausted,
they are generic as other members of the the vital force arouses itself and develops
class to which Arsenicum belongs, viz: an exactly opposite condition of the primary
Cuprum, Veratrum, Tartar emetic, etc., action. This is called counter action.
which in certain doses produce identical - In conditions were such an exactly opposite
symptoms. state does not exist or is not possible, the
ii. Specific: Related to the peculiarities. vital force will strive to utilise its superior
Peculiar action which distinguishes a power to extinguish the changes brought
given drug from all others. It is related about by the primary action of the drug and
to the susceptibility of the patient and thereby restore health. This secondary action
the condition of application, and also the of the vital force is termed curative action.
doses. The curative action depends upon the
Hahnemann describes two types of actions principle of ‘similia similibus curentur’,
of drugs: The ‘primary action’ and the ‘secondary whereas the secondary counter action
action’ in aphorism 63 and 64 of Organon of depends upon the principle of ‘contraria’.
Medicine. The following facts are observed regarding
• Primary Action: Aphorism 63 of Organon the drug action, in relation to their specificity,
holds, “Every agent that acts upon the and the varying doses in which they are
vitality, every medicine, deranges more or administered to healthy human beings:
less the vital force, and causes a certain • Drugs administered in ‘excessively large
alteration in the health of the individual for doses’ produce certain symptoms during the
a longer or shorter period”. This is termed initial stage of their drug actions which are
primary action. followed later by symptoms exactly opposite
• Secondary Action: Also known as dynamic to them.
action of drugs. It is the automatic action of The first series of symptoms are due to the
our vital force, in reaction to the primary primary action of the drug on the organs and
action. Or secondary action is the reaction the latter series of symptoms are the
of the vital force to the primary action. The secondary actions i.e., the reaction of the
secondary or dynamic action produces vital force.
certain physical and mental symptoms which
Hence, drugs administered in ‘large doses’
depend upon the mutual relations between
produce secondary actions, in addition to
the specific properties of drugs and the
their primary actions, e.g., apart from the
‘individual susceptibility’.
Pharmacology 13
physical symptoms produced by the primary • Drugs administered in ‘infinitesimal doses’

action of the drug Aconitum nap., it also produce secondary curative actions.
produces the mental symptom, fear of death, Here the vital force reacts only in such
which exhibits the secondary action. magnitude as is required to raise the health
• Drugs administered in ‘moderate doses’ again to the previous healthy state. Only
rarely exhibit secondary action, they only exception is seen in idiosyncratic persons.
produce primary actions. However, Idiosyncratic persons are abnormally
exceptions are seen in case of ‘narcotic susceptible to medicines, where agonising
drugs’. secondary actions are seen.
In a moderate dose, narcotic drugs produce The secondary actions of drugs are curative
secondary actions, because in their primary in nature, and are proportional to their
action, the narcotics take away the primary actions, where the living organism
sensibility, susceptibility and irritability of reacts from these only in such magnitude as
the healthy organism, due to their peculiar is required to raise the health again to the
action on the central nervous system. previous healthy state, the original one,
Under certain conditions, some drugs when provided the principles of homoeopathy are
administered in moderate doses produce followed.
symptoms exactly opposite to those • Idiosyncrasy (§ 117) is the peculiar
produced during primary actions. These are corporeal constitution which, although
not due to secondary actions but represent otherwise healthy is brought into a more or
the alternating state of the various paroxysms less morbid state by substances which seem
of the primary action and are known as to produce no impression or change in others.
‘alternating actions’. ■
1-3
Sources of Homoeopathic Drugs
“The true physician must be provided with • Imponderabilia.

genuine medicines of unimpaired strength, so that • Synthetic source.
he may be able to rely upon their therapeutic
powers; he must be able, himself, to judge of their There are two sub-sources of the animal
genuineness.”§ 264. kingdom:
i. The opnitoxin — the specific source of
“Homoeopathy presses into its service a far
venoms; first suggested by Dr. Farrington.
greater number of natural products than
traditional medicine employs. It has revived ii. The lacs — milk and milk products of several
many valuable agents from the unmerited animals. Human milk is also employed as a
oblivion into which they had fallen and is drug in homoeopathy.
continually adding new remedies to its stock by Note: With the development of all branches of science
means of the Organon it possesses in the law of including medicine, many new drugs have been
similars.” — Richard Hughes introduced in the pharmacology of the other
school of medicine like Adrenaline, Testosterone,
Various sources of homoeopathic drugs are: Penicillin, Streptomycine, Hydrocortisone, etc.
• Plant kingdom. They have been put in the field of homoeopathy
by clinical experiences and some provings.
• Animal kingdom.
Attempts to have a thorough drug proving by
• Mineral kingdom. these substances are being made by individual
• Nosodes. persons and different organisations. They can all
be put in the different categories of homoeopathic
• Sarcodes. drug sources.
PLANT KINGDOM
CLASSIFICATION
Various classifications are in vogue today.
Plant kingdom, as suggested by Eichler (1883) is subdivided into two subkingdoms: Cryptogamae
and Phanerogamae.
Eichler’s System - 1883
Cryptogamae Phenerogamae
Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta
Algae Fungi Lichens Hepaticae Musci
Equisentinae Lycopodinae Filcinae
Gymnosperms Angiosperm
Monocots Dicots
Choripetalae Sympetalae
1. Subkingdom Cryptogamae (crypto- name suggests, the plant body is not
hidden, gamous - marriage): Are lower plants differentiated into stem, roots and leaves.
or flowerless or seedless plants. As they are There is no vascular system and the
devoid of external flowers or seeds, they are reproductive organs are single celled.
considered to possess hidden reproductive There is no embryo formation after
organs. It is subdivided into three divisions: fertilization. Under this division, three
i. Division Thallophyta (thallus - subdivisions are included:
undifferentiated, phyta - plant): As the a. Algae: Algae are autotrophs.
Sources of Homoeopathic Drugs 17
b. Fulgi: Fungi are heterotrophs. stem, leaves and roots. Vascular system is
c. Lichens: Lichens are plant bodies well developed. Sex organs are multicellular
made up of two individuals, an alga and the embryo develops from a fertilized
and a fungus. Both get mutual egg. On the basis of absence or presence of
benefits from symbiotic association. fruits, it is subdivided into two sub divisions.
ii. Division Bryophyta: They constitute the i. Subdivision Gymnospermae: Seeds
simplest land plants on earth. The plant enclosed in fruits. E.g., Pinus.
body is flat and lacks true leaves and ii. Subdivision Angiospermae: Seeds are
roots. A true vascular system is absent. enclosed in a fruit and based on the
Sex organs are multicellular. An embryo number of cotyledons, they are divided
is formed upon fertilization. Division into two groups, dicotyledons (e.g.,
Bryophyta includes liverworts, gram, pea, etc.) and monocotyledons
hornworts and mosses. (e.g., wheat, rice, etc.).
iii. Division Pteridophyta: This division Majority of drugs used in homoeopathic
constitutes plants having stem, leaves pharmacy belong to Angiospermae.
and roots. A vascular system is present.
Reproductive organs are multicellular. PLANT SOURCES OF HOMOEOPA-
The fertilized egg develops into an THIC DRUGS
embryo. All types of ferns belong to this It includes, fungi, mushrooms, weeds, herbs,
family. leaves, flowers, stems, barks, roots, seeds and
2. Subkingdom Phanerogamae: These are the whole plant.
seed plants. Body is differentiated into true
I. Whole Plant Including Root:

E.g.:
S.No. Name of Medicine Common Name Season for Collection
1. Acalypha indica Indian nettle Beginning of flowering.
2. Aconitum napellus Monkshood Beginning to flowering
3. Andrographis paniculata Kalmegh Beginning of flowering.
4. Arnica montana Leopard’s bane Beginning of flowering.
5. Belladonna Deadly nightshade Beginning of flowering.
6. Chamomilla German chamomile When in flower.
7. Chelidonium majus Greater celandine Before flowing; plants growing where
rootlets run into water are preferable.
8. Drosera rotundifolia Sundew Before flowering, plants growing where
9. Dulcamara Woody nightshade Before flowering, plants growing where
10. Euphrasia officinalis Eyebright Second year growth.

11. Hyoscyamus niger Henbane Second year growth.
12. Hypericum perforatum St. John’s wort When in flower.
13. Ledum palustre Marsh tea When in flower.
14. Pulsatilla nigricans Wind flower When in flower.
15. Ruta graveolens Rue-bitterwort ..
16. Tribulus terrestris Ikshugandha ..
II. Whole Plant Minus the Root

E.g.:
S.No. Name of Medicine Common Name
1. Alfalfa Medicago latura
2. Lobelia inflata Indian tobacco
3. Ocimum sanctum Brazilian alfavaca
III. Roots
E.g.:
S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name Season for Collection
1. Aralia quinquefolia Aralia Freshy dried root.
2. Artemisia vulgaris Mugwort Collected in dry seasons.
Take care not to wash.
3. Arum triphyllum Jack-in-the-pulpit Freshly dried.
4. Bryonia alba Wild hops Freshly dried.
5. Calotropis gigantea Madar bark Freshly dried.
6. Ipecacuanha Ipecac root Collected dry, in spring.
7. Paeonia officinalis Peony Collected dry, in spring.
8. Rauwolfia serpentina Rauwolfia Dried root.
9. Senega Snakewort Dried root.
IV. Roots and Rhizomes
E.g.:
V. Roots and Stem
E.g.:
1. Aletris farinosa Stargrass
2. Apocynum andro- S.No. Name of Medicine Common Name
saemifolium Spreading dogbane
1. Tinospora cordyfolia Gulancha
3. Gentiana lutea Yellow gentian
4. Helonias dioica Unicorn root
5. Leptandra virginica Culver’s root
6. Sarsaparilla Wild liquorice
VI. Stem and Leaves S. Name of Common Type of

No. Medicine Name Stem
E.g.:
1. Rhus venenata Poison elder Ripe stem.
2. Sabina Savine Ripe stem.
3. Saccharum officinale Cane sugar Ripe stem.
VII. Modified Stem (Rhizome)

E.g.:
S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name Season for Collection
1. Caulophyllum Blue cohosh Dried in artificial heat soon after collection.
2. Cimicifuga racemosa Black cohosh ”
3. Dioscorea villosa Wild yam ”
4. Filix mas Male fern ”
5. Gelsemium sempervirens Yellow jasmine ”
6. Helleborus niger Snowrose ”
7. Hydrastis canadensis Golden seal ”
8. Valeriana officinalis Valeriana ”
9. Zingiber officinale Ginger Dried modified stem.
VIII. Bulb
X. Woods
E.g.: E.g.:
S.No. Name of Medicine Common Name S. Name of Common Type of
1. Allium cepa Dried onion No. Medicine Name Stem
2. Allium sativum Garlic 1. Ostrya virginica Iron wood Heart.
3. Colchicum autumnale Meadow saffron 2. Quassia amara Quassia wood Wood, root and
bark; dried.
IX. Tuber 3. Santalum album Sandalwood Dried.
E.g.: XI. Twigs
E.g.:
1. Solanum tuberosum Rotten potato
Name of Medicine Common Name
aegrotans
1. Taxus buccata Yew
XII. Bark
E.g.:
S.No. Name of Medicine Common Name Condition of wood
1. Alstonia scholaris Bitter bark Dried.
2. Azadirachta indica Margosa bark Atleast two years old.
3. Cascara sagrada Sacred bark Atleast two years old.
4. Cinchona officinalis Peruvian bark Dried.
5. Cundurango Condor plant Dried.
6. Holarrhena antidysenterica Kurchi Dried.
7. Joanesia asoca Saraca indica Of young branches gathered in
spring and kept atleast for a year.
8. Mezereum Spurge olive Of young branches gathered in
9. Rhamnus frangula Alder buckthorn Of young branches gathered in
XIII. Inner Bark XV. Inner Bark of Root

E.g.: E.g.:
S. Name of Common Along With S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name

No. Medicine Name 1. Gossypium herbaceum Cotton plant
1. Cinnamomum Cinnamon Leaves
2. Populus American Leaves. XVI. Leaves
tremuloides aspen E.g.:
3. Prunus virginiana Choke berry S. Name of Common Time of
No. Medicine Name Collection
XIV. Bark of Root
1. Abroma augusta Olat kambal With young
E.g.: shoots.
S. Name of Common Along with 2. Abrotanum Southernwood With young
No. Medicine Name shoots.
1. Baptisia tinctoria Wild indigo Stem and bark. 3. Cannabis indica Marijuana Recently dried.
2. Berberis vulgaris Barberry Stem and bark. 4. Ceanothus Red root Recently dried.
3. Granatum Pomegranate Stem and bark americanus
root bark 5. Coca Coca leaves Recently dried.
4. Hamamelis Witch hazel Stem and bark. 6. Digitalis Foxglove Second years
purpurea growth.
7. Eriodictyon Yerba santa Recently dried.
californicum
8. Kalmia latifolia Mountain Gathered in XX. Flower Buds and Leaves

laurel July-August,
E.g.:
when they have
more prussive S. Name of Common Time of
acid. No. Medicine Name Collection
9. Laurocerasus Cherry laurel Gathered in 1. Rhododendron Yellow Buds
July-August, chrysanthemum snowrose developed but
when they have not opened.
more prussive
acid. XXI. Catkin
10. Oleander Rose laurel Recently dried, E.g.:
Havana quality
S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name
preferred.
11. Rhus Poison oak Recently dried, 1. Lupulus Hops
toxicodendron Havana quality
preferred. XXII. Blossom
12. Tabacum Tobacco Recently dried, E.g.:
Havana quality S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name
preferred. 1. Cystisus scoparius Sarothamnus scoparius
13. Thuja Arbor vitae With twigs. 2. Syringa vulgaris -
occidentalis
XXIII. Stigma of Flowers
XVII. Flowering Heads
E.g.:
E.g.:
S. Name of Common Time of
No. Medicine Name Collection
1. Cina Wormseed.
1. Crocus sativus Saffron Dried.
XVIII. Flowers and Leaves XXIV. Spores

E.g.: E.g.:
S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name
1. Absinthium Common wormwood 1. Lycopodium clavatum Club moss
2. Sambucus nigra Elder
XXV. Fruits (Berries)
XIX. Flowering Tops and Leaves
E.g.:
E.g.:
1. Agnus castus Chaste tree
1. Calendula officinalis Pot marigold
2. Eupatorium perfoliatum Boneset 2. Crataegus oxyacantha Hawthorn berries
3. Grindelia robusta Rosinwood
XXVI. Berries with Fresh Leaves XXXI. Seeds

E.g.: E.g.:
S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name
1. Viscum album Mistletoe 1. Avena sativa Oat straw
XXVII. Nuts (Excluding Outer Shell) 2. Carduus marianus St. Mary’s thistle
E.g.: 3. Chaulmoogra Taraktogenes
S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name 4. Cocculus indica Indian cockle
1. Aesculus hippocastanum Horse chestnut 5. Coffea cruda Unroasted coffee

2. Aesculus glabra Ohio buckeye 6. Nux vomica Poison nut
7. Psoralea corylifoliae Columbian plant
XXVIII. Fruits
8. Sabadilla Cevadilla seeds
E.g.:
Condition or XXXII. Herbs
S. Name of Common Part of
E.g.:
No Medicine Name Collection
1. Apium graveolens Common Ripe, S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name
celery with seeds. 1. Ledum palustre Marsh tea
2. Capsicum Cayenne Ripe, with
2. Verbascum thapsus Mullein oil
pepper seeds.
3. Carica papaya Papaya Green, unripe, XXXIII. Weeds
excluding E.g.:
seeds
4. Colocynthis Bitter Pulp, reject S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name
cucumber seeds. 1. Fucus vesicatosus Seakelp
5. Terminalia chebula Haritaki Matured.
XXXIV. Lichen
XXIX. Fruits (Dry) E.g.:
E.g.: S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name
S. Name of Common Condition for 1. Cetraria islandica Iceland moss

No. Medicine Name Collection 2. Usnea barbata Tree moss
1. Cubeba Cubebs Unripe. XXXV. Fungi (Berries)

2. Sabal serrulata Saw palmetto - E.g.:
XXX. Beans (Berries)
1. Agaricus muscarius Amanita mushroom
E.g.:
S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name 2. Bovista Puffball
1. Ignatia amara St. Ignatius bean

XXXVI. Algae XLII. Balsamam

E.g.:
E.g.:
1. Helminthochortos Worm moss
1. Balsamam peruvianum Balsamum of Peru
XXXVII. Juice
XLIII. Oils - Fixed
E.g.:
E.g.:
S. Name of Common Character of
No. Medicine Name Juice Pro-
cured From 1. Croton tiglium Croton oil
2. Oleum ricini Castor oil
1. Aloe socotrina Socotrina aloes From leaves.
2. Anacardium Marketing nut Resinous, XLIV. Volatile Oil
orientale from seeds.
E.g.:
3. Elaterium Squitting Sediment of.
cucumber
4. Myristica Brazilian Red; from 1. Oleum cajuputi Cajuput oil
sebifera vicuba puncturing 2. Oleum caryophyllum Clove oil
the bark. 3. Oleum cinnamomum Cinnammon oil
5. Opium Poppy Gummy. 4. Oleum eucalyptus Eucalyptus oil
5. Oleum santali Sandalwood oil
XXXVIII. Latex
E.g.:
SOURCE AND AUTHORITY OF SOME
MEDICINES
1. Euphorbium Gum euphorbium
Name of Plant Source of Pathogenesis
XXXIX. Extracts • Aconitum Hahnemann’s Materia
E.g.: napellus Medica Pura; Millard’s
Monograph; Reil’s Essay;
Hartmann’s Practical
1. Curare Arrow poison Observations; Allen’s
Encyclopaedia; Hempel’s
XL. Gum Materia Medica.
E.g.:
• Pulsatilla Hahnemann’s Materia
S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name nigricans Medica Pura; Dunham’s
1. Ammoniacum gummi Gum ammoniac Materia Medica.
• Cimicifuga North American Journal of
XLI. Gum Resin Homeopathy, Vol. III and
E.g.: XXVII; Hale’s New
S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name Remedies; Hempel’s
Materia Medica; Allen’s
1. Copaiva officinalis Balsamum of copaiva
Encyclopaedia.
• Chelidonium Hahnemann’s Materia coelenteron. It is the gastrovascular cavity.

majus Medica Pura; British Reproduction is asexual in certain forms and
Journal of Homoeopathy, sexual in others.
Vol. 23 and 24. • Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms): It
• Sanguinaria Materia Medica of consists of animals that are mostly parasitic.
American Provings; They attach themselves to the host by suckers
Hale’s New Remedies; and hooks. However, some are free living.
Allen’s Encyclopaedia. They are the first triploblastic animals, but
do not possess a body cavity. Tapeworms,
flukes, etc. belong to this phylum.
ANIMAL KINGDOM
• Phylum Nematoda (Aschelminthes;
Animal kingdom is divided into several Round or Threadworms): Includes animals
phyta depending upon their cell organisation, that are parasitic or free living. Size varies
symmetry, presence or absence of notochord and from microscopic to several centimeters in
body cavity. Here only the distinctive features length. They are triploblastic, unsegmented
of each phylum has been mentioned. and bilaterally symmetrical. They possess a
• Phylum Protozoa (Early Animals): They body cavity which is not a true coelom. They
are unicellular, mostly aquatic, free living have a fully formed alimentary canal. Sexes
or parasitic organisms. They possess are separate. Ascaris, Enterobius, Wucher,
pseudopodia, flagella or cilia for locomotion. etc. belong to phylum Aschelminthes.
Nutrition is mostly heterotrophic. • Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms):
Reproduction is by binary or multiple fission These includes earthworms, leeches, neveis,
and conjugation. etc. They occur in the moist soil, fresh water
• Phylum Porifera: This includes sponges. and sea. They are elongated, segmented and
They are mostly marine but a few live in bilaterally symmetrical. These are the first
fresh water. They are the simplest animals with a true body cavity (coelom).
multicellular organisms wherein cells are The locomotive organs are called setae or
loosely held together and do not form tissues. parapodia, found laterally. Reproduction is
Sponges are of different shapes and sizes. by sexual means. Sexes are either separate
They are sessile. There are pores all over the or united.
body. A characteristic canal system for the • Phylum Arthropoda (Animals with
passage of water is seen. The skeleton is Jointed Feet): It is the largest phylum which
made up of calcareous or siliceous spicules includes prawns, shrimps, insects, spiders
or spongin fibres. Sexual as well as asexual and scorpions. They exist on land and in
reproduction is seen. water (fresh and marine). They may be free
• Phylum Coelenterata or Cnidaria: This living or parasitic. They possess jointed legs.
includes hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone and The body is segmented and the segments are
corals. They show radial symmetry and grouped into two regions - cephalothorax
possess tentacles. Their body is supplied with (head and thorax together) and abdomen or
special stinging cells (cnidoblasts). A cavity three regions - head, thorax and abdomen.
is seen in the centre of the body known as The anterior part of the body forms a distinct
head, bearing sense organs and brain. The Urochorda, Cephalochordata and Vertebrata.
exoskeleton is chitinous and jointed. Body The first two subphyla together are known
cavity is reduced and filled with blood and as Protochordates.
is hemocoel. Respiration is through gills, - Subphylum Urochordata includes
tracheae, booklungs, etc. Sexes are separate. exclusively marine animals. Their body
• Phylum Mollusca: Includes mussels, is unsegmented and the adults usually
conches, octopus, etc. It includes aquatic lack a tail. Notochord occurs in the tail
forms. The size varies from a microscopic in larval forms. A hollow nerve cord is
form to giant forms. They have soft and also seen in the larva. Pharynx has
unsegmented bodies. Body is divided into several gill slits.
three regions: Head, dorsal visceral mass and - Subphylum Cephalochordata includes
ventral foot. Outer surface is covered by a tiny fish like chordates, but without a
hard calcareous shell. Respiration is by gills head. It possesses all the characters of
called tenidia. The sexes are separate. chordates. It has a notochord extending
• Phylum Echinodermata (Spiny Skinned): along the entire length. A nerve cord,
It includes starfish, brittle star, sea urchin, without a distinct brain is seen.
sea cucumber, etc. They are all marine, Numerous gill slits and a post- anal tail
gregarious (living in groups) and free-living are also present.
animals. They may be star-like, spherical or - Subphylum Vertebrata consists of
elongated. Body surface is covered all over animals with a well differentiated head.
by calcareous spines. Their symmetry is The nervous system and endoskeleton
radial in adults but bilateral in larvae. These are highly developed. Notochord is
are unsegmented. Their body cavity is replaced by a jointed vertebral column.
modified into a water-vascular system with There are two pairs of appendages.
a tube-like outward extension for Respiration is by gills in aquatic animals
locomotion, called tubefeet. and by lungs in land animals. Sexes are
• Phylum Hemichordata: This includes separate. Vertebrata is divided into seven
worm-like unsegmented animals like classes.
balanoglossus. These animals are marine. ♦ Class Cyclostomata includes
They possess a combination of invertebrate lamprey and hag fish. These are the
and chordate characters. Body is divided into most primitive vertebrates. They are
proboscis, collar and trunk. It is bilaterally without jaws. Mouth is suctorial and
symmetrical. Respiration is through gill slits. they exist as ectoparasites.
Sexes are mostly separate. Notochord is in the form of a
• Phylum Chordata: This constitutes the cylindrical rod. Respiration is
most advanced group of animals. The through gills. A two chambered
distinctive characters of this group are: heart, a single gonard and external
Presence of notochord at some stage of life, fertilization are the other features.
hollow dorsal nerve cord, gill slits at some ♦ Class Chondrichthyes (Cartila-
stage of life and tail behind the anal opening. ginous Fish) includes sharks, rays
Chordates are divided into three subphyla: and skates. They are mostly marine
and are generally large. Body is mostly terrestrial and live in warmer
either laterally compressed and regions. Body is covered with
spindle-shaped or dorso-ventrally scales. They have two pairs of
flattened and disc-shaped. Mouth is pentadactyl (five digits) limbs
ventral. Skin is covered with scales except in snakes and a few lizards.
and the skeleton is completely Respiration is by lungs. Heart is
cartilaginous. Respiration is through generally 3 chambered.
gills. Heart is two chambered. Snakes are reptiles belonging to the
♦ Class Osteichthyes (Bony Fishes) order Ophidia. They are limbless
exist in all water bodies. Body is reptiles. Sea snakes, cobras, vipers
generally spindle-shaped and and kraits are the most poisonous.
covered with scales. Mouth is Snakes are cold-blooded and their
anterior. Skeleton is partly or wholly body is covered by scales. Some of
bony. Respiration is through them have shields on the head. The
filamentous gills. Heart is two poison glands are modified labial or
chambered. Labeo, Hippocampus, parotid glands. There are two types
Exocoetus, etc. are a few examples. of snake poisons: Neurotoxic
☞ Dipnoi fishes: These are a group (cobra) and hemotoxic (viper).
of fishes possessing both lungs ♦ Class Aves (Birds) are found all over
and gills as respiratory organs the world. Size ranges from the
and are therefore called double smallest humming bird to the largest
breathers. Amphibians are said ostrich. Forelimbs are modified into
to have evolved from such wings. Body is covered with
fishes. feathers. The skeleton is very light
which aids in flying. Mouth is
Examples: Epiceratodus,
surrounded by a beak modified for
Protopterus, Lepidosiren.
different purposes. Respiration is by
♦ Class Amphibia includes frogs, lungs only. Heart is four chambered
toads, newts and salamanders. They in birds.
live in fresh water and moist
♦ Class Mammalia are the most
grounds. Body varies in form and
evolved amongst organisms. These
scales are absent. They usually
are divided into three groups,
possess two pairs of pentadactyl
namely:
limbs. Primitive burrowing
1. Monotremes or egg-laying
amphibians lack limbs and tail, and
mammals, like the duck-billed
possess minute eyes which are
platypus.
functionless, e.g., Ichthyophys,
Siphonops. Respiration is by gills, 2. Marsupials or pouched
lungs or skin. Heart is 3 chambered. mammals like the kangaroo.
♦ Class Reptilia (Creeping Verte- 3. Placental mammals or true
brates) includes lizards, snakes, mammals, like the deer, mouse,
crocodiles, tortoises. They are elephant, man, etc.
Mammals are warm-blooded and are is enormously developed and the heart
viviparous. Mammals have a palate, a is four chambered. The mammals are
pair of pinnae or external ears, a divided into 16 orders; the primates
diaphragm separating the chest and represent the order to which we belong.
abdomen, uro-genital organs to facilitate Sebaceous glands and a muscular
internal fertilization and epidermal hair diaphragm are found only in mammals.
on the skin. The cerebrum of the brain
ANIMAL KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION (HEILERS)
Subkingdom: Protozoa Subkingdom: Metazoa
Phylum Protozoa Phylum: Porifera

Coelenterata
Platyhelminthes
Nematoda
Annelida
Arthropoda
Mollusca
Echinodermata
Hemichordata
Chordata
Subphylum Subphylum
Protochordata Vertebrata
Hemichordat Tunicata Cephalochochordata Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia Cyclostomata Chondrichythyes Osteichthyes
Urochordata Cephalochordata
DRUGS FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

The drugs are prepared from living or dried whole animals, parts, different secretions, etc.
Drugs are also prepared from the venoms of poisonous animals (ophiotoxins) as well as milk and
milk products (lacs).
Name of Animal & Drug Common Name Class Phylum
A. Whole Living Animals:

Apis mellifica Hive bee (throughout world) Insecta Arthropoda
Brombyx chrysorrhea Brown tailed moth (Europe) ” ”
Bombyx processionae Procession moth (Europe) ” ”
Chenopodium glauci Plant-lice from Chenopodium ” ”
Cimex acanthia Bed bug (India) ” ”
Coccinella septempunctata Lady bug (India) ” ”
Culex musca Culex mosquito ” ”
Doryphora decemlineata Colorado potato bug ” ”
Formica rufa Crushed live ants (Europe) ” ”
Vespa crabro Common wasp (Europe) ” ”
Pulex irritans Common flea ” ”
Pediculus capitis Head louse ” ”
Millepedes (Oniscus asellus) Wood louse or Saw bug (Europe) Crustacea ”
Astacus fluviatilis River crab; Craw fish (Pacific ” ”
slope; Europe; Asia; England)
1. Spider Group:
Aranea avicularis Mygale avicularis Arachnida ”
(middle Europe)
Aranea diadema Papal cross spider; Garden spider ” ”
(Europe; America)
Aranea scinencia Grey spider ” ”
(Kentucky, in old walls)
Latrodectus haseltii Black spider (New South Wales) ” ”
Latrodectus katipo Poison spider ” ”
(New Zealand; California)
Latrodectus mactans Black widow spider ” ”
(South Europe ; New Zealand) ”
Mygale lasiodora Black Cuban spider (Island of
Cuba; Texas; South America) ” ”
Tarentula cubensis Hairy spider; Cuban spider

(Cuba; Mexico) Arachnida Arthropoda
Tarentula hispanica Spanish spider (Spain; South ” ”
Europe; South America)
Theridion curassavicum Orange spider (West Indies) ” ”
2. Scorpion Group:
Scorpio europus Bichchu (Europe) ” ”
Aurelia medusa Jelly-fish (antire Atlantic coast Scyphozoa Coelenterata
and Pacific coast)
Physalia Portuguese man of war Hydrozoa ”
Sanguisuga officinalis The leech Hirudinea Annelida
Helix tosta Snail; Shamuk (Arctic
region; poorly represented
in America) Gastropoda Mollusca
Asterias rubens Common starfish (Europe; Asteroidea Echinodermata
America; India)
Pyrarara River fish
(South America; Brazil) Osteichthyes Chordata
B. Whole Dried Animals :
Blatta americana Great American cockroach Insecta Arthropoda
(America)
Blatta orientalis Indian cockroach (India) ” ”
Cantharis vesicatoria Spanish fly (middle and ” ”
southern Europe)
Coccus cacti Grana fine cochineal insect ” ”
(Mexico; America; Peru; Spain)
Armadillo officinarum Ant-eater (South America) Crustacea ”
Lacerta agilis Green lizard Ruptilia Chordata
c. Different Parts, Secretions of Animals:

1. Skeletons:
Spongia tosta Roasted sponge (Syria; Greece) Calcarea or Porifera
Calcispongiae
Badiaga Fresh water sponge ” ”
(Spongilla fluviatilis) (Atlantic; European and ” ”
American waters)
Corallium rubrum Red coral or Prabala Anthozoa Ceolenterata
2. Acarus:
Trombidium Red acarus of the fly Arachnida Arthropoda
(Philadelphia)
3. Blood:
Limulus or Xiphosura The king-crab or Horse foot ” ”
americana (Asia, North America)
4. Juices:
Araneinum Juice of greasy spider Aranea ” ”
scinencia
Mephitis mephitica Skunk - poison; fluid secretion Mammalia Chordata
of the anal gland of wild cat
(U.S.A.)
Murex purpurea Purple fish (Syrian coast; Gastropoda Mollusca
Greece; Italy; India; West
Indies and U.S.A.)
Sepia succus Cuttlefish (India, Europe) Cephalopoda ”
5. Shells:
Calcarea calcinata Calcinated oyster shell Bivalvia ”
Pecten Scallop (India; U.S.A.) ” ”
Calcarea ovorum or Toasted egg shell of hen Aves Chordata
Ova tosta
Ovi gallinae pellicula Membrane of egg shell ” ”
6. Backbone:
Gadus lata Cod-fish spp. Osteichthyes ”
7. First Cervical Vertebra:
Gadus morrhua Cod-fish spp. ” ”
8. Thumb-nail:
Castor equi A red substance growing on Mammalia ”
the inside of the legs of the
horse (rudimentary thumb-
nail of the horse)
9. Prickles:
Sphingurus maritini Large rodent (Brazil) ” ”
10. Hide:
Carbo animalis Animal charcoal ” ”
Cervus braziliens Hide of Brazilian stag with hair
on (Brazil) ” ”
11. Gizzard:
Ingluvin Gizzard of a fowl ” ”
12. Extracts:
Orchitinum Testicular extract of man Mammalia Chordata
Oophorinum Ovarian extract of cow or sheep ” ”
Hippomanes Meconium deposit from
newborn horse or calf ” ”
Moschus moschiferus Dried secretion of preputial
follicles of male musk-deer
(east Asia) ” ”
Castoreum The extract from the preputial
sacs of the beaver ” ”
13. Animal Brain:
Lecithin Phosphorus containing
complex organic body ” ”
14. Gall-bladder:
Fel piscinum Fresh gall of dog ” ”
Fel tauri Fresh gall of horse ” ”
Vulpis fel Fresh gall of ox ” ”
15. Liver:
Vulpis hepar Fresh liver of fox ” ”
16. Small Intestine:
Typho-febrinum Large rodent (porcupine), having ” ”
spines or sharp quills in its horny
coat (Sajarur kutilantra)
17. Lung:
Vulpis pulmo or Fresh lung of wolf or fox ” ”
Pulmo vulpis
18. Digestive Fluid:
Homarus Digestive fluid of a live lobster Crustacea Arthropoda
19. Serum:
Serum anguillar Eel serum (Serum of the eel) Pisces Chordata
ichthotoxin
20. Oil:
Oleum animale Dippel’s animal oil or Bone Mammalia ”
oil (it is the secretion of the
mare i.e. female horse)
Oleum jacoris aselli Fresh liver of the Cod, Osteichthyes ”
Gadus morrhua
D. Venoms :
1. Snake Poison: It is obtained by pressing the poison gland.
Ancistrodon contortrix Pit-viper (hilly region in Reptilia ”
or Cenchris contortrix north and eastern parts of
India and Asia)
Bungarus fasciatus Banded krait (south-east Asia; Reptilia Chordata

all over India and Malaya)
Chelone Snake head (Indian, Pacific ” ”
and Atlantic oceans and coasts
of the United States)
Crotalus cascavilla Brazilian rattle snake (Brazil) ” ”
Crotalus horridus Rattlesnake (North America; Europe) ” ”
Elaps corallinus Coral snake (Brazil) ” ”
Lachesis lanceolatus or Yellow viper ” ”
Bothrops lanceolatus
Lachesis trigonocephalus Surukuku snake (South America) ” ”
Naja tripudians Gokshura (India) ” ”
Toxicophis Moccasin snake ” ”
2. Lizard Poison:
Amphisbaena Glass snake; Snail-like lizard ” ”
vermicularis (South America); jaw containing
venom is used.
Heloderma horridus Gilla-monster or Hella monster ” ”
(deserts of Mexico and U.S.A.);
on being irritated, it bites on glass
and the liquid venom is obtained.
3. Scorpion Poison:
Centruroides elegans Scorpion (States of Guerrero and Arachnida Arthropoda
Durango in Mexico); the sting
and venom glands from a recently
killed scorpion are used.
4. Spider Poison:
Latrodectus mactans Black widow spider; Hour glass ” ”
spider (south Europe; southern
United States; New Zealand);
the female spider has a pair of
extremely horny claws which
are poisonous.
5. Insect Poison:
Apium virus Poison of honey bee; secreted from Insecta ”
the two poisonous glands.
6. Poison of Aqueous Animal:
Bufo rana Toad; poison is obtained Amphibia Chordata
from the dorsal gland of toad.
E. Milk and Milk Products :

Lac caninum Dog’s milk Mammalia Chordata
Lac felinum Cat’s milk ” ”
Lac vaccinum Cow’s milk ” ”
Lac defloratum Skimmed cow milk ” ”
Lac vaccinum coagulatum Curd ” ”
Lac vaccini floc Cream ” ”
Koumyss Fermentation from ass’s milk ” ”
F. Eggs:
Bombyx chrysorrhea Of the silk worm caterpiller
Barbus fluviatilis Roe of the fish collected in May of
Asia and Southern Europe
SOURCE AND AUTHORITY OF SOME MEDICINES
Medicine Source of Pathogenesis

Lachesis Hering’s Action of Snake Poisons; British Journal
of Homoeopathy, Vol. 11 and 12; Allen’s Encyclopaedia; Hering’s Guiding
Symptoms.
Sepia Hahnamenn’s Chronic Diseases; Transactions of American Institute of
Homoeopathy, 1875; British Journal of Homoeopathy, Vol. 13 and 14.
Apis mellifica Metcalf ’s Materia Medica; Wolf ’s Monograph; British Journal of
Homoeopathy, Vol. 11 and 12; Hering’s American Provings.
Moschus Hahnemann’s Materia Medica; British Journal of Homoeopathy, Vol I, XXII.
Cantharis Hahnemann’s works; Hartlaud and Trinks; Allen’s Encyclopaedia.
ELEMENTS, MINERALS AND more elements, bonded together so that they can’t
COMPOUNDS be separated by physical medicines. Compounds
are held together by electrovalent or covalent
DEFINITION bonds.
Elements: Substance that can’t be split Minerals: Naturally formed inorganic
chemically into simpler substances. The atoms substances with a particular chemical
of a particular element have the same number of composition and an ordered internal structure,
protons in their nuclei. These include: Metals, either in their perfect crystalline form or
non-metals and metalloids. otherwise. Includes all organic and inorganic
compounds. Minerals are constituents of rocks.
Chemical Compounds: Chemical
On more general usage, a mineral is any
compounds are substances made up of two or
PERIODIC TABLE
substance economically valuable for mining III. Metalloids

(including coal and oil despite their organic
Those elements which have properties of
origins)
both metals and non-metals.
Acids: These are compound having a
E.g.:
hydrogen atom which can be replaced by metals.
Arsenic As.
I. Metals Antimony Sb.
E.g.:
IV. Salts, Compounds
Aluminium Al.
It includes various compounds of most of
Argentum (Silver) Ag.
the above elements, excluding Pd. and Te. These
Aurum (Gold) Au. are both, organic and inorganic.
Beryllium Be.
1. Inorganic Salts/Compounds
Cadmium Cd.
a. Antimony (Sb.)
Cobaltum Co.
E.g.: Antimonium arsenicosum.
Cuprum (Copper) Cu.
Antimonium crudum.
Ferrum (Iron) Fe.
Antimonium tartaricum.
Iridium Ir.
Magnesium Mg. b. Barium/Baryta (Ba.)
Mercury (Mercurius vivus) Hg. E.g.: Baryta acetica.
Niccolum Ni. Baryta carbonica.
Osmium Os. Baryta muriatica.
Palladium Pd. c. Calcium/Calcarea (Ca.)
Platinum Pt. E.g.: Calcarea arsenicosa.
Plumbum (lead) Pb.
Calcarea carbonica.
Stannum Sn.
Calcarea fluorica.
Tellurium Te.
Thallium Th. Calcarea phosphorica.
Titanium Ti. Calcarea sulphurica.
Vanadium V. d. Lithium (Li.)
Zincum Zn. E.g.: Lithium bromicum.
II. Non-metals Lithium carbonicum.

e. Sodium/Natrium (Na.)
E.g.:
Bromine Br. E.g.: Sodium/Natricum carbonicum.
Chlorine Cl. Sodium/Natrium muriaticum.
Iodine I. Sodium/Natrium phosphoricum.
Phosphorus P.
Sodium/Natrium sulphuricum.
Sulphur S.
f. Potassium/Kalium (K.) Mercurius sulphuricus.

E.g.: Potassium/Kalium aceticum. o. Platinum (Pt.)
Potassium/Kalium arsenicosum. E.g.: Platinum muriaticum.
Potassium/Kalium bromatum. p. Stannum (Sn.)
Potassium/Kalium nitricum. E.g.: Stannum iodatum.
Potassium/Kalium phosphoricum. Stannum muriaticum.
g. Ammonia/Soda (NH4) q. Zinc/Zincum (Zn.)
E.g.: Ammonium benzoicum. E.g.: Zincum aceticum.
Ammonium muriaticum. Zincum oxydatum.
Ammonium picricum. Zincum valerianicum.
Borax.
2. Organic Salts/Compounds
h. Aluminium (Al.) - Antifebrinum.
E.g.: Alumina. - Amylenum nitrosum.
Kaolinum. - Anilinum.
Alumen. - Benzolum.
i. Argentum/Silver (Ag.) - Chloralum hydratum.
E.g.: Argentum nitricum. - Chloroformium.
Argentum oxydatum. - Chrysarobinum.
j. Aurum/Gold (Au.) - Eosinum.
E.g.: Aurum muriaticum. - Eupionum.
Aurum muriaticum natronatum. - Formalinum.
k. Arsenic (As.) - Glonoinum.
E.g.: Arsenicum bromatum. - Guajacum.
Arsenicum iodatum. - Ichthyolum.
Arsenicum sulphuratum flavum. - Indolum.
l. Copper/Cuprum (Cu.) - Iodoformium.
E.g.: Cuprum aceticum. - Mentholum.
Cuprum oxydatum. - Propylaminum.
Cuprum sulphuricum. - Sulphonalum.
- Triosinaminum.
m. Iron/Ferrum (Fe.)
E.g.: Ferrum carbonicum. a. Organic Compounds From Mineral Oil:
Ferrum phosphoricum. - Kerosene.
Ferrum sulphuricum. - Paraffinum.
n. Mercury (Hg.) - Petroleum.
E.g.: Mercurius corrosivus. b. Organic Compounds From Coal-tar
Mercurius dulcis. Distillation:
Mercurius proto iodatus. - Naphthalinum.
c. Organic Compounds From Dry Distillation - Lapis.

of Wood: - Mica.
- Camphora. - Silicea.
- Kreosotum. - Tetradymite.
- Pix liquida.
VI. Acids
d. Organic Compounds Rrom Wood-tar
Distillation: Two types:
- Eupionum. 1. Inorganic.
2. Organic.
V. Minerals 1. Inorganic Acids
E.g.:
E.g.:
- Adamas
Boric H3BO3
- Aethiops mercurialis mineralis.
Bromic or Hydrochloric HBrO3
- Aethiops antimonalis.
Chromic HCrO3
- Anthracite.
Muriatic HCl
- Graphites.
Nitric HNO3
- Hecla lava.
Phosphoric H3PO4
- Kaolinum.
Sulphuric H2SO4
2. Organic Acids
Name Formula Type
Acetic acid CH3COOH Alliphatic monobasic acid.
Acetyl-salicylic acid or Asprin CH3COO-C6H4-COOH Aromatic carboxylic acid.
Benzoic acid C6H5COOH Aromatic carboxylic acid.
Butyric acid CH3CH2CH2COOH Alliphatic monobasic acid.
Carbolic acid C6H5OH Phenol.
Citric acid C6H8O7 Hydroxy polybasic acid.
Formic acid HCOOH Alliphatic mono-basic acid.
Gallic acid C6H2(OH)3COOH Aromatic carboxylic acid
Hippuric acid C6H5-CONHCH2-COOH Aromatic carboxylic acid
Hydrocyanic acid HCN Cyanogen compound.
Lactic acic CH3CH(OH)COOH Substituted fatty acid.
Oxalic acid HOOC-COOH Saturated di-carboxylic acid.
Picric acid C6H2(NO2)3OH Phenol.
Salicylic acid HO-C6H4COOH Aromatic carboxylic acid.
Sarcolactic acid CH3CHOHCOOH Substituted fatty acid.
Succinic acid HOOC-CH2CH2-COOH Saturated di-carboxylic acid.
Tartaric acid C4H6O6 Hydroxy polybasic acid.
Uric acid C5H4O3N4 Carbonic acid derivative.
VII. Mineral Spring Water Phosphorus Hahnemann’s Chronic

E.g.: Diseases; North American
- Aqua petra. Journal of Homoeopathy,
Vol. VII; British Journal of
- Aqua marina.
Homoeopathy, Vol. XXI.
- Aqua regia.
Sulphur Hahnemann’s Materia
- Aqua sanicula. Medica Pura and Chronic
- Carlsbad aqua. Diseases; Hartlaub and
- Equx bonnes. Trinks; British Journal of
- Lapis albus. Homoeopathy, Vol. XV and
- Levico water. XVI.
- Skookum chuck.
SARCODES
VIII. Organic Mixture
E.g.: DEFINITION
Pyroligreous Acid: In Greek, the term ‘sarcode’ means fleshy.
‘Pyro’ means fire. Sarcodes imply protoplasm of animals as
‘Lignum’ means wood. distinguished from vegetable protoplasm. They
are obtained from healthy endocrine or ductless
It is a product of destructive distillation of
gland secretions of living human organs and
wood. It contains approximately:
lower animals. The secretions are mostly
- Methyl alcohol : 2.4% hormones. Hormones are specific substances
- Acetone : 0.5% produced by the endocrine glands of higher
- Acetic acid : 10% animals, which are secreted into the blood, and
- Traces of other substances. thus carried to all parts of the body, where they
regulate many ‘metabolic functions’ of the
SOURCE AND AUTHORITY OF SOME organism. They are quick acting, and only a
MEDICINES minute amount may have a profound effect on
Name Source of Pathogenesis metabolism. Hormones are either proteins (e.g.,
insulin), ‘steroids’ (e.g., cortisone), or relatively
Antimonium Hahnemann’s Chronic simple organic compounds (e.g., adrenalin).
crudum Diseases; Harthaub and
Trinks. Examples: Adrenalinum, Cholesterinum, Fel
tauri, Insulinum, Pancreatinum, Pepsinum,
Arsenicum album Hahnemann’s Materia
Pituitarinum, Thyreoidinum, etc.
Medica Pura and Chronic
Diseases; British Journal of In fact, sarcodes belong to the animal
Homoeopathy, Vol. III and kingdom. Preparations of poisonous animals
IV. (Homarus, Sanguisuga, Erythrinum, etc.) are not
Nitricum acidum Hahnemann’s Chronic included in this group.
Diseases.
GENERAL RULE FOR COLLECTION OF SARCODES

I. Sarcodes From Healthy Secretions i.e. Hormones
S. No. Name Synonym Name of Drug Source
1. Adrenalin Epinephrine Adrenalinum Hormone produced by the suprarenal
C9H13NO3 renal gland. Can also be prepared
synthetically. The synthetic salt
‘Adrenalin hydrochloridum’ is
also used.
2. Cortisone Cortisone acetate; Cortisonum A crystalline steroid hormone secre-
Cortisone ted by the adrenal cortex of man.
monoacetate
3. Adrenocorti- A.C.T.H.; Adrenocortico- A polypeptide hormone secreted tro-
cotrophin Corticotrophin trophinum phinum by the anterior pituitary gland
which controls the adrenal gland
4. Insulin - Insulinum A pancreatic homone produced in the
β cells of the Islets of Langerhans.
Controls sugar metabolism in the
body.
5. Pepsin - Pepsinum A digestive enzyme produced in the
stomach which converts proteins
into peptones. It is procured from the
stomach of sheep or calves.
II. Sarcodes From Extracts

S. No. Name/Name of Drug Source
1. Orchitinum Testicular extract.
2. Oophorinum Ovarian extract of cow /sheep.
3. Pancreatinum From pancreas of beef, containing digestive enzyme.
III. Sarcodes From Whole Endocrine Glands

S. No. Name Name of Drug Source
1. Thyroid Thyreoidinum From healthy thyroid of sheep or calf.
2. Posterior pituitary Pituitaria posterior From the posterior portion of the pituitary
gland of sheep.
IV. Other Sarcodes Nosodes are medicines produced from

diseased tissues or diseased organs or excretions
Name/Name of Drug Source
of living organism (i.e. plants and animals) and
1. Cholesterinum A principal sterol in bacterial or viral products.
C27H46O higher animals. Main
consti-tuent of gall-stones Medicines which are prepared from disease
and bile. Prepared from producing agents, disease products or diseased
the spinal cord of cattle. parts of human beings, lower animals or plants
are called nosodes.
2. Fel tauri Prepared from fresh ox-
gall. Dr. Dewey defines nosodes as, “The morbid
product of disease when employed as remedies”.
3. Vulpis fel Prepared from fresh fox-
gall. H.P.I. (Vol. IV): Homoeopathic preparation
from pure microbial culture obtained from
SOURCE AND AUTHORITY OF SOME diseased tissue and clinical materials (secretions,
DRUGS discharges, etc.).
Medicine Source of Pathogenesis
GENERAL RULES FOR COLLECTION
Thyreoidinum Clarke’s Dictionary of
1. Should be collected after proper diagnosis
Practical Materia Medica,
Vol III.
of disease.
2. Should be obtained from standard
Adrenalinum Allen’s Materia Medica of
the Nosodes.
serological laboratories dealing with the
preparation of the cultures of these
Pituitaria posterior The Pacific Coast Journal organisms.
of Homoeopathy 46:521-
522; HPUS, 7th edition, 3. Collected as per rules laid down in the
supplement. authoritative books like:
- Dr. Swan’s Materia Medica of Nosodes.
Pancreatinum Clarke’s Dictionary of
Practical Materia Medica, - The Materia Medica of the Nosodes by
Vol. II. H.C. Allen.
Oophorinum Clarke’s Dictionary of - The North American Journal of
Practical Materia Medica, Homeopathy, Vol. II, page, 366.
Vol. III. - Dictionary of Practical Materia Medica,
by J.H. Clarke.
- Corresponding monographs.
NOSODES
DEFINITION
The term ‘nosode’ is derived from two Greek
words, ‘noses’ means disease, and ‘cidos’ means
appearance. The treatment of disease by means
of its causal agent or a product of the same
disease is called nosodes.
Source Disease Product Medicine

Plant Kingdom Nosode of cancer of trees (Nectria ditissima). Nectrianinum
From a fungus, growing on the stem, grains
of Indian corn. Ustilago maydis
From a fungus growing upon the seed of the
secale cerale and other grains. Secale cornutum
Animal Kingdom Morbid product found in the belly of the sperm-
whale, the Physeter macrocephalous. Ambra grisea
The alcoholic extract of the anthrax poison,
prepared from the spleen of sheep or cattle
affected with the disease. Anthracinum
From tuberculous bacteria of chicken. Aviaire
The nosode of glanders of Farcy. Hippozaeninum
or Glanderinum
From the saliva of a rabid dog. Hydrophobinum
or Lyssinum
From grease of horses. Malandrinum
From decomposed lean beef. Pyrogenium
The lymph from cow pox pustules. Vaccininum
Human A maceration of typical tuberculous lung. Bacillinum
A nosode prepared from tubercular testicle. Bacillinum testinum
From exotoxin of clostridium botulinum. Botulinum
From cancerous tissue. Carcinosinum
The nosode of whooping cough. Coqueluchinum
or Pertussinum
From diphtheritic membrane. Diphtherinum
A nosode from the tissues of the fibroid tumor
of the uterus, possibly with malignant elements. Epiphysterinum
The nosode of influenza. Influenzinum
Urethral discharge from patients having
established acute gonorrhea. Medorrhinum
The nosode of eczema capitis. Melitagrinum
The nosode of measles. Morbilinum
The nosode of mumps. Parotidinum
The nosode of plague. Pectinum
A product of psoric virus i.e. itch eruptions. Psorinum
The nosode of scarlatina or scarlet fever. Scarlatinum

The nosode of scirrhous cancer. Scirrhinum
From syphilitic lesion in primary or
early secondary stage. Syphilinum
or Leuticum
From cultured bacilli from human
tubercular lesion. Tuberculinum
From small pox pustules. Variolinum
SOURCE AND AUTHORITY OF SOME man.

DRUGS
Dr. H.W. Allen describes their mode of
Medicine Source of Pathogenesis preparations and symptoms in his ‘Materia
Psorinum Dr. C. Hering’s Guiding Medica of Nosodes’.
Symptoms; North American Elizabeth Wright mentions six such sources
Journal of Homeopathy, Vol. II. of drugs in her book, “A Brief Study Course in
Ambra grisea Hahnemann’s Materia Medica Homoeopathy”.
Pura; L ‘Art Medica, Vol. XL. Dr. Caspari Jahr, Clarke, Swan and John
Tuberculinum Clarke’s A Dictionary of Practical Butler, etc. have described their symptoms.
Materia Medica, Vol. III.
They are of two types:
Lyssinum or Boericke’s Materia Medica 1. Natural.
Hydrophobinum with Repertory; Clarke’s A
2. Artificial.
Dictionary of Practical Materia
Medica, Vol. II. 1. Natural Source:
Medorrhinum Allen’s Materia Medica of E.g.:
Nosodes. a. Normal magnet Magnetis poli ambo.
b. North pole of magnet Magnetis polus arcticus.
IMPONDERABILIA
c. South pole of magnet Magnetis polus australis.
DEFINITION 2. Artificial Source:
It means which is not weighable, i.e. the E.g.:

substance which has no perceptible weight. This a. Electricity Electricitas.
is immaterial power or energy. Medicines b. Sun’s ray Sol.
prepared from energy available from natural and
c. Radium bromide Radium.
physical reactions are called ‘imponderabilia’.
d. Artificial magnet Magnetis artificialis.
Hahnemann observes in his Organon, § 280
footnote that “even imponderable agencies, can e. X-rays X-ray.
produce most violent medicinal effects upon
SOURCE AND AUTHORITY OF SOME • Chloramphenicol, Chloromycetin or

DRUGS Synthomycetine and Kemicetine,
Medicine Source of Pathogenesis C11H12Cll2N2O5.
X-ray Boericke’s Materia Medica with • Corticotrophin, Adreno-cortico-trophic
Repertory. hormone, A.C.T.H.
Electritas Clarke’s Dictionary of Practical • Cortisone (17, hydroxy corticosterone and
Materia Medica. 11, dehydroxy 17, hydroxy corticosterone).
Magnetis polus Clarke’s Dictionary of Practical • Histamine hydrochloride or Larostidine.
arcticus Materia Medica. • Oxytetracycline hydrochloride, C22H24O9N2.
Magnetis polus Clarke’s Dictionary of Practical HCl or Terramycin hydrochloride.
australis Materia Medica.
• Penicillin (Benzyl penicillin sodium
Magnetis poli Clarke’s Dictionary of Practical C16H17N2O4 SNa .
ambo Materia Medica.
• Streptomycin sulphate (Streptomyc, Sulph),
(C16H39O12N7)2. 3H2SO4.
SYNTHETIC SOURCES OF • Streptomycin (dihydrosulphate).
SOME DRUGS (TAUTOPATHIC)
• Sulphanilamidum (Sulphanilmid), P-
Aminobenzene sulphonamide (P.A.B.S.),
Examples Protonsil album, Streptocide, C6H8O2N2S.
• Aspirin, Acidum acetyl salicylicum (Acid • Thymolum or Iso-propyl metacresol,
acetil salicyl), C9H8O4. C10H14O.
■
1-4
Process of Collection of Drug Substances
Hahnemann in the Organon of Medicine - Drug substances should be collected by a

does not clearly mention the process of collection qualified and experienced botanist who has
of homoeopathic drug substances. However, the good knowledge about the taxonomy and
advice that he has given forms the fundamentals systemic botany. He must also have the basic
of preparing a drug. knowledge of homoeopathic pharmacy.
Process of collection of a drug substance is - Medicinal plants, as far as possible, should
an important part of preparing a drug as it anures be collected from regions where, they are
the genuinity of a drug. indigeniously grown.
According to § 264, Hahnemann holds, “The - All vegetable drug substances should be
true physician must be provided with genuine procured fresh, as far as possible except
medicine of impaired strength so that he may be those which have to be imported from
able to rely upon their therapeutic power.” outside.
In § 66 of the Organon, he also emphasises - Plants collected should be in a healthy, well
that, “Substances belonging to the animal and developed state, free from worms, insects,
vegetable kingdoms possess their medicinal or as per directions of the particular drug in
qualities. As such, Hahnemann advices us to use the homoeopathic pharmacopoeia. All those
fresh animal and vegetable drug substances. in decayed state should be discarded.
- Plants collected should show no
discoloration, abnormal odor, slimness or
VEGETABLE KINGDOM any sign of deterioration.
- Wild plants are preferable to cultivated ones
GENERAL RULES FOR COLLECTING
as their medicinal virtue is greatest in them.
DRUG SUBSTANCE
Also, as they derive the best of nature and
1. At the Time of Collection: soil to enhance their true characteristics. For
e.g.: Wild Belladonna grows in soil rich in
Purity and genuinity of the original drug calcium.
substances must be ensured.
- Plants having a woody consistency or 2. Narcotic Plants:

withered must be discarded. - Should be collected while in bloom and
just before or when coming into bloom.
Do’s and Don’ts at the Time of Collection:
3. Dried Plants:
Do’s:
- After collection, they should be carefully
- Gather the plants in fine, sunny, dry weather.
dried by tying them in loose bundles and
- Collect early in the morning, just after the hanging them in the shade protected
disappearance of the morning dew. from sun, rain, etc.
Don’ts: 4. Whole Plants:
- Never collect the drug substance during the - Means whole plant with root.
morning dew. - Collected during the flowering season
- Don’t collect after a shower. when partly in flower and partly in bud.
- Collection during excessive heat of the day - Collect in sunny weather.
is also not recommended. - Carefully clean the plant by shaking,
brushing or gently rubbing.
2. After Collection: - Washing with a lot of water should be
- Clean the drug material carefully so that any avoided.
part of it is not eroded.
5. Roots:
- Never wash with profuse water; if
- Should be used fresh.
unavaoidable, use as much as is necessary.
- They should be free of moulds,
3. Packing: dampness and have a woody appearance.
- The plants thus collected must not be packed - Collect roots by cutting just under the
too closely. stem.
- Avoiding using much water for cleaning.
- Odorous plants should be packed separately
so that their odor may not be transmitted to - Process the material as soon as possible
others. after colloids to prevent deterioration.
a. Roots of Annuals: Collect in early
- They must be used quickly in preparing the
autumn as they die after ripening of
substance so that they may yield the full
seeds.
medicinal strength unchanged.
b. Roots of Biennials: Collect in the
PARTICULAR RULES FOR COLLECT- spring of second year.
ING THE DRUG SUBSTANCE c. Roots of Perennials: Collect in the
second and third year before they
1. Exotic Plants: develop woody fibres.
(§ 268, 5th edition of Organon).
- They should never be imported in 6. Stem:
powder/pulverised form. - Should be collected after the
- Proper identification of their development of leaves.
genuineness must be made.
Process of Collection of Drug Substances 47
7. Wood: 15. Fruits, Seeds and Berries:

- Collected in early spring or late autumn - Unless specified otherwise, collect when
before the juices are exhausted. they are fully ripe.
- Collect from mature young trees or tree- - Succlucent Fruits, Seeds and Berries:
like shrubs. Use while fresh.
- Dried Fruits: Seeds and Berries: Store
8. Bark:
in well-closed glass containers.
- Should be collected from mature
- Fresh Fruits: Use immediately after
vigorous young trees.
collection.
- Barks of resinous trees should be
collected at or about the time of 16. Bulbs:
development of leaves and blossoms. - Collect as soon as they mature and the
- Non-resinous barks are collected in late leaves begin to decay.
autumn.
9. Root Barks: ANIMAL KINGDOM

Same as Bark.
GENERAL RULES FOR COLLECTING
10. Young Shoots: DRUG SUBSTANCE
- Collect in spring when the whole plant
- Animal substances must be collected from
is in full vigour.
perfectly healthy specimen.
11. Leaves: - An experienced zoologist must thoroughly
- Only fully developed leaves should be identify the specimen before collection.
collected, just before or during the - Wild animals are preparable as they are
flowering time. natural specimen.
- Leaves of Biennials: Collect leaves - Animal products obtained must be genuine
which first appear in spring of the second and not spoilt by dirt, decomposition. They
year, as soon as the flowering stem must not be worm eaten.
begins to shoot.
- Secretions and excretions should be obtained
12. Twigs: in hygienic conditions and from healthy
- Those of the current year are only beings.
collected. - Animal substances not available locally
should be procured from reliable sources but
13. Herbs:
not in the pulverised form.
- Fully developed herbs collected.
- During storage, protect the specimen from
- For collection, cut first above the
light, moisture and other contaminations.
root.
- Medicines prepared from animal sources
14. Flowers: should be in a pure and unadulterated state.
- Collect in dry weather when partly in bud Don’t mix them with any other substance.
and partly in blossom.
PARTICULAR RULES FOR COLLECT- Type Drug Name

ING THE DRUG SUBSTANCE
Lizards Lacerata agitis
Animal drug substances are obtained from:
Spiders Aranea diadema, Aranea
- The wild.
scinencia, Latrodectus katipo,
- Domestic source. Latrodectus mactans, Mygale
- Zoological gardens. lasiodora, Tarentula cubensis,
The mode of collection of these drug Tarentula hispania, Theridion,
substances also varies. For e.g.: etc.
1. By fishing: Toad Bufo rana
E.g.:
5. Snake venoms are either collected from wild
Common Name Drug Name snakes or cultivated ones from the snake
Cod fish Oleum jecoris aselli farms. Venom is collected in glass containers
Cray fish Astacus fluvitilis by experts in the field.
Cuttle fish Sepia E.g.:
Jelly fish Medusa Common Name Drug Name
Star fish Asterias rubens
Coral viper Elaps corallinus
2. Wild animals are procured by hunting: German viper Vipera berus
E.g.: Rattle snake Crotalus horridus
Common Name Drug Name Spectacled snake Naja tripudians
Beaver Castoreum Surukuku snake Lachesis mutus
Musk deer Moschus
Sperm whale Ambra grisea 6. ‘Lacs’ are generally collected from
domestic animals.
3. Insects are procured wild or are cultivated E.g.:
in a scientific way also.
Source Drug Name
E.g.:
Cat’s milk Lac felinum
Common Name Drug Name
Cow’s milk Lac vaccininum
Ants Formica rufa
Cream Lac vaccini flos
Cantharides Cantharis Curd Lac vaccinum
Cochineal Coccus cacti coagulatum
Cockroach Blatta orientalis/ Fermentation of Koumyss
americana ass’s milk
Honey bee Apis mellifica Skimmed cow milk Lac defloratum
4. Some are caught by different processes.
E.g.:
Process of Collection of Drug Substances 49
EXTRACTION OF VENOM MINERALS AND CHEMICALS

Bufo: The live toad is fastended to a slab of cork - Minerals, metals and chemicals should be
by four strong pins stuck trough the webs of collected in the natural state from the natural
the feet. Next the poles of an ‘induction source or in pure chemical form, if not
apparatus’ in action are slowly drawn over available from natural source.
the back of the animal, whereupon the poison
- They must be tested both qualitatively and
exudes from the dorsal glands of the toad,
quantitatively.
which is removed with a small horn knife.
- They should not be procured in powdered/
Hydrophobinum: The saliva of a live rabid dog
pulverised form.
is collected on milk sugar.
- Strong smelling chemicals should be stored
Crotalus horridus: Venom is procured by
in air-tight containers away from sunlight
compressing the gland when the serpent is
and other strong odors.
either pinioned in a frame or under the
influence of chloroform.
Elaps corallinus (Coral snake): Venom is NOSODES AND SARCODES
pressed from the poison sac of the live snakes
- Collection of these drug substances requires
with a butter plate pressed over the fangs or
special and elaborate techniques. The person
by letting the snake bite a cloth covering a
procuring these substances should have
bottle.
sufficient knowledge of the morbid anatomy
Lachesis (Bushmaster or Surucucu): The and physiology of the particular specimens.
specimen used by Dr. Hering in his
- The ‘endocrine’ products and ‘enzymes’ that
experiments was obtained with a blow. The
are collected from cattle, sheep, etc. should
poison was collected on sugar of milk by
be procured from hygienic and dependable
pressing the poison fangs upwards against
slaughter houses.
the bag.
- The animals which are used must be
Naja tripudians:Venom is procured by
absolutely healthy.
compressing the gland when the serpent is
either pinioned in a frame or under then - These animals must be kept under keen
influence of chloroform. observation and on a prescribed diet before
extracting the drug substances from them.
Vipera: Same as that of Crotalus.
- Nosodes and sarcodes should be procured
All the serpent poisons are prepared as
from standard serological laboratories is that
triturations by saturating sugar of milk with
deal with the manufacture of cultures of these
the venom or by dissolving it in glycerine.
organisms.
Note: Animals and animal products: as they
decompose very quickly, should be used - The parts/products which are to be used
immediately after the collections. If necessary, should be treated first.
they may be preserved in freezers. Venoms can
be preserved in a deep freeze being kept in
glycerine. IMPONDERABILIA
- Specific instructions and rules for collecting
and preparing these medicines are given in - For preparing ‘X-ray’, a chemical testing
the pharmacopoeia. laboratory may be contacted.
- Magnets can be procured from a physical - Potentisation of these medicines has to be
laboratory. done very carefully.
- For preparing ‘Luna’, full moon is suggested. ■
51
1-5
Preservation of Drugs and Potencies
PRESERVATION OF DRUGS - Avoid:

There are specific direction for the • Blue coloured bottles as blue color
preservation of homoeopathic drug substances has a dynamic effect injurious to
in the monographs of the Homoeopathic drugs.
Pharmacopoeia of India and other • Yellow or amber colored bottles as
pharmacopoeias; but the general, common rules they sometimes acquire medicinal
are: virtues when exposed to sun light.
1. Containers: 2. Method of Preservation:
- The container or jar, preserving the drug - Keep containers with medicinal
should be properly labelled. substances away from dust, odors,
- All substances should be preserved in smoke, moisture, damp, strong light, etc.
neutral glass or earthen ware vessels or - Strong smelling drugs like Asa foetida,
jars which are well stoppered. Camphora, Iodium, Kreosotum,
- For storing: Moschus, Terebinthiniae oleum, etc.
• For Storing Corrosive Substances should be kept isolated in tightly closed
Like Acids orAlkalies: Hard glass bottles so that the odors of these drugs
bottles with glass stoppers are used. may not contaminate other drugs.
• For Storing Drugs That Maybe - Drugs having the power of mutual
Affected by Light or Sunlight: reaction should be preserved separately.
‘Actinic’ glass bottles (colored) - Drugs to be preserved for a considerable
covered outside with a solution of time may be dried in a chamber allowing
asphaltum or black varnish should hot air to flow for drying the drug
be used. substance.
• For Storing Fluoric Acid: Gutta - Plants or their parts should be kept in a
purcha bottles are used, otherwise dry, cool, dustless, odorless place or a
it may dissolve the glass. little amount of purified (distilled) water
may be sprinkled upon them from time - All containers should be properly
to time. labelled with the proper pharmaceutical
- For preserving pulverised drugs, they name, mentioning their strength/
should be perfectly dry, otherwise their potencies and alcohol contained by %
moisture content may mould. They v.v., date of manufacture, name of
should be dried by spreading the manufacturer, as far as possible while
pulverised material on a water-bath, or storing. The sign ‘ø’ is affixed after the
for bigger quantities in a temperature name of each mother tincture, e.g.,
adjustable drying chamber. Avena sativa ø.
- Animals and animal products decompose - Pyrex or other anti-corrosive glass
very quickly. Hence they should be used bottles with glass stoppers should be
immediately after collection. If required, used for storing acid or caustic
they may be preserved in a freezer. preparations.
- Venoms can be preserved in a deep - Medicines which are affected by sunlight
freeze, being kept in glycerine. are stored in actinic glass bottles covered
with a solution of asphaltum or black
3. Drug substances should be used for
varnish.
preparation immediately after collection.
- For storing fluoric acid and ø solutions,
4. If a fresh drug cannot be used immediately,
Gutta purcha bottles are used.
it must not be allowed to dry. Keep them in
a cold air space or fridge. - Dr. Burt advices to avoid blue colored
bottles as they have certain dynamic
5. If fresh drugs are to be collected from a effects injurious to medicines.
distant place, they should be packed loosely
- Yellow or amber colored bottles should
and carefully in paper pulp cases or botanical
not be used as even non-medicinal
boxes and kept as cool as possible.
substances contained in these bottles
6. Drugs which need drying before exposed to sunlight sometimes acquire
transportation or preservation should be medicinal virtues.
carefully dried by tying in loose bundles and
- E.g.:
hanging in a shade away from direct sunlight,
rain, dust, worms, insects, etc. Drug Container/Method of
Preservation
PRESERVATION OF MOTHER PREPA- a. Hepar Actinic glass bottles that are
RATIONS sulphur ø painted on the outside with a
1. Containers: solution of asphaltum.
- Mother tinctures should be stored in new, b. Lachesis ø Glycerine is taken in vial for
well cleaned, colorless, neutral flint preserving it.
glass bottles. c. Phosphorus ø It is preserved under water,
- In case of glass stoppered bottles, both as it is inflammable
the bottle and the stopper should be of in air.
hard potash glass to avoid introduction 2. Method of Preservation:
of glass particles in the mother tincture.
- Mother tinctures should be kept at an
Preservation of Drugs and Potencies 53
even temperature of about 60ºF - Actinic glass bottles which are painted
(15.6ºC). with asphaltum solution or black varnish
- Store in a dry, cool place in airtight, well are used for preserving those potencies
closed, neutral flint glass bottles. which may be affected by light or
- Strong smelling mother tinctures such sunlight.
as Asa foetida, Camphora, Moschus, - Gutta purcha bottles are used for
Terebinthiniae oleum, etc. should be preserving fluoric acid.
kept separately in air tight, well closed 2. Labelling:
glass bottles. - Name of the potencised medicine with
3. Mother tinctures should be well filtered the respective potency and scale used
before storing or when dispensing. should be distinctly marked, both on the
4. Avoid: cork and on the container’s label. For
e.g.:
- Avoid too much heat or cold. Some
mother tinctures may become turbid Belladonna 6x.
with a muddy sediment, or even form Belladonna 6.
crystals if exposed to great cold. Belladonna 0/6, etc.
- Avoid everything that will in the least - While marking the label, the date of
affect the purity of the mother tinctures, manufacture and the name of
such as strong light, direct sunlight, manufacturer should also be stated.
smoke, dust, damp, strong odors, etc. - The original manufacturer should also
write down the batch number and the
PRESERVATION OF POTENTISED
percentage of alcohol content by
MEDICINES
volume.
1. Containers: - If possible, the date of expiry should also
- Potentised medicines should be kept in be given.
well stoppered bottles, which are kept 3. Method of Preservation:
in boxes or drawers.
- Potentised medicines after putting in
- Colored bottles should be avoided. well-stoppered bottles should be
• Blue colored bottles are avoided as preserved in boxes or drawers.
the blue color has some what of a - They should be preserved in dry, cold
dynamic effect which is harmful to places, protected from too much heat or
potentised medicines. cold.
• Yellow or amber colored bottles - Avoid everything that in the least affects
should also not be used as when the purity of the potentised medicines
they are exposed to sunlight they e.g., dust, odor, smoke, damp, strong
sometimes acquire medicinal light, sunlight, etc.
properties.
- Bottles should not be filled entirely to
- Hard glass, potash bottles with glass the top as the potentised medicines will
stoppers are used for storing caustic and come in contact with the cork.
acid preparations.
- Potencies should be preserved separately
from the crude drug substance and arranged alphabetically with increasing
mother tinctures. potency horizontally.
- In the rooms where potentised mother - Separate boxes for separate potencies
substances are to be stored no other should be used.
odorous or non-odorous evaporating 4. If the liquid or solid potentised medicines
substances should be kept. This change their normal color, they should be
precaution should be followed strictly. rejected immediately.
- For storing the potencies in small 5 ml. 5. Preparations of Camphora should always be
or 10 ml. vials, suitable wooden boxes kept separate as they may antidote almost
should be made which should be all medicines of vegetable origin.
6. E.g.:
Medicine Method of Preservation
a. Acidum muriaticum, Acidum nitricum In well stoppered closed containers with glass
stoppers.
b. Acidum sulphuricum Potencies should be freshly prepared in purified water
and kept in ground stoppered bottles.
c. Alumina In a cool place in a tight containers
d. Ammonium carbonicum In well closed, light resistant bottles at a temperature
not above 30 ºC.
e. Benzoicum acidum, Borax veneta, In well closed containers.
Calcarea carbonica, Carbo vegetabilis
f. Camphora In well closed containers away from other vegetable
tinctures and potencies.
g. Croton tiglium, Carbonicum acidum, In well closed, glass stoppered bottles.
Hepar sulphur, Ferrum metallicum
h. Iodium In amber colored, glass stoppered bottles.
i. Hydrofluoricum acidum In well closed bottles whose interior is coated with
parrafin or wax.
j. Kreosotum In air tight containers, protected from light and away
from other drug substances/potencies because of it’s
strong odor.
k. Lachesis Preserve in a vial containing glycerine.
l. Mercurius solubilis In well closed bottles away from light/sunlight.
m. Natrium muriaticum, In an air tight container in a cool place.
Natrium sulphuricum
n. Petroleum In well-stoppered containers.
o. Phosphorus Under water as it is volatile. Keep in a cool, dark
place, protected from sunlight.
55
1-6
Standardisation of Drugs
STANDARDISATION OF DRUGS oils, lipids (a group of organic compounds,

containing esters of fatty acids which are
The drugs or medicines which are prepared insoluble in water but soluble in many organic
have to conform to some standards, prescribed solvents), balsams, oleo-resins, allergens,
by an ‘appropriate authority and an official steroids, hormones, etc.
homoeopathic pharmacopoeia’. This process is
For evaluation of drugs the following
known as ‘standardising’.
methods are undertaken:
a. Organoleptic evaluation.
DIFFERENT METHODS OF b. Microscopic evaluation.
DRUG STANDARDISATION FOR c. Physical evaluation.
VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL
d. Chemical evaluation.
KINGDOM
e. Biological evaluation.
After collection of the drugs from the plants
or animals or their products, they should be I. ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION
accurately identified, as per the respective It means impression on the organs and refers
specifications laid down for them. One way of to evaluation of drugs with the aid of human
identification is to compare a representative organs or senses, e.g., eyes (to see), nose (for
sample of the drug with the authentic sample of odor), tongue (to taste), skin (by touch), etc. It
the same drug, which has been properly identified also includes the macroscopic appearance of
before, and preserved for this purpose. drugs or their structure, specific odor and the feel
The quality of a drug means the amount of of drugs on touching. Sometimes fracture of
medicinal principles contained in the drug. These vegetable drug substances is also considered.
principles or constituents of drugs are classified
Shape and Size: The underground parts i.e.
into groups, e.g., carbohydrates, glycosides,
roots, rhizomes, bulbs, corns, tubers, etc. are
alkaloids, tannins, neutral principles, volatile
available in the market in entire longitudinal, indicate comparison with other substances in
oblique or transverse slices, cut in small nature. When no comparative term is indicated,
cubical pieces or broken into pieces or in then it is called characteristic.
different sizes.
Taste: The terms used are acid (sour), saline
Shape Example (salty), saccharine (sweet), alkaline, insipid
(tasteless), acrid, astringent, bitter, pungent,
Conical Aconitum
starchy, gritty, etc.
Cylindrical Sumbul
Color: The terms of colors are standardised
Cylindrical but somewhat Ratanhia according to the recommendations of the Inter
tapering Society Colour Council, National Bureau of
Cylindrical-ovoid Filix mas Standard Method.
Cylindrical in older parts Iris versicolor
II. MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION
but mostly flattened
dorsoventrally Since 1847, the microscope has been used
Subcylindrical Rheum in the examinations of drug substances and drugs.
The microscope is indispensable for searching
Fusiform Jalapa
adulterants in powdered plant and animal drugs,
Sizes are prescribed in length and breadth and also in the identification of pure powdered
or diameter, measuring in c.m. or m.m. drugs. The monograph of the respective drug in
Fracture: To study the way how the plant a pharmacopoeia prescribes the histology and
breaks, when it is subjected to a requisite deals elaborately with the microscopic
pressure to break. appearance of the drug in sectional view and
powdered forms.
External Markings: Such as delicate and
strong furrow; parallel markings; wrinkles; Plant parts are made up of numerous tissues,
ridges and valleys; transverse markings of each of which has a definite function,
various types; annulated and moniloformous indispensable to the life of the plant. The
outgrowth of the roots, etc. histology refers to the arrangement and
individual character of these tissues. These
External Color: These may be white,
histological studies are done with very thin
yellow, yellowish, pale-yellow, grey or ash,
transverse or longitudinal (radial and tangenital)
greyish, grey-yellowish, brown, brownish-red,
sections properly mounted in suitable strains and
brownish-orange to brownish-black, orange, etc.
reagents or mounting media.
Flowers and Leaves: Usual botanical terms
Powdered drugs get very few macroscopic
are in use to identify these and regarding their
features of identification, besides color and taste;
descriptions.
as such finding of the microscopic
Odor: Such as pleasant or agreeable, characteristics are very essential. In the
unpleasant or disagreeable, irritating or non- powdered drug, which must be reduced to not
irritating, smoky, musky. There arc other terms, less than No. 40 powder, the cells are mostly
e.g., aromatic, balsamic, camphoraceous, spicy, broken, excepting those having lignified walls.
terebinthinate, etherial and others. These terms However, the cell contents, e.g. calcium oxalate
Standardisation of Drugs 57
crystals, starch, aleurone, oil, gum, resin, etc. B. Identification of Drug Constituents:
remain scattered within the powder and become
very evident in the mounted specimen, the proper 1. Crystallography
reagent or mounting medium to be used, It means the science of the forms, structures,
obviously depend upon the characteristic tissue properties and classifications of the crystals
elements or cell content to be studied ; and the which help in identifying the constituents of
proper reagent or mounting medium help drugs.
identifying the cell-walls, stone-cell, bast fibres,
leaf epidermal tissues, etc.; studying the stomatal 2. By Melting Point Determination:
index is also helpful in determining the identity It is another important method for identifying
of the drug. pure substances.
Microchemistry: 3. Confirmative Tests:

It comprises of the study of the constituents These are of two types:
of drugs by the application of chemical (and i. Physical test.
physical) methods to small quantities, a few
ii. Chemical test.
milligram of the powdered drug or to histological
sections of the drug. By these means constituents i. Physical Test:
of many drugs can be isolated and purified. The Petrographic Microscope: By using a
outline of the principal techniques are: petrographic microscope with its
attachments, the optic constant of crystalline
A. Isolation of Drug Constituents:
substances may be determined. This requires
1. By Chemical Solvents: a knowledge of both crystallography and the
optics of crystal. It is an extremely rapid
This includes: method for identifying very small amounts
- Micro extraction i.e. the separation of of chemical compounds.
constituents from a small quantity of
drugs. ii. Chemical Test:
- Microfiltration. Color Teaction Test: Many reagents give the
characteristic color reaction with certain
- Microcrystallisation.
compounds.
2. Microsublimation: For e.g.:
It refers to the method of obtaining a - When treated with alkalies, the
constituent of a drug by vaporising the drug with anthraquinone constituents present in
the application of heat and then condensing the Cascara sagrada, Rheum and Senna
said vapor back into solid form. The condensate become red.
is then identified by applying chemical methods. - Aqueous solutions of alkaloids give
Caffeine may be sublimed from powdered yellow precipitate with the reagent auric
Coffea. Microsublimation of Cinchona bark chloride.
(China) gives red droplets. - The aqueous solution of alkalies gives a
prown precipitate with iodine in
potassium iodide.
- The aqueous solution of alkalies gives a - Assay for crude filicin in Filix mas.
white or yellowish precipitate with The active principles of drugs, e.g.,
sodium carbonate or tannic acid. Strychnine, etc. and animal drugs are more
Thus for assessing the inherent potency of a adapted to strict chemical assays. Hence from
drug, the above and other chemical, biological chemical assays we can assess the potency of
and physical assays are undertaken. Other animal and vegetable source materials in terms
systems, like allopathy, evaluate a drug in term of their active principles.
of its active principle or constituents, where as, Chemical assays include:
homoeopathy deals with the sum total
1. Color reaction test: Of alkaloids with proper
constituents of a drug as a whole. Hence in order
reagents. For e.g.,
to evaluate or standardise drugs, the application
of these assays will have to be considered. - Cascara sagrada, when treated with
ammonia test solution gives a
III. BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION characteristic red color.
The pharmacological activity of certain - The presence of inorganic iodides in
drugs has been applied to evaluate and Thyreoidinum can be tested by adding
standardise them. The assays on living animals, a starch test solution . If iodide is present,
and on their intact or cut-off organs can indicate it will turn blue.
the strength of the drug or their preparations. 2. Molisch and Bradford’s Test: To test the
reducing effects of sugar.
As living organisms are used, these assays
are known as biological assays or bioassays. By 3. Determination of acid value.
applying bioassays we can evaluate or 4. Determination of iodine value.
standardise many drugs, e.g., Cascara sagrada, 5. Determination of saponification value of
Cannabis indica, Cannabis sativa, fixed oils.
Corticotrophinum, Curare, Secale cornutum,
6. Determination of acid-insoluble ash.
Veratrum viride, hormones, steroids, vitamins,
sarcodes, nosodes, antibiotics, alkaloids, etc. 7. Determination of water-soluble ash.
8. Determination of ash value.
IV. CHEMICAL EVALUATION
9. Determination of sulphated ash value.
Chemical tests are employed to identify
These tests help to determine the identity of
crude drug plants and their parts. Chemical
drug substances and their adulterations.
evaluation covers isolation, identification,
purification and determination of characteristics V. PHYSICAL EVALUATION
of non-cellular drugs of animal origin and drugs
A. Fluorescence Test:
of plants having active principles.
The reactions of certain drugs, either on their
Chemical Assays smooth sectioned surfaces or in their powdered
In case of cellular and non-cellular plant and forms, with filtered ultraviolet light, help us
animal drugs, chemical assay is the only method especially in detecting adulterations, e.g., the
for determining their potency, e.g.: adulterated Rhaponic rhubarb can be
distinguished from the Indian rhubarb (Rheum)
- Alkaloidal assay for Belladonna leaves.
by its marked fluorescence. A series of powdered Several types of chromatography are present:
plant drugs have such activity, after their a. Column or Adsorption Chromatography:
treatment with various reagents. Many alkaloids Here a large amount of testing materials are
give distinctive colors under this ultraviolet light, available. A modification of the column
e.g.: method is known as Flowing ; another
Aconitine - light blue. modification is known as Partition
Berberine - yellow. chromatography, where two immixible
Emetine - orange. liquids are used; one representing a mobile
phase, the other an immobile phase.
Under this light many other drugs show
distinct intensity of colors or characteristic b. Paper Chromatography.
colors. c. Thin-layer Chromatography: Thin layer
chromatography is a modification of the
The application of physical constants is
Paper chromatography, that is particularly
largely employed to the active principles of
adaptable to the analysis of small quantities
drugs, e.g., alkaloids, and fixed oils, etc.
of the materials to be studied. The later two
Generally applied physical constants for such
are preferably applied for identification
drugs are :
purposes, because of their selectivity,
a. Solubilities. convenience and adaptability to small
b. Specific gravity. amounts of materials.
c. Refractive index. d. Gas Chromatography: It is a specific
d. Melting point. method, wherein the moving phase is gas.
e. Congealing point. There are two types:
f. Optical rotation. i. Gas-liquid chromatography.
g. Water content or loss on drying. ii. Gas-solid chromatography.
C. Counter-current Methods and
B. Chromatographic Study of Drugs: Electrophoretic Methods of Analysis:
Of late, the study of chromatography has These are more complex; however, the same
become most important as a method of basic principles those of the chromatography
separating and analyzing organic and inorganic also apply to these techniques.
substances.
For practical purposes, chromatography
ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLE AND
means a method by which drug principles and
also the other contributions of drugs or
ANIMAL DRUGS OR
pharmaceutical preparations can be separated by ANALYTICAL PHARMACOLOGY
absorption or fractional extraction or ionic The purity of drugs depends on the absence
exchange or other means, by the use of a mobile of foreign matter. To procure an absolute pure
solvent phase upon a porus solid stationary phase drug is scarcely possible ; however, a limited
(silica gel or some other substance). The quantity of harmless foreign matter adhering to
materials thus separated in this way are then drugs or mixed with them cannot be determined.
identified by analytical procedures.
1. Foreign Organic Matter: It refers to any The above two procedures are performed by
other part of the plant or animal tissues that the official method, which consists of
is not required in preparing the drug. The incinerating and weighing the total ash; next boil
permissible percentage of foreign organic the total ash with dilute hydrochloric acid, filter
matter in drugs is usually specified in their and ignite and then weigh the acid-insoluble ash
respective official monographs. thus obtained.
2. Foreign Inorganic Matter: It refers to the iii. Determination of moisture content: If
adhering soil, clay, sand, dirt, etc., for the moisture be present in excess, it will
determination of which acid, acid-insoluble promote mould and bacterial growth,
ash method is applied. However, some drugs and subsequently bring deterioration and
naturally contain acid-insoluble ash. A spoilage of drugs. Moisture is
maximum of 2% acid-insoluble ash is determined by one of the following three
officially permitted, unless otherwise methods, the specific method being
prescribed in the monograph. prescribed in official monographs.
3. Moisture Content: Moisture is present - Gravimetric method.
usually from 5% to 10% in all dried drugs; - Volumetric method (Toluene
an excess of moisture, if present, is an distillation).
adulterant. - Titrimetric (Karl Fischer) method.
SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS 6. Finaly the analyst will determine the
constituents of the drug sample. The quality
1. An analyst will first determine whether the of standards, which is dependant upon the
sample of the drug conforms to the amount of principles present in drugs,
macroscopic and microscopic standards capable of being extracted in a continuous
prescribed in the official monographs, apparatus, like that of Soxhlet type, and the
particularly noting the morphological extracts thus obtained are determined by
features, e.g., size, color, odor, taste, etc. weight, after removing the solvents;
2. If necessary, he will prepare sections and common solvents used are strong and dilute
check with the histological descriptions as alcohol, ether, petroleum, benzene and water.
described in the monographs. i. Alkaloids: Alkaloids are recovered from
3. He now has to determine the foreign organic the drug sample by extraction. Next they
matter by the official method. are purified with immiscible solvents
4. Next, according to the official procedure a and can be determined gravimetrically
representative amount of the sample is taken, or volumetrically by titration of the
and when the sample is a whole drug, it is quantity of acid required to convert them
pulverised to a powder which will pass into salts.
through a No. 20 sieve. ii. Volatile Oils: The amount of volatile oil
5. Now the analyst takes a prescribed amount present in volatile oil-containing drugs
of the official sample and conducts the can be determined by distilling with
following tests on it systematically: water in the proper Clevenger apparatus,
i. Determination of total ash. which is a continuous distillation
ii. Determination of acid-insoluble ash. apparatus, wherein the separated volatile
oil is obtained in a trap and is then • Viscosity in case of oils.

determined by volume. • pH value.
In some cases, special assays for drugs • pK value.
containing some definite chemical constituents
• T.L.C. with Rf range.
have been devised. In other cases, where no
extraction, chemical nor physical assay has been
devised, the quality is determined by proper STANDARDS OF MOTHER
bioassays. SOLUTIONS, MOTHER
After performing the above requisite tests POWDERS AND ATTENUATIONS
only, then only a report concerning a respective
The above tests may be applied, wherever
drug (confirming to the official standard) can be
feasible. A few of such standards, as worked out
presented, and it should not be used for the
by our Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia
preparation of the corresponding medicines. The
Laboratory, are appended for guidance, which
same principal is applicable in cases of finished
follow:
medicines and other preparations, where feasible.
1. Aethusa cynapium—Mother tincture, 1x
• Specific Gravity: From 0.894 to 0.918.
STANDARDS OF FINISHED
• Alcohol Content: From 56 to 62 per cent.
PREPARATIONS
• Total Solid: Not less than 0.3 per cent.
Finished preparations also undergo all • pH: Between 5.3 and 6.2.
possible sorts of chemical and physical controls. • Identification — Preparation of Solution
Unfortunately, until now no standard for the S: Shake 2 ml. with 5 ml. of
above had been laid down by any authority. But carbontetrachloride (CCl4). Allow the
of late, the Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia layers to separate. Evaporate the
Laboratory, Ghaziabad, Government of India has carbontetrachloride layer in a dish to
undertaken the requisite experimental procedures dryness on a water-bath. Dissolve the
to accomplish the said task. residue in water by warming a little.
a. To solution S add a few drops of
STANDARDS OF MOTHER potassium permanganate solution;
TINCTURES the solution is decolorised.
b. To solution S add a drop of alcoholic
The following tests may be conducted for ferric chloride solution, a yellowish-
the purpose: green color is produced.
• Specific gravity. • Thin Layer Chromatography: Carry out
• Alcohol content expressed in percentage. the method for thin layer
• Assay for constituents. chromatography using silica gel G as the
coating substance and a mixture of
• Maximum absorption.
chloroform and methanol (9:1: V/V) as
• Total solids.
the mobile phase. The Rf of the spots
• Optical rotation, wherever applicable. when detected in UV light are 0.13, 0.27
• Refractive index. and 0.84.
2. Avena sativa—Mother tincture, 1x. • Specific Gravity: From 0.933 to 0.970.

• Specific Gravity: From 0.906 to 0.916. • Alcohol Content: From 37 to 43 per cent.
• Alcohol Content: From 56.0 to 62 0 per • Total Solid: Not less than 1.8 per cent.
cent V/V. • pH: Between 5.1 and 6.1.
• Total Solid: Not less than 0.3 per cent. • Identification: Shake 10 ml. with 20 ml.
• pH: Between 5.6 and 6.5. of chloroform. To 1 ml. of the
• Paper Chromatography: Carry out the chloroform layer add 1 ml. of sulphuric
paper chromatography using n- acid. The chloroform layer becomes red
butanol—acetic acid—water (4 : 1:1 V/ and the acid layer gives green
V ) and spraying reagent 0-1 ninhydrin fluorescence.
in acetone. • Thin Layer Chromatography: Carry out
the method for TLC using silica gel G
These spots corresponded to cystine (0.04),
as the coating substance and ethyl
lysine HCI (0.095), dihydroxy phenylalanine
acetate, formic acid and water (8: 1: 1
(0.20) and tryptophen (0.37) and valine (0.54).
V/V) as the mobile phase. The Rf value
3. Belladonna—Mother tincture, 1x. of the spots, when detected under UV
• Specific Gravity: From 0.931 to 0.948. light before and after spraying with boric
• Alcohol Content: From 40.0 to 46.0 per and oxalic acid, an 0.104, 0.12 and 0.24.
cent V/V. 5. Kalium bichromicum: K2 Cr2 O7.
• Total Solid: Not less than 1.0 per cent. • Mother Solution: 1x.
• pH: Between 6.8 and 7.0. - Specific Gravity: 1.069.
• Identification Test: Evaporate 35 ml. to - Assay: Not less than 9.5 to not more
dryness. To the residue add 5 drops of than 10.5% of K2 Cr2 O7.
nitric acid (fuming) and evaporate on the
• Potency: 2x.
water-bath. The residue after cooling and
- Specific Gravity: 1.007.
moistening with a freshly prepared 10%
w/v solution of potassium hydroxide in - Assay: Not less than 0.95 to not
acetone produces a violet color. more than 1.05% of K2Cr2O7.
• Thin Layer Chromatography: Carry out • Potency: 3x.
the method for thin layer - Specific Gravity: 1.003.
chromatography using silica gel G as the - Assay: Not less than 0.095 to not
coating substance and methanol : more than 0.105% of K2Cr2O7.
ammonia (100 : 15 V/V) as the mobile 6. Mercurius dulcis: HgCl.
phase. The Rf value of spots when
• Potency: 1x.
detected under UV light are 0.73 and
- Water Insoluble Residue: Shake 5 g.
0.64.
with 19 ml. of water and filter. Then
Total alkaloid content should not be less than dry the insoluble residue to a
0.033 per cent and not more than 0.043 per cent constant weight. The residue is not
of the total alkaloids calculated as hyoscyamine. less than 0.48 g.
4. Calendula officinalis—Mother tincture, 1x. - Identification:
i. It is blackened by contact with • Potency: 2x.

dilute ammonia solution. - Assay: Not less than 0.95% to not
ii. When heated with an equal more than 1.05%
weight of anhydrous sodium
carbonate, a sublimate of STANDARD OF NOSODES
metallic mercury is obtained.
The residue in the tube is treated It is hardly possible to get full guidance for
with dilute nitric acid and preparations and standardisations of all the
filtered. The filtrate gives the nosodes until now. Now, however, the
reaction characteristic of Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Laboratory,
chlorides. Ghaziabad, has undertaken this tedious job.
- Assay: Not less than 9.5% to not
more than 10.5%. ■
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Section 2
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VEHICLES
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2.1 Vehicles - In General.
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2.2 Solid Vehicles.
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2.3 Liquid Vehicles.
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2.4 Semisolid Vehicles.
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2.5 Standardisation of Vehicles.
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For the construction of a building belong not only beams and pillars, but also
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partition walls and buttress; not only stone blocks, but also small stones to fill up
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intervening spaces and well is it if they fit.
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67
2-1
Vehicles - In General
The term ‘vehicle’ implies, “Means of con- 5. It should be capable of carrying the dynamic
veyance or transmission”. In homoeopathy, ve- powers of drugs into the interior of the hu-
hicle is a substance, in which medicines are pre- man organism to fight the disease force.
pared or mixed and given for their internal ad- 6. It should be edible and palatable.
ministration either by oral route or by the olfac-
7. It must preserve the drug substance.
tion method and for external application of medi-
cation. These substances are therapeutically in- 8. It should have a sterilizing property.
ert as such but develop the therapeutic activity
USES OF VEHICLES
of the medicinal substance. They are the medium
for purification, preparation, preservation, inter- 1. Vehicles are used in the preparation of
nal administration and external application of mother tinctures, mother solutions and
drug substances or medicines. mother powders from crude drug materials,
and without any vehicles these preparation
AN IDEAL VEHICLE could not be made.
1. It must not have any medicinal property of 2. It is used for further triturations and in-
its own. creased potentisation from the mother prepa-
2. It should be chemically neutral; neither ration so that the pharmaceutical message is
acidic nor alkaline in medicinal effects. They easily carried on and the therapeutic values
must not undergo any change or decomposi- are retained of the particular drug substances.
tion. 3. Used as bases for preparing external appli-
3. The above two specific properties are more cations of medicines.
applicable to those which are used in 4. For dispensing medicines or remedies ac-
potentised medicines. cording to the prescriptions of physicians.
4. It must be harmless regarding its action on 5. Vehicles like olive oil, vaseline, glycerine,
human organisms. The pharmacological etc. are themselves applied externally as a
medicinal action of the original drug should mehanical aid only.
not be disturbed in any way.
6. As a preservant of certain medicines, ve- given to the patient to please.

hicles like alcohol are mixed in a certain 8. Sick babies who could not tolerate fats,
percentage with the freshly expressed juices sugar of milk is given as a diet.
of plants (Vide Organon of Medicine, Apho-
rism 268, footnote). FORMS OF VEHICLES
7. Used as ‘Placebo’ or ‘Phytum’ in between There are three forms of vehicles:
the administration of two doses of medicines 1. Solid.
or remedies, especially in cases of chronic
diseases and where long acting remedies are 2. Liquid.
used. Dr. Kent holds, “Second best medicine 3. Semi-solid.
in our materia medica in Placebo”, which is
Solid Vehicles Liquid Vehicles Semi-solid Vehicles

• Sugar of milk (lactose) • Purified water • Vaseline (soft paraffin)
• Cane sugar (sucrose) • Alcohol i. Yellow soft paraffin
• Grape sugar i. Absolute alcohol ii. White soft paraffin
(glucose, dextrose) ii. Dilute alcohol • Waxes
• Globules or pillules iii. Strong alcohol a. Bee’s wax
• Cones iv. Dispensing alcohol i. Yellow bee’s wax
• Tablets or tabloids v. Rectified spirit ii. White bee’s wax
• Pellets • Solvent ether b. Spermaceti
• Glycerine c. Lanolin (anhydrous)
• Simple syrup • Soap
• Oils a. Vegetable origin
a. Fixed oil i. Hard soap
i. Olive oil ii. Soft soap
ii. Almond oil b. Animal origin curd soap
iii. Sesame oil • Prepared lard
iv. Hydrocarpus oil • Isin glass
v. Chaulmoogra oil • Starch
b. Volatile oil
i. Sandalwood oil
ii. Lavender oil
iii. Rosemary oil
Vehicles - In General 69
VEHICLES USED FOR MOTHER • Sesame oil.

TINCTURE • Rosemary oil.
Generally the vehicles used for potentisation B. Semisolid Vehicles:
are used for preparing the mother tincture or the 1. Vaseline or soft paraffin.
first trituration. However in a few cases, simple
syrup or glycerine may also be used.
• Yellow soft paraffin.
• White soft paraffin.
VEHICLE USED FOR POTENTISATION 2. Waxes:
A. Solid Vehicles (dry): a. Bees wax:
• Sugar of milk. • Yellow bee’s wax.
• Cane sugar. • White bee’s wax.
• Grape sugar. b. Spermaceti.
B. Liquid Vehicles: c. Lanolin.
1. Alcohol: 3. Prepared lard.
• Strong alcohol. 4. Isin glass.
• Dilute alcohol. 5. Soap:
• Dispensing alcohol. • Soft soap.
• Absolute alcohol. • Hard soap.
• Rectified spirit. • Curd soap.
2. Purified water. 6. Starch.
VEHICLES USED FOR EXTERNAL VEHICLES USED FOR DISPENSING

APPLICATIONS MEDICINES
A. Liquid Vehicles: 1. Aqua distilla or purified water.
• Purified water. 2. Saccharum lactis or sugar or milk.
• Glycerine. 3. Globules.
• Olive oil. 4. Tablets.
5. Pilules.
• Almond oil.
■
2-2
Solid Vehicles
MILK SUGAR pharmacy. Its importance is for two reasons:
The term saccharum lactis originates from 1. It has practically no medicinal action.
Latin words, ‘saccharum’ meaning sugar and 2. Due its hard crystalline particles, it has to
‘lactis’ meaning milk. undergo a thorough grinding with the origi-
nal drug (a process which helps to convey
the latent curative properties of the drug
Synonyms
during trituration) and is available in the
• Sugar of milk.
powdered form easily.
• Saccharum lactis.
• Lactose. Physical Characteristics
Chemical Formula • Hard, crystalline mass or powder.
C12H22O12.H2O • Milky white in color.
Molecular Weight • Odorless.
360.3 • Faintly sweet to taste.
• Sandy or grity on touch.
Chemically • Solubility: 1 g. of lactose is soluble in 5 ml.
It is a disaccharide containing one unit of β- of cold water, and 2.6 ml. of boiling water.
galactose and one unit of levo-glucose. It is insoluble in alcohol.
Source Chemical Characteristics

• It’s solution is neutral to litmus paper.
Prepared preferably from goat’s milk. Milk
contains proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral • Water of crystallization may be produced at
salts and water. 150ºC or 302ºF.
It is the most important solid vehicle in our
Chemical Process of Preparation filter papers are be kept in well-closed con-

1. Fresh goat’s milk is skimmed i.e. it is al- tainers.
lowed to stand till it’s cream rises. This pro- 6. For further purification of the above lactose,
cess removes most of the fat portion of milk. it may be dissolved in a little quantity of boil-
2. This fat-free milk is treated with dilute hy- ing, purified water and filtered.
drochloric acid to precipitate the casein (the 7. By adding an equal quantity of absolute al-
main protein of milk). Casein so obtained is cohol, sugar of milk is precipitated.
removed by filtration. The remaining fil- 8. The precipitate is collected and washed with
trate is called whey. alcohol and dried thoroughly before being
3. Whey is adjusted to a pH of 6.2 by adding used.
lime and then heated for coagulating the re-
maining albuminous matter and once again Graphic Representation of Preparation
filtered. This filtrate contains the milk sugar of Sugar of Milk
and mineral salts. A convenient graphic representation of
4. The filtrate is concentrated in vacuum pans, preparation of pharmaceutically pure sugar of
where crude milk sugar crystallises out. milk from raw materials to final stage is given
below:
5. These crystals are redissolved in purified
water and decolorised with ‘animal char- Goats milk: Composition - (i) Protein (lacto-al-
coal’. bumin + lactoglobulin + casinogen)
6. Finally, this solution is recrystallised, and (ii) Fats (iii) Lactose (iv) Minerals
the crystals thus obtained is ‘commercial lac- (v) Salts (vi) Water.
tose’. Skimming
Purification
Proteins + H2O + Minerals + Salts + Lactose
Commercial lactose obtained is again sub- Fat (removed).
jected to purification as in homoeopathic phar-
macy, we use the most pure vehicles. It is done
by Staff’s process which is as follows:
1. Dissolve 450 gms. of commercial lactose in Lactose + H2O Proteins + Salts + Minerals
about 2 litres of boiling, purified water.
Fluid portion Solid portion
2. Filter the solution when warm through a fil-
ter paper. + HCl (dil.) to remove solid portion.
+ Filtration.
3. Mix the filterate thoroughly with about 2
litres of ‘absolute alcohol’ and keep it in a
Lactose + H2O
tightly closed container for 4 days in a cold (whey).
place for the sugar to crystallise. (Filtrate)
4. The crystals thus collected are washed with + Purified water.
water and then mixed with alcohol. + Filtration through charcoal bed.
5. These crystals are dried by pressing between Clear solution of whey
Solid Vehicles 73
+ Boiled on direct heat. Identification

+ Made semi-solid. • It is milky white, hard crystalline mass or
+ Process repeated 3 - 4 times by powder; odorless; faintly sweet; on touch-
adding purified water. ing feels sandy; solution in water is neutral
to litmus, soluble in 5 parts of water and 2.6
Semi-solid lactose parts of boiling water, insoluble in alcohol.
+ Strong alcohol. • When heated, it melts, swells and burns,
+ Purified water. evolving an odor of burnt sugar and leaving
a bulky carbonaceous residue.
+ Boiled in direct heat and then indirect
heat with water-bath. • When heated with a solution of potassium
cupri-tartarate, a copious precipitate of
Crystal lactose cuprus oxide is formed.
+ Slight alcohol. • By optical rotation, it is dextro-rotatory D =
+ Dried. + 55.3º (final value).
Pure crystals of lactose Tests for Impurities
+ Grinding with mortar and pestle. • Milk sugar must entirely be free from fat or
Pure powder of sugar of milk. other constituents of milk which will be rati-
fied by its perfect whiteness; it should not
Uses have any rancid, sour, musty or other for-
• Largely used in biochemic preparations. eign smell or taste.
• For preparations of mother powders. • The most common impurity is starch, which
is easily detected by adding to its aqueous
• For preparations or potentised medicines in
solution a “solution of iodine”. If starch is
decimal potency.
present, the solution will turn blue.
• For preparation of triturations from mother
• If alum is present in its aqueous solution,
drugs, which are insoluble in liquid vehicles.
addition of a little amount of alkaline hy-
• Sugar of milk is prefered to other solid ve- drate to the lactose solution gives a white
hicles for trituration as it is the best crystal- precipitate.
line substance, it is odorless, slightly sweet • If phosphate of sodium is present, addition
to taste and gritty to touch. It is capable of of silver ammonia nitrate to the lactose so-
being ground to a very fine powder. The par- lution gives a little yellow precipitate which
ticles of this are insoluble in both purified will get dissolved when cold dilute nitric acid
water and in alcohol. is added.
• Used as a ‘Placebo’ (Dr. Kent holds that in • By testing the sweetness of lactose, the pres-
our materia medica, a placebo is the 2nd best ence of cane sugar may be detected as lac-
medicine). tose is much less sweeter than cane sugar; if
• Dispensing medicines. cane sugar is 100, lactose is only 16.
• Has industrial uses in silvering mirrors. • If cane sugar is mixed, the more ready solu-
bility in water will serve to detect falsifica-
• As a food.
tion.
• A hot saturated aqueous solution of sugar of utes, filter, evaporate 10 ml. of the filtrate to dry-
milk when warmed with an equal volume of ness, and dry at 105oC; the residue weighs not
sodium hydroxide becomes yellow and then more than 7 mg.
brownish-red, and on adding a few drops of
cupric sulphate to the solution, copper is re- Preservation
duced and a red precipitate of cuprous oxide It should be kept in a dry place, in air-tight
forms. containers or bottles, but not for too long as it
• If sodium chloride be present, add silver ni- may turn rancid.
trate solution, a precipitate will issue which
is insoluble in nitric acid. CANE SUGAR
• Sulphuric acid will be detected by the solu-
tion of barium nitrate or chloride. Source
• If an aqueous solution of milk sugar reddens 1. Sugar cane: Most common, 15-20%. It
the blue litmus paper, then acid is present, grows mainly in tropical countries. In India,
which will imply that this milk sugar had mostly this source is used.
been prepared from the milk, that had be- 2. Beetroot: 12-15%. It mainly grows in cold
come sour. climates.
• If copper (from copper vessel used in pre- 3. Miscellaneous: From: Pineapple.
paring the milk sugar) be present, addition Honey.
of a solution of potassium ferrocyanide to Coffee
its aqueous solution will bring a reddish-
Almonds.
brown precipitate.
Further Tests for Purity Synonyms
Acidity: 5.0 gm. dissolved in 50 ml. of • Sucrose.
freshly boiled water, requires for revitalisation • Sucrosum.
not more than 0.5 ml. of mother tincture. In so- • Saccharum purification.
dium hydroxide, phenophthalein solution being
• Refined sugar.
used as indicator.
• Chini (in hindi).
Clarity: Color and odor of solution — 3.0
gm. in 10 ml. of boiling water, the solution is • Mishri (in hindi)
clear, colorless and odorless. Chemical Formula
Arsenic: Not more than 1 part per million. C12H22O11
Copper: Dissolve 2 gm. in 20 ml. of water, Identification
add 1 ml. of dilute hydrochloric acid and 10 ml. Optical rotation is not less
of a solution of hydrogen sulphide; no color is than + 65.9º at 20ºC.
produced.
Sulphated Ash: Not more than 0.1 per cent. Physical Characteristics
More Soluble Sugars: Shake 5.0 gm. with 1. Slightly white or colorless crystals.
20 ml. of alcohol (90 per cent v/v) for 10 min-
Solid Vehicles 75
2. Odorless. Globules are prepared by the hydrolysis of

3. More sweet to taste in comparison to other cane sugar, lactose and other polysaccharides.
sugars.
4. Solution of cane sugar is neutral to litmus. Synonyms
5. Easily soluble in water; sparingly soluble in • Glucose.
alcohol.
• Dextrose.
Preparation Chemical Formula
1. The first step involves extraction of the juice C6H12O6
by crushing sugar cane in iron roller mills. It
extracts 75% of the juice and leaves behind
the cellulose residue.
Preparation
2. The sugar cane juice thus extracted in then
1. From Starch:
purified by heating with lime (CaO). This
way most of the impurities are collected as (C6H10O5)n +4H2O n(C6H12O6)
scum at the top, and removed. 2. Commercial Preparation:
3. Now SO2 and CO2 are passed one by one
Starch is boiled with dilute H2SO4 or cane
when calcium is precipitated as CaSO4 and
sugar is hydrolysed with HCl in an alcoholic
CaCO3. Filter the juice to remove the pre-
solution.
cipitate.
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
4. The filtrate is now concentrated and
Glucose Fructose
crystallised by boiling under reduced pessure
and then allowing to crystallise after cool- As glucose is less soluble in water, it is sepa-
ing. rated out.
5. After cooling, centrifuge the solution to sepa- Uses
rate the crystals from the mother liquor.
Glucose is now gaining more popularity over
6. Finally, dry the crystals by dropping them milk sugar for the purpose of potentization be-
thrugh a hot air chamber. cause:
Uses • Glucose is more easily absorbed.
1. Preparation of tablets, globules and pellets. • Lactose has some degree of medical prop-
2. Preparation of simple syrup. erty, while glucose has the least.
3. Rarely as a vehicle for trituration.
GLOBULES AND PILULES
GRAPE SUGAR Source
Source Globules are made from:
• Starch. i. Pure Cane Sugar and Sucrose: Most
• Cane sugar. commonly used.
• Lactose. ii. Milk Sugar: To a very limited extent.
Preparation 2. Consistency: They are neither too hard nor

1. Globules or pilules are made by a mechani- too soft. They are somewhat soft when
cally rotating stainless steel globule-making freshly prepared, but become harder with
pan or pill-tube, containing granulated cane age.
sugar, which has been properly moistened 3. Color: They must be perfectly white in color.
with purified water or Syrup simplex and 4. Odor: They should be perfectly odorless.
then coated with a thin layer of super-finely
5. Solubility: They are easily soluble in water,
crushed cane sugar (of not less than 300
but insoluble in alcohol.
mesh).
2. The pan is rotated till the granules become 6. Taste: Usually being made of cane sugar,
spherical. The more the quantity of crushed they are sweeter than milk sugar.
sugar added (with the requisite binding wa- 7. Size: The sizes of globules very from 8 to
ter or syrup), the more bigger will be the 80.
globules or pilules in size. 8. Melting Point: It melts at 160ºC and further
3. As they come into proper sizes, they are neating it decomposes.
transferred into drying chambers for drying.
Testing
4. On drying properly, they are removed from
hot chambers and are made to pass through i. As they are made of cane sugar, they are
a sieve-screen, which has various sizes of sweet to taste.
meshes. ii. Concentrated sulphuric acid gradually de-
composes and chars then; the charred mass
Measurement
froths up.
Globules: iii. Concentrated nitric acid converts them to ox-
They are assorted according to their sizes alic acid.
and designated by numbers like, 5, 10, 15, 20, iv. They do not react with aldehydes or ketones.
25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80. These numbers v. They are not easily fermented by yeast.
denote the number in millimetres required to
vi. If copper comes in contact with the globules
cover the space occupied by ten equal-sized glob-
during preparation in a copper pan, a red-
ules, placed in close contact with each other. For
dish-brown precipitate will occur on addi-
example, say ten globules of equal size are placed
tion of potassium ferro-cyanide solution.
in a line, in close contact, and they occupy 30
mm. space; then 30 is the requisite number of Uses
those globules.
i. They are frequently used by the physicians
Pilules: for dispensing and administering remedies.
Commonly used sizes of globules are 10, 15, ii. As they are capable of retaining the medici-
20, 25, 30 and 40. Globules of size 40, 60, 70 nal property for a longer period; hence, they
and 80 number are generally called pilules. are utilised for preserving medicines.
iii. Hahnemann holds that if carefully kept, they
Characteristics
can be preserved for years together.
1. Shape: Globules or pilules are round in
shape.
Solid Vehicles 77
Preservation 2. Label it with the name and potency of medi-

a. Globules should be stored in air-tight vessels cine.
or bottles, as they absorb moisture from the 3. The vial or phial is filled with globules up to
air or from humid weather. 2/3rd of its space.
b. After medication, globules should be dried 4. The requisite quantity of a liquid medicine
before storing, otherwise globules will be is poured upon the globules to moisten them
dissolved. uniformly.
Adulterations 5. The phial is then kept inverted upon the cork
for at least an hour, preferably 6 hours.
1. To render globules or pilules soft, the fol-
lowing are used as adulterants: 6. Next, the excess medicine is drained out
carefully by loosening the cork a little.
• Starch.
7. The cork is again closed.
• Flour.
• Glucose. 8. Within a day or two, the globules will be
perfectly dry and then they are ready for use.
• Glycerine.
2. White coloring materials are also added to Hahnemann’s Method of Medication
make globules and pilules more white. In Chronic Diseases, Vol. I, page 187,
These adulterations can be detected through Hahnemann directs: “The globules are poured
proper chemical testings. into a clean porcelain bowl, rather deep than
broad, and enough of the required potency
How to Medicate Globules dropped upon them to moisten completely every
On a Large Scale globule in the space of one minute. The con-
tents of the bowl are then emptied on a piece of
1. Take as many globules as can be put in a
clean, dry filtering paper, so that any excess liq-
clean porcelain bowl, keeping the upper one
uid may be absorbed, and the globules are spread
third or more of it vacant.
out so that they may soon dry. The dry globules
2. In order to moisten the globules thoroughly, are then poured into a vial duly marked with the
pour a sufficient quantity of the requisite name and potency, and securely corked.”
medicine over them and allow 1-2 minutes
for the globules to be soaked. Caution
3. To drain the excess quantity of medicine, the Do not medicate globules or pilules with the
medicated globules are then put on a dry, attenuations prepared with ‘dilute alcohol’, be-
clean filter paper. cause, such medicated globules or pilules may
4. On drying, the globules are kept in a phial melt away by the water contained in the dilute
duly marked with the name and potency of alcohol used.
the medicine, and now they are ready for use.
PELLETS
For Emergency or Limited Quantity
1. An absolutely clean, dry vial or phial with a Pellet is a small sphere, made of pure cane
new, non-porous velvet cork is taken. sugar, synonymous for globule. The mode of its
medication is same as that of globule.
CONES • Cones don’t absorb atmospheric moisture as

readily and hence remain intact for a longer
Source time.
Cones are prepared with sources from:
Uses
1. Plant Kingdom: Cane sugar.
Cones are useful for preserving highly
2. Animal Kingdom: Egg albumen. potentised medicines for a long duration.
Measurement of Cones
It is denoted by numbers, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, etc. TABLETS OR TABLOIDS
The size is determined by the diameter of the These are unit forms of solid medicinal sub-
base of the cones in mm. stances made by compressing or moulding.
Characteristics Source
• Shape: They are conical or semi-globular in
They are prepared from pure refined milk
shape.
sugar.
• Color: White.
• Consistency: Cones are made of milk sugar Characteristics
and are hence softer than globules or pilules. • Shape: They are round but flat; discoid in
• Taste: Less sweeter than globules or pilules. shape.
• Solubility: Insoluble in alcohol; more easily • Color: White.
soluble in water than globules or pilules. • Consistency: They are softer than globules
• Size: In homoeopathy, the commonly used or pilules because they are made from pure
size is No. 6. milk sugar.
Medication • Taste: As they are made from milk sugar, they
are less sweeter.
It is by the same process as that of globules.
• Solubility: More easily soluble in water than
The selected potency/medicine is poured in a
globules or pilules; insoluble in alcohol.
sufficient quantity over the cones and the ex-
cess is poured off. • Size: Generally found in 1 grain or 65 mg.
size; rarely in 2 grain or 130 mg. size.
Preservation
Medication
Cones must be stored in a dry place to pre-
vent fermentation due to dampness. Same as in the case of globules. 1 grain tab-
lets are medicated with a drop of medicine be-
Advantages of Using Cones ing poured upon them, and 2 grain tablets with
As cones are harder due to the presence of two drops. Their medication must be done very
egg albumin, they have several advantages over cautiously, otherwise there is every chance of
globules: them to be dissolved in the medicines.
• Cones absorb a very small quantity of liq- Preservation
uid medicine. Hence, dispensing of very
Should be preserved in well-closed contain-
small doses is possible.
ers and not to be tightly packed.
Solid Vehicles 79
TABLET TRITURATES OR T.T. sugar rapidly re-crystallizes; it is now ready for

administration.
They are small disc-like masses, usually
found in 30 mg. to 250 mg. or 1/2 grain to 4 grains Medication
in weight.
They are blanks, and are dispensed after be-
Source ing suitably soaked to saturation with the requi-
site potentised liquid preparations.
They are prepared from milk sugar, glucose
(or dextrose) or any other rapidly soluble pow- Method of Ingestion
der.
The tablet triturates are allowed to be dis-
Preparation solved in the mouth or be administered in a tea-
spoon of water.
Triturate the required quantity of medicine
with refined milk sugar in the given proportion Uses
for not less than two hours till it is thoroughly
As per old convention, they act as an effec-
mixed; then convert this trituration into a paste
tive, cohesive and protective excipient of medi-
with alcohol, and mould it into tablets. The alco-
cines.
hol evaporates, and the partially dissolved milk
■
2-3
Liquid Vehicles
These are used for substances easily soluble

in liquids. Solid triturations are converted into Synonyms
liquid potency using these vehicles, principally • Distilled water.
alcohol, as alcohol has a preservative virtue for • Purified water.
keeping it for a longer period. • Aqua purificata.
In homoeopathy, liquid vehicles are: Chemical Formula
• Aqua distillata. H2O
• Alcohol. Molecular Weight
• Glycerine. 18
• Olive oil. Boiling Point
• Almond oil. 100oC
The latter three are mainly used in external Freezing Point
applications. 0o
Critical Temperature
AQUA DISTILLATA 374.2oC.
It is a very good solvent, having a physiologi- pH
cal inertness, and it is one of the most important Neutral
vehicles in homoeopathic pharmacy.
Density at 4º
Degrees of Purity 1
Water has 3 degrees of purity:
1. Ordinary water. In homoeopathy, properly purified water may
2. Purified water. be used. It should be:
3. Water for injection. • Freshly prepared.
• Absolutely sterile i.e. free from all bacteria Apparatus Required:

and micro-organisms. 1. Leibig’s condenser: It consists of an inner
Preparation tube surrounded by an outer jacket or a wa-
ter tube. This outer jacket has 2 openings at
The method of preparation depends upon the both it’s ends for the entry and exit of cold
amount of purified water required. water. The lower end is attached to a water
1. For small quantities: tap through a rubber tube. The water enters
a. Distillation process. from here, cools the inner tube and then fi-
b. Deionisation process. nally comes out through the second, upper
end.
2. For large quantities: By an automatic water
distillator. 2. Flask:
a. One distilling, round bottomed flask.
Distillation Process
b One receiving flask.
Aim: 3. Bunsen burner.
To convert volatile water into its vapor by 4. Wire gauge.
boiling and then to convert the vapor again into
5. Tripod stand.
its liquid state by cooling. Graphically:
6. Rubber cork.
Volatile water
7. Thermometer.
Boiling
8. Clamp and stand.
Vapor
Cooling Procedure:
Purified water 1. The distillating flask containing ordinary

water for distillation is put upon a wire gauge
Thermometer
To sink
Condenser
Impure liquid
Water inlet
Distilled liquid
Distillation Process
Liquid Vehicles 83
which is placed upon a tripod stand and Aim:

clamped.
To free water of all its impurities viz., acids, al-
2. One end of Liebeg’s condenser is connected kalies, solids, minerals, etc.
with this distilling flask while the other end
is introduced into the receiver flask; in which Apparatus Required:
purified water is collected. 1. Cation exchanger.
3. The mouth of the distilling flask is closed 2. Anion exchanger.
with a rubber cork. A thermometer may be
Procedure:
inserted into the cork for noting the tempera-
ture of the issuing vapor. The distilling flask 1. Impure water containing salts like calcium,
may be kept in position with the help of a magnesium, etc. is passed through columns
clamp and stand. containing a cation exchanger.
4. Light the bunsen burner below the distill- 2. As the impure water passes through, all the
ing flask. As the water boils, the issuing va- metallic ions including alkali metal ions are
por passes through the inner tube, which is replaced by hydrogen ions. Hence, an
kept cold by a circulation of cold water equivalent amount of acid is formed to the
through the outer jacket. Hence the vapor is corresponding anions of the metal salts.
condensed back and the distilled water is Reaction of chlorides and sulphates of met-
collected in the receiver. This is purified wa- als is as follows:
ter. It may be redistilled, if necessary. CaCl2 + 2HR R2Ca + 2HCl
Deionising Process MgSO4 + 2HR R2Mg + H2SO4
By this process water is freed of acids, al- where HR is the cation exchanger.
kalies, solids, minerals, etc. 3. The water so obtained is entirely free from
Ion-exchange resins are synthetic substances metal ions but is acidic and is hence not suit-
which exchange other cations and anions from able for most purposes.
a solution of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions 4. This acidic water is now passed through a
respectively. Hence they are of two types: column containing an anion exchanger to re-
1. Cation-exchange Resins or Cation-ex- place the anions of the acids with hydroxyl
changers: These are those resins which groups, forming water.
replace cations with hydrogen ions. Cation The reaction taking place is:
exchangers are commonly high molecular HCl + RNOH RNCl + H2O
weight, sulphonated organic compounds.
H2SO4 + 2RNOH (RN)2SO4 + 2H2O
E.g., ZeocarbH.
Where RNOH is the anion exchanger.
2. Anion-exchange Resins or Anion-ex-
changers: These are those resins which ex- This passage of impure water through the
change anions by hydroxyl groups. Anion cation and anion exchangers one after the other
exchangers are hydroxyl compounds which produces pure water free from ions. This pure
are derived from high molecular weight or- water is called deionised or de-mineralised wa-
ganic amines. E.g., Amberlite IRA-400. ter. It is as good as purified water for all pur-
poses.
H+ and anions Impure water
Alkali for
Dilute acid for
regeneration
regeneration
Pure water Waste Waste
Ion-exchange Process, Using Both Cation and Anion-exchanger in Succession
By an Automatic Water Distillator is produced. This steam passes to the inner cham-
ber through a passage on the top and then comes
Water is purified by this process for large
down for cooling. The cool water exits out
scale commercial purposes. A stainless steel ves-
through an overflow.
sel known as ‘still’ is used . Here, the distillation
and cooling are done by the same water. Properties
Procedure: • Colorless, odorless, tasteless liquid.
• pH does not vary more than 6 to 7 i.e. it is
Some of the cooling water goes through
neutral.
some holes into the heating chamber where steam
• Specific gravity at 25°C: 1.
• Boiling point: 100°C.
• Freezing point: 0°C
• Ionic product at 25°C: 1 x 10-14.
• Latent heat of fusion at melting point: 79.72
cal/g.
• Latent heat of vaporisation at boiling point:
539.4 cal/g.
• Viscosity at 25°C:8.937 millipoises.
• Surface tension at 25°C: 71.97 dynes/cm.
• Refractive index nD20: 1.3330.
• Due to its negligible ionisation into hydro-
gen and hydroxyl ions, it is practically a non-
conductor of electricity.
H2O H++OH-
Automatic Water Distillator
• Water is a bad conductor of heat.
Liquid Vehicles 85
• It forms crystalline hydrates with many com- Total solids e.g., chlorides, sulphates, etc.
pounds readily. should not exceed 10 parts per million.
E.g.: The relevant tests for acidity or alkalinity,
- Blue vitriol - CuSO4. 5H2O copper, iron, lead, albuminoid ammonia, ammo-
- Green vitriol - FeSO4. 7H2O nia, oxidisable matter and non-volatile matter
• Water is a good ionising solvent for acids, should confirm to the H.P.I. specifications.
bases and salts. Preservation
• It is easily absorbed by several substances,
Immediately after preparation, purified wa-
like concentrated H2SO4, CaO, Silica gel, etc.
ter should be stored in well stoppered pyrex glass
These are generally dehydrating agents.
bottles which have previously been thoroughly
Detection of Impurity cleaned with hot purified water.
Purified water may be detected by its physi- Uses
cal properties:
1. Extensively used for final washing of all the
• It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless liquid. utensils for equipments, e.g. corks, phials,
• pH should not vary more than 6 to 7. vessels, pans, mortars, etc.which are used in
• By boiling point, freezing point and density. preparing drugs and medicines.
• Water leaves no residue on evaporation. 2. Used fo analytical purposes and preparing
Purified water may be detected by some reagents, etc.
chemical tests also. 3. a. In preparing mother soluions of drug
substances which are not soluble in al-
• CuSO4 (anhydrous copper sulphate) powder
cohol, e.g., Ammoium carb., Ammonium
reacts with water to give a blue color.
caust., Natrium, etc.
• Potassium reacts with water to give hydro-
b. In preparing mother solutions drug sub-
gen which undergoes combustion.
stances which undergo chemical changes
K + 2H2O KOH +H2 or decomposition if mixed with alcohol,
The following reagents, if added to purified e.g., inorganic acids
water, it will remain clear but if added to ordi- 4. Used in potentisation.
nary water, they will produce the following dis- 5. Used in preparing some external application,
colorations: e.g., lotions etc.
Test for Reagent Added Water Produces 6. In administration of medicine.
1. Chloride Silver nitrate White turbidity. 7. Used in rectal or vaginal douches.
solution. 8. Used for injection purposes by allopaths.
2. Calcium Ammonium White turbidity. 9. In preparation of variour qualities of weaker
oxalate solution. alcohol, e.g., dispensing alcohol, strong al-
3. Sulphate Barium chloride White turbidity. cohol.
solution + dilute
Demerits
hydrochloric acid.
Aqueous solutions are unstable, so potencies
4. Ammonia Nessler’s reagent. Brown
in purified water cannot be kept for a long time.
coloration.
ALCOHOL Their general formula is:
The term ‘alcohol’ originates from Arab. It R1

applies to the Arab word ‘al-kohl’, a black anti- R2 C-OH
mony sulphide preparation used for decorating eye-
brows and eyelashes in ancient days. R3
The generic term ‘alcohol, in chemistry is used For e.g.:
to designate an important class of organic com- T-butyl alcohol —
pounds which are hydroxy derivatives of aliphatic
hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbon replaces one hy- CH3
drogen atom (but not molecule) by a hydroxyl CH3 C-OH
group OH). According to the number of ‘OH’
groups present, the corresponding alcohols are CH3
called as mono-hydric, di-hydric, tri-hydric, tetra-
2. Dihydric Alcohol
hydric alcohol, etc.
Their general formula is:
1. Monohydric alcohol
CnH 2n (OH) 2
Their general formula is:
These have two hydroxyl groups on differ-
CnH2n+1OH or R - OH ent carbon atoms. These generally include glyc-
Depending upon the location of the OH erols. For e.g.:
group to a primary, secondary or tertiary carbon • Methylene glycol CH2(OH)2
atom, they are divided into primary, secondary • Ethylene glycol CH2OH — CH2OH.
or tertiary alcohols.
3. Trihydric Alcohol
a. Primary Alcohol:
Their general for formula is: It has three hydroxyl groups attached to dif-
RCH2 OH ferent carbon atoms. For e.g.:
For e.g.: Glycerol — CH2 OH
Methyl alcohol — H-CH2 - OH CH OH
Ethyl alcohol — CH3-CH2 - OH
CH2 OH
b. Secondary Alcohol:
Their general formula is: ETHYL ALCOHOL
R1 Ethyl alcohol or ethanol is the most com-
CHOH monly used alcohol and hence, the term ‘alco-
R2 hol’ refers to ‘ethanol’ or ‘ethyl alcohol’.
For e.g.:
Sources
Isopropyl alcohol — CH3
1. Starchy (C6H10 O5) substances, e.g., potatoes,
CH-OH cereals like rice, oat, maize, wheat, barley,
CH3 etc.
c. Tertiary Alcohol: 2. Substances rich in sugar, e.g. beet, carrot,
cherries, grapes, sugar canes, etc.
Liquid Vehicles 87
3. From sugars, e.g., beet sugar, cane sugar, etc. The various steps in valued in the prepara-
4. Synthetically, prepared from hydrocarbon tion of alcohol are:
ethylene.
a. Preparation of Wash:
5. In India, the main source is ‘molasses’, a
• Molasses is subjected to fermentation by the
waste by product from sugar factories, as it
addition of a small amount of (NH4)2 SO4 as
is the cheapest of all other sources.
a food for the ferment after it (molasses) was
Note: 1. Methyl alcohol may be prepared from wood been diluted with water to give a 10% sugar
by a process known as ‘Destructive distilla- solution.
tion of wood’ but not ethyl alcohol.
2. Ethyl alcohol produced from
grains, e.g. rice, wheat, etc. is Alcohol
called grain alcohol. It is best for Vapor
Baffle
homoeopathic preparations. Molasses Water
Fermentation Wash
Synonyms
Dilution
Eractionating column
• Ethanol.
(NH4)2 SO4
• Spirit of wine.
Alcohol 95%
• Grain alcohol. Yeast invertase
Chemical Formula Still Steam
C2H5 OH
Molecular Weight
46.07
• Fermentation is carried out in a slight acidic
Boiling Point medium, prepared by the addition of a small
78.50oC amount of H2SO4.
Freezing Point • It is then warmed to about 25º - 30ºC. Yeast
114oC is now added to ferment the molasses.
pH • CO2 is discharged when fermentation begins.
Neutral, when pure. It is completed in 2-3 days.
• Enzymes ‘invertase’ and ‘maltase’ of yeast
convert molasses into ‘glucose’ and ‘fruc-
Manufacture tose’.
Invertase
1. From Molasses C12H22O11+H2O C6H12O6 + C 6H12O6
In sugar factories, alcohol is prepared mainly (Glucose) (Fructose)

from molasses. After crystallisation of cane sugar • Glucose and fructose are then further fer-
from concentrated cane juice, molasses is left mented into ethyl alcohol under the influ-
behind. It is a dark, thick liquid containing 50- ence of another enzyme of yeast - ‘zymase’.
60% sugar. Carbondioxide and heat are also produced
with it.
C6H12O6 Zymase 2C2H5OH+2CO2 + Steam alcohol vapor
This fermented liquor is known as

‘wash’. It contains only 6-12% al- Hot
cohol. It is now subjected to effi- wash
cient fractional distillation.
b. Fractional Distillation of Wash:
The wash now undergoes fractional
distillation in ‘Coffey’s Still’, which
is a special type of fractionating col- Raw spirit
umn. 90% Alcohol
Here the vapors of almost pure al- Wash

cohol are lead to a condenser from
the head of the fractionating col-
umn.
The distilate contains approxi- Spent wash
mately 95% v/v or 92.4% w/v of Fractional Distillation of Wash
ethyl alcohol. ‘malt’ i.e., grain barley that has been al-
lowed to germinate in the dark at low
temperature and then heated and dried
2. From Starch Containing Materials
ii. Malting:
The process includes the saccharification of
starch to maltose followed by alcoholic fermen- • Germinate barley in the dark at 15ºC for
enzyme diastase to develop in it.
tation leading to production of ethyl alcohol.
• Germination is stopped after a couple of
Starch days by the action of heat.
• The malt obtained is now extracted with
Saccharification water. This extract contains diastase in
solution.
Maltose
iii. Mashing:
Alcoholic fermentation • A suitable starchy material is suspended
in water.
Ethyl alcohol • It is then agitated with super heated
steam under pressure to produce a pasty
a. Saccharification mass known as ‘mash’.
It is the conversion of starch into maltose.
iv. Hydrolysis:
i. Preparation: • The mixture or mash is kept at about
• The starchy materials are reduced to a 50ºC for about 30-60 minutes. Fermen-
pulp or paste with water. tation starts and diastase converts starch
• Next it is mixed with a little amount of into maltase.
Liquid Vehicles 89
Note: Besides alcohol, acetaldehyde, acetone, fusel

2(C6H10O5)n+nH2O Diastase nC 12H22O 11
oil, glycerine, succinic acid, etc. are also formed in
Maltose varying amounts during the above fermentation.
b. Alcoholic Fermentation Properties
As starch is not directly fermentable by • A colorless, transparent, volatile liquid; hav-
yeast, it is first converted into a sugar by mal- ing a characteristically pleasant odor, with a
tase. burning taste.
C12H22O11+H 2O Maltase 2C 6H12O6 • It is highly inflammable, and burns with a
Maltose Glucose pale blue smokeless flame. The vapors form
an explosive mixture with air which is used
Procedure: in high-compression internal combustion en-
• The maltose solution is cooled to about gines.
25ºC-30ºC and mixed with yeast. • It is very much hygroscopic; so it absorbs
• This mixture is kept for 3-4 days within water from atmosphere, any wet substance
which time maltose is converted to glucose or any material containing water.
by the action of enzyme maltase contained • It mixes easily with water in all proportions,
in the yeast. with evolution of heat and contraction in vol-
• Glucose now undergoes alcoholic fermen- ume.
tation and is converted into C2H5OH and CO2 • Mixes with acetone, chloroform, ether and
by enzyme enzymase, present in yeast. many other organic solvents.
• Bromine, iodine, phosphorus, sulphur all dis-
C6H 12O6 Zymase 2C2H5OH+2CO 2 solve in alcohol.
Ethyl alcohol • When pure, it is neutral to all indicators.
• When pure, it boils at 78.5°C (under normal
The ethyl alcohol obtained is a 15% solu-
pressure).
tion and is known as ‘wash’.
• Specific gravity at 15.60°C (or 60°F) is
c. Fractional Distillation 0.8159.
The ‘wash’ is subjected to fractional distil- • As it freezes at 114°C, it is used in ‘alcohol
lation in ‘Coffey’s Still’, a special type of frac- thermometers’ for measuring low tempera-
tionating column. Here, the vapors of almost pure tures.
alcohol are obtained from the head of the col- • It is a good stimulant in small doses, but in
umn and then led into a condenser. large doses will cause fluring of senses and
The alcohol so obtained is 95% v/v or 92% finally unconsciousness.
w/v of C2H5OH. It is commercially known as Impurities
‘rectified spirit’.
In homoeopathy, where ever alcohol is men- Types
tioned, it is this alcohol of 95% v/v. It is also • Fusel oil: The most common impurity.
known as: • Acids: Like succinic acid.
• Alcohol fortis. • Water.
• Strong alcohol. • Inferior quality of alcohol.
Before using in homoeopathic preparations, • Aldehydes and ketones: Like acetaldehyde,
it should be further rectified. etc.
Tests for Purity

1. For Fusel Oil:
Experiment Observation Result
i. Mix equal amount of conc. H2SO4 Red or brown color appears. Fusel oil is present.
and the sample of alcohol. C2H5OH+ H2SO4
C2H5HSO4 (ethyl hydrogen
sulphate) +H2O
ii. Add a few drops of AgNO3 A reddish color appears. Fusel oil is present.
solution to a small quantity of
alcohol and expose the mixture
to bright sunlight.
iii. Alcohol is made to evaporate from a After evaporation, a foreign Fusel oil is present.
porcelain dish, protected from dust. odor issues.
2. For Acids:
i. Blue litmus is soaked with the alcohol sample. Litmus turns red. Acid is present
3. For Water:
i. Add white anhydrous copper sulphate The powder turns blue. Water is present.
to the given sample.
ii. Add calcium carbide to the Acetylene gas is Water is present.
alcohol sample. produced.
4. For Inferior Quality of alcohol:

i. An equal quantity of purified A foreign smell is detected. Alcohol is impure.
water is added to the alcohol sample.
ii. 1 gm. of salicylic acid and 1 ml. The characteristic smell of Methyl alcohol is
of concentrated H2SO4 is added oil of Wintergreen is present.
to 3-4 ml. of the alcohol sample observed.
and warmed.
Liquid Vehicles 91
Precautions in Preserving or Using • It has a very good preserving power, as such,

Alcohol used as a preservative of biological speci-
• As it evaporates easily and absorbs mois- mens and used for sterilisation purposes in
ture from the atmosphere or air, it must be manufactory and surgery.
stored in a dry place in air-tight, well-closed • For making methylated spirit.
clean bottles. • It has a cooling effect and so applied on burns
• Bottles for storing alcohol should preferably and on forehead to soothe burning sensations
be made of pyrex glass. and headache respectively.
• Alkaline bottles should not be used for strong The Food Value of Alcohol
alcohol.
Within limits, alcohol is a food. It is readily
• As it is highly inflammable, it should be kept
metabolized. It requires no digestive process
in a cool place remote from fire, with fire-
prior to metabolism and it is rapidly absorbed
fighting arrangements.
from the upper portion of the gastrointestinal
Uses tract. Alcohol does not serve as a reserve food
• It is immediately added to the juice of plant like glucose. It is not stored in the liver. Metabo-
in a fresh state, to prevent fermentation and lism of alcohol within limit serves as a substi-
decomposition (Vide aphorism 267, Orga- tute nutrient for carbohydrate, ‘protein or fat’.
non of Medicine) and also prevents moulds Alcohol supplies 7 calories per gm.; as such
or wooly fungus growth. a pint of whisky will supply approximately 1400
• In preparing mother tinctures from crude calories.
drug materials. The Pharmacological Response to Al-
• In preparing dilutions and higher potencies cohol
and also for medicating purposes of glob-
The Central Nervous System:
ules, etc.
• Being a very good solvent, it is used for pre- When alcohol is injected by the intravenous
paring medicines from gums, resins, oleo- method, ethanol rapidly penetrates into the brain.
resins, resinoids, alkaloids, many volatile The level of ethanol was greater in the grey mat-
oils, etc. ter than the white matter. The acute effect of al-
cohol on the central nervous system is limited to
• In preparing tinctures of chloroform, ether,
the brain. Chronic alcoholism may produce my-
iodoform, etc., which are used in
elitis, encephalitis and polyneuritis. 30 to 60 ml.
homoeopathy.
of alcohol exerts an effect upon the ascending
• In preparing acetyldehyde, vineger, var- reticular formation, and directly or indirectly
nishes, dyes, transparent soap, perfumes, etc. upon the inhibitory centres in the cerebral cor-
• In preparing ethyl esters, where from syn- tex.
thetic rubber, rayon and fruit essences, per- The most usual manifestation of its action
fumes, etc. are prepared. appears sequential to the depression of the in-
• It works as an antiseptic, at a strength of hibitory centres. In large doses the depressant
above 10%. action extends to the centres of respiration in the
medulla.
Alcohol Kills by Respiratory Paralysis: • Preparation of alcohol is not very difficult.

The depression of the cerebral inhibitory cen- • It has practically no medicinal property of
tres is manifested in a typical behavioral pattern: its own.
Speech becomes loud and slurred, mistakes in • It is neutral, neither acidic nor alkaline in
loquacity for eloquence. Self criticism is dimin- reaction.
ished and sensitivity to the criticism of others is • It is soluble in water in all proportions and
often lost. in many other organic solvents.
Alcohol has a false reputation of being a • It is neither easily decomposed nor is it
stimulant. spoiled by long storage.
• Has great power of extracting medicinal por-
Affect of Alcohol on the Skin:
tions from mother drugs and mucilagenous
Alcohol 95% has a cooling but dehydrating substances.
action when applied to intact skin. The most suit- • It is edible; in small doses it acts as a stimu-
able concentration of alcohol for external appli- lant.
cation is 70%. This is not dehydrating. • Used in increasing strength for dehydration
Alcohol dissolves the sebum from the skin of plant and animal tissues.
and acts as an excellent solvent for germicides. • A powerful preserver of plant and animal tis-
Rebbing with alcohol is beneficial in reduc- sues at 70% strength.
ing the incidence of bed sores during protracted
Disadvantages of Using Alcohol in
illness.
Pharmacy
Alcohol has an effect on bacteria also. It is
• It is highly inflammable and can easily take
widely employed locally because of its ‘germi-
fire.
cidal’ powers. Numerous tests have shown that
70% alcohol is more effective for this purpose • It evaporates too easily, so must be stored in
than undiluted alcohol. This is due to the better air-tight bottles.
penetrating power of 70% alcohol into the bac- • In large doses it is poisonous.
terial cell; undiluted alcohol coagulates the pe- • It decolorizes ordinary corks.
ripheral cytoplasm which thwarts its further pen- • Though it is a good solvent, some substances,
etration. like inorganic salts, albuminous substances
However, it cannot be relied upon to kill and starches are not soluble in it.
bacterial spores. As such, alcohol cannot be Note: It is not easily procurable, and its transac-
wholly depended upon as a ‘good germicide’. tion is strictly controlled by the state excise au-
thority.
For insulin and other repeated injections
‘isoprophyl alcohol’ or a mixture of alcohol and • Move over, it is a highly taxed produced.
isopropyl alcohol is a more reliable germicide Main Varieties of Alcohol
than alcohol.
1. Absolute alcohol.
Advantages of Using Alcohol in Phar- 2. Strong alcohol.
macy 3. Dilute alcohol.
• As it is prepared from the waste product 4. Dispensing alcohol.
molasses, it is cost effective. 5. Rectified spirit.
Liquid Vehicles 93
1. Absolute Alcohol B. Large Scale Production:

An alcohol containing no trace or water or 1. Rectified spirit is mixed with a little ben-
an anhydrous alcohol is known as absolute al- zene.
cohol. 2. Distill the above mixture. The distillate
will contain:
Synonyms a. First portion: Mixture of benzene,
alcohol and water.
• Alcohol dehydrated.
• Anhydrous alcohol. Benzene: 74.1%
Alcohol: 18.5%
Specific Gravity
0.792 at 15.6ºC or 60ºF. Water: 7.4%
B.P.: 64.8º C.
Theoretically it means 100% of ethyl alco- b. Second portion: Mixture of benzene
hol by volume (v/v) or by weight (w/w), but it is and alcohol.
practically too difficult to get such as alcohol, Benzene: 67.6%
as it is a most powerful hygroscopic agent. So,
for practical purposes, alcohol containing at least Alcohol: 32.4%
99.4% by volume or 99.0% by weight of pure B.P.: 68.2º C.
alcohol may be taken as an absolute alcohol. c. Final portion: It is pure anhydrous
alcohol known as absolute alcohol.
Preparation:
B.P.: 78.5º C.
A. Small Scale Production:
Tests for Purity:
1. Thoroughly mix rectified spirit with
fresh quick lime (CaO) and keep in an • For Traces of Water:
air-tight, dry vessel. Experiment Observation Result
2. Heat it to remove most of the water. i. 10 ml. of alcohol A blue solution Water is
3. Distil this mix. The distillate now con- sample is taken in is obtained. present.
tains .6 to 1% water. a test tube and
4. To remove these last few traces of wa- thoroughly shaken
ter, the above distillate is refluxed over with 0.5 gm. anhy-
metallic calcium or magnesium. drous copper sulphate.
5. Now redistillation is carried out in an Uses:
all glass apparatus.
Absolute alcohol is used for purification of sugar
6. Of the redistillate now obtained, the first of milk in the Stapf process.
and last portion are rejected. The middle
portion is collected which is pure and
unmixed.
7. If required, this process may have to be
repeated till the desired product be ob-
tained.
Difference Between Homoeopathic Alcohol It contains not less than 94.7% v/v or 92.0%
and Absolute Alcohol. w/w and not more than 95.2%. v/v or 92.7% w/
Homoeopathic Alcohol Absolute Alcohol w of C2H5OH.
1. 87% strength Theoretically 100% strength. Preparation:
Practically 95% is the highest.
2. Used in making For purification of milk sugar Strong alcohol is prepared by mixing:
homoeopathic by Stapf process. a. 94.9% by volume of pure ethyl alcohol or
attenuations. C2H5OH.
It can be reduced to homoeo- b. 5.1% by volume of purified water.
pathic alcohol by the addition
of 7 parts of 95% alcohol part This can be diluted to any extent with puri-
of purified water. fied water.
2. Strong Alcohol Properties:

• Color: Colorless, transparent.
Synonyms • Smell: Pleasing aroma.
• Alcohol fortis. • Taste: Burning taste.
• Anhydrous fortior. • Character of Alcohol: Mobile and volatile.
Specific Gravity • Solubility: Miscible with- Purified water.
Acetone.
0.8159 or 0.8160 at Chloroform.
15.6º C or 60º F. Ether.
pH: Other organic
solvents.
Neutral.
• pH: Neutral to all indicators if pure.
• Refractive Index nD20: 1.3637 to 1.3639.
In homoeopathy, whenever the word ‘alco- • Specific Gravity: 0.8104 to 0.8075 at 25º
hol’ is used, it means ‘strong alcohol’, which C.
contains 95% by volume of pure alcohol and is
obtained after second distillation.
Tests for Purity:
1. Iodoform Test:
i. 2-3 ml. of the alcohol sample is taken A yellow precipitate of Iodoform is
in a test tube. An equal volume of iodoform separates out. present.
strong iodine solution in KI is added C2H5OH+ 4I2+6NAOH
to it. Warm the mixture gently and then CHI3+HCOONa
add NaOH drop by drop till the color + 5NaI+5H2O.
turns pale yellow. Cool the test tube.
Liquid Vehicles 95
2. For Acidity or Alkalinity:

i. To 20 ml. of the alcohol sample A pink color appears The solution
add 0.2 ml. of N/10 NaOH. with phenolphthalein. is alkaline.
ii. To 20 ml. of alcohol sample A red color appears with The solution
add 0.1 ml. HCl. methylene red solution. is acidic.
3. For Aldehydes:
i. To 10 ml. of the alcohol sample add A yellow color is Aldehyde is present
5 ml. of NAOH. Shake and allow produced. in the given sample.
to stand for 5 minutes.
4. For Ketones:
i. To 1 ml. of the alcohol sample add 3 ml. A precipitate is Ketones are present in
of water and 10 ml. solution of mercuric produced in 3 minutes. the given sample.
sulphate. Heat on a boiling water bath.
5. For Fusel Oil and Allied Impurities:
i. Allow 25 ml. to evaporate spontaneously A foreign odor Fusel oil and allied
in a porcelain dish protected from dust till is perceptible. impurities are present
the surface of the dish is is barely moist. in the given sample.
ii. Add 1 ml. of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) A red or brown Fusel oil and allied
to the above dish. color is produced. impurities are present
in the given sample.
6. For Oily or Resinous Substances:
i. Dilute 5 ml. to 100 ml. with The solution is not clear Oily and resinuous
water in a glass cylinder. when examined against substances are present
a black background. in the given sample.
7. For Non-volatile Matter:
i. Evaporate and dry the Leaves residue more than 0.005% Non-volatile matter
given sample at 105º C. examined against a black background. present.
Note: Strong alcohol or any kind of alcohol used in - By mixing equal volumes of strong alcohol
preparations of homoeopathic mother tinctures and purified water (official dilute alcohol).
and other medicines or remedies must confirm
all the above standards as specified in the H.P.I., Uses:
Vol. I. • For preparing potencies under decimal scale.
Preservation: • For cleaning utensils.
It should be kept in well stoppered glass
4. Dispensing Alcohol
bottles in a dark, cool place away from fire.
Source
Uses:
Principally used for the preparation of ab- Molasses: It contains 88% by volumes or
solute alcohol, mother tinctures, official 83.1% by weight of ethyl alcohol and 12% by
alcohol, dispensing alcohol, etc. volume of water.
Note:Strong alcohol or any other alcohol used in
preparations of homoeopathic mother tinctures Synonyms
and other medicines or remedies must confirm • Alcohol officinale.
all the above standards as specified in the H.P.I., • Official alcohol.
Vol. I.
Specific Gravity
3. Dilute Alcohol 0.840 at 15.6º C or 60º F.
Preparation:
Preparation
Different authorities give different specifi-
1. This alcohol may be made by adding one
cations for preparing dilute alcohol. Viz.:
part by volume of purified (distilled) was to
12.25 parts by volume of strong alcohol.
Specific Gravity
2. 1 part by weight of purified water to 10 parts
0.935-0.937 at 15.6º C or 60º F. by weight of strong alcohol.
Note: Actually more than 1 part by volume of water
• As per H.P.I. (Vol.I): Dilute 695 ml. of strong is to be used, as on mixing strong alcohol with
alcohol to 1000 ml. with purified water. water, shrinkage in volume of water occurs. If
some quantities of the two are mixed, upto 3%
• As per B.H.P.: It has an equal quantity of shrinkage in volume may occur.
rectified spirit 60º O.P. and purified water.
Purity:
• As per M. Bhattacharya’s Pharmacopoeia:
7 parts of rectified spirit 60º O.P. is mixed As regards its purity it must confirm the
with 3 parts of purified water, both in vol- H.P.I. standards.
ume. Impurity:
• As per Dr. Buchner, Dr. Gruner, Dr. Jahr and Commonest is fusel oil.
Dr. Hampel: Prepared by mixing equal parts
in volume of alcohol and purified water. Uses:
• As per Dr. Dewey: Prepared by mixing 7 • Dispensing alcohol is uysed for preparing
parts of 87% alcohol with 3 parts of purified most of the dilutions as it is more readily ab-
water in volume. sorbed by globules or tablets or milk sugar.
Liquid Vehicles 97
Note: However, in India, we do not use this for dis- Note: Rectified spirit 60 O.P. was originally recom-
pensing. Rectified spirit 60 O.P. which is 3.29% mended in the old B.H.P. For dilution purposes,
stronger than dispensing alcohol is used. this alcohol is popularly used throughout India,
as the dispensing alcohol, in place of the official
5. Rectified Spirit: 60 O.P. or dispensing alcohol of the H.P.U.S. or the
It means pure rectified spirits containing 160 H.P.I.).
per cent of proof spirit (i.e. 60 over hundred of
Uses:
1. Used for making potencies under the cen-
Specific Gravity
tesimal scale.
0.8294 at 15.6º C or 60° F.
2. Also used for cleaning utensils.
proof spirit). It contains 91.29% by volume of Rectified Spirit: 40 O.P.
ethyl alcohol. It is 3.29% stronger than the dis-
It is prepared by mixing 7 parts of strong al-
pensing alcohol, the difference in the specific
cohol with one part of purified water, both by
gravity between them is approximately 0.01.
volume. It contains 73.37% by weight of strong
Preparation: alcohol.
It is prepared by mixing approximately 375 Density:
ml. of purified water with 1 litre of strong alco- 0.8640.
hol.
Conversion of Rectified Spirit into Absolute Alcohol
1½ ounce of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is poured 10 ounce slaked lime or Calcium hydroxide
in a glass stoppered bottle and 1 pint of rectified spirit [Ca(OH)2] is taken in a covered crucible.
60° O.P. is added to it.
Heated for at least 30 minutes.
The mixture is kept well-stoppered in that bottle for

It is allowed to become cool.
two days shaking briskly every now and then.
The spirit is very carefully decanted When perfectly cooled it is transferred to a

to the flask so that the precipitate may big flask.
not come to the flask. A condenser is fixed to the flask.
It is kept without giving heat for 24 hours.
Then it is heated gently.
Allowed the spirit to distil.
The distilled spirit, thus obtained, is absolute

alcohol.
Rectified Spirit: 20 O.P. 60 O.P.: Means that in 100 parts of this alco-
hol if 60 parts of purified water is added, then
It is prepared by mixing 6 parts of strong
160 parts of proof will be obtained (all by vol-
alcohol with two parts of purified water, both by
ume).
volume. It contains 60.85% by weight of strong
alcohol. 30 O.P.: Means that in 100 parts of this alco-
hol if 30 parts of purified water is added, then
Density:
130 parts of proof will be obtained (all by vol-
0.8936.
ume).
Importance:
Proof Spirit
It helps to decide whether any liquid is stron-
Proof spirit is a mixture of alcohol and puri- ger or weaker.
fied (distilated) water, weighing 12/13th of an
To check the misuse of alcohol and to fetch
equal volume of purified water at 10.6º C
money for the respective government, alcohol is
Strength: a dutiable item in every country. As such, for the
purpose of levying excise duty on alcohol, it is
It contains 57.1% by volume or 49.28% by
required to ascertain the exact proof strength of
weight of ethyl alcohol and 42.9% by volume of
the respective alcohols.
water.
Determination of Proof Strength of Alcohol:
Specific Gravity:
In the past, when there was no appropriate
0.91976 at 15.6º C or 60º F.
apparatus or method to ascertain the exact
Expression of Proof Spirit: strength of an alcohol, some crude method was
It is expressed in terms of degrees: employed. Some amount of the alcohol (to be
tested) is poured upon some gunpowder and is
1. Under proof (U.P.).
ignited. If it does not catch fire, it was inferred
2. Over proof (O.P.). that there is much water in the alcohol, and if it
1. Under Proof (U.P.): would easily take fire, then the alcohol did not
Alcohol weaker in strength than proof spirit contain much water.
is known as under proof. For e.g.: Now, with the aid of specially made ‘hydrom-
60 U.P.: Means that 100 parts of this alcohol eters’ we can easily determine the respective
contains 40 parts (by volume) of proof spirit ‘40’ strength or percentage of any alcohol. There are
is arrived at by substracting from 100 the respec- other standard methods by which also the respec-
tive U.P. strength i.e. 100-60=40, of the said al- tive strength of alcohols can be determined ac-
cohol. c u r a t e l y.
30 U.P.: Means that 100 parts of this alcohol For convenience, the Excise authority uses
contains 70 parts (by volume) of proof spirit. a special type of hydrometer, constructed in such
a way, so that the respective proof strength of
2. Over Proof (O.P.) any particular alcohol can be determined easily.
Alcohol stronger in strength than proof spirit In practice, the hydrometer is immersed in the
is called over proof. For e.g.: respective alcohol and the corresponding indi-
Liquid Vehicles 99
cation on the scale of the hydrometer is noted, 3. ‘Spirit I’ is now very carefully decanted to
as well as the respective temperature of the al- the same glask containing slaked lime. Don’t
cohol is noted. Out of these two datas, the corre- let the precipitate come into the flask.
sponding proof strength of that alcohol is directly 4. A condenser is fixed to the flask.
found out from a special chart, provided for this
5. The mixture is kept in the flask for 24 hours
purpose.
without heating.
Note: (i) Polyhydric alcohol: Chemically the
polyhydric alcohols are those which contain 2 or 6. After 24 hours, heat it gently.
more hydroxyl groups attached to a hydrocarbon 7. Now allow the spirit to distil.
radical. The simplest of these compounds is eth-
ylene glycol, C2H4(OH)2. It is a hydroxyethanol.
This spirit, obtained after distillation is ab-
Many other glycols have come into prominence solute alcohol.
in recent years. They are industrial solvents and
Denatured Spirit
antifreeze mixtures. Some of them are available
as solvents for drugs such as propylene glycol. As alcohol is used mainly as a solvent and
(CH3CH. OH. CH2OH). for intoxicating drinks, it sometimes has to be
Polyhydric alcohol does not exhibit the strong made unfit for human consumption. Hence sub-
narcotic effect on the central nervous system that stances like methyl alcohol , bone oil, benzene,
is elicited by the monohydric alcohol. crude pyridine, etc. are added to rectified spirit
(ii) Sugar alcohol: There is a close relationship to make it poisonous or bad smelling. This mix-
existing between the sugar alcohol and other ture is known as denatured spirit. Generally, also
carbohydrates. some dye is added to color the spirit. This only
makes the alcohol, unfit for consumption. It can
How to Convert Rectified Spirit to Absolute
still be used as a solvent in industries.
Alcohol:
For this, initially two procedures are fol- Methylated Spirit
lowed simultaneously. When rectified spirit is denatured by mix-
1. In one instance, ing methyl alcohol, it is known as methylated
• 1½ ounces of K2CO3 or potassium car- spirit.
bonate is taken in a glass stoppered
bottle. 1 pint of rectified spirit 60 O.P. is GLYCERINE
added to it.
• Keep this mixture in a well stoppered It is a trihydric alcohol, containing not less
bottle for two days, shake it every now than 98% of C3H8O3 (H.P.I.). It is the common
and then. Let us call this spirit I. constituent of all animal and vegetable oils and
fats, e.g., coconut oil, olive oil, tallow, cod-liver
2. In the other instance:
oil, etc. In small quantities it is formed during
• 10 ounces of slaked lime, Ca(OH)2 is
alcoholic fermentation of sugars and is present
taken in a crucible which is then cov-
in minute amounts in normal blood.
ered.
• Heat it for 30 minutes, minimum. Preparation
• Let it cool. i. It can be prepared from molasses by the fer-
• When absolutely cool, transfer the con- mentation process.
tents to a big flask.
ii. Can be prepared synthetically. Propylene is chlorinated to form allyl chlo-

iii. From spent soap lyes—the lye contains some ride which is converted to allyl alcohol. Now treat
glycerine, much water, free alkali, sodium it with hydrochlorous acid (HOCl). ‘Chlorhydrin
chloride, fatty acids and protein matters. derivative’ is produced. Extraction of HCl is done
with soda lime. This is followed by hydrolysis
Synonym which yields glycerine.
• Glycerol. 3. From spent soap Lyes
Chemical Formula NaOH solution (lye) hydrolyses fats and oils
CH2OH. CHOH or CH2OH. to form glycerol and sodium salts of fatty acids
or C3H5 (OH)3 (soaps).
Molecular Weight
CH2OOC. C17H35 CH2OH
92.1
| |
Specific Gravity CHOOC. C17H35 +3NAOH
1.255 to 1.266 at 20°C. CHOH+3C17H35 COONA
| |
Specific Gravity CH2OOC. C17 H35 CH2OH
290°C. Glycerol stearate Glycerol sodium
stearate (soap)
1. From Molasses by Fermentation
Soap is salted out but glycerol remains in
When yeast ferments the sugar, approxi-
solution. This is known as ‘spent lye’. Spent lye
mately 3% glycerol is formed with alcohol.
contains 3-5% glycerol, a small amount of free
C6H12O6 C3H5(OH)3+CH3CHO + CO2 alkali, NaCl, dissolved soap, proteinous matter,
Glucose Glycerol Acetaldehyde inorganic salts and coloring matter. Glycerol is
recovered by the following procedure:
2. Synthetic Preparation From Propylene
• Spent lye is kept in iron tanks to allow the
Glycerol, obtained from propylene which is heavy impurities to settle down.
a byproduct of cracking petroleum, is now manu-
factured in large quantities, especially in USA and
Russia.
To vaccum pump
Basic ferric
CH 2 CH2Cl CH2OH sulphate Filter
Spent Decanted press Steam Steam
HOCl NaOH lye lye
CH Cl2-H2O CHOH
CHOH
CH2OH CH2Cl CH2OH Scottling Treating

tank tank Sal 80% Glycerol
Allyl alcohol Glycerol Glycerol
ß-chlorohydrin
Liquid Vehicles 101
• The clear liquid now obtained, is pumped into • The distillate so obtained contains water
or ‘treating tank’ filled which is steam coils. which is concentrated in vacuum pans until
Here it is treated with HCl which neutralises glycerol with specific gravity 1.26. This glyc-
about three-fourth of the free alkali present erol is 99.9% pure.
in the lye. To neutralise the remaining alkali
Properties
it is now treated with alum or basic ferric
sulphate. It also converts the traces of so- Physical Properties:
dium soaps and the free acids still present • Odor: Odorless.
into insoluble iron soaps. A gelatinous pre-
cipitate of Fe(OH)3 and insoluble iron soaps • Consistency: A syrupy liquid; visious, oily
result. liquid.
• Color: A clear, colorless, liquid.
6NAOH + FE2(SO4)3 FE(OH)3 + 3NA2SO4 • Taste: Sweet, followed by a sensation of
warmth.
6C17H35COONA+FE2(SO4)3
• Moisture Content: Hydroscopic i.e., absorbs
2(C17H35COO)3FE + NA2SO4.
moisture from atmosphere or air.
• The liquid and the precipitate is filtered un- • Solubility: Miscible with water, alcohol (90
der pressure through filter presses. A clear %) and methanol; insoluble in chloroform
liquid is now obtained which is concentrated (CHCl3), in solvent ether and in fixed oils.
in vacuum pans to about 80% of glycerol.
• Boiling Point: Pure glycerine boils at 290°C
During the evaporation process, common
unchanged, but impure decompose at its boil-
salts separate out. These are removed from
ing point.
time to time from the bottom.
• If kept for a while at a low temperature, it
• By the above process the crude glycerol is
may solidify, forming a mass of colorless
obtained. It is now de-colorised with animal
crystals. These crystals do not melt until the
charcoal and purified by distillation under
temperature reaches about 17° C.
reduced pressure with superheated steam.
• Specific Gravity: 1.255 to 1.266 at 20°.
Chemical Properties:
• When decomposed by heat or when heated
with dehydrating agents like KHSO4, i.e.
potassium bi-sulphate, it evolves an intensely
irritating and pungent smelling unsaturated al-
Steam dehyde.
To vaccum • It dissolves fixed alkalies, acids, a large num-
ber of salts, pepsin, tanin, gums, starch, soluble
Pump
carbohydrates, some active principles of
Steam plants, etc.
H2O Test for Purity
Glycerol + H2O • Acrolein Test: Two drops of glycerine are
taken in a test tube to which a little pow- • Borax Bead Test: When heated on a bo-
dered potassium hydrogen sulphate (KHSO4) rax bead in a bunsen flame, it gives a green
is added. Heat the test tube cautiously at flame.
first and then more strongly. An irritating • Litmus Test: A 10% w/v solution is neutral
vapor with a pungent smell of scrolein is pro- to solution of litmus.
duced which blackens a filter paper moist-
ened with a solution of ammoniacal silver • When diluted with 6 times its volume of
nitrate (AgNO3). purified water, it gives no precipitate with
solution of barium chloride, silver nitrate and
CH 2 OH CH 2 of time or with sulphuretted hydrochloric
acid.
| KHSOH || + 2H2O
CHOH CH • Refractive Index: 1.471 to 1.473 at 20°C
(H.P.I.).
| |
• Weight per ml: 1.225 to 1.260 gm at 20°,
CH 2 OH CHO corresponding to 98.0 to 100.0% of C3H3O3.
Glycerine Arolein
Additional Standards of Purity
• Dunstan’s Test (Borax-Phenolphthalein
It should comply with the standards, as speci-
Test): Take 6 ml. of 0.5% solution of borax.
fied in H.P.I., in respect of:
Phenolphthalein is added drop by drop to it.
A distinct red color appears. To this 20% a. Certain reducing substances.
glycerine is added drop by drop. The red b. Fatty acids and esters.
color disappears, but it reappears on heat- c. Sucrose.
ing.
d. Sulphated ash, etc.
Explanation: Borax or sodium borate in
aqueous solution, is partially hydrolysed to bo- Preservation
ric acid and sodium hydroxide. As boric acid is It should be kept in dry, well-closed vessels.
a weak acid, the solution is alkaline. When glyc-
Uses
erine is added, glycero-boric acid is formed which
is a strong acid, making the solution acidic. On It is used in medicines for its mild antiseptic
heating or boiling glycero-boric acid it again hy- property.
drolyses to glycerol and boric acid, turning the
External Application:
solution alkaline.
• It is used as an emollient, i.e. for application
• Copper Hydroxide Test: Make a suspen-
on the chapped and roughened skin as it soft-
sion of cupric hydroxide [Cu(OH)2] by mix-
ens or relaxes the skin over which it is ap-
ing 2.5% CuSO4 solution with 3 ml. of 5%
plied.
NaOH. Add a few drops of glycerine to this
suspension. A blue color is obtained. Glyc- • It is used in ear discharges, as it absorbs the
erine prevents precipitation of cupric hydrox- pus easily.
ide and no change occurs on boiling the so- • It is used as an application on superficial
lution. ulcers of tongue and mouth.
• Glycerine is an excellent solvent for various
Liquid Vehicles 103
things like fixed alkalies, several salts, veg- SYRUP SIMPLEX

etables, acids, pepsin, tannin, some active
principles of plants, gums, etc. Hence it is a It is a solution of cane sugar or sucrose and
good vehicle for applying these substances purified water, which is used as a sweet vehicle.
on the skin and over sores.
• Used in various skin diseases like eczema, Synonyms
herpes, etc. • Simple syrup.
Source
Internal Application:
Sucrose.
• Used as a suppository in constipation. For
evacuation of bowels, it may be introduced Weight per ml
through a metal syringe per rectum, being 1.315 to 1.333 gm. at 20°.
mixed with olive oil and tepid purified wa- Optical Rotation
ter.
+56° to + 60°.
• It is used for preparing mullein oil.
• It is used in preparations of glycerols for Preparation
external applications.
1. 1000 ml. of purified water is taken in a flask
• Used in preparations of mother tinctures and and boiled.
lower dilutions of certain poisonous prod-
2. 667 gm. of sucrose is added to it.
ucts e.g., Apis mel., Naja tripudians,
Tarentula cubensis, etc. 3. The above mixture is heated to boiling cau-
tiously with constant stirring until the whole
• Used for preserving certain poisonous ani-
of the sucrose is dissolved.
mal products, e.g. Crotalus horridus, Elaps
corallinus, etc. Crotalus can be preserved 4. Filter the resultant solution through purified
in it unimpaired even for 19 years. cotton or a suitable filter.
• Used as a preservative and a sweetening 5. Rinse the vessel with boiling purified water
agent for food. and add the same to the solution to produce
1000 ml. with efficient stirring.
• Largely used in making nitroglycerine (the
homoeopathic drug, Glonoinum). Storage
• Used in cosmetics for its softening action on Preserve in a well-tight, clean neutral glass
the skin. container. Should not be exposed to undue fluc-
• In recent years glycerine has been used with tuations in temperature.
considerable success in chronic simple open-
Uses
angle glaucoma.
Used as a sweet vehicle; when dispensing
• Used for making stamp ink, shoe polish, print-
homoeopathic mother tinctures, this syrup is an
ing ink, alkaloid type plastics, etc.
excellent vehicle to combine with.
• Also used in the leather, rubber, plastic and
Note: i. Mannitol: A typical hexahydric alcohol which
textile industry. has the composition C6H8(OH6).
D-mannitol, mannite or manna sugar is the
name applied to this hexahydric alcohol which (Glycerides are the esters of glycerine with or-
is widely distributed through the vegetable ganic acids.)
kingdom. It comprises of 75 per cent sweet
medicinal exudation of Manna (Fraxinus Preparation
ornus).
Ripe olive fruits are crushed in a mill. The
ii. Sorbitol: It is a white crystalline solid which remaining portion is mixed with a solvent like
elicits a cooling sweet taste. It is the most
carbon disulphide (CS2) and boiled. The residual
commonly used hexahydric alcohol.
oil is extracted by expression.
OLIVE OIL Identification

a. Acid Value: Not more than 2.
Synonyms b. Iodine Value: 79 to 88 (iodine monochloride
• Oleum olivae. method).
c. Refractive Index: 1.468 to 1.471 at 20º C.
Source
d. Saponification Value: 190 to 195.
From the ripe fruits of Olea Europea, family
Oleaceae; found in southern Europe and around
Properties
the Mediterranean sea. • Color: Pale yellow in color, but it may vary
from colorless to green or greenish-yellow.
It is an organic compound, a fixed oil, con- • Odor: Generally odorless, but sometimes a
sisting of the glycerides of fatty acids, chiefly faint agreeable smell comes out, but not ran-
oleic acid and smaller amounts of linolic, myris- cid.
tic, palmetic and stearic acid. It may be refined. • Solubility: Mixable with chloroform and
solvent ether, almost insoluble in alcohol.
Tests for Purity
1. Take 1 ml. olive oil in a flask with a If above 9°C:
reflux condenser.
Add 5 ml. 1.5 (N) alcoholic KOH. a. No turbidity. a. Sample of olive oil is pure.
Boil it for 10 minutes.
Now add 50 ml. of alcohol (70%) b. Turbidity present. b. Olive oil not pure, it is mixed
and 0.8 ml. of conc. HCl. with Arachis oil or peanut
The solution is gradually cooled. oil (i.e. china-badam-tel.)
2. A little olive oil is shaken with an equal

volume of a mixture of 9 parts by
volume of alcohol (90 %) and 1part by
by volume of strong ammonia solution If the acid layer:
Heat on a water-bath until free from a. Does not color a. Sample of olive oil.
ammonia and alcohol. Now, shake 2 pink or fainly pink.
ml of the olive oil with 1 ml HCl b. Colored pink. b. Olive oil is not pure, it with
which contains 1% w/v sucrose. seasame oil (or til oil).
Set aside for 5 minutes.
Liquid Vehicles 105
• Taste: Bland. • Badam tel.

• Specific Gravity: 0.910 to 0.913 at 20º C. • Expressed almond oil.
• Boiling Range: 40ºC to 60ºC as it contains Source
about 72% of olein and about 8% of palm-
From dried kernals of Prunus amygdalain
itin.
Batsch, family Rosacae.
• Consistency: May party solidify at extreme
lower temperatures. Constituents
Almond oil is a fixed oil expressed by pres-
Storage
sure from the dried kernels of varieties of Prunus
Keep in well closed containers. amygdalain Batsch, by applying heat. It contains
not less than 80% benzaldehyde, composed
Uses
mainly of olein with some linolein, but no stearin
External Application: is present.
• Used as an excellent external application for
burns and skin diseases. Properties
• Applied externally for getting a smoothen- • Color: A pale yellow oil.
ing effect on superficial ulcers. • Odor: Nearly inodorous; slight.
• On rubbing upon the skin, it renders the skin • Taste: Bland, nutty taste.
softer, smoother and more flexible. It is ad- • Solubility: Miscible with solvent ether, with
visable to rub it with Cod liver oil on the chloroform, slightly soluble in alcohol (90
skin of patients suffering from rickets and p.c.)
marasmus.
• Boiling Range: 40º C to 60º C.
• Used in preparations of liniments for exter-
• Specific Gravity: 0.910 to 0.915 at 20°C.
nal applications.
• Character: Non-drying oil.
Internal Application:
Test for Purity
• Olive oil has the property to retard the flow
of gastric juice. Hence it is an excellent food The following additional tests for purity of
for cases of gastric ulcer as the acid pre- almond oil should be conducted. They should
vents healing of ulcers. also confirm to the H.P.I. standards for refrac-
tive index, acid value, iodine value, saponifica-
• In constipation, it is introduced per rectum
tion value, and for the presence of the following:
through a specially made syringe.
Apricot-kernel oil, peach-kernel oil, Arachis oil,
• Olive oil of good quality is edible. cottonseed oil and seasame oil.
• Used as a laxative being taken at bed time.
It is commonly adulterated with peach -
kernal oil. It may be rarely adulterated with Ara-
ALMOND OIL chis oil, seasame oil and cottonseed oil.
Synonyms
• Oleum amygdalae.
• Oleum amydalae expressum.
• For Peach-kernel Oil The tree grows in India (specially Mysore;

some parts of Kerala district and southern parts
of Tamil nadu), as well as in Germany and En-
1. 5 ml. of the almond A whitish The sample gland.
oil sample is shaken mixture appears is contami-
vigorously with 1 ml. after 15 minutes. nated with
Synonyms
of a freshly prepared There is no peach -
mixture of (equal pink color. kernel oil. • Oleum santili.
parts by weight): • Oleum santali album.
H2SO4, HNO3, H2O
• Oil of Santal.
The mixture should be
kept cool while it is • Oil of Sandalwood.
mixed gently with
precaution.
Composition
• For Arachis Oil and Sesame Oil Sandalwood oil is a volatile oil. It’s chief con-
stituents are:
Described in ‘Olive oil’, same as in olive
• Santol, which is a mixture of two sesqui-ter-
oil.
pene alcohols.
Storage • Santalal, an aldehyde.
It should be kept in well-filled, well-closed • Esters.
containers.
• Free fatty acids, etc.
Uses
Properties
External Use: • Color: Pale yellow.
• Almond oil is a demulcent and emollient. • Odor: Strong, aromatic.
As it is a bland oil; it makes a good basis for
• Taste: Pungent, aromatic.
the preparation of ‘liniment’ in place of ol-
ive oil. • Consistency: Thick.
• It forms a soothing application for chapped • Character: Volatile oil.
hands, excoriations and irritable skin diseases. • Solubility: Freely soluble in strong alcohol.
Internal Use: • pH: Slightly acidic.
• The oil is mildly purgative in 120 to 240 ms • Specific Gravity: 0.073 to 0.985 at 20º C.
doses. Test for Purity
Adulterations are common. It is often adul-
SANDALWOOD OIL terated with castor oil and other flexed oils.
Sources
This oil is steam distilled from the wood of
Santalam album Linn., family, Santalaceae.
Liquid Vehicles 107
For Castor Oil: Properties

Experiment Observation Result • Color: Pale yellow color.
1. 10 ml. of mixture of A perfectly The given • Odor: Faint odor.
3 volumes of alcohol clear solution sample is • Taste: Bland.
and 1 volume of water is obtained. pure sandal-
• Consistency: Thick.
should be added to wood oil.
1 ml. of the sandal- There is no • Character: A limpid oil.
wood oil sample. castor oil. • Solubility: Slightly soluble in alcohol (90%),
miscible with solvent ether, with chloroform
Storage
and with light petroleum.
Should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in
a cool place, protected from light.
Storage
Uses
• It is mixed with other oils and applied exter- Should be preserved in well-filled, well-
nally. closed containers.
• Due to its sweet odor, it is largely used in Uses
perfumes and cosmetics.
1. It is used instead of olive oil, in the prepara-
tion of liniments.
SESAME OIL 2. Used in the preparation of hair oil.
Source 3. An edible oil.
It is refined flexed oil, expressed from the
seeds of one or more cultivated varieties of ROSEMARY OIL
Sesamum indicum, Linn., family, Pedalicacaea,
native of India, China and most other tropical Sources
countries. It is a volatile oil, steam distilled from the
fresh flowering tops of Rosemarinus officinalis,
Synonyms Linn., family, Labiatae, native of England and
• Oleum sesami. southern Europe.
• Til oil.
• Gingelli oil. Synonyms
• Benne oil. • Oleum Rosemarini.
• Oil of Rosemary.
Composition
• Sesamin, a crystalline substance. Composition
• Sesamolin. • Borncol, 8 - 16%.
• Liquid fats, 70% of which are glycerides of • Bornyl acetate and other esters, about 2 -
oleic acid and linoleic acids. 5% camphor, cincole pinene and camphene.
• Sesamol, a phenol. Properties
• Solic fats, (12-14%) stearin, palmitin, etc. • Color: A colorless or pale yellow oil.
• Odor: Characteristic odor of Rosemary. It grows in Germany, France, Spain, Italy and
• Taste: Warm, camphoraceous. also cultivated in the state of Jammu and Kash-
mir in India.
• Character: Volatile oil.
• Solubility: In 1 volume of alcohol (90% v/v, Composition
but upon further dilution, it may become tur- • Linalol, an alcohol and its ester Linalyl ac-
bid). etate, are the principal constituents. Indian
• Specific Gravity: 0.894 to 0.912 at 20 º C. oils contain 24.8% and foreign ones 7 to 14%
of linalyl acetate.
• Optical Rotation: From -5° to +10° in a 100
mm. tube at 20º C. • Pinene, C10H16. It is present in some samples
but is not a constant constituent.
• Refractive Index: At 20°, 1.466 to 1.476.
• Limonene, geaniol and a sesquiterpene.
Test of Purity
Properties
It contains not less than 2% w/w of esters
calculated as bornyl acetate, and not less than • Color: A colorless, pale yellow or yellow-
9% w/w free alcohols, calculated as borncol ish-green liquid.
C 10 H 8O. • Odor: That of the flowers; agreeable, pleas-
ant, characteristic.
Storage
• Taste: Aromatic pungent and some what bit-
The oil should be kept in well-closed con- ter.
tainers, in a cool place, protected from light.
• Character: A volatile oil.
Uses • Solubility: Miscible with alcohol (90%) and
• It is a component of liniment, saponin, etc. absolute alcohol; sparingly soluble in alco-
• It is a stimulant and rubefacient to the skin. hol (60%) and 1 in 4 of alcohol (70%).
It is commonly used in the form of a hair oil. • Specific Gravity: 0.875 to 0.888 at 25°C.
• Largely used in perfumes and cosmetics. • Refractive Index: 1.4590 to 1.4700 at 20º C.
• Optical Rotation: From 3 to 10°, in a 100
LAVENDER OIL mm. tube.
It is a volatile oil, obtained by distilling from Tests for Purity

the fresh flowering tops of Lavandula officina- It may be adulterated with:
lis.
i. Glycerine monoacetate.
Synonyms ii. Alcohol.
• Oleum Lavendulae. iii. Salicylic acid ester.
• Oil of Lavender. iv. Benzoic ester.
Source 1. For Glycerine Monoacetate:
Obtained from the fresh flowering tops of
Lavandula officinalis of L. vera, family, Labiatae.
Liquid Vehicles 109
Experiment Observation Result HYDNOCARPUS OIL

i. Shake the given As glycerine Glycerine
sample of lavender monoacetate is monoaceta-
Source
oil with 4-5 insolublein petr- te is present. Hydnocarpus oil is a fatty oil obtained by
volumes of petrole- oleum ether, cold expression of the fresh, ripe seeds of Hyd-
um ether. it can be identi- nocarpus wightiana, Blume, family
fied in the solu- Flacourtiaceae. The tree grows in southern In-
tion against a dia, where it is called ‘Marroti’.
dark background.
Glycerine may be further identified by its Synonym

specific tests. • Oleum Hydnocarpi.
2. For Alcohol:
Composition
Experiment Observation Result • Glycerides of chaulmoogric acid, C18H32O2.
i. Shake the sample The volume of Alcohol is
• Glycerides of palmitic acids and fatty acids.
of lavender oil with diminishes. present.
purified water in • Hydnocarpic acid.
equal volume. Properties
3. For Salicylic Acid Ester: • Color: A yellowish or brownish-yellow oil,
or soft cream colored fat.
• Odor: Characteristic odor.
i. Add a solution of A purple-red Salicylic
• Taste: Slightly acrid.
ferric chloride to coloration acid ester
the lavender oil is produced. is present. • Character: A fatty oil.
sample after • Solubility: Partially insoluble in cold alcohol
saponification. (90%); freely soluble in hot alcohol (90%);
miscible with solvent ether, chloroform and
4. For Benzoic Ester: carbon-disulphide.
It may be confirmed by a solution of ferric
Storage
chloride.
Should be preserved in well-filled, well-closed
Storage containers.
It should be kept in cool place protected from Uses
light, in well-closed container.
It is used as an external application in skin
Uses diseases, especially in leprosy.
External Application:
• It can be applied on superficial ulcers with- CHAULMOOGRA OIL
out alcohol.
Source
• It is used with alcohol for a soothing effect
in headaches. Chaulmoogra oil is obtained by cold expres-
sion of the fresh, ripe seeds of Gynocardis
adbrate, a native of Sikkim, Assam, Chittagong, • Taste: Somewhat acrid.

Sylhet, upper Myanmar and the Malaya penin- • Solubility: Sparingly soluble in alcohol
sula. (90%). Soluble in benzene, in chloroform
and in solvent ether.
Synonyms • Consistency: Below 25°C, a whitish, soft
• Oleum chaulmoogra. solid.
• Glynocardia oil. Storage
• Chalmoogra tel. Should be kept in a tight, well-stoppered
containers, in a cool place protected from light.
Composition Uses
Same as Hydnocarpus oil. • The oil and its derivatives to a certain extent
Properties are effective in the treatment of early stages
of leprosy.
• Color: Yellow or brownish-yellow oil.
• Used as a rubefacient.
• Odor: Caracteristic, resembling that of ran-
cid butter. ■
111
2-4
Semisolid Vehicles
1. Vaseline WHITE SOFT PARAFFIN

i. White. Source
ii. Yellow.
White soft paraffin is a mixture of semi-
2. Spermaceti or Cetaceum spermaceti. solid hydrocarbons which are obtained from pe-
3. Lanolin. troleum and then bleached.
VASELINE Synonyms
• White petroleum jelly.
It is a semi-solid mixture of hydrocarbons
obtained from crude petroleum, after kerosene • Paraff. moll. alb.
oil, disel oil, fuel oil etc., have been separated. It • Paraffinum molle album.
is then bleached and purified.
Properties
Synonyms
• Color: A white, translucent, soft mass, not
• Petroleum jelly. more than slightly fluorescent by daylight,
• Soft paraffin. even when melted.
• Paraffin soft. • Odor: Odorless, when rubbed on the skin.
• Taste: Tasteless.
Varieties • On Touch: Soft mass; unctuous to touch.
It is availale in two varieties: • Solubility: Soluble in chloroform and solvent
1. White paraffin soft. ether; almost insoluble in alcohol and water.
Practically insoluble in CHCl3 and solvent
2. Yellow paraffin soft.
ether and in light petroleum.
The white variety is better than the yellow one.
• Boiling Point: 30º to 60º C. YELLOW SOFT PARAFFIN

• Melting Range: 38º to 56º C. Source
Tests for Purity It is semi-solid mixture of hydrocarbons ob-
The common impurities are: tained from petroleum.
1. Foreign organic matter.
Synonyms
2. Fixed oils and fats.
• White petroleum jelly.
3. Sulpated ash.
• Yellow petroleum jelly.
1. For Foreign Organic Matter:
• Paraff moll. flav.
Experiment Observation Result • Paraffinum molle flavum.
i. Heat the given It volatises Foreign orga-
sample of white while emitting nic matter Properties
soft paraffin. an acrid odor. present.
• Color: A pale yellow , translucent soft mass.
It retains these characters on storage. When
2. For Fixed Oils and Fats:
melted and allowed to cool without stirring,
Experiment Observation Result not more than slightly fluorescent by day-
i. Digest 10 gm. with A precipitate Fixed light.
50 ml. solution of or oily matter oils and • Odor: Almost free from odor when rubbed
sodium hydroxide is produced. fat pre- on skin.
at 100ºC for 30 sent.
minutes. Allow the • Taste: Almost tree from taste.
aqueous layer to • To Touch: Soft mass; unctous to touch.
separate. Now • Solubility: Practically insoluble in water and
acidify the aqueous alcohol (90%); soluble in CHCl3 and in sol-
layer with dilute vent ether and in light petroleum.
H2SO4 (sulphuric
acid). • Specific Gravity: 0.815 to 0.880 at 20°C.
• Boiling Point: 40º - 60º C.
3. For Sulphated Ash:
Not more than 0.1%. Test for Purity
Common impurities are:
Uses
1. Foreign organic matter.
• It is used as a lubricant and applied on ul-
cers or wounds in dressings. 2. Fixed oils and fats.
• It is used for the preparation of several me- 3. Sulphated ash.
dicinal ointments like; emulsifying ointment, 4. Yellow coloring matter.
paraffin ointment and simple ointment.
Test for the former three impurities is the
same as those described under white soft paraf-
fin.
Semisolid Vehicles 113
For Yellow Coloring Matter: • Cerotic acid : 15%.

Experiment Observation Result Preparation
i. Boils 5 gms. of The alcohol is Yellow color- 1. The comb of a honey comb is procured after
sample with 10 colored yellow. ing matter removing the honey in it.
ml. of alcohol. present.
2. It is then put in hot water to wash any re-
Uses maining honey.
Same as described under white paraffin soft. 3. Cool the comb.
Additionally used in wool alcohol ointment. 4. Yellow bee’s wax separates out like a solid
cake on the surface, which is then extracted.
WAXES Properties
These are solid esters of higher fatty acids • Color: Yellow to greyish-brown.
and monohydric alcohols, besides glycerol. • Odor: Like that of honey.
• Taste: Faint and characteristic.
CLASSIFICATION
• Character: Solid; brittle when cold but plas-
1. Bee’s wax: tic when warm.
a. Yellow bee’s wax.
• Solubility: Insoluble in water; barely soluble
b. White bee’s wax.
in cold alcohol; absolutely soluble in CHCl3,
2. Lanolin. ether, fixed and volatile oils.
3. Spermaceti. • Melting Range: 60º - 65º C.
Bee’s Wax • Acid Value: 17 to 23.
It is of two types: • Iodine Value: 8 to 11 (Iodine monochloride
a. Yellow bee’s wax. method).
b. White bee’s wax. Uses
Yellow Bee’s Wax • As a stiffering agent.
• As an ingredient of yellow ointment.
Source
It is secreted by Apis mellifica, the hive bee, White Bee’s Wax
family Apidae. This wax is used by the bee to It is the bleached version of yellow bee’s
make the cells of the honey comb. wax.
Composition Synonyms
• Myricin or Myricyl palmitate, • Cera alba.
C15H31COOC30H61 : 80%.
Uses
Synonyms • Used in cerates and ointment.
• Cera flava. • As an ingredient of yellow ointment.
• Cera flav.
• Mom (Bengali).
SPERMACETI • To Touch: Slightly unctous mass with crys-

talline fracture.
Source • Solubility: Insoluble in water and cold alco-
It is a waxy substance obtained from the hol nearly insoluble in cold water; soluble
head of the sperm whale Physeter macroceph- in boiling alcohol, ether, CHCl3 and in fixed
alus Linn., family, Physeteridae. and volatile oils.
• Specific Gravity: 0.95 (approximately) at 20º
C.
Synonyms
• Melting Range: 42° - 50° C.
• Cetaceum. • Acid Value: Not more than 10.
• Sp. Esperma de ballena. • Iodine Value: Not more than 5 (Iodine
• C. spermaceti. monochloride method).
• Saponification Value: 120 to 136.
Composition
Physeteridae or the bottle nosed whale sper- Storage
maceti is a mixture of various constituents, of It is preserved in well-closed vessels.
which the principal one is cetin or acetil palmi-
tate, C15H31 COOC6H33. Cetin is obtained when Uses
crystallised from alcohol. While on evaporation, It is a solid fatty substance used to give con-
the mother liquor deposits an oil, named cetin sistency to cerates and ointments, as in the well
plain, which on saponification yields cetin elaic known water ointments.
acid which resembles, but is distinct from oleic
acid. LANOLIN (ANHYDROUS)
Preparation
Source
It is obtained from the mixed oils which are
It is obtained from the wool of the sheep Ovis
recovered by expression from the head, bulbar
aries, family Bovidrae.
and carcase of the whales. On standing, a crys-
talline deposit is formed in the oil. The deposit Synonyms
is separated by filtration, pressed, melted, puri- • Wool fat.
fied from traces of oil with dilute sodium hy-
• Adepa lanae.
droxide (NAOH) solution and finally freed from
• Adepes lan.
the soap thus produced and from excess of al-
kali.
The separated solid fat is termed as cetin Composition
which belongs to the class of waxes. Contains not more than 200 parts per million
of butylated hydroxyanilose or butylated hydroxy-
Properties
toluene.
• Color: A white, somewhat translucent, mass
with a crystalline fracture and pearly luster. Preparation
• Odor: Faint odor. It is a purified anhydrous fat-like substance,
• Taste: Faint; bland milky taste. obtained from the wool of the sheep, Ovis aries.
1. Natural grease is extracted from the wool 1. From vegetable source:

by treating with dilute alkali, with which the a. Hard soap.
grease readily forms an emulsion. b. Soft soap.
2. Next the emulsion is acidified. 2. From animal source:
3. The wool-fat separates as a distinct layer at a. Curd soap.
the surface of the liquid.
Hard Soap
4. Purification may be effected by repeated
treatment with water in a centrifuge. Source
Properties It is the result of the interaction of NaOH

(sodium hydroxide) with a suitable vegetable oil
• Color: A pale yellow substance. or oils or with fatty acids derived from veg-
• Odor: Faint and characteristic. etables.
• Character: Tenaceous, unctous substance.
Synonyms
• Solubility: Insoluble in water; sparingly
soluble in cold alcohol (90%); freely soluble • Wool fat.
in solvent ether and in CHCl3 (chloroform). • Sapo durus.
• Melting Range: 36° - 42°C. • Sap. dur.
• Acid Value: Not more than 1. • Castile soap.
• Iodine Value: 18 to 32 (Iodine monochloride • Olive oil soap.
method). • Sodium oleate.
Identification
Properties
Dissolve 0.5 gm. in 5 ml. of chloroform. Now • Color: A greyish-white or yellowish-white
add 1 ml. of acetic anhydride and 2 drops of substance.
sulphuric acid, a deep green color is produced.
• Odor: Nearly odorless.
Storage • Character: It becomes horny and
Store in a well-closed container at a tempera- pulverisable when dry.
ture not exceeding 30°C. • Solubility: Soluble in water; almost com-
pletely soluble in alcohol (90%) but more
Uses readily soluble when warmed.
Due to its penetrating power within the skin,
Storage
it is extensively used in ointments.
It is preserved in well-closed containers.
SOAP Uses
It is commonly used as a detergent.
Classification
It is based on the sources from which the
soap is manufactured:
Soft Soap • Character: Becomes horny and pulverisable

when dry.
Source
• Solubility: It is soluble in water; almost to-
It is made by the interation of KOH (possium tally soluble in alcohol 90% but it dissolves
hydroxide) or NaOH (sodium hydroxide) with a more readily when warm.
suitable vegetable oil or oils or with vegetable
fatty acids. It yields and less than 44% of fatty Uses
acids. It is used in component of opodeldocs.
Synonyms PREPARED LARD

• Sapo mollis.
Source
• Sap. moll.
• Green soap. Prepared lard is the purified internal fat of
• Potassium oleate. the abdomen of a hog, Sus scrofa, Linn., Var,
domesticus Gray.
Properties
Synonyms
• Color: It is a yellowish-white to green, or
brown unctous substance. • Adeps lard.
• Solubility. Readily soluble in water and in • Adeps praeparatus.
alcohol (90%). • Sukar charbi.
Storage
It is preserved in well-closed containers.
Composition
i. Olein (60%).
Uses ii. Stearin.
• As a detergent. iii. Palmitin.
• Used in preparation of soap liniment.
Preparation
Curd Soap It is prepared by carefully removing the
Source membranes and adhering flesh over the fat in the
abdomen of a hog, and then rendered.
It is made from NAOH (sodium hydroxide)
and purified solid animal fats. Properties
• Color: A white mass.
Synonyms • Odor: Faint odor.
• Sapo animalis. • Taste: Bland taste, free from rancidity.
• Sap. animal. • To Touch: Soft, unctous mass.
• Sodium stearate. • Solubility: It is insoluble in water; very
slightly soluble in alcohol (90%); soluble in
Properties solvent ether, in CHCl3 (chloroform) and in
• Color: White or yellowish-white. light petroleum.
• Taste: Tasteless. • Melting Range: 36° to 42°C. It forms a clear
• Odor: Odorless. liquid from which no water layer separates.
Storage • Wheat (Triticum sativum Lam.), 60 to 65%.

Sore in containers which must be kept in • Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), 15 to 20%.
areas protected from conditions favoring rancid- • Paddy (Oryza sativa L.), 75 to 85%.
ity.
Uses Synonyms
• Amylum.
Used as an ingredient in ointments.
• Shetsar.
• Beng.
ISIN GLASS
Chemical Formula
Source
(C6H10O5)n
Isin glass is a collagen derived from the thin,
inner, silver, shiny layer of the air-bladder of Preparation
some fishes, especially sturgeons, carps and car
fishes. • From Maize or Indian Corn: First the
germs are separated from the maize mechani-
Preparation cally. The cells are made soft so that starch
1. The air-bladder of fishes is collected and granules may escape out of the cells. This is
washed thoroughly. done by allowing the cells to become sour
2. Now the outer thick and fibrous layer of the and decompose. Stop the fermentation be-
wall is separated from the inner layer. This fore the starch is affected.
is exclusively isin glass raw material. • From Potato: Grate the potatoes and then
3. This is then cut into small pieces which are wash the soft mass upon a sieve. It separates
macerated. the cellular substances and permits the starch
granules to pass through by decantation.
4. This macerated mass in then pressed into
sheets by means of a large roller. • From Wheat: First, a stiff ball-like dough
is made. Knead it with a small stream of
Properties water trickling upon it. As a result, the starch
• Color: Light whitish or yellowish; semi- is carried off with the water while the ‘glu-
transparent. ten’ remains as a soft elastic mass. This glu-
• Odor: Odorless. ten can be purified which may be used for
• Taste: Tasteless. other purposes.
• On Touch: Tough, fibrous solid.
Properties
Uses • Color: White.
It is used as a component of Calendula and • Odor: Odorless.
Arnica plasters. • Taste: Tasteless.
• Solution: A hygroscopic powder, insoluble
STARCH in cold water and all organic solvents ex-
cept formamide and dimethyl sulphoxide.
Source
• Maize or India corn (Zea maydis S.L.), 65 to Uses
70%. It is a component of ‘glycerole of starch.’
■
2-5
Standardisation of Vehicles
SUGAR OF MILK HCl and 10 ml. of a solution of H2S. No color

is produced.
• Identification:
• Sulphated Ash: It is not more than 0.1%.
♦ On heating, sugar of milk melts, swells
and burns, giving an odor of burnt sugar, • More Soluble Sugars: 5 gms. sugar of milk
leaving a bulky carbonaceous residue be- is shaken in 20 ml. alcohol (90 % v/v) for 10
hind. minutes and then filtered. Now evaporate 10
♦ On heating with a solution of potassium
ml. of the filtrate to dryness and dry at 105°C.
cupri-tartarate, a copious precipitate of The desidue weighs not more than 7 mg.
cuprous oxide is obtained.
♦ Optical rotation: Dextro-rotatory, [α] D ALCOHOL
= 55.3° (final value). • Identification:
• Acidity or Alkalinity: 5 gms. of sugar of ♦ Iodoform Test: Add 2 ml. of 4% v/v so-
milk is dissolved in 50 ml. of fresh boiled lution of NaOH to 10 ml. of 0.5% v/v
water. This solution requires for solution. Now add about 4 ml. of a solu-
neutralisation not more than 0.5 ml. of 0.1 tion of iodine slowly. Odor of iodoform
(N) NaOH, phenolphthalin solution is used develops, and a yellow precipitate is pro-
as an indicator. duced.
• Clarity, Color and Odor: A solution is pre- CH3CH2OH + 4I2 + 6NaOH CHI3 + 5
pared by dissolving 3 gms. of sugar of milk NaI + HCOONa + 5H2O.
in 10 ml. boiling water. The solution is clear, ♦ Refractive Index nD20: 1.3637 to 1.3639.
colorless and odorless. ♦ Specific Gravity at 15.6°C or 60°F:
• Arsenic: It is not more than 1 part per mil- 0.816.
lion. • Acidity or Alkalinity: 20 ml. of the alco-
• Copper: 2 gms. sugar of milk is dissolved hol sample requires not more than 0.2 ml. of
in 20 ml. of water. Add to it, 1 ml. of dilute N/10 NaOH to produce a pink color with
phenolphthalin solution, or not more than 0.1 • A 10.0% w/v solution is neutral to a solution
ml of HCl to give a red color with methyl of litmus.
red solution. • Weight per ml: 1.252 to 1.257 gms. at 25º
• Aldehyde: To 10 ml. of the alcohol sample, C, corresponding to 98.0 to 100.0% of
add 5 ml. of a solution of NaOH. Shake and C3H8O3.
allow it to stand for 5 minutes. No yellow • Refractive Index: 1.471 to 1.473 at 20º C.
color is produced.
It should comply with the standards, as speci-
• Ketones: To 1 ml., add 3 ml. purified water fied in H.P.I. in respect of:
and 10 ml. of a solution of mercuric sulphate.
Heat on a boiling water-bath. No precipitate a. Certain reducing substances.
is produced in 3 minutes. b. Fatty acids and esters.
• Fusel Oil and Allied Impurities: Let 25 ml. c. Sucrose.
evaporate spontaneously on a porcelain dish, d. Sulphated ash, etc.
protected from dust until the surface of the
dish is barely moist; no foreign odor is per-
OLIVE OIL
ceptible, and on addition of 1 ml. of H2SO4
no red or brown color is produced. • Acid Value: Not more than 2.0.
• Oily or Resinous Substances: Dilute 5 ml. • Iodine Value: 79 to 88.
to 100 ml. with water in a glass cylinder. The • Saponification Value: 190 to 195.
solution remains clear when examined
• Refractive Index: 1.468 to 1.471 at 20° C.
against a black background.
• Weight per ml: 0.910 to 0.913 at 20° C.
• Non-volatile Matter: When evaporated and
dried at 105°C, it leaves not more than • Arachis Oil (Peanut Oil): 1 ml. of the oil is
0.005% of residue. boiled (in a flask with a reflux condenser)
with 5 ml. of 1.5 (N) alcoholic KOH for 10
minutes, 50 ml. of alcohol (70%) and 0.8
GLYCERINE ml. of concentrated HCl in pure olive oil.
• Identification: No turbidity is seen appears above 9°C.
♦ When heated with potassium hydrogen Through this test we determine the presence/
sulphate (KHSO4), it produces irritating absence of arachis oil in the given olive oil
vapors, which blacken a filter paper sample.
moistened with a solution of ammonia- • Sesame Oil: To determine the purity of ol-
cal silver nitrate. ive oil, a little olive oil is shaken with an
♦ It gives a green flame when heated on a equal volume of a mixture of 9 parts of al-
borax bead over a bunsen flame. cohol (90%) and 1 part of strong ammonia.
♦ When diluted with purified water to six The mixture is then heated on a water-bath
times its volume, it gives no precipitate till it is free from alcohol and ammonia. Now,
with a solution of barium chloride, 2 ml. of the oil is shaken with 1 ml. HCl
AgNO3 and of lime or with sulphuretted containing 1% w/v sucrose. It is set aside
HCl. for 5 minutes. The acid layer is not pink or
faintly pink in color.
Standardisation of Vehicles 121
ALMOND OIL may become turbid.

• Identification: • Specific Gravity: 0.894 to 0.912.
♦ After exposure to a temperature of 10° • Optical Rotation: -5° to + 10°, in a 100 mm.
for 3 hours, it remains clear. It does not tube.
congeal until the temperature has been • Refractive Index: 1.466 to 1.476 at 20°.
reduced to about 18°.
♦ Solubility: Almost insoluble in alcohol
LAVENDER OIL
(95%); it is miscible with CHCl3, sol-
vent ether and light petroleum. • Solubility: It is soluble in alcohol (90%) and
♦ Specific Gravity: 0.910 to 0.915 at 20° absolute alcohol; sparingly soluble in alco-
C. hol (60%) and 1 in 4 of alcohol (70%).
♦ Boiling Point: 40° C to 60° C. • Specific Gravity: 0.875 to 0.888 at 25°C.
♦ Freezing Point: 18° C. • Optical Rotation: 3 to -10°, in a 100 mm.
♦ Refractive Index: 1.470 to 1.473 at 20°C. tube.
♦ Acid Value: Not more than 4. • Refractive Index: 1.4590 to 1.4700 at 20°C.
♦ Iodine Value: 95 to 102 (Iodine
monochloride method).
SIMPLE SYRUP
♦ Saponification Value: 188 to 196.
♦ Weight per ml: 0.910 to 0.915 gms. at • Weight per ml: At 20°C, 1.315 to 1.333 gm.
20°C. • Optical Rotation: +56° to +60°.
• Arachis Oil: Compiles with the test for the
absence of cotton seed oil in other oils. BEE’S WAX
• Sesame Oil: Compiles with the test for the • Solubility: Insoluble in water; sparingly
absence of sesame oil in other oils. soluble in cold alcohol; completely soluble
in CHCl3, ether, fixed and volatile oils.
SESAME OIL • Melting Point: 60° to 65°.
• Solubility: It is slightly insoluble in alcohol • Acid Value: 17 to 23.
(90%); it is miscible with solvent ether, chlo- • Iodine Value: 8 to 11 (Iodine monochloride
roform and light petroleum. method).
• Specific Gravity: 0.916 to 0.921, at 20° C.
• Acid Value: Not more than 2.
LANOLIN (ANHYDROUS)
• Iodine Value: 103 to 116.
• Identification: Dissolve 0.5 gm. in 5 ml. of
• Refractive Index: 1.472 to 1.476 at 20°.
CHCl3, and add 1 ml. of acetic anhydride
• Saponification Value: 188 to 195. and 2 drops of H2SO4; a deep green color is
produced.
ROSEMARY OIL • Solubility: Insoluble in water; sparingly
• Solubility: It is soluble in one volume of al- soluble in cold alcohol (90%); freely soluble
cohol (90% v/v) but upon further dilution, it in solvent ether and in CHCl3.
• Melting Range: 36° to 42°C. H2SO4; no precipitate or oily matter is pro-

• Acid Value: Not more than 1. duced.
• Iodine Value: 18 to 32. • Foreign Organic Matter: Vaseline volatil-
izes when heated without emiting an acrid
odor.
• Sulphated Ash: Not more than 0.1%
SPERMACETI U.S.P.
• Solubility: Insoluble in water, nearly in- STARCH
soluble in cold alcohol and slightly soluble
in cold petroleum, benzene but in soluble in • Identification: Boil starch with 15 times its
boiling alcohol, in etherm CHCl3 and in fixed weight of water and then cool. A translucent
and volatile oils. viscous fluid or jelly appears which is col-
ored deep blue by an iodine solution. The
• Specific Gravity: About 0.94.
color disappears on warming and reappears
• Melting Range: 42° to 50° on cooling.
• Acid Value: Not more than 1.0. • Acidity: Add 10 gms. to 100 ml. of alcohol
• Iodine Value: Not more than 5. (70%) which has been previously neutral-
• Saponification Value: 120 to 136. ized to phenolphthalein solution. Shake well.
Dry for one hour, filter and titrate 50 ml. of
the filtrate with 0.1 (N) NaOH, using
VASELINE phenolphthaline solution as indicator. Not
• Solubility: Practically insoluble in CHCl3, more than 2 ml of 0.1 (N) NaOH is required.
solvent ether and light petroleum • Iron: Mix 0.5 gms. of vaseline with 10 ml.
• Specific Gravity: 0.815 to 0.880 at 20°C. of water. Add 0.5 ml. HCl and 0.3 ml. potas-
• Melting Range: From 38° - 56°. sium-ferrocyanide solution. The mixture
does not become blue within one minute.
• Weight per ml: 0.815 to 0.880 gms. at 60°C.
• Ash: Not more than 0.3% (maize starch),
• Reaction: Boil 5 gms. of vaseline with 10 0.6% (rice-starch), 0.3% (potato starch) and
ml. of alcohol which has been previously 0.3% (wheat are starch).
neutralized to a solution of litmus. The al-
cohol is neutral to litmus. • Loss on Drying: When dried to constant
weight at 105°, losses not more than 14.0%
• Fixed Oils, Fats and Resins: Digest 10 gms. of its weight (maize starch, rice starch and
with 50 ml. solution of NaOH at 100° for 30 wheat starch) or not more than 20.0% of its
minutes. Allow the aqueous layer to sepa- weight (potato starch).
rate. Acidify the aqueous layer with dilute ■
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Section 3
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LABORATORY
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3.1 Laboratory Premises.
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3.2 Homoeopathic Laboratory Premises.
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3.3 Laboratory Methods.
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3.4 Instruments.
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3.5 Cleaning of Utensils.
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3.6 Hazardous Instruments and Precautions.
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3.7 First Aid in Laboratory.
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God told Zeus, “Give man everything to make his life comfortable.”
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3-1
Laboratory Premises
GENERAL DESIGN AND Each building project is therefore a balance

OBJECTIVES of various objectives and constraints to achieve
an optimal design, meeting as many of the initial
A well-designed laboratory should provide objectives as possible. Essential health and safety
a safe physical environment and facilitate safe requirements should not be compromised,
work practices. To achieve this, there should be statutory requirements must be met and basic
direct communication and frequent discussions standards provided that are appropriate for the
between designers, contractors and those who various laboratory activities and their associated
will occupy the laboratory. The laboratory hazards and risks.
director will have a number of objectives:
The laboratory should provide for the health
• Suitability for current work requirements.
and safety of its occupants, users and visitors
• Suitability for climatic and geographical and protect the local and general environment,
conditions. including adjacent building and public places.
• Adaptability to possible future needs. Planning for such an objective requires
• Energy efficiency. knowledge and understanding of relevant
• Minimum capital and running costs. legislative controls, laboratory processes and
• Security from unlawful entry and animal practical safety measures to control them, i.e. the
pests. means of eliminating hazards or reducing risks
and/or mitigating their consequences.
Because of necessity, a number of constraints
will be imposed:
• Type of range of materials and expertise LABORATORY TYPES AND
available. CLASSIFICATION
• National or local building or planning. There are several different kinds of
• Budgetary controls. laboratories. Designs suitable for one may not
• Nature of the site. be satisfactory for another. Even within a
• Relationship or interaction between laboratory, rooms may serve different purposes
laboratory-related clinical or other activities. and need different designs and services.
Classification schemes are particularly will be related to its form, i.e. shape and size. In
useful to the laboratory designer because the risk- general, a single-storey building is cheapest
assessment approach matches the degree of provided that land is available.
hazard to the containment level required and
other features necessary to provide a safe BARRIER SYSTEMS
working environment.
Containment or barrier systems are designed
to “contain” or separate the hazard from contact
LABORATORY BUILDING
with laboratory workers and with the immediate
It should be designed and constructed building or general environment. Barriers may
according to relevant local or national building be provided to contain hazardous substances at
codes, particularly with regard to fire safety, the source, thereby preventing their release into the
provision of fire-resistant structural elements and laboratory. They also include personal protective
adequate means of escape. equipment and administrative controls.
In addition to the special requirements for There are thus three tiers of barriers:
laboratory activities, the internal environment • Primary: Around the hazard.
must provide for the comfort of the occupants; • Secondary: Around the worker.
extremes of temperature and humidity must be • Tertiary: Around the laboratory.
avoided. The provision and maintenance of a
comfortable internal environment may require Primary and tertiary barriers are relevant to
air-conditioning systems for the building as a laboratory design as they are provided by
whole or for selected rooms or areas. These are equipment, engineering and architectural
expensive to install and operate. Passive features. Secondary barriers are concerned with
measures such as a reflective “sunbreaker” shield personal protection and hygiene.
to protect the interior of the building against
direct solar radiation and the careful placement VENTILATION REQUIREMENTS
of windows and other openings in the external
Ventilation of the laboratory is one of the
walls to create cooling air movement are cheaper
most important design considerations in the
alternatives. Roofing materials should be heat-
provision of a safe working environment. It is
reflective and have low thermal capacity and
also one of the least understood requirements and
conductivity.
certainly can be among the most costly to install,
Infestation by animals, birds, and especially maintain and operate. The purposes of the system
insects should be prevented where possible by include the provision of a comfortable internal
passive building features including fly-screens environment and containment barriers by the
or curtains over window openings or doorways, extraction and dilution of airborne contaminants.
traps or wire-mesh protection for drains and
similar piped supply wall openings. Waste should LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION
be regularly removed from the premises, and the Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) involves the
waste disposal storage areas should be made well removal of relatively small volumes of
away from buildings. This is necessary, and contaminated air. The system consists of a partial
appropriate facilities should be provided. The enclosure or hood, a fan to generate air movement
overall capital and running cost of the building
Laboratory Premises 127
and ducting to convey air from the collection area NATURAL VENTILATION
to a discharge point outside the building. Some The cheapest and simplest method of
systems also incorporate air cleaning equipment, ventilating the laboratory is by natural means. It
e.g. high efficiency particulate air filters (HEPA) relies on external wind pressures and temperature
for the removal of micro-organisms, and carbon- differentials to achieve movement of air into and
filled filters to remove contaminants which may out of the laboratory through open windows, air-
Components of a Laboratory Exhaust

Ventilation System
Discharge nozzle
Filters Fan
Airflow sensor
Enclo-
sure
or
hood
be particles (other than micro-organisms), fumes, bricks, pass-through ventilation grills or other
gases or vapors. Poorly designed LEV systems openings in the external structure of the building.
are common in many laboratories. Sound design Natural ventilation is unreliable, as it is difficult
requires specialist engineering advice together to control and its effects on the laboratory
with a thorough understanding of the nature of environment are difficult to predict. Natural air
the chemical or microbiological hazards movements may spread contamination from the
(nosodes, poisons, heavy metals, etc), involved. laboratory into other areas of the building or
bring contamination into the laboratory (e.g.
The simplest form of LEV is the capture exhaust gases from generators).
hood used to contain and remove the
contaminated, hot or malodorous exhausts from MECHANICAL VENTILATION
equipment such as atomic absorption spectro- Mechanical ventilation systems can supply
photometers and those used in gas chromato- air of the required quantity and quality to provide
graphy, or from solvent handing areas or for the comfort of the occupants, dilute nuisance
dispensaries. contaminants and replace contaminated air
removed through LEV systems such as chemical containment in the event of a mains power
fume cupboards and biological safety cabinets. failure.
In conjunction with a controlled exhaust air Mechanical ventilation systems require
system, air pressure can be maintained to ensure expert maintenance.
a differential between the laboratory and its
The Role of Ventilation of Creating a

Negative Pressure Containment
Supply air a, b Extracted air C
Fan Fan
Fan
Hepa
O pa Small extract
- 175 pa
ventilated
- 25
adjoining areas providing a constant air flow into SPACE REQUIREMENTS

a containment laboratory (negative differential
Space should be provided for storage,
pressure) or a flow from a “clean room”
circulation routes, fixed items of equipment,
laboratory (positive differential pressure) where
furniture and ancillary activities. Offices,
a sterile environment with a very low background
libraries, social and catering facilities may also
particle count is required.
be required.
Air supplied to the laboratory should be at
The minimum space requirement for the
low incoming velocity to avoid draughts which
laboratory is determined by the:
would be uncomfortable to the occupants or
would disturb the work processes or the • Number and type of processes or activities.
containment of ventilated enclosures. Ideally, air • Number and size of items of equipment.
should enter the safety or low-risk zone and be • Number of occupants.
extracted from the high-risk zone so that there is Laboratory space standards should be
a net movement of air from the clean to derived from the ergonomic requirements of the
contaminated or “dirty” area of the laboratory. various processes. This includes the size of
In high-risk laboratories, ventilated equipment and furniture, and the critical
enclosures should be connected to the emergency dimensions appropriate to the task to be
electrical power system to provide continuous undertaken at each work station. These functional
space requirements must be supplemented by the Suitable wall coverings include washable
following: emulsion, water-based gloss, egg shell paint
• Special or high-risk procedures. finishes, or epoxy paint systems. Tiled walls may
• Storage units including refrigerators and be used in wet or moist areas where frequent or
freezers. rigorous washing is required provided that a
• Fixed equipment such as ventilated suitable non-porous resin-jointing cement is used
enclosures. to give a smooth surface.
• Furnishings, centrifuges and autoclaves. The ceiling finish should be comparable to
• Circulation areas for the occupants. that used for the walls. Ceiling should be solid;
• Movable equipment and trolleys. suspended ceiling harbour pests and make
• Laboratory services. decontamination difficult after accidents have
occurred.
Space allocations should be based on
systematic analysis of laboratory tasks and other
functions rather than on rank or seniority. SERVICES
Most laboratories require centrally or locally
INTERNAL SURFACES provided basic services including electricity,
running water, fuel gas and drainage. These may
Internal surfaces i.e. of floors, walls and be supplemented as necessary, according to
ceiling should be: national codes or regulations by piped
• Smooth, impervious, free from cracks, compressed gases, compressed air, vacuum or
cavities, recesses, projecting ledges and other steam. Emergency or safety services such as
features that could harbor dust or spillage. deluge showers and eye-wash stations, fire alarm
• Easy to clean and decontaminate effectively. systems and emergency power supplies may also
• Constructed from materials that are non- be included in the laboratory services design
combustible or have high fire-resistance and specifications.
low flame-spread characteristics. Service installations should be designed and
The floor should be level or variations constructed to facilitate safe access for case of
accommodated by ramps rather than steps. It repair and maintenance.
must have sufficient structural strength for the
load put on it, particularly by heavy equipment ELECTRICITY SUPPLIES
and storage cabinets; be resistant to forceable
The general principles of electrical safety
chemical spills and frequent washing by
and the main requirements are summarized here:
disinfectants and detergents. It should have a non-
slip surface and be easily repairable. Most of • Sufficient socket outlets should be provided
these requirements are met by the use of a sealed for all electrical equipment to be supplied
concrete floor painted with a epoxy-resin; individually, thus avoiding the use of long
wooden flooring and floor blocks made from lengths of flexible cables, extension reels,
stabilized soil can be covered by a bonded multiple adaptors or distribution boards.
continuous polyvinyl chloride sheet. Washing is • An emergency back-up supply for essential
made easier if the junction between the floor and safety equipment, refrigerated storage units
walls is covered. and incubators.
• The provision of a separate power circuit or supplementary tasks. Local lighting may be
“clean” electrical supply for computers and necessary for visually demanding tasks as in
computer-controlled electronic equipment to microbiology. Tasks involving accurate color
prevent mains interference. judgement will require high-color rendering
• Local switches or other means of electrical lamps.
isolation adjacent to all equipment should
be provided unless switched socket outlets WATER SUPPLY AND
are used. DRAINAGE
• The mains supply distribution panel,
preferably located within the laboratory The laboratory will require a reliable supply
safety zone should have all circuit fuses, of running water for washing and cleaning, and
breakers or isolators clearly labelled with as a coolant, solvent or process ingredient. At
provision for isolating incoming power to the least two sinks should be provided in each room,
system as a whole or to individual circuits. one for general laboratory use and the other
reserved for hand washing. The supply system
• Voltage stabilizers and surge devices to
should be fed directly from a water main or from
protect equipment in areas with fluctuating
a cistern of sufficient capacity to hold a day’s
or intermittent supply.
requirement so that laboratory activities are not
jeopardised by interruption in the public supply.
LIGHTING Materials used to construct the supply and
The level of illumination must be sufficient drainage systems should be resistant to and not
to ensure that laboratory activities can be react with chemicals, disinfectants or other
undertaken safely, general hazards in the materials which may come into contact with
laboratory can be seen easily and visual fatigue them. The supply should be protected against
and discomfort avoided. Inadequate lighting may contamination by back-flow or siphonage caused
cause workers to approach the process or by pressure differentials in directly connected
equipment too closely thereby exposing them clean and waste systems. The design and
more directly to hazards. Glare caused by construction of the system should avoid
excessive contrast between adjacent surfaces, by excessive multiplication of Legionella and other
reflection from bright surfaces or from potential pathogens, e.g. from rodents. Bacterial
unscreened lamps may cause distraction as well contamination of water systems can be prevented
as visual fatigue. Moving parts of machines may by:
appear stationary if the frequency of the motion • Maintaining hot water tanks and supplies
corresponds to that of the AC electrical supply above 50°C and cold water supplies below
or is a sub-multiple of it (i.e. a stroboscopic 20°C.
effect). Certain types of lamps commonly used • Keeping storage tanks covered and readily
in laboratories produce harmful ultraviolet accessible for cleaning with drainage points
radiation, e.g. germicidal, tungsten--halogen and at the lowest possible level.
high-pressure mercury discharge light sources. • Keeping pipework as short and direct as
The general level of illumination at the possible.
laboratory bench should be 300 to 500 lux, • Performing routine checks and maintenance
although higher levels may be required for including, chemical and thermal disinfection
and water treatment to inhibit corrosion, action type and the supply should be fitted with
scale formation and sedimentation. readily accessible isolating stop-cocks or valves
Emergency facilities such as hydraulic hose and with change-cover connections.
reels or water sprinkle fire extinguisher systems,
drench showers and eye-wash units should be PIPED COMPRESSED GASES
fed from a reliable source with sufficient volume Compressed gases, including air or others
capacity and head of pressure to deal with the which may be highly flammable, toxic or
emergency. corrosive, may be delivered to the laboratory by
The drainage system should be capable of fixed pipes from supply cylinders or bottles
conveying contaminated aqueous waste from the located outside the building. Such installations,
laboratory to the public drainage system in pipes although appearing to be inherently safer than
and fittings of adequate capacity to handle the keeping compressed gas cylinders in the
maximum foreseeable volume and be constructed laboratory, raise a number of design issues. The
of materials with the required heat and chemical issues are beyond the scope of this textbook.
resistance. Certain hazardous aqueous wastes
have to be treated, neutralized or disinfected EQUIPMENT AND FURNITURE
before they are discharged into the public
drainage system. Plastic materials such as high The designer’s and planner’s concern is with
density polythene, polypropylene and polyvinyl the suitability of equipment and furniture for its
chloride may be used, but they can soften and intended use, its location within the laboratory
sag if exposed for long periods to hot liquids or and provision of necessary services, e.g. supply
some organic solvents. Borosilicate glass has of electricity. The essential considerations are:
very good chemical and heat resistance, is easy • Choice of material for work surfaces depends
to decontaminate, and is transparent thus on whether it needs to be resistant to
enabling blockages to be seen readily; it is chemicals, disinfectants, detergents, high and
expensive, however, and difficult to install. low temperatures, abrasion and impact, as
Copper or lead pipework must not be used if the well as ease of cleaning or decontamination.
effluent contains azides because of the formation The surface should be sufficiently durable
and deposition of explosive metallic azides. to withstand heavy use.
Stainless steel pipework is susceptible to attack • Under-bench units or cabinets may be floor-
by hydrochloric and other acidic chloride standing, fitted with castors, suspended or
solutions. cantilevered from the bench frame. The
design should permit easy floor cleaning and
FUEL GAS decontamination beneath the units and
facilitate the interchange of units to give
Bunsen or other gas-fuelled burners are
flexibility for activity needs.
required for heat sterilization, to heat
experimental apparatus and even for space • The work surface and frames of benches and
heaters. Gas may be supplied from a main service tables should be sufficiently strong and stable
by fixed pipework and outlets or from a liquefied to carry the equipment load.
gas bottle or tank located outside the laboratory • Furniture should be ergonomically designed
building. Outlet valves should be of a positive with respect to the height and reach of the
average operator and whether they are seated Special storage requirements are needed for
or standing; the relative positioning of the following:
furniture and equipment should reflect • Compressed gas cylinders which are kept in
activities which are related or sequential to the laboratory should be restricted to those
one another. gases in actual use or connected to a system
• Shelves and over-bench cupboards should be or item of equipment awaiting use. Cylinders
low enough for their contents to be easily should be secured to a stable fixture or placed
reached. in a cylinder trolley. Ventilated gas cylinder
• The color and surface texture of furniture cabinets are available which protect the
and equipment should be chosen to reduce cylinder against physical damage and fire,
glare and reflection and to enhance and laboratory personnel against gas leaks.
environmental comfort and morale; where • Highly flammable liquids, other than reagent
possible neutral colors should be chosen. bottles of 500 cc capacity or less, should be
• Large equipment and furniture should be stored in fire-resistant cabinets with lipped
placed where they do not compromise the shelves; cabinets should not have ventilation
circulation and emergency routes, disturb air grills or other openings because they destroy
flow to ventilated enclosures, or cast the fire resistance and integrity and allow
shadows on work surfaces. solvent vapor to escape into the laboratory.
Such chemicals should not be stored in
domestic refrigerators or freezers because of
STORAGE FACILITIES the risk of fire or explosion initiated by
Space should be allocated within the sparks from thermostats.
laboratory for adequate and safe storage of • Volatile, hazardous or obnoxious chemicals
frequently used items; otherwise, stores will or those with high vapor pressures should
enrich into the work areas, passageways and be stored in a ventilated cabinet which has
corridors. Highly flammable liquids and gases, an exhaust to the outside; they should not
and other combustible materials such as paper be stored in fume cupboards.
and plastic goods, combine to create a significant • Toxic chemicals including scheduled or
risk to the laboratory in the event of fire. Storage listed poisons and drugs and “notorious”
of materials in passageways and corridors chemicals which are widely recognized as
impedes movement and may be the cause of poisonous by non-laboratory staff should be
“collision” accidents. For these reasons and to kept in a secure, locked store within the
prevent the accumulation of little-used materials, laboratory and be accessible only to
it is advisable that storage facilities are provided authorized users.
for restricted quantities of frequently used items
consistent with daily requirements. Quantities in STORAGE OF CHEMICALS
excess of these should be confined to a storeroom With few exceptions, chemicals kept in the
outside the laboratory or kept in a separate laboratory are hazardous (e.g. toxic, corrosive,
building. Laboratory storage facilities include flammable). Quantities should be restricted and
under-bench units, drawers and shelves for controlled to limit any loss or damage due to fire
chemical reagents and solvents, equipments, or spillage of substances hazardous to the
disposables and other consumables.
environment as well as the occupants of the of chemical residues, used solvents, infectious
buildings. or contaminated materials, etc.
Stored chemicals should be protected against
laboratory activities, extremes of temperature and EMERGENCY AND OTHER
the possibility that they might be knocked over SAFETY PROVISIONS
or broken. Bottles containing hazardous
chemicals should be kept in a secondary outer All laboratories should have contingency
container or on chemically-resistant trays or plans for dealing with accidents and natural
lipped shelves at low levels. Incompatible disasters like, fire, flood, storm, earthquake, etc.
chemicals are those which react together These plans should include the following:
violently or release highly toxic or flammable • List of emergency services viz., medical,
products. They should be kept apart in separate engineering, supply services, etc.
storage units or cabinets in separate areas of the
• Identification of high-hazard zones.
laboratory or, if in small quantities, in robust
double containers. Hazardous chemical storage • List of at-risk personnel.
cabinets should be located in the high-risk zone • List of hospitals, doctors and treatment
of the laboratory but not immediately adjacent facilities.
to high-risk activities or processes. • Sources of drugs and special equipment.
BIOLOGICAL AND CLINICAL SPECI- Notices should be displayed prominently
MENS AND MATERIALS giving the following information and telephone
numbers:
Temperature-controlled storage facilities,
including cold rooms, freezers or refrigerators, • The laboratory itself (emergency services
are necessary for the storage of biological and may not know where it is).
clinical materials to prevent deterioration and the • Fire service.
growth of unwanted organisms. Domestic • Ambulance service.
freezers and refrigerators are suitable for the • Medical and first-aid services.
storage of biological specimens but those used • Laboratory director and safety officer.
for particularly delicate organisms or important
• Police.
specimens should be connected to socket outlook
provided with an emergency back-up supply • Water, gas and electricity services.
which should in turn be fitted with power failure • Engineer.
alarms. Unless spark-proofed, domestic Appropriate facilities and services should
equipment should not be used to store specimens therefore be provided and they include:
preserved in low flashpoint solvents.
• Emergency or secondary electrical supplies
LABORATORY WASTE from a stand-by generator or batteries to
power essential safety and other equipment,
Storage facilities should be set aside for at least for a limited time period e.g.
laboratory waste prior to treatment and disposal emergency lighting, security alarm systems,
either within the laboratory or elsewhere. fire alarm and detection systems, ventilated
Suitable leak-proof or fire-reductant containers enclosures and temperature-regulated
should be provided to allow for the segregation
equipment in high-level containment clean aprons, gloves, masks, etc, which are either
laboratories. dispossible or freesingly laundered.
• Fire alarms, smoke detectors, sprinklers,
PROTECT THE EYE
extinguishers and fire blankets.
• First-aid equipment. Eye protection should be worn at all times
when working in the laboratory; special safety
• Spill kits for the containment, treatment and spectacles should be used by everyone as normal
removal of biological, chemical or prescription spectacles are not usually made with
radioactive materials. safety-glass lens.
• Emergency telephone or alarm to summon
assistance or the emergency services. WORK SAFETY
• A clearly labelled and accessible safety panel Do not play around in the laboratory and do
containing stop-clicks, valves or switches to not attempt unauthorised experiments.
isolate all mains or piped services to the
laboratory. NO EATING OR DRINKING
Do not eat or drink in the laboratory, or use
MODERNIZING EXISTING laboratory equipment for storing or holding food
PREMISES or drink, and do not touch your mouth or face
with laboratory chemical or glassware.
The principles outlined in this chapter apply
equally to the refurbishment of an existing AVOID SKIN CONTACT
laboratory. Most laboratories have a finite life Avoid getting chemicals on your skin, even
span and although minor modifications may be solids, and wash off any contamination with large
made at frequent intervals, the accommodation volumes of water. Immediately remove any
and services will need eventual replacement to clothing contaminated with corrosive substance
cope with new work processes, altered staffing, safely and protection are more common then
outdated or inadequate electrical and mechanical good appearance.
services and plants. Major refurbishment
programmes provide the opportunity to asses the WEAR PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
health and safety needs of new processes and
Wear appropriate protective clothing and
review continuing activities. Existing
shoes, and avoid loose hair that might catch
laboratories and their equipment, furniture and
moving equipment or dip into open solutions.
fittings may require extensive cleaning and
decontamination before stripping out and USE FUME HOODS
reconstruction can begin.
Only use toxic substances under fume hoods
where there is adequate extraction.
PERSONAL HYGIENE AND
PRECAUTIONS KNOW SAFETY PROCEDURES
Very high quality of personal hygiene should Familiarize yourself with the location of
be maintained. The laboratory workers must use safety equipment and safety procedures.
■
135
3-2
Homoeopathic Laboratory Premises
SURROUNDINGS 4. The room should be perfectly dry, clean and

free from any kind of dust, smoke or any
1. A homoeopathic pharmacy or laboratory or
strong fetid odor, as they destroy the
manufacturing unit should not be built near
medicines, especially the potentised
an open sewage, public lavatory or
medicines.
unsanitary surroundings.
5. The laboratory should be spacious enough
2. It should also not be near factories producing
providing separate departments.
smoke, dust and any kind of obnoxious
fumes or gas. i. Manufacturing:
a. Mother tinctures.
3. The general environment should be as far as
possible non-polluting. b. Potentisation.
c. Trituration.
ROOM ii. Bonded laboratory for manufacturing
alcohol:
1. An air-conditioned homoeopathic laboratory a. Raw material store.
is the ideal one, if not, there must be well
b. Factory or laboratory or furnace.
circulating air with sufficient exhaust
c. Finished products store.
arrangements.
d. Room for permissible products by
2. Room temperature has much influence in the government excise department.
preparation and preservation of
iii. Analytical laboratory.
homoeopathic drugs and medicines. Too
much heat or cold is injurious; too much cold iv. Cloak rooms for the staff.
may crystallise some mother tincture or they v. Finished products:
may become turbid. a. Raw spirits.
3. The room should have no strong direct b. Potentised goods.
sunlight, dampness or darkness. c. Mother tinctures.
vi. Packing departments. - Corks.

vii. Administration. - Chopping board.
6. There should also remain sufficient space for - Chopping knife.
inter-departmental free movement. - Balance.
7. The laboratory should be provided with - Spoon.
burning gas, electricity and sufficient - Funnel.
quantity of water for washing and cleaning - Water-bath.
purposes. - Measuring cylinder.
8. The attached separate analytical laboratory - Volumetric flask.
should be well equiped with various - Burettes.
scientific apparatus, instruments and - Pipettes.
appliance, for identifying and testing the - Graduated dropping pipette.
purity and quality control of homoeopathic - Graduated conical testing glasses.
drugs and medicines.
- Percolater, etc.
9. Walls of the rooms should be washable.
Analytical Laboratory:
- Analytical balance.
FURNITURE
- Rough balance.
1. They should be of seasoned wood, well- - Hot air over.
polished, kept clean, and be well-cared. - Water bath.
2. All the laboratory tables must be provided - Vacuum pump.
with marble or sun-mica tops. - Microscope.
3. The lab should be moderately furnished. - Thermometer.
4. Newly polished furniture is first dried and - Hydrometer.
then washed. - Various glass apparatus.
5. Drawers should be made so that medicine
can be kept away from each other. ARRANGEMENT
1. The working room as well as the store rooms
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT for raw materials and finished preparations
should be separate ones.
All homoeopathic manufacturing labora-
tories have an analytical laboratory attached to 2. Each raw material and each finished product
it. There they identify and test the purity of should be properly kept.
homoeopathic drugs. 3. Each finished product should be well-
Manufacturing Laboratory: stoppered and properly labelled.
- Mortar and pestle. 4. The raw materials and the finished products,
- Spatula. i.e., mother tinctures, potentised medicines
- Presses. and triturations, should be kept separately.
- Bottles. 5. Drugs having strong odor should always be
kept separatly, and away from other drugs.
Homoeopathic Laboratory Premises 137
6. Drugs should be stored in closed cupboards, 2. Dresses must be clean and sterilised.
away from direct sunlight. 3. The shoes must be washable.
4. They should wear a mask and head covers.
WORKERS 5. Workers must wash their hands and feet with
1. They must have a cloak room to change their disinfectant soaps.
clothings and shoes. 6. The workers should be free from all
contagious diseases.
■
3-3
Laboratory Methods
SOLUTION AND DILUTION properties in the solution though they may

not be absolutely identical to the properties
SOLUTION possessed when they existed separately.
Definition Constituents of a Solution

When two or more substances are mixed to Solvent: A substance, usually a liquid, that
form a single, homogenous phase, it forms a dissolves another substance or substances. The
solution. One of the substances is the solvent and most common solvent is water. Typical organic
the other or others (solutes) are said to be solvents are petroleum distillates (in glues),
dissolved in it. esters, ketones, etc.
The constituents of a solution may be solid, Solute: A substance that dissolves in another
liquid or gaseous. The solvent is normally the substance.
substance that is present in greatest quantity,
although when one of them is a liquid this is Concentration of Solution
considered to be the solvent even if it is not the The concentration of a solution depends
major substance. upon the quantity of solute contained in a definite
weight or in a definite volume of the solution.
Characteristics of a True Solution Solutions with high solute contents are called
• Constituents cannot be distinguished by their concentrated solutions and those with low solute
surfaces of separation. contents are called dilute solutions. Concentrated
• Constituents cannot be separated by filtration solution are of 3 types:
or such forces as gravity. • Unsaturated Solution: Solution that is
• Constituents can be again obtained in their capable of dissolving more solute than it
pure form by crystallisation, evaporation, etc. already contains at the same temperature.
• Constituents retain their characteristic • Saturated Solution: Solution obtained
when a solvent (liquid) can dissolve no more GENERAL LABORATORY

of a solute (usually a solid) at a particular METHODS FOR PURIFICA-TION
temperature. Normally, a slight fall in IN HOMOEOPATHIC PHARMACY
temperature causes some of the solute to
crystallize out of solution. 1. Sedimentation.
• Supersaturated Solution : The state of a 2. Decantation.
solution that has a higher concentration of 3. Filtration.
solute than would normally be obtained in a 4. Evaporation.
saturated solution.
5. Distillation.
Many solutes have a higher solubility at 6. Sublimation.
higher temperatures. If a hot saturated solution 7. Crystallisation.
is cooked slowly, sometimes the excess solute
8. Precipitation.
does not come out of solution. This is an unstable
situation and the introduction of a small solid SEDIMENTATION AND DECANTATION
particle will encourage the release of excess
solute. It is the process in which the heavier particles
in a suspension settle down when it is allowed
Tests for Degree of Concentration (or to stand for sometime. This technique of
Saturation) of Solution separation is used when the particles in
suspension are not fine and hence they settle
To access the degree of saturation of a given
down easily. This is the easiest way of separating
solution, an additional amount of solute should
an insoluble solid from a liquid.
be added to the solution.
i. If the solute dissolves either partially or The supernatant liquid can be easily decanted
wholly, the given solution was unsaturated. without disturbing the sediment. The process of
sedimentation followed by decantation is
ii. If the solute does not dissolve, the solution
employed to separate a mixture of a liquid
was saturated.
component and an insoluble solid component
iii. If the solute does not dissolve and more heavier than the liquid component.
solute is precipitated, then the solution was
supersaturated. FILTRATION
It is a technique where suspended solid
DILUTION
particles in a fluid are removed by passing the
Definition mixture through a porous barrier, usually paper
or cloth. The particles are retained by the paper
It is the process of reducing the concentration
or cloth in the form of residue and the fluid passes
of a solution by the addition of a solvent.
through to make up the filtrate. Soot may be
The extent of a dilution normally indicates filtered from air and suspended solids may be
the final volume of solution required. A five fold filtered from water, this way.
dilution would mean the addition of sufficient
Decantation is done prior to filtration. If one
solvent to make the final volume five times the
does filtration without decantation, the filter
original.
paper used for filtration will be choked or
Laboratory Methods 141
clogged with the solid/semi-solid matter and the the glass rod which is held against the spot
fluid constituent will not be able to pass through. of the beaker.
Process of Filtration 6. The sand gets left on the filter paper as

residue while the water passes through and
Apparatus Required: collects in the beaker below.
• Beakers.
Special Process of Filtration
• Glass rod.
• Glass funnel. I. Rapid Filtration:
• Filter paper. This is filtration done under reduced
• Ring clamped in stand. pressure. As filtration under the normal process
takes long, the rapid filtration process is adopted.
Procedure:
Apparatus Required:
1. Mix a spoonful of sand in 10 ml. of water
taken in a beaker. • Buchner funnel: It is a special funnel fitted
with a porous plate. It acts as the filtering
2. Fold a filter paper in the form of a cone and
medium.
fit it in a funnel after moistening it a little.
• Conical flask with a side tube.
• Filter paper.
• Water pump.
Procedure:
1. The funnel is fitted to the mouth of the
conical flask with the help of a rubber
stopper.
2. Connect the side tube to a water pump
through a pressure tube.
3. Cover the porous plate in the funnel with a
fulter paper cut exactly to its size.
4. Pour the mixture to be filtered into the
funnel.
Filtration 5. On running the water pump, filtration is
carried out.
3. This funnel (with the filter paper) is placed II. Hot Filtration:
on a ring clamped to a stand.
This is carried out when one of the
4. Place the other empty clean beaker under the
components of the mixture is soluble in hot water
funnel so that the stem of the funnel touches
and insoluble in the cold. Such a solution is made
the inner side of the beaker.
at high temperature and as the solution cools the
5. Now pour the solution from the other beaker substances precipitate out during ordinary
on the thicker side of the filter cone along filtration.
Rapid Filtration
Apparatus Required: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DECANTA-

TION AND FILTRATION
• Buchner funnel.
• Filter paper. Decantation Filtration
• Double walled copper cone, containing hot
water to keep the mixture hot during 1. Only the floating The floating solid
filtration. solid substances are substances are left on
sedimented. the filter as residue.
Procedure:
2. The solid substances It is not dependant on
1. The funnel with the filter paper is put in the sediment as their the weight of the
double walled copper cone containing hot weight is more than solid substances.
water. that of water.
3. Decantation of Filtration of minute
minute floating sub- floating substances is
stances is difficult carry and less time
and time consuming. consuming.
4. In a colloidal solu- Filtration through a
tion, floating subst- special membrane
ances cannot be separates floating
separated by decanta- substances from a
tion. colloidal solution.
Hot Filtration
EVAPORATION
2. Pour the solution to be filtered into the funnel It is the process in which a liquid turns to a
and filtration takes place. vapor without its temperature reaching boiling
point. A liquid left to stand in a saucer eventually
evaporates because, at any time, a proportion of
its molecules will be fast enough (have enough

kinetic energy) to escape through the attractive
intermolecular forces at the liquid surface, into
the atmosphere. The rate of evaporation rises
with increased temperature because as the mean
kinetic energy of the liquid molecules rises, so
will the number possessing enough energy to
escape.
DISTILLATION
It is the process of purification of liquid
Distillation
substances by first converting it (at its boiling
point) into its vapor state through the application
of heat or by reduction of pressure. This is known • Bunsen burner.
as vaporisation and then converting the solid • Tripod stand.
vapor into the original liquid state by cooling. • Wire gauze.
This process is known as condensation and the
liquid collected in the receiver is called distillate. Procedure:
This is a rapid process better than 1. Take the substance to be distilled in a round
evaporation (or vaporisation) as the liquid bottomed distilling flask which has a side-
(solvent) can be recovered. However, the main tube at the top. This side tube is connected
disadvantage is that some substances, which may through a board cork to one end of the
be dissolved in it, may get decomposed, if they Leipig’s condenser. The other end of the
are unstable at the boiling point of the liquid and condenser is inserted into another round
hence, the dissolved substance may not be bottom vessel, called the receiver, to collect
obtained back in its pure original form. the distillate.
2. Close the mouth of the distilling flask with
Process of Distillation a rubber cork. A thermometer is inserted into
Apparatus Required: the cork for noting the temperature of the
• Leibig’s condenser: A two-chambered vessel issuing vapor.
with a central tube jacketed by a water-tube. 3. The distilling flask is placed on a tripod stand
The water-tube has two side tubes near its over the wire gauze and kept in position with
ends. The lower side-tube is attached to a the help of a clamp stand. To avoid unusual
water tap through a rubber tube. On opening bumping of the boiling liquid, a few glass
the tap, water enters the jacket-tube, cooling beads or small pieces of porcelain ware are
the central tube. The water then comes out dropped in it.
through the second side tube which is at the 4. The liquid in the distilling flask is then
upper end. heated. Vapors are produced when the
• Flask: 2; round bottomed; one distilling flask boiling point of a particular liquid is reached.
and one receiving flask (to collect the The vapors come out of the side tube of the
distillate). flask and pass through the condenser, where
they cool down and condense to the liquid in the fractionating column), is maintained and
form and collect in the receiver. the liquid is collected in a receiver. As soon as
the next higher boiling liquid begins to distil,
Special Process of Distillation the temperature changes and the receiver is also
A. Fractional Distillation then changed, this way, pure liquids are collected
separately.
This process is used for the separation and
purification of organic liquids present in a B. Distillation Under Reduced Pressure
mixture. These liquids have different but (Vacuum Distillation)
somewhat close boiling points and may be Atmospheric pressure affects distillation of
separated from one another more or less a liquid, as its boiling point depends upon the
completely by this process. To achieve such prevailing atmospheric pressure. If the pressure
separations, a condenser with a fractionating over a liquid is lowered by some means, its
column are used instead of a single straight boiling point is also lowered. Liquids susceptible
condenser. The fractionating columns are so to decomposition at their normal boiling points
designed that the vapors of higher boiling liquid are distilled at reduced pressures when they boil
(less volatile) are preferentially condensed and at lower temperatures.
they return to the distilling flask, where as the
vapors of low-boiling liquid (more volatile) are This can be done by connecting the distilling
allowed to pass on and condense to liquid in the flask, through the condenser and receiver, to a
condenser. Thus this way, separation of liquids suction pump (either a water pump or an oil pump
is made possible. depending on the extent of vacuum to be created).
The remaining procedure is similar to simple or
As long as a particular liquid is being fractional distillations.
distilled, the temperature, recorded by the
thermometer (inserted in the distilling flask or Distillation is employed for the purification
of
i. Water.
ii. Alcohol.
More volatile
SUBLIMATION
It is the conversion of a solid to its vapor
Less volatile
state without passing through the liquid phase

on heating and vice versa, on cooling
(condensation).
Liquid
mixture
Solid Vapor
cooling
The result or product of sublimation is
More volatile
known as sublimate.
Some substances that do not sublime at
atmospheric pressure can be made to do so at
Fractional Distillation low pressures.
This process is used in the purification of Procedure:

iodine, camphor, naphthalene, sulphur, 1. Mix the mixture of sand and iodine (or
ammonium chloride, benzoic acid, etc. It helps camphor) with the help of a mortar and
separate these solids from other common, non- pestle.
volatile solids like charcoal, sand, etc. 2. Transfer the above mixture to an
evaporating basin which is placed on the
sand-bath over the tripod stand.
Funnel
3. Cover the mixture in the basin with an
inverted funnel. The outer surfaces and
Filter paper the stem of the funnel are wrapped with
filter paper soaked in water.
Sand-bath 4. Now, the basin with the mixture is slowly
warmed on a bunsen burner lit below the
sand-bath.
Bunsen burner
5. Iodine (or camphor) will sublime and
collect on the cool inner surfaces of the
funnel in the form of small violet crystals
Sublimate in case of iodine or white crystals in
Sublimation
camphor.
Process of Sublimation 6. After sublimation is supposed to be
complete, put off the burner and take the
Aim: basin out of the sand-bath. Allow it to
Separate the ingredients of a mixture of sand cool.
and iodine (or camphor) through sublimation. 7. The funnel is now taken out and the
iodine (or camphor) is collected on
Principle Behind the Separation:
scrapping the inner surfaces of the
Of the two ingredients of the mixture, iodine funnel.
(or camphor) can be sublimed only. Therefore,
it is possible to separate sand from iodine (or DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DISTILLA-
camphor) by the process of sublimation. TION AND SUBLIMATION
Apparatus Required: Distillation Sublimation

• An evaporating porcelain basin. 1. It is conversation of a It is conversion of a
• A funnel with a long stem and wide mouth. liquid substance into its solid to its vapor with-
vapor state on heat-ing out passing through
• A few pieces of filter paper. the liquid phase and
and vice versa.
• A mortar and pestle. vice versa.
Heat Heat
• A tripod stand.
Liquid Vapor
• Sand-bath. Solid Vapor
Cool
Cool
• Bunsen burner.
2. Liquids are generally Solids like iodine, Crystallization: It is the formation of

eligible for distillation. camphor, sulphur, etc. crystals from a liquid, gas or solution.
are generally eligible. • Examples: Each solid has got its own
crystalline form. Crystal of common salt
3. Any kind of liquid can Not all solids can be (Natrium mur., NaCl.) are cubic. Crystals of
be distilled. sublimed. alum (Alumn.) are double pyramid.
4. Boiling point of the Boiling point of the If a perfect crystal is broken, it breaks into
solution is constant. solution if not constant. smaller crystals, all of which are similar to the
bigger mother crystal. Solids which have no
CRYSTALS AND CRYSTALLISATION crystalline shape are known as amorphous solids,
Any substance with an orderly three- e.g. Carbon, Sulphur, etc.
dimensional arrangement of its atoms or Crystallisation is done by cooling a saturated
molecules, thereby creating an external surface solution of a solid in a liquid, when crystals with
of clearly defined smooth faces having definite geometric shapes come out gradually
characteristic angles between them is known as from the solution and collect at the bottom.
crystals. Example: Common salt, it is cubic.
This process is generally used in purification
Each geometrical figure or form, many of of sugar of milk in Stapf’s process.
which may be combined in one crystal, consists
of two or more faces, for example, dome, prism
and pyramid.
A mineral can often be identified by the Methods of Crystallisation

shape of its crystals and the system of
The following methods may be adopted to
crystallization determined. A single crystal can
bring solids to their crystalline form:
vary in size from a sub-microscopic particle to a
mass of some 30 m. or 1100 ft. in length. • By evaporating a saturated solution of a solid
in a liquid.
5. Decant the liquid portion in the beaker and

Sodium chloride
dry the crystals on a blotting paper.
To Increase the Size of Crystals

Apparatus Required:
• Beaker.
• Bunsen burner.
• Thread.
• CuSO4.
• Stand.
• Water.
Chloride Sodium
ion (Cl-) ion (Na+)
• By sublimation followed by condensation of

substances which have no liquid state.
• By solidification of a melted substance.
Process of Crystallisation
Apparatus Required:
• Beaker.
• Bunsen burner.
• Filter paper.
• Sugar.
• Water.
• Blotting paper. Procedure:
• Stirrer. • Make a solution of CuSO4 in a beaker.
Procedure: • Concentrate it by heating on a bunsen flame.
1. In a beaker, mix sugar and water with the • Tie a crystal of CuSO4 to a string and suspend
help of a stirrer. it in the CuSO4 concentrated solution with
2. Heat the mixture to boiling and stir till no the help of a stand.
solid particle is left behind. • As the solution becomes cold, CuSO4 from
3. Filter this mixture over the bunsen burner the solution is deposited around the
till the solution becomes concentrated by suspended CuSO4 crystal. As a result, the size
evaporating the watery portion of the of the crystal increases.
solution.
Water of Crystallisation
4. Keep this concentrated solution in a cold
place in a beaker. After a day, crystals are When a substance crustallises out of a
seen at the bottom of the beaker. saturated solution, it may do so in combination
with one or more molelcules of water. These

molecules of water are known as ‘water of
crystallisation’. It can also be explained as water CuSO4. 5H2O(s) CuSO4 (s)
+ 5H2O (g)
chemically bonded to a salt in its crystalline state. Blue White

The number of water molecules thus crystallised
depend upon the temperature at which PRECIPITATION
crystallisation takes place. It is the process in which two solutions with
For example, in copper (II) sulphate, there different substances dissolved in it are mixed, as
are five moles of water per mole of copper a result of which a new substance is formed,
sulphate, hence its formula is CuSO4. 5H2O. This which is solid and insoluble. As it is solid and
water is responsible for the color and shape of insoluble, it falls out of solution in a solid state
the crystalline form. When the crystals are heated which is called ‘precipitate.’
gently, the water is driven off as steam and a ■
white powder is formed.
149
3-4
Instruments
Various types of apparatus, instruments of • Boiling rods.

appliances, equipments and accessories, utensils, • Test tube.
etc. are reqired for the homoeopathic pharma-
• Thermometer.
ceutical purposes. Apart from the instruments for
• Funnel.
manufacturing purpose, other instruments and
utensils for proper storage; analytical laboratory, • Cork.
standardisation, quality inspection and control • Stoppers—glass.
are also necessary for a standard homoeopathic • Chopping board.
manufacturing concern. Some of them are • Chopping knife.
mentioned as follows:
• Press.
• Analytical balances.
• Sieve.
• Graduated flasks.
• Spatula.
• Burettes.
• Mortar and pestles.
• Pipettes.
• Glass retort.
• Graduated cylinders.
• Tripod stand.
• Burners.
• Wire gauze.
• Hot plates.
• Electric ovens. • Crucibles.
• Air baths. • Porcelain basin.
• Infrared lamps. • Microscopes.
• Heaters. • Percolator.
• Desicators. • Pyknometer.
• Dry boxes. • Hydrometer.
• Water bath. • Lactometer.
• Stirring rods. • Alcohol meter.
BALANCES
They are used for determining weights of different substances. Most quantitative chemical
processes depend at some stage, upon the measurement of mass; it is by far the commonest procedure
carried out by the analyst. Many chemical analyses are based upon the accurate determination of the
mass of a sample, and the mass of a solid substance produced from it (gravimetric analysis), or upon
ascertaining the volume of a carefully prepared standard solution (containing an accurately known
mass of solute) which is required to react with the sample (titrimetric analysis). For the accurate
measurement of mass in such operation, an analytical balance is employed; the operation is called
weighing, and invariably reference is made to the weight of the object or material which is weighed.
Different types of balances used in the laboratory are mentioned below. Sensitivity of the balances
vary. Sensitivity corresponds to the smallest mass that makes the pointer move over one division on
the scale, e.g., if the sensitivity of a balance is 1 mg., it means that a mass of atleast 1 mg. is needed
to move the pointer.
Only standard weights and measures must be used. They should be properly constructed, used
skillfully and protected from damage. Balances should be periodically checked to obtain accurate
results.
UNITS OF WEIGHT
Milligram Centigram Decigram Gram Kilogram

Abbreviation mg(10-3 g) cg(10-2 g) dg(10-1 g) g kg(10+3 g)
Correspond- 10 mg 100 mg 1000 mg 1000 g
ing value 1/1000 g 1/100 g 1/10 g 1/1000 kg
TYPES OF BALANCES
a. Physical Balance or Weighing Platform
Balance or Beam Balance: They are used
for weighing larger quantities, where finer
accuracy is not needed. They are of three
varieties:
i. Brass-pans Balance: For serving
prescriptions (i.e., compounding
purpose).
ii. Glass-pans Scale: For hydroscopics (for
substances which absorb moisture) and
caustics (for substances which corrode).
iii. Horn-pans Scale: For weighing milk
sugar and poisonous substances.
b. Chemical Balance: It is used for minute
quantities where fine degree of sensitivity is Chemical Balance
needed as in chemical analysis.
Instruments 151
to compensate for the weight of the object.

Weighing is completed by allowing the beam
to assume its rest position, and then reading
the displacement of the beam on an optical
scale which is calibrated to read weights
below 100 mg. Weighing is thus
accomplished by substitution. It is basically
used where putting in and putting out of
weights is not required.
d. Electronic Balance: The standard modern
instrument is the electronic balance, which
A Weight Box Used with Chemical Balance provides convenience in weighing coupled
with much greater freedom from mechanical
failure and greatly reduced sensitivity to
c. Single Pan Balance: An important vibration. It eliminates the operations of
development has been the replacement of the selecting and removing weights, smooth
two-pan balance with its three knife-edges release of balance beam and pan support,
by a two-knife single-pan balance. In this noting the reading of weight dials and of an
optical scale, returning the beam to rest, and
replacing weights which have been removed.
With an electronic balance, operation of a
single on-off control permits the operator to
Graticule
Dial-operated weights read the weight of an object on the balance
pan immediately from a digital display. Most
balances of this type can be coupled to a
printer which gives a sprinted record of the
weight.
Now let us discuss a few commonly used
balances:
Open Two-pan Balance

Single-pan Balance
This has two pans, supported by shafts. It
may be designed for separate weights, as
instrument, one balance pan and its
illustrated, or incorporate a graduated arm with
suspension is replaced by a counterpoise, and
sliding weights (“Harvard Trip Balance”). It is
dial-operated ring weights are suspended
used to weigh large amounts (upto several
from a carrier attached to the remaining pan
kilograms) when a high degree of accuracy is
support. In this system, all the weights are
not required e.g., 22.5 g., 38 g, 8.5 g, 380 g.
permanently in position on the carrier when
the beam is at rest, and when the object to Sensitivity: 0.5 g (500 mg.).
be weighed is placed upon the balance pan, If the pans are made of easily scratched or
weights must be removed from the carrier corroded material, protect them with rings cut
Two-pan Balance
out of strong plastic or old X-ray films of equal
weight.
Set of weights for use:
500 gms. 1 no. 10 gms. 1no.
200 gms. 2 nos. 1 gms. 1no. B
100 gms. 1 no. 2 gms. 2 nos.
20 gms. 2 nos. 1 gm. 1 no. Dispensing Balance
It must be kept in a closed cupboard after

use.
500
200 Analytical Balance or Chemical Balance
200
100 The Chemical balance is commonly known
1 2 2 as the Analytical balance. This balance has two
5 10 20 20 pans suspended from a cross-beam inside a glass
50
case.
Set of Weights for Use With

Open Two-Pan Balance.
Dispensary Balance
This balance also has two suspended pans
but it has no glass case and no rests.
Sensitivity: 5 -10 mg.
The dispensary balance is more accurate than
the open two-pan balance, but can weigh only
up to 50 gms. Analytical Balance
Instruments 153
Sensitivity: 0.5 mg.-0.1 mg., depending upon

the model.
Components of the Balance
The entire balance is placed in a glass case
to protect if from dust and fumes and to avoid
drastic of air while weighing.
S1 CB S2
AS1 AS2
KE1 KE3 KE2
Sets of Weights Use With Analytical Balance

P Pt P Single pieces: 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and
500 gms.
Single fractional pieces: 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200
and 500 mg.
B
Components of the balance the beam at the centre, which is called the
CB-Cross-beam. fulcrum. The sharp end of the knife-edge
KE-Knife edges (KE1, KE2, KE3). rests on a small plate of steel or agate to
S-Stirrups (S1, S2). minimise friction. At the ends of the beam,
Pt-Pointer. two similar agate knife-edges are attached.
P-Pans. Their sharp edges are pointed upwards. They
B-Beam release screw (or pan arrester control).
suspend the pans.
AS-Adjusting screws (AS1, AS2). • The Stirrups or Pan Supporters: These rest
on the terminal knife-edges. In good quality
1. The Balance balances, these are provided with agate
pieces attached at the lower surfaces of their
The essential parts of a common chemical
upper arms. Hooks are furnished at the lower
balance are :
end, from which the pans are suspend. The
• The Crossbeam or Balance Beam: It is the distance from the fulcrum to the centre of
structure from which the pans are suspended. gravity of the stirrups is called the arms of
It is a horizontal metal or alloy casting, the balance and they are equal in length.
generally a thin bar, capable of turning freely
• Pans: These are scale pans on which
about the fulcrum.
standard weights and substances to be
• Knife Edges: These are sharp steel pieces in weighed are placed.
the middle of the crossbeam. They support
• Pillar: It is attached to the base-plate of the of the instrument. By adjusting these, the pillar
instrument. It supports the beam when at rest. is made, vertical, so that the balance-beam
The pillar is a vertical rod encased within an becomes horizontal; the correct adjustment
outer cover. It can be raised or lowered by a is indicated by the exactly vertical position
key or knob present at the base, when of the plumb line attached to the instrument.
required. The pillar has an agate at the top,
2. The Rider
upon which the central knife-edge of the
beam rests. It is a small piece of wire made of gold,
• The Pointer: It is attached from its upper end platinum, stainless steel, etc. weighing 10 mgs.,
to the middle part of the beam; it’s lower made of platinum, gold, stainless steel, etc. It is
end is free so that it can move freely over a bent twice at about 90°, with a loop in the middle.
graduated scale attached at the bottom of the It is present in a chemical balance for taking
piller. When the beam is horizontal, the fractional weights less than 10 mgs. For this
pointer is vertical. At rest, its lower end purpose, the balance beam is divided by serrated
should point at the zero mark on the scale. marks (like a saw-blade) into 100 equal parts and
marked accordingly.
• The Arresting Arrangement: When the
balance is not being used, the pillar Use of a Rider While Weighing a Substance
supporting the beam is lowered so that the in a Chemical Balance: While weighing, if it is
beam rests on another support attached to found that weights less than 10 mgs. (which are
the outer casing of the pillar as horizontal not provided with in the weight box) are required
projections, and the under-surfaces of the for correct balancing, the rider is moved by the
pans just about touch the pan-rests on the rider carriage and placed by trial and error
base board. Hence, the knife-edge at the method on a suitable position on the beam. From
fulcrum of the beam does not always rest on the position of the rider on the scale engraved
the agate plate and thus its sharpness is on the beam, the extra weight is calculated and
preserved. added to the ‘weights’ placed on the pan. Each
smallest sub-division on the beam of the sartorius
• The Beam Release Screw: Arrests the pans
balance corresponds to 0.2 mgs. and, in the
so that the sudden addition of weights or
Bunge type, it is 0.1 mg. Sartorius type of
chemicals does not injure the delicate knife
balances are generally used in chemical
edges.
laboratories.
• The Adjusting Nuts or Screws: Present at
both the ends of the beam. It is generally used 3. The Weight Box
for the initial adjustment of the unloaded It is a wooden box having a hinged lid. It
balance to a reading of zero. By displacing has grooves to keep the standard weights. The
the position of the nuts, the effective weight standard weights are commonly made of brass,
on each side can be altered by a small range, plated with nickel or chromium (stainless steel
and thus the weighing accuracy of the weights are also available). A standard set
balance can be adjusted. generally comprises of the following weights:
• The Plumb Line-and the Levelling Screws:
The levelling screws are present at the base
Instruments 155
100 gms : 1 no. 500 mgs : 1 no. 7. Always use forceps to pick up the weights.
50 gms : 1 no. 200 mgs : 2 nos. 8. Check that the pans are balanced by
20 gms : 2 nos. 100 mgs : 1 no. unscrewing the beam release screw, after
10 gms. : 1 no. 50 mgs : 1 no. closing the glass case.
5 gms. : 1 no. 20 mgs : 2 nos. 9. Properly place the stirrups on the beam
2 gms. : 2 nos. 10 mgs : 1 no. before weighing.
1 gm. : 1 no. 10. If the pans are not clean, use a camel hair
brush to clean it.
Weights above 1 gm. or the heavier weights
are more or less cylindrical, solid metal blocks 11. Use adjusting screws AS1 and AS2 to obtain
with a knob at the top. The fractional weights a perfect balance when compensating for the
are generally rectangular or triangular metal weight of the receptacle in which the
plates. The value of each weight is inscribed or substance will be weighed.
embossed on it and they are arranged in the box - When the screw is turned away from the
in a regular way. The fractional weights are central support, the weight is increased.
generally covered by a glass plate. For handling - When it is turned towards the central
the weights, a pair of forceps is also provided in support, the weight is decreased.
the box.
12. The beam of the balance should be perfectly
Instructions for Use horizontal when freed. Adjust this by
screwing in or out the nuts present at the ends
The following points should be followed
of the beam of the balance.
before, during and after weighing in an analytical
balance: 13. Do not weigh hot substances on a chemical
1. The crossbeam must always be at rest (beam balances.
release screw tightened) before the weights Uses:
and the substance to be weighed are placed
• To weigh small quantities (up to 20 or 200
on the pans.
gms., depending on the model).
2. The crossbeam must always be put back at
• When great accuracy is required, e.g., 3.85
rest before weights and the substance
gms 0.220 gms., 6.740 gms.
weighed are removed from the pans.
3. Keep the balance on a strong, sturdy table WEIGHING PROCEDURE
so that it is not affected by vibrations.
a. Place the bottle containing the substance to
4. Place the balance in a room free from dust be weighed to the left side of the balance.
and fumes.
b. Place on the left-hand pan the receptacle
5. Check the plumb line, to see if the balance
(folded paper or dish) in which the substance
is properly levelled. The level should be
will be weighed.
corrected by adjusting the levelling screws
present at the base of the instrument. c. Place on the right-hand pan the weights
equivalent to the weight of the receptacle
6. Always place the substance to be weighed
plus the amount of the substance to be
on a piece of paper folded in 4, or in a watch
weighed.
glass or porcelain dish.
Thus place:
• The weighed substances on the right.
• The unweighed substances on the left.
• This avoids confusion.
d. To measure out the substance to be weighed:

• Hold the bottle tilted in your left hand 2 3
(label upwards),
• Tap the neck of the bottle gently with
your right hand so that the powder or 1
crystals to be weighed fall little by little.
• Use a clean spatula when weighing small
amounts of substances.
f. Read the label 3 times,
• Before taking the bottle off the shelf.
• While weighing the substance (label
facing upwards).
• After weighing, when you move the
bottle to the right of the balance.
INSTRUMENTS FOR
MEASURING
GRADUATED GLASSWARE
e. As soon as the substance has been weighed,
move the bottle to the right hand side of the The most commonly used pieces of
balance. apparatus in volumetric analysis are graduated
flasks, burettes and pipettes. Graduated cylinders
and weight pipettes are less widely employed.
Graduated Cylinder
These are the graduated glass vessels used
to measure the volume of liquid substances.
Measuring cylinders of different capacities
are available.
The reading should be taken at the graduation
mark corresponding to the lower part of the
Instruments 157
to contain. Some flasks are marked to deliver a

specified volume of liquid under certain definite
conditions, but these flasks
are not suitable for exact
work and are not widely used.
The mark extends
completely around the neck,
in order to avoid errors due
to parallax when making the
final adjustment; the lower
edge of the meniscus of the Graduated Flask
liquid should be tangential to
the graduation mark, and both
the front and the back of the mark should be seen
Graduated Cylinder as a single line. The neck is made narrow so that
a small change in volume will have a large effect
concave meniscus, formed by the surface of the
liquid. Remember to keep the measuring surface
at the eye level to avoid refractive error.
M
G
M - Meniscus
How to Take a Reading
G - Graduating mark Method of Filling a Volumetric Flask
During Preparation of a Solution
Graduated Flask upon the height of the meniscus; the error in

A graduated flask, also known as a volumetric adjustment of the meniscus is accordingly small.
flask, is a flat-bottomed pear-shaped vessel with Graduated flasks are available in the
a long narrow neck. A thin line etched around following capacities: 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200,
the neck indicates the volume that it holds at a 250, 500, 1000, 2000 and 5000 ml.They are
certain definite temperature, usually 20°C (both employed in making and storing standard
the capacity and temperature are clearly marked solutions to a given volume; they can also be
on the flask); the flask is then said to be graduated used for obtaining, with the aid of pipettes,
adequate portions of a solution of the substance with distilled water. The plug of the stopcock is
to be analysed. They are also used for preparation removed from the barrel, and after wiping the
of reagents. Before putting the flask in use, make plug and the inside of the barrel dry, the stopcock
sure it is cleansed properly. is lubricated.
Burette Using a small funnel, about 10 ml. of the
Burettes are long graduated

cylindrical tubes of uniform bore
terminating at the lower end in a
glass or polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) stopcock and a jet. The
PTFE taps have the great Apply
advantage that they do not require grease here
lubrication. The other, upper end
of the tube is open.
Graduation on a burette
begins a few centimeters below Grease here
the upper end. It proceeds
downwards to a few centimeters
above the stop cock. The upper Burette
most graduation is marked zero Lubrication of Stopcock
and the lower most graduation is solution to be used is introduced into the burette,
marked according to the capacity of the burette. and then after removing the funnel, the burette
If heated solutions have to be titrated, the is tilted and rotated so that the solution flows
body of the burette is kept away from the source over the entire internal surface of the burette.
of heat. Burettes fitted with two-way stopcocks The burette liquid is then discharged through the
are useful for attachment to reservoirs of stock stopcock. After repeating the rinsing process, the
solutions. burette is clamped vertically in the burette holder
Standard burettes of capacities 5 ml., 10 ml., and then filled with the solution to a little above
25 ml., 100 ml., etc. are available. the zero mark. The funnel is removed, and the
When in use, a burette must be firmly liquid is discharged through the stopcock until
supported on a stand. Various types of burette the lowest point of the liquid meniscus is just
holders are available for this purpose. The use below the zero mark; the jet is inspected to ensure
of an ordinary laboratory clamp is not that all air bubbles have been removed and that
recommended, the ideal type of holder permits it is completely full of liquid.
the burette to be read without removing it from To read the position of the meniscus, the eye
the stand. must be at the same level as the meniscus, in
order to avoid errors due to parallax. In the best
Using a Burette:
type of burette, the graduations are carried
The burette is thoroughly cleaned using one completely round the tube for each millilitre (ml.)
of the cleaning agents described in section and halfway round for the other graduation
‘Cleaning of Utensils’ and is then well rinsed marks; parallax is thus easily avoided. To assist
Instruments 159
work, readings are made to 0.01 - 0.02 ml. using

a lens to assist in estimating the subdivisions.
To deliver liquid from a burette into a conical
flask or other similar receptacle, place the fingers
of the left hand behind the burette and the thumb
in front, and hold the tap on the right-hand side
between the thumb, the fore and middle fingers.
Any drop adhering to the jet after the liquid has
been discharged is removed by bringing the side
of the receiving vessel in contact with the jet.
During the delivery of the liquid, the flask may
be gently rotated with the right hand to ensure
that the added liquid is mixed well with any
existing contents of the flask.
Correct Measurement of Volume of Microburette

Liquid or Solution in a Burette
A microburette is used in titration by the
express method for delivering an exact volume
in reading of the position of the meniscus, use a of a liquid.
piece of white paper or cardboard, whose lower
Procedure: Initially fill the microburette and
half is blackened by painting with dull black paint
the bent capillary tube with the titrant solution.
To do this, close the cock
and compress the rubber
bulb with your left hand,
close the opening for air in
CUT
the bulb with your forefinger,
open the cock with your right
hand, gradually release the
bulb and suck the titrant
solution into the
microburette up to about
(a) (b) (c) two-thirds of its volume.
Rectangular Paper Folded with Two Unfolded Form Close the cock, turn the
Incisions rubber tubing upward, and
press the rubber tubing of
or pasting a piece of dull black paper on it. Place
the valve to let the solution past the bead into the
this such that the sharp dividing line is 1-2 mm
capillary tube until the latter is filled. See that
below below the meniscus, the bottom of the
there is no air in the capillary.
meniscus appears to be darkened and is sharply
outlined against the while background and can If the solution flows into the capillary poorly,
be read accurately. For ordinary purposes, compress the rubber bulb while deforming the
readings, are made to 0.05 ml. In case of precision rubber tubing.
The following rules must be observed for the

convenient and rapid filling of a burette:
a. The rubber bulb should have a small opening
for the inlet and outlet of air.
b. Do not compress and release the bulb
sharply, otherwise the solution will get into
it, during titration the solution will enter the
burette, and accurate titration will be
impossible.
c. If the titrant solution does get into the bulb,
remove the burette from the vessel, and
compress and release the rubber bulb several
times until all the liquid is forced out of it.
d. To prevent air from getting into the bent
capillary tube, press the rubber tubing only
near the bead.
e. To prevent a reduction of the pressure in the
vessel with the titrant solution, periodically
remove the burette from the vessel.
Weight Burette
It is of service in work demanding the highest
possible accuracy in transferring various
quantities of liquids. The burette is weighed
before and after a transfer of liquid. They come
in various designs. The titre is obtained in terms
of weight loss of the burette and for this reason
the titrants are prepared on a weight/weight basis
Microburette rather than a weight/volume basis. The errors
associated with a volumetric burette, such as
1- Rubber bulb; 2-Graduated drainage, reading and change in temperature are
tube for 3 ml.; 3- Rubber tubing
avoided. Weight burettes are useful specially
with a glass bead inside;
4- Cock; 5- Vessel; 6- Capillary when dealing with non-aqueous solutions.
tube.
Pipette
Adjust the level up to the zero mark. To do Pipettes are glass tubes used for the transfer
this, return the pipette to its initial position, open of liquids. They are fabricated from soda lime or
the cock, and use the rubber bulb as above to pyrex glass. High grade pipettes are made of
suck the titrant solution into the burette. Close corex glass which has been subjected to ion
the cock after releasing the excess solution back exchange process that strengthens the glass and
into the feeding vessel, and the microburette is leads to greater surface hardness. Hence they are
ready for work. more resistant to scratching and chipping.
Instruments 161
Types a. Pipette with graduations extending to the tip.

It is of two types: b. Pipette with graduations not extending to the
tip.
1. Volumetric pipette.
a. Pipette With Graduations Extending to the
2. Graduated pipette.
Tip:
A pipette will not deliver constant volumes The capacity of the pipette is measured
of liquid if discharged too rapidly. The orifice between the ‘O’ mark and the last mark before
size must produce an outflow time of: the tip.
• 20 seconds for a 10 ml. pipette. b. Pipette With Graduations Not Extending to
• 30 seconds for 25 ml. pipette. the Tip:
• 35 seconds for a 50 ml. pipette, etc. The capability of the pipette is measured
1. Volumetric Pipette between the ‘O’ mark and the last mark before
the tip.
It is used to measure the exact volume with
a great degree of accuracy. It is a glass tube with Uses
a cylinderical bulb in the middle, One end (lower) 1. To transfer a measured volume of liquid
is drawn into a jet. It is of two types: accurately from one vessel to another.
a. Pipette with a single graduation mark.
Filling and Measurement by a Pipette
b. Pipette with two graduation marks.
Initially, the given solution was sucked by
a. Pipette With a Single Graduation Mark:
the mouth into the
A volumetric pipette with a circular mark pipette till it rises a
etched on the upper stem. The etching mark little above the mark.
indicates the capacity of the pipette at a particular Then the open upper
temperature which is etched on the bulb. Pipettes end of the pipette is
Pipette with Single Gradu-ation Mark
of variable capacities are available like: closed quickly by the Pipette with Two Graduation Marks
2 ml. 10 ml. 50 ml. etc. fore finger.
5 ml. 25 ml. However, now,
25 25
b. Pipette With Two Graduation Marks: according to the latest C.C.
C.C.
techniques (as 20°
It has a circular etching on the lower stem 20°
approved by the
also with the capacity and temperature etched
WHO), the filling of
on the bulb. This pipette is generally used by
pipettes should never
experienced people as beginners might easily
be carried out by
over-run the lower graduation mark while
mouth suction, and
discharging. The two graduation pipette is used
the pipette should
for more accuracy.
never be placed to the
2. Graduated Pipette lips, irrespective of
It is long graduate glass tube, drawn into a which liquid is being
jet at the lower end. It does not have any bulb. It measured.
is of two types.
and after closing the open end with a fore finger,

rotate the pipette horizontally and then discard
it.
Now fill the pipette 1-2 cms. above the
graduation mark. Remove the adhering liquid,
on the outside of the lower end by wiping with a
piece of filter paper. Then by carefully
manipulating the filler, allow the liquid to run
out slowly till the bottom of the menisius just
reaches the graduation mark. Avoid parallax,
keep the pipette absolutely verticle and the
graduation mark should be at eye level. Remove
any adhering drop/ drops by stroking the tip
against a glass surface.
Pipette with Gra- Pipette with Gradua-

duations Extending tions Not Extending to
to the Tip the Tip.
When using transfer pipettes, a suitable

pipette filler is first attached to the upper end of
the tube. These devices are obtainable in various
forms; the simplest version consists of a rubber
thumb. The valves control the entry and
expulsion of air from the bulb and thus the flow
of liquid into and out of the pipette.
Cleaning the Pipette
Before using the pipette, make sure it is
absolutely clean and grease-free. Before use,
wash it first with a solution of sodium carbonate
followed by a solution of dilute HCl. Now wash
it thoroughly with purified water and then
How to Hold the Pipette
absolute alcohol. Alcohol helps in two ways:
T - Tip of the pipette
i. Removes any greasiness. G - Graduation mark
ii. Helps the pipette to dry faster. The measured liquid is now allowed to run
After the pipette has been cleaned by the into a receiving vessel, while the tip of the pipette
above procedure, rinse it once or twice with a touches the inside wall of the vessel.
little liquid which is to be measured. Suck in a After the discharge has ceased, the jet is held
little fluid with the help of a suitable pipette filler in contact with the side of the vessel for a draining
Instruments 163
time of 15 seconds. After draining, the remaining

liquid in the jet of the pipette must not be
removed either by blowing or by other means.
If the liquid from the pipette is discharged
very rapidly, the orifice size may produce an
outflow time of about:
• 20 seconds for a 10 ml. pipette.
Micropipette
Also known as ‘syringe pipettes’. They are
used for dispensing toxic solutions and large
numbers of repeated volumes for multiple
analysis. They have a push button design where Using a Calibrated Dropping Pipette
the syringe is operated by pressing a button at
the top of the pipette. The plunger travels
HEATING APPARATUS
between two fixed stops and a reliable, constant
volume of liquid is delivered. The capacity of a BURNERS
micropipette is generally between 1 ml. - 10 ml. All chemical reactions require heat for which
Caliberated Dropping some special mechanical devices are required
Pipette which would allow gaseous fuels to burn without
causing any danger or disturbance. These devices
They help in delivering 20
are called burners.
drops per ml. of purified water.
Hence, Types
1 drop = 0.05 ml.
1. Bunsen Burner
Method of Caliberation of Most commonly used burner, generally made
Dropping Pipette of brass and iron. It is named after its German
• The dropping pipette should discoverer, Robert Bunsen (1855). It has three
be held absolutely vertical. parts:
• Measure 1 ml water in a i. Base: It is a cast iron base fitted with a
volumetric pipette and narrow nozzle or jet in the center and an inlet
transfer to a test tube. tube at one side. Both communi-cate with
• This water is now drawn Calibrated each other at the base. The jet has a screw
into the dropping pipette to Dropping
on which the barrel is fixed. The gaseous
Pipette
be caliberated. fuel (generally coal gas) enters the burner
• Count the number of drops through the inlet tube while the nozzle
delivered from an ml. of water. throws the gas in a fine jet upwards through
• Repeat the procedure atleast three times to the barrel.
check the accuracy.
ii. Barrel: Also known cannot make full use of the total heating capacity
as ‘burner tube.’ It is of the gas and there is always the danger of
a narrow cylindrical ‘striking back.’
pipe made of brass. 2. Meker Burner
It has an air-hole at
its lower cut. The drawbacks of a bunsen burner are
overcome in this one. It is designed with larger
iii. Ring: Also known holes which supply a higher proportion of air
as the ‘air regulator’ required for the complete combustion of the fuel
or ‘collar.’ It is an gas. It also has a wider barrel with a copper or
annular brass ring nickle grid, or a wire gauge placed at the top
made of brass, fitted which prevents ‘striking back’ of the flare. Thus,
over the barrel at the in this burner a temperature of 1100º to 1200ºC
junction of its lower can be easily attained without danger.
end and the base. Bunsen Burner
This ring has holes
corresponding to
those on the barrel. The ring is placed on the Nickel grid
barrel in such a manner that its holes align
with those of the barrel. As the ring rotates
around the barrel, the air holes can be made
Pion of
fully or partially open, or fully closed, nickel grid
thereby regulating the acess of air into the
burner. Air Air
Gas
Meker Burner Structure of Meker Burner
3. Ring Burner
For heating large vessels, uniformily in
1. Base ii. Barrel iii. Ring laboratories, a ring burner is used. It is made of
Parts of a Bunsen Burner a series of small bunsen burners arranged in a
circle with a cast iron setting.
Drawback:
Coal gas is generally used in a bunsen flame.
For the complete combustion of coal gas, 6
volumes of air to 1 volume of gas, in proportion
are required. However, in a bunsen flame, the
proportion is approximately 2.5 volumes of air
to 1 volume of gas. Hence, the bunsen burner Ring Burner
Instruments 165
4. Teclu Burner of the shape of its flame (it resembles the bats
It is a modification of the bunsen burner wings or tail of a fish). Instead of the air holes,
which produces a luminous flame. The barrel the top of the barrel has a special cap with a
here is shaped like a conical drum at the base. It narrow slit opening. This opening is responsible
also has a circular disc made of brass which for the shape of the flame.
moves up or down depending upon the varying Uses:
Generally used for bending glass tubes as
it’s flame is thin and wide, thus heating a large
area of the tube uniformly.
SPIRIT LAMP
A flask shaped
apparatus made of
either aluminium or
glass, used for heating
purposes. It’s lower
expanded portion
contains spirit. It
produces less heat in
Teclu Burner comparison to a burner.
amount of air required in the burner. A screw It is used in rural areas
arrangement helps in this movement. It can attain instead of a burner
higher temperatures than a bunsen burner. where there is no gas
Spirit Lamp
production.
5. Fish-tail Burner
Also known as ‘Bat’s wing burner’ because HOT AIR OVENS
This a small cupboard-like chamber made
of stainless steel or aluminium with two or more
perforated, movable racks inside. It has a hinged
door so that the oven can be opened and closed
as required. There is a hole at the top of the
chamber for inserting a thermometer to record
the tempeature of air inside. The hot air oven is
heated electrically or with a burner, which is
placed at the bottom.
The temperature in the chamber, generally
ranges from 50º C to 250º C. For higher
temperatures, a special oven has to be
constructed.
Fish-tail Burner
Uses solution rapidly before dilution to standard

1. To evaporate the moisture content of volumes. Low temperature heating can always
vegetable drug substances and other raw be carried out on steam baths.
materials.
ELECTRIC OVENS
2. To determine the solid contents of mother
tinctures. The most convenient oven is electrically
heated, thermostatically controlled drying oven
having a temperature range from room
temperature to about 250-300ºC; the temperature
can be controlled to within ± 1-2 ºC. Electric
ovens are mainly used for drying precipitates or
solids at comparatively low temperatures; they
have virtually superseded the steam oven.
MICROWAVE OVENS
Microwave ovens are now being used very
extensively for drying and heating. They are
particularly valuable when determining moisture
contents of materials, as water is removed very
rapidly on exposure to microwave radiation.
They also give greatly reduced drying times for
precipitates.
AIR BATHS
Hot Air Oven
An electric oven should not be used for
HOT PLATES drying solids and precipitates at temperatures up
to 250ºC in which acid or other corrosive vapors
Electrically heated hot plates are available in
are evolved. An air bath may be constructed from
a very wide range of shapes and sizes with
a cylindrical metal (copper, iron or nickel) vessel,
controls varying from simple ‘low, medium, high’
its bottom pierced with numerous holes. A silica
triangle, legs appropriately bent, is inserted inside
the bath for supporting an evaporating dish,
crucible, etc. The whole set-up is heated by a
bunsen flame, shielded from draughts. The
Hot Plates insulating layer of air prevents bumping by
reducing the rate at which heat reaches the
to very advanced thermostats and temperature
contents of the inner dish or crucible. An air bath
monitoring. They should satisfy all standard
of similar construction but with special heat-
safety requirements, with totally enclosed wiring
resistant glass sides may also be used; this gives
protected from possible chemical spillages. The
visibility inside the air bath.
best hot plates incorporate a magnetic stirrer;
they are valuable for getting substances into
Instruments 167
INFRARED LAMPS AND HEATERS color changes from blue to pink when the
Powerful infrared lamps with concentrating desiccant is exhausted. The spent material can
reflectors are available commercially and are be regenerated by heating in an electric oven at
useful for evaporating solutions and drying even 150-180 °C (silica gel); 200-300°C (activated
relatively large quantities of solid materials. If alumina); 230-250 °C (Drierite); it is therefore
the lamps are mounted above the liquid to be convenient to place these drying agents in a
heated, evaporation will occur rapidly, usually shallow dish situated at the bottom of the
without spattering. Specially designed infrared desiccator, allowing easy removal for baking as
units can be used with a number of dishes required.
simultaneously. Care must be taken when
handling the lamps; they can become extremely
hot and are fragile immediately after use and
before they have cooled down.
IMMERSION HEATERS
An immersion heater, consisting of a radiant
heater encased in a silica sheath, is useful for
the direct heating of most acids and other liquids
(except hydrofluoric acid and concentrated
caustic alkalis). Infrared radiation passes throgh
the silica sheath with little absorption, so a large
proportion of heat is transferred to the liquid by
radiation. The heater is almost unaffected by
violent thermal shock due to the low coefficient
of thermal expansion of the silica.
Desiccator (Ordinary)
DESICCATORS
The action of desiccants can be considered
A desiccator is a covered thick walled, hard from two viewpoints. The amount of moisture
glass container designed for the storage of objects that remains in the closed space of the desiccator
in a dry atmosphere. It is air tight with a perfectly is related to the vapor pressure of the inexhausted
fitted lid on its upper ground rim which is desiccant. i.e. the vapor pressure measures the
greased. It is contracted in the middle. A round, extent to which the desiccant can remove
perforated zinc plate, placed on a shelf just above moisture, and therefore measures its efficiency.
the constriction separates the 2 halves. Inside A second factor is the weight of water that can
the base is a drying agent, such as anhydrous be removed per unit weight of desiccant, i.e. the
calcium chloride, silica gel, activated alumina drying capacity. In general, substances that form
or anhydrous calcium sulphate (Drierite) which hydrates have higher vapor pressures but they
keeps the air inside the dessicator always dry. also have greater drying capacities. A substance
Silica gel, alumina and calcium sulphate can be cannot be dried by a desiccant which has a vapor
obtained which have been impregnated with a pressure greater than the vapor pressure of the
cobalt salt so that they are self-indicating; the substance itself.
Hygroscopic material such as ignited a few minutes before transferring to the

alumina should not be allowed to cool in a desiccator, and then a further cooling time of 20-
covered vessel over ‘anhydrous’ calcium 25 minutes is usually adequate. The inclusion in
chloride; anhydrous magnesium perchlorate or the desiccator of a metal maintains a dry
phosphorus pentoxide would be satisfactory. atmosphere, but to counter the unavoidable leak-
A normal (or Scheibler) desiccator is ages it is usual to supply a slow current of dry
provided with a porcelain plate having apertures air to the box; inlet and outlet taps are provided
to support crucibles, etc. The plate is supported to control this operation. If the box is flushed
on a constriction situated out before use with an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen),
roughly halfway up the and a slow stream of the gas is maintained while
wall of the desiccator. For the box is in use, materials which are sensitive
small desiccators, it is to oxygen can be safely handled.
possible to use a silica For fast drying, use a vacuum desiccator. A
triangle with the wire ends vacuum is produced through an adjustable
suitably bent. The ground edge of the desiccator opening at the top of the desiccator which is
should be lightly coated with white vaseline or a connected to a vacuum pump.
special grease in order to make it airtight.
Uses
The effectiveness of desiccators is
i. For completely removing moisture
sometimes questioned. If the lid is briefly
substances.
removed from a desiccator, it may take as long
as 2 hours to remove the ii. For keeping hygroscopic materials.
atmospheric moisture
thus introduced, and to WATER-BATH
re-establish the dry
It is a round or pan-shaped vessel generally
atmosphere; during this
made of copper. It has two handles on either side
period a hygroscopic
of the vessel, for easy handling. It is covered
substance may actually
with concentric reducible flat, ring-like lids
gain in weight while in
made of copper. Porcelain covers can also be
the desiccator. It is
therefore advisable that
any substance which is to
Vacuum Desiccator be weighed should be Water-bath
kept in a vessel with a lid
as tightly fitting as possible while it is in the
desiccator.
Cooling of hot vessels within a desiccator is
Bunsen
also an important problem. A crucible which has burner
been strongly ignited and immediately trans- Tripod
ferred to a desiccator may not have attained room stand
temperature even after 1hour. The situation can
be improved by allowing the crucible to cool for Water-bath
Instruments 169
used. The lids are arranged one above the other. boiling rod. This consists of a piece of glass tubing
All the lids are perforated except the one placed closed at one end and sealed approxi-mately 1
above. The vessel is partially filled with water cm. from the open end; the open end is immersed
and placed on a tripod stand. Heat it from below in the liquid. When the rod is removed, the liquid
with a bunsen burner, gas or spirit lamp. in the open end must be shaken out and the rod
rinsed with a jet of water from a wash bottle.
Uses This device should not be used in solutions which
i. Helps calculate the moisture content of drug contain a precipitate.
substances. Stirring may be conveniently effected with
ii. For heating substances indirectly at low the so-called magnetic stirrer. A rotating magnet
temperatures. induces a variable speed stirring action within
iii. For sublimation. closed or open vessels. The actual stirrer is a
small cylinder of iron sealed in pyrex glass,
STIRRING APPARATUS polythene or teflon, which is caused to rotate by
the rotating magnet.
STIRRING RODS
The usual glass paddle stirrer is also widely
Stirring rods are made from glass rods 3-5 used. It works in conjunction with an electric
mm. in diameter, cut to suitable lengths. Both motor controlled by a transformer or a solid-state
ends should be rounded by speed device. The stirrer may be connected
heating in the bunsen or directly to the motor shaft or to a spindle
blowpipe flame. The length activated by a gearbox which forms an integral
of the stirring rod should be part of the motor housing; it is possible to obtain
suitable for the size and a wide variation in stirrer speed.
shape of the vessel, e.g., a Under some circumstances, e.g. the
spouted beaker requires a stirring rod that dissolution of a sparingly soluble solids, it may
projects 3-5 cms. beyond the lip when in a resting be better to use a mechanical shaker. They range
position. Glass stirring rods should not be used from wrist action shakers which accommodate
for stirring viscous liquids as they can cause small or medium sized flasks, to powerful
serious hand injuries if they break. A short piece shakers which can take large bottles and give
of teflon or rubber tubing (or a rubber cap) fitted their contents a vigorous agitation.
tightly over one end of a stirring rod of
convenient size is used for detaching particles
of a precipitate adhering to the side of a vessel
COMMON APPARATUS
which cannot be removed by a stream of water
TEST TUBE
from a wash bottle; it should not, as a rule, be
employed for stirring, nor should it be allowed It is a thin glass tube
to remain in a solution. with one end closed. During
heating, the test tube is held
BOILING RODS with test tube holder. It is the
Boiling liquids and liquids in which a gas, most important utensil in a
such as hydrogen sulphide or sulphur dioxide, pharmacy or lab.
has to be removed by boiling can be prevented Test Tube
from superheating and ‘bumping’ by the use of a
BEAKER Three scales for measuring temperature are:

It is ordinarily made up of glass. It is of two Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin.
types: Celsius Scale
• Beaker without a spout. Temperature scale in which one division or
• Beaker with a spout. degree is taken as one hundredth part of the
interval between the freezing point (0°C) and the
boiling point (100°C) of water at standard
atmospheric pressure. The degree centigrade (ºC)
was officially renamed celsius in 1948 to avoid
confusion with the angular measure known as
the centigrade (one hundredth of a grade).
The celsius scale is named after the Swedish
astronomer Anders Celsius (1701- 44), who
formulated it in 1742, but interestingly, in reverse
(i) (ii) (freezing point was 100°; boiling point 0º).
Beaker: (i) Without Lip. Fahrenheit Scale
(ii) With Lip.
This temperature scale was invented in 1714
Beakers with a spout are preferred for by Gabriel Fahrenheit. Intervals are measured in
convenience. The advantage of this form is in degrees (°F); it is divided into 180°.
pouring; the spout also forms a convenient place Fahrenheit took as the zero point the lowest
at which a stirring rod may protrude from a temperature he could achieve anywhere in the
covered beaker and it forms an outlet for steam laboratory and as the other fixed point, body
or escaping gas when the beaker is covered with temperature, which he set at 96°F. On this scale,
an ordinary clockglass. The beaker must be water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F. It is
selected with due regard to the volume of liquid no longer in scientific use.
it is to contain. Beakers of different sizes are
available. Conversion of Scales:
• ºC to ºF: Multiply by 1.8 and add 32.
THERMOMETER • ºF to ºC: Substract 32 and divide by 1.8.
Thermometers are instruments used for
Kelvin Scale
measuring temperature. Mercury thermometers
are widely used, as mercury boils at a high It is the temperature scale used by scientists.
temperature, has a regular expansion and its level It begins at absolute zero (-273.16°C) and
can be seen easily. Alcohol thermometers are also increases by the same degree intervals as the
used due to its low freezing point. celsius scale; that is, 0°C is the same as 273 K
and 100°C is 373 K.
The commonly used mercury thermometer
is a sealed capillary tube of glass from which air Various other thermometers are used for
has been evacuated. The lower part of the tube different purposes. Discussion of the same is
is in the form of a bulb, which contains mercury. beyond the preview of this book.
It is used for analytical purposes in laboratories.
Instruments 171
Reaumer Scale
Introduced by French physicist, R.A.F. De
Reaumer (1683 – 1757) with freezing point of
water zero and boiling point 80°R.
PERCOLATOR
It is an instrumental device for percolation.
It is associated with sieves and a regulating cork
stopper. For percolation apart from the
instruments mentioned, a glass-rod with cork is
also necessary.
This method is adopted for extraction of
dried drugs, vegetable substances and other
organic (animal) substances. The substance
should be reduced to powder form according to
one of the grades of fineness as specified in the
formula of the respective drug monograph.
Take a clean sterilised percolator and evenly
Percolators Suspended From a Rack.
lay the bottom with layers of powdered glass or
Glass stopper cork
Percolator proper
Filter paper Notched
Drug substance (dry)
Coarse sand layer cork.
Fine sand layer
Medium coarse sand layer
Cotton layer
Head of the percolator
Neck of the percolator
Glass-made stop cork Packet for
Scored percolators
paper
Stand
A B
Percolator (A) Improperly and
(B) Properly Packed
Receiver sand, pressing it down gently with a flat cork

fixed at the end of a glass-rod. Over this,
moistened pulp of a dried substance (moistened
with a little menstrum) is put. Now press it
evenly and firmly, especially if the mass is
coarse and the menstrum is strongly alcoholic. FUNNEL

Take care that the mass is compact but not too It is an inverted
tight and at the same time free from fissures or hollow cone with
empty spaces. Cover the upper surface of the narrow stem, used for
mass with the disc of a filter paper or a thin layer filling vessels with
of finely powdered glass or sand. narrow outlets. A
Take sufficient quantity of the solvent so that funnel should enclose
it covers the drug substances completely; take at an angle of 60º. For
care that while pouring the solvent, the filling burettes and
arrangement of the drug substance and the transferring solids to
powdered glass and sand is not disturbed. graduated flasks, a
Close the percolator with the lid to prevent short-stem, wide-
necked funnel is Funnel
dust contamination.
useful. It is used in trituration, sublimation and
Allow it to stand for 24 hours or longer
transfer of liquids. It is made of glass, high
according to the nature of the drug. Allow the
polythene or porcelain.
fluid to percolate in the receiver, drop by drop,
regulating the flow with the help of the stop cork. GLASS BOTTLES
Keep a constant watch over the level of the Glass bottles made of
menstrum. It should always be above the mass resistance glass should be
of drug substance. used in laboratories. Boro-
Add a fresh quantity from time to time silicate glass is preferred for
without disturbing the arrangement within the most purposes. For special
percolator. purposes, corning vycor
glass (96% silica) is used.
Continue this until the requisite quantity of
It has great resistance to
the menstrum has passed through the percolator
heat and is unusually stable
and the last drop from it has been received in the
to acids, except fluoric acid.
receiver.
Gutta-purcha bottles are
Once the last drop is received, add a used to store fluoric acid.
sufficient quantity of menstrum to cover the mass Neutral flint glass bottles
in the percolator and close the lid to prevent are used in succussion, as it Glass Bottle
further percolation. does not contain free alkali.
This arrangement is allowed to stand for six For substances easily decomposed by sunlight,
hours. colored glass bottles have coloring agents, like
cadmium sulphide and uranium oxide. Amber
Open the stop cork and allow the entire fluid
colored bottles have carbon with sulphur or iron
to percolate in the receiver. Remove the mass,
sulphide as coloring agent. Sometimes white
press it strongly to extract the remaining tincture
phials painted with asphalt or black varnish are
from it. Add sufficient menstrum to make the
also used. According to Dr. Burt, blue colored
required volume.
bottles (agent, cobalt oxide and cuprous oxide)
are best avoided as they are injurious to drugs.
Instruments 173
WASH BOTTLES Uses

These are flat-bottomed flasks containing a 1. For washing purposes.
liquid, used for washing apparatus, precipitates, 2. For transferring precipitates adhering to the
etc. by blowing the liquid, generally through a vessel to a filter.
jet with which is fitted to it.
CORK
It is a stopper, made by using the outer bark
of the cork tree.
It should be of the best velvet quality, being
smooth, well-polished, without any holes or
discoloration. Once the corks shrink or become
soft, they should be replaced by new ones at once.
A cork that has even once been in contact with
any medicine should never be used. For every
new bottle, a new cork should be used. However,
nowadays corks have been replaced by glass
stoppers.
GLASS STOPPER
Wash Bottle • Initially these were used for substances
which corrode the cork like, acids, chlorine,
These are a flat-bottomed flasks with a bromine and iodine preparations, chloro-
capacity of 500 ml. or 1 litre. It is fitted with an form, kreosote, etc. when in their 1X or 2X
air-tight cork with two holes, through which two potencies. However, nowadays they have
glass tubes pass. One is long and bent at an acute come to replace cork stoppers as they are
angle near one of its ends, while the other is short easier to clean and maintain.
and bent at an obtuse angle at its middle. Both • Stoppers are made of potash or Bohemian
the angles of the tubes are so made that they form glass (71 % SiO2; 18% K2; 11% CaO). They
180° together. The cork with the tubes inserted should be used cautiously in order to prevent
through it, is carefully fitted in the flask with the introduction of glass particles into the
air-tight joints. The longer arm of the tube with drugs from friction produced when the glass
an acute angle almost touches the bottom of the stoppers are opened or closed.
flask while the other arm remains outside and
• Jenna glass (65% SiO2; 8% Na2; 5% Al2O3;
is connected to a jet (made of glass tube) through
12% ZnO ; 10% B2O3) and pyrex glass (81%
a piece of rubber tubing. On the other hand, one
SiO2; 5% Na2O; 2% Al2O3 ; 12% B2O3) are
arm of the obtuse angled tube is inserted just a
also used.
little beyond the cork inside the flask, while the
other arm remains free to serve as a mouth piece All homoeopathic mother tinctures and
for blowing. Till about three-fourths of the flask solutions (except a few) should be stored in glass
with purified water. stoppered bottles. However, for certain acids,
e.g., fluoric acid, glass-stoppered bottles are not
appropriate as the acid eats away the glass,
however strong it may be. For such a purpose, cleaned thoroughly.

gutta-purcha bottles or other kinds of containers
Procedure
are useful.
The material (plant, seeds, magma, etc.) to
CHOPPING BOARD be pressed, are enclosed in a new clean linen
It is a wooden slab on which the required bag which is free from starch or bleaching
substance is cut into pieces by striking repeatedly materials and then subjected to the action of
with a sharp instrument. Circular and oval boards screw press. The juice thus expressed runs into
are also available. They have a depressed centre. a suitable vessel kept below. The same bag should
Marble and porcelain slabs too are used as they never be used for two different drugs. Infact,
can be cleaned easily. The wooden board used discard the bag after each single use. The
for this purpose should be free from holes and container of the press is double chambered, and
knots. the inside of the inner chamber has several holes
to let out the juice.
The chopping board should be cleaned
thoroughly after use and dried well before its next Uses
use. i. It is used for expressing juices from the
Uses medicinal plants, herbs, leaves, seeds and
other medicinal substances.
• Used as a base for cutting fresh medicinal
plants, herbs, roots, barks and flowers and ii. They also act as ‘filters’ after the processes
other substances into small pieces. of maceration and percolation while
preparing mother tinctures (Q). After the
CHOPPING KNIFE process of filteration, in the preparation of
Also known as chopper. It is the sharp mother tinctures, the sediments or magma
instrument used to cut vegetables and animal may retain a little tincture. This can be
substances into small pieces. It should be made pressed out with the help of a press.
of very good quality stainless steel. They should Precautions
be kept well polished and free from rust (rust
• The press should be cleaned properly before
decomposes many vegetable juices at once).
and after every use. Separate the different
Hence choppers made from iron should not be
parts of the press before cleaning.
used as they may rust. One side of the blade is
very sharp for chopping the soft substances easily • Linen cloths should be reserved for one and
and cleanly. the same drug only; different drug materials
should be prepared in separate linen cloths.
For chopping soft substances with a knife,
place them over the concave surface of the Wooden Press
chopping board.
The press has two wooden parts, with one
PRESS
handle on each part. The two parts with one
Press is an instrument or machine for handle, on each part. These two parts are
squeezing, compressing, etc., made of iron or connectd to each other with the help of two
wood. They are constructed in such a way that wings. One wooden part has a deep concave cone
its components can be easily separated and then at its centre, while the other part has an elevated
Instruments 175
rounded convex part, such that each fits into the SPOON
other when pressed. Generally those made of ivory, horn, bone,
porcelain or stainless steel are used.
SIEVE
Sieves are vessels having a meshed or Uses
perforated bottom, used for separating fine i. To transfer liquid or semi-liquid substances
powders from coarser substances. Those used from one container to another.
now-a-days are made of silk, hair or stainless ii. For handling sugar of milk and some
steel wire. However, the A.H.P. advises the use miscellaneous purposes.
of hair or silk sieves only.
SPATULA
Types
Spatula is a broad blade implement used to
Type Uses spread contents, turning contents in a crucible,
1. Silk sieve For preparation of making etc. Its handle is heavier than the blade, so that
triturations: when it is kept on a horizontal surface, the blade
i. For very fine powders (# 80) seldom touches the surface.
use a 80 meshes sieve in a sq.
inch. (all the potencies pass Types
through a No. 80 sieve). It depends on the substance with which the
ii. For fine powders (# 60) use a spatula is made.
60 meshes sieve in a sq. inch.
i. Stainless steel instead of
(all the particles pass through
a No. 60 sieve and not more iron spatula.
than 40% through a No. 100 ii. Solid hard rubber spatula.
sieve). iii. Horn spatula.
Note: Never use the sieves for Blade
sugar of milk, to sift other sub- iv. Bone spatula.
stances. v. Porcelain spatula.
2. Hair or For preparing tinctures: vi. Ivory spatula.
stainless i. For moderately coarse pow-
steel wire ders (# 40) use a 40 meshes Commonly used spatulas
sieve sieve in a sq. inch. (all the par- are, stainless steel spatula, Handle
ticles pass through a No. 40 solid hard rubber spatula and
sieve and not more than 40% horn spatula.
Spatula
through a No. 80 sieve).
ii. For coarse powder (#20) use
a 20 meshes sieve in a sq. Type Uses
inch. (all the particles pass i. Stainless steel i. It is used during the pro-
through a No. 20 sieve and spatula cess of trituration, to
not more than 40% through a (Modern loosen the powdered
No. 60 sieve). powder material which becomes
Note: When acidic substances have spatula) packed on the inner sides
to be sifted, horse-hair sieves of the mortar. When pres-
should be used.
sure is exerted by the It is used for triturating soft substances like

pestle, some of the con- fresh vegetables, charcoal.
tents get packed on the Glass Mortar and Pestle
inner side of the mortar.
They are made of glass. These are used for
So to loosen this com-
pacted mass from the mercurial preparations.
mortar, a spatula is used Once used for mercurial preparations, they
or else the process of must be washed with a solvent like nitric acid
trituration will be ham- and after that with distilled water repeatedly.
pered.
Iron or Steel Mortar and Pestle
ii. Used in weighing the
This rusts easily. They are usually used for
powder.
pulverising hard substances, like seeds of Nux
iii.Also used in the prepara- vomica, Sabal serrulata, etc. In large scale
tion of ointments to turn manufacturing concerns, for pulverising very
and spread the contents to hard substances, highly polished iron mortar and
ensure thorough mixing. pestles are used.
ii. Solid hard Used when corrosive sub
rubber spa- stances capable of react
tula or horn ing with steel
spatula are handled.
MORTAR AND PESTLE

Mortar is a thick bowl of porcelain, glass,
iron, etc., in which substances are pounded with
a pestle. The handle of the pestle is made of
wood. It’s body is made of the same material as Mortar and Pestle
that of mortar. A cementing substance is also used
to fix the wooden handle to the head of the pestle. Any pharma-cist should posses at least 3
This cementing substance should be of a very mortars and pestles.
good quality or the two may be separate. a. A porcelain one for triturating strong
smelling drugs.
Types
b. A glass one for mercurial preparations.
Porcelain Mortar and Pestle
c. A third one for the remaining drugs.
These are generally employed. A pestle
totally made of porceline is not practical as it Precautions
breaks easily. Compared to glass, it is usually • While using the mortar and pestle, there
considered to be more resistant to subst-ances, should be maximum contact between the
particularly alkaline substances, although this surfaces of the head of the pestle and the
will depend primarily upon the quality of the interior surface of the mortar.
glaze. Certain chemicals like sodium carbonate,
• Do not interchange the mortar and pestle of
hydrofluoric acid, etc. are known to corrode
different sets.
porcelain.
Instruments 177
• If there is only one mortar and pestle for all amounts at a high temperature. A crucible made
medicines, wash it immediately after every of silica is used for drying substances at very
use. high temperatures.
GLASS RETORT PORCELAIN BASIN

It is a flask-like, This basin is made of
round bottomed appa- porcelain. It is used for
ratus. It’s one side is evaporating liquids at
bent resembling a high temperature.
tube. It is generally Retort with Stopper
used as a distilling flask. Hahnemann mentions GRADUATED
its use for the preparation of Causticum. CONICAL TESTING GLASSES
These are not very
TRIPOD STAND AND WIRE GAUZE accurate. Avoid using
No laboratory is complete without a tripod them for laboratory tests.
stand and a wire gauge. They are used for the
purpose of heating any substance. The wire gauze
is kept on a three-legged stand, the Tripod stand.
The substance to be heated is placed over the
wire gauze, and the substance is heated from
below by a bunsen burner. The bunsen flame will
be spread equally if the substance is kept over
Conical Glass
ACCURACY OF INSTRUMENTS
Accurate Less Accurate Inaccurate
Pipettes Measuring Conical test-
cylinders ing glasses
Tripod Stand Wire Gauze
Volumetric Calibrated
flasks dropping
the wire gauze. If the wire gauze is coated with pipettes
asbestos, the temperature can be controlled and
the surface of the vessel
will not have a blackish
SOME PRECAUTIONS
discoloration.
1. Never measure the volume of hot liquids
CRUCIBLE (they will have expanded).
A crucible is made of 2. Never heat graduted glassware over a flame.
porcelain. It is generally 3. Never leave graduated glassware to soak in
used for drying hard an alkaline solution like, sodium hydroxide,
Crucible
substances in small potassium, ammonia.
a beam of electrons (instead of a beam of

MICROSCOPE light) and electromagnets (instead of glass
A microscope is an essential part of the lenses) for focusing are called electron
homoeopathic laboratory as it helps in the microscopes. These microscopes provide a
identification and physical examination of higher degree of magnification and are used
various drugs. for observing extremely small micro-
organisms such as viruses.
Microscopes used in clinical practice are of
two types:
LIGHT MICROSCOPE
Types
Bright-field Microscopy
This is the commonly used type of
microscope. In brightfield microscopy the field
of view is brightly lit so that organisms and other
structures are visible against it because of their
different densities. It is mainly used with stained
preparations. Differential staining may be used
depending on the properties of different
structures and organisms.
Dark-field Microscopy
In dark-field microscopy, the field of view
is dark and the organisms are illuminated. A
special condenser is used which causes light to
reflect from the specimen at an angle. It is used
for observing bacteria such as treponemas (which
cause syphilis) and leptospiras (which cause
Microscope leptospirosis).
1. Light Microscope: They are called light Phase-contrast Microscopy
microscopes because they use a beam of light
Phase-contrast microscopy allows the
(artificial or sunlight) to view the specimens.
examination of live, unstained organisms. For
A compound light microscope is the most phase-contrast microscopy, special condensers
common microscope used in the laboratory. and objectives are used. These alter the phase
It consists of two lens systems (i.e. a relationships of the light passing through the
combination of lenses) to magnify the image. object and that passing around it.
Each lens has a different magnifying power.
A compound light microscope with a single Fluorescence Microscopy
eye-piece is called monocular; one with two In fluorescence microscopy, specimens are
eye-pieces is said to be binocular. stained with fluorchromes/fluorochrome
2. Electron Microscope: Microscopes that use complexes. Light of high energy or short
Instruments 179
wavelengths (from halogen lamps or mercury

vapor lamps) is then used to excite molecules
with the specimen or the molecules attached to
it. These excited molecules emit light of different
1
wavelengths, often of brilliant colors. Auramine
differential staining for acid-fast bacilli is one
application of the technique; (rapid diagnostic 2
kits have been developed using fluorescent
antibodies for identifying many pathogens).
Components of the Microscope

The various components of the microscope 4
can be classified into 4 systems: 3 5
A. The support system.
B. The magnification system.
C. The illumination system.
Components of the Microscope
D. The adjustment system.
1. The foot 4. Stage
A. The Support System 2. The Limb 5. Mechanical Stage
This consists of: 3. Revolving Nose Piece
1. The Foot: It is a strong, elliptical horse-shoe

shaped metallic base. ‘click home’ when placed properly). The
upper end of the body tube carries the
2. The Limb: It carries, the main part of the eyepiece through which the examiner views
microscope. Towards it’s lower end, it the image.
supports the ‘stage’ and its attachments, and
its upper end is attached to the body and body 4. The Stage.
tube. The body contains the focussing 5. The Mechanical Stage: It gives a slow
mechanism which has two components: controlled movement to the object slide. It
i. A Pair of Large Milled Heads: They holds the slide and allows it to move left,
work on the principle of ‘rack and right, forward and backward by rotating the
pinion’. They operate the coarse knobs. It also has fine vernier graduations
focussing by moving the body tube up like a ruler. This helps in relocating a specific
or down. field of examination.
ii. A Pair of Small Milled Heads: They help B. The Magnification System
in fine focussing and are hence also This consists of a system of lenses.
called fine adjusting or focussing knobs.
The lenses of the microscope are mounted
3. The Revolving Nose-piece (Objective in 2 groups one at each end of the body tube.
Changer): It is at the base of the body tube,
placed perpendicular to it. It carries a set of i. The first group of lenses is at the bottom of
2-3 objective lenses, that rotate (and which the tube, just above the preparation under
X40 X100
Eyepiece
X10
Tube
Lenses
from lower to higher. This helps, prevent the

Objective immersion oil from getting into the intermediate
objectives.
Do not interchange the objective of two
microscopes if the specified mechanical tube
length is different.
a. Magnification:
The Magnification System
The magnifying power of each objective is
examination (the object), and is called the shown by a figure engraved on the sleeve of the
objective. lens:
ii. The second group of lenses is at the top of • The x10 objective magnifies 10 times.
the tube, where the examiner applies his eye, • The x40 objective magnifies 40 times.
and is called the eyepiece. • The x100 objective magnifies a 100
Note: times.
• Mechanical Tube Length: It is the distance (The x100 objective is usually marked with a
between where the objective is inserted and the
red ring to show that it must be used with
top of the body tube where the eyepiece fits. In
immersion oil.)
modern microscopes it is not tubular, but contains
prisms that bend the light coming up, providing b. The Numerical Aperture (NA):
a comfortable viewing angle. In a binocular to
It is the measure of the light gathering power
be, the light is split and sent to both the eyepieces.
of a lens.
• Microscopic Tube: It is attached on top of the arm.
It is either monocular or binocular in type. It
The NA is also engraved on the sleeve, next
supports the eyepiece on the upper end. to the magnification, e.g :
• 0.30 on the x10 objective.
1. The Objectives
It is the group of lenses present at the bottom
of the body tube. They are placed above the
object and the image of the specimen first passes The greater the NA, the greater the resolving
through the objective. The objective are arranged power (the ability to reveal closely adjacent
in sequential order of their magnifying power, details as separate and distinct).
Instruments 181
of the objective and the object slide when the

image is in focus.
X100/1.30
X10 X40 X100
Working Distance of an Objectice

Numerical Aperture
The greater the magnifying power of the
Moreover, the greater the NA figure, the
objective, the smaller the working distance.
smaller the front mounted at the base of the
objective. The front lens of the x100 objective • x10 objective: The working distance is
is the size of a pin-head, so handle it with care. 5-6 mm.
• x40 objective: The working distance is
c. Other Figures Marked on the Sleeve: 0.5-1.5 mm.
• The recommended length in mm. of the • x100 objective: The working distance is
body tube (between objective and the 0.15-0.20 mm.
eyepiece) - is usually 160 mm.
e. Resolving Power:
It is the minimum distance between two point
sources of light which are distinctly seen as two
X40 images.
X40/0.65
160/0.17
0.25 μm
0.25 μm
0.25 μm
Other Figures Marked
• The recommended thickness in mm. of

the coverslip used to cover the object The greater the resolving power of the
slide, e.g., 0.17. mm. objective, the clearer the image and the greater
The screw threads of all objectives are the ability to reveal closely adjacent details as
standard, so the objectives in the revolving nose- separate and distinct.
piece are interchangeable. The maximum resolving power of a good
medical laboratory microscope is about 0.25 μm.
d. Working Distance of an Objective:
(the resolving power of the normal human eye is
This is the distance between the front lens 0.25 mm.).
To measure the resolving power: R.P. =1/2 • An x4 eyepiece magnifies the image
of the wavelength of light used. produced by the objective 4 times.
Immersion oil increases the resolving power • An x6 eyepiece magnifies the image 6
by conserving light rays that would be lost by times.
refraction if a dry objective were used. Hence, if • An x10 eyepiece magnifies the image 10
immersion oil is not used, the image appears hazy times.
or blurred.
Note: Immersion oil:
• Immersion oil must be used with objectives having
NA more than 1.0. This increases the resolving
power of the objective.
• An immersion oil of medium viscosity and
refractive index of 1.5 is adequate. Any synthetic
non-drying oil with a refractive index of 1.5 and/
or as recommended by the manufacturer should
be used.
Cedar wood oil should not be used as it
leaves a sticky residue on the objective. If cedar
wood oil is used, particular care then needs to be
taken to ensure that the objective is thoroughly Eyepiece
and promptly cleaned with xylene after each
session of use. Petrol can be used in place of If the object is magnified 40 times by the
xylene for cleaning if xylene is not available. x40 objective, then 6 times by the x6 eyepiece,
the total magnification is 6 x 40 = 240.
Liquid paraffin should not be used as it has
a low refractive index which produces an inferior To calculate the total magnification of the
image. It is also unsuitable for scanning object observed, multiply the magnifying power
specimens for long periods, as is required for of the objective by that of the eyepiece.
accurate microscopy. Only the 100x objective Microscopes used in medical laboratories
should be used for viewing under immersion oil. have a magnifying power between 50 and 1000.
All other lenses are to be used without immersion
oil. Monocular and Binocular Microscopes:
Monocular microscopes (have only one
2. The Eyepiece
eyepiece) give better illumination and are
The specimen is viewed through the recommended for use with x100 oil immersion
eyepiece. It has a lens which magnifies the image objectives when the source of light is daylight.
formed by the objective. A movable pointer may
Binocular microscopes (have 2 eyepieces but
be attached to the inside of the eyepiece.
only use 1 objective at a time) are less fatiguing
Magnification: for the eyes when examinations have to be made.
The magnifying power of the eyepiece is Electric illumination is, however, essential for
marked on it. the x100 objective. Here, the tiny eyepieces can
Instruments 183
be moved closer or further apart to adjust the clear glass filled with water can be placed in front
distance between the eyes by a pulling and of the microscope to reduce the intensity of light.
pushing motion.
2. The Two Sided Mirror
C. The Illumination System It is the simplest illuminator providing
1. The Source of Light necessary illumination through reflection of
natural and artificial light.
Electric light should preferably be used,
since it is easier to adjust. It is provided by a
lamp built into the microscope beneath the stage,
or by an external lamp placed in front of the
microscope. A halogen bulb provides the best
illumination. On top of the illuminator is an in-
built filter holder to fit the filter of desired quality.
Halogen Lamp:
Two Sided Mirror
Halogen lamps are low wattage, high
intensity lamps and are the preferred light source.
The mirror reflects rays from the light source
Though costlier, these have the following
on to the object. One side has a plane surface,
advantages over tunsten lamps:
the other is a concave surface. It is supported on
• Emit white light. two sides with a fork fixed on a mount in a way
• Have higher luminosity (brighter). that permits free rotation. The mirror is placed
• Have a compact filament. at the base of the microscope. The concave side
• Have a longer life. forms a low-power condenser and is not intended
to be used if there is already a condenser. The
plane mirror is used for oil immersion objective.
3. The Condenser
A condenser illuminates the specimen and
controls the amount of light and contrast. The
Halogen Lamp
Otherwise, daylight can be used. The

microscope must never be used, and should never
be placed in direct sunlight. It should be well
illuminated but used in a subdued light. If there
is bright sunlight, a bottle or a round flask of Condenser
condenser brings the rays of light to a common The wider the diaphragm, the wider the angle
focus on the object to be examined. and consequently the greater the NA and the
It is situted between the the mirror and the smaller the detail seen. But the constrast is
stage. Some condensers have a ‘rack, and pinion’ correspondingly less.
mechanism for up and down adjustment. It can 5. Filters
be raised (maximum illumination) and lowered
In some microscopes colored filters
(minimum illumination) with the help of a raising
(particularly blue filters) are fitted below the
knob or, the knob is absent and the distance is
condenser.
fixed. It must be centred and adjusted correctly.
They are used to change the light from
The numerical operature, (NA) of a
ordinary electric bulbs into more natural white
condenser should be equal to or greater than that
light. Neutral density filters are used to reduce
of the objective with maximum NA. When using
the brightness without changing the color of the
objectives with low magnifying power, the NA
background.
of the condenser is adjusted with the help of an
iris diaphragm, which is provided below the Under some conditions, green filters are used.
condenser. In Ziehl-Nelsen microscopy, blue or green filters
are preferably not used as AFB, which is stained
To align the condenser with the objective,
red by carbol fuchsin loses its intense red color
condenser centering screws are used.
when blue or green filters are used. Filters can
A swing out type filter holder may be fitted be left in place or removed according to the type
above or under the condenser. It may not be of of preparation being examined.
the swinging type in some microscopes. The filter
holder holds detachable filters when required. D. The Adjustment System
Many modern microscopes have pre- The system comprises of:
centered and fixed condensers. In these, no 1. The Coarse Adjustment Screw
adjustments are required. To reduce glare, just
adjust the opening of the iris diaphragm. The coarse and fine adjustment screws are
used for changing the distance between the
4. The Diaphragm specimen slide and the objective. The coarse
The diaphragm, which is placed within the screw alters this distance rapidly and is the largest
condenser, is used to reduce or increase the angle screw. It is used first to achieve an approximate
and therefore also the amount of light that passes focus i.e. it brings the specimen slide in view
into the condenser. using an objective having low magnification
power.
2. The Fine Adjustment Screw
This moves the objective more slowly and
permits better viewing of the slide. It is used to
bring the object into perfect focus. One revolution
of this knob generally moves the mechanical
stage by 10 μm. The movement should be smooth
Diaphragm and free from jerks.
Instruments 185
Mechanical Stage Controls

4
3 5 • 1 screw to move it backwards and forwards.
• 1 screw to move it to the left or right.
Setting Up the Microscope

The Adjustment System When a new microscope is received in the
laboratory, it is important to know how to set it
3. The Condenser Adjustment Screw up.
This is used to raise the condenser for greater 1. Position of Microscope

illumination or to lower it to reduce the Place it on a firm level bench (check with a
illumination. spirit level) of adequate size but not too high. If
4. Condenser Centring Screws electric illumination is to be used, the microscope
must be placed in the shade, away from the
There may be 3 screws placed around the
window. Place a square felt pad under the
condenser: One in front, one on the left and one
microscope. If no felt is available, use a piece of
on the right. They are used to centre the
heavy cloth. Ensure that the voltage supply in
condenser exactly in relation to the objective.
the laboratory corresponds to that permitted for
5. The Iris Diaphragm Lever the microscope. If necessary, use a voltage
protection device.
This is a small lever fixed on the condenser.
It can be moved to close or open the diaphragm, 2. Fitting the Accessories
thus reducing or increasing both the angle and
Screw the objectives into the revolving nose-
the intensity of the light.
piece, following this order in a clockwise
6. Mechanical Stage Controls direction:
These are used to move the object slide on • x3 or x5 objective.
the stage. • x10 objective.
• x40 objective.
• x100 (oil immersion) objective.
The screw threads are standard.
• Put the eyepiece (s) in place.
• Fix the condenser under the stage.
• Fix the mirror on the foot.
3. Positioning the Lamp
If electric illumination is to be used, place
the lamp 20 cms. in front of the microscope
facing the mirror, which should be fixed at an
angle of 45°. Place a piece of paper over the
mirror. Adjust the position of the lamp so that it
shines on the centre of the mirror.
If the lamp is fitted with a lens, the filaments
Mirror Adjustment
in the bulb are projected on to the piece of paper
the bulb is in the exact centre of the circle of
light (or the brightest part if daylight is being used).
5. Centering the Condenser (if Centering
is Provided For)
It is very important to center the condenser
correctly. This is quite frequently overlooked.
a. Place a slide preparation without a
coverglass on the stage. Lower the
condenser. Open the iris diaphragm.
Positioning the Lamp Examine with the lowest power
objective (x3, x5 or x10). Look through
covering the mirror. This makes it possible to the eyepiece and bring into focus.
centre the beam more precisely. In some models, b. Close the diaphragm. A blurred circle of
the bulb is turned until a clear image of the filament
is obtained.
4. Preliminary Adjustment of the Mirror
Use the plane side of the mirror. Remove
any colored filters. Open the iris diaphragm to
maximum. Raise the condenser. Place a piece of
thin white paper over the lens at the top of the
condenser. This piece of paper should show an
image of the electric bulb, surrounded by a circle
of light. Adjust the mirror so that the image of Focusing
Instruments 187
light surrounded by a dark ring appears

in the field.
Bring Edges of Circle of Light to a

Sharp Focus
Adjustment of Diaphragm
c. Raise the condenser slowly until the
7. Adjustment of Eyepieces
edges of the circle of light are in sharp
focus. • Selection of Eyepiece:
d. Adjust the position of the mirror (if The x5 or x6 eyepieces give good results for
necessary) so that the circle of light is in a medical laboratory. With a high power eye-
the exact centre of or superimposed upon piece there will be increased magnification but
the bright area surrounded by the dark perhaps no great increase in detail. The eyepiece
zone. to use is a matter of choice.
• Binocular Adjustment:
In binocular microscopes, the interpupillary
distance (the distance between the pupils of the
eyes) can be adjusted to suit the operator.
Focusing the Right and Left Eyes:
One of the eyepiece holders (usually the left)
Centering of Circle of Light has a focusing collar. If the collar is on the left
e. Using the centring screws of the
condenser, adjust so that the circle of light
is in the exact centre of the field. Check
for other objectives also.
6. Adjustment of Diaphragm
Open the diaphragm completely. Remove the
eyepiece and look down the tube; the upper lens
of the objective will be seen to be filled with a
circle of light. Close the diaphragm slowly until
the circle of light takes up only 2/3rd of the
surface. Do this for each objective as it is used. Binocular Adjustment
eyepiece holder, close your left eye and, using • Occasionally a clear image cannot be
the x40 objective, bring the image into focus for obtained although the objective has been
your right eye with the right eyepiece. lowered as far as possible. This is
Then close your right eye and look through because the fine adjustment screw has
the left eye-piece. If the image is in focus, no been turned right to the end. Turn it back
adjustment is needed. If the image is not clear, as far as it will go in the other direction
turn the focusing collar until it is in focus. The and then focus by raising the objective.
microscope is now adjusted to suit your own • Rack the condenser up slightly if their is
binocular vision. insufficient illumination.
8. Adjustment of Stage 2. Using a High Power Objective (x40)

Never adjust the stage upward while looking • Back the condenser halfway down.
through the eyepiece. It will cause the objective • Lower the objective until it is just above
to push against the slide and hence may damage the slide preparation (the working
it. distance is very short— about 0.5 mm.).
Using the coarse adjustment, raise the
Focusing the Object objective very slowly until a blurred
1. Using a Low Power Objective (x5 or x10) image appears on the field.
• Rack the condenser down to the bottom. • Bring into focus using the fine
• Lower the objective until it is just above adjustment.
the slide preparation. • Raise the condenser to obtain sufficient
• Raise the objective, using the coarse illumination. If the microscope has no
adjustment screw, until a clear image is condenser, use the concave side of the
seen in the eyepiece. mirror.
3. Using the Oil immersion Objective
(x100)
• Perfectly dry stained preparations must
be used.
• Place a tiny drop of immersion oil on
the part to be examined (use synthetic
oils, which do not dry, in preference to
cedarwood oil, which dries quickly).
• Rack the condenser up as far as it will
go, and open the iris diaphragm fully.
• Lower the x 100 objective until it is in
contact with the oil. Bring it as close as
possible to the slide, but avoid pressing
on the preparation (modern objectives
are fitted with a damper).
Focusing the Object
Instruments 189
• Look through the eyepiece and turn the 4. Images Seen Under the Microscope
fine adjustment very slowly upwards until Remember that the circle of light seen in the
the image is in focus. eyepiece is called “the microscopic field”.
12
9 3
6
Microscopic Field
Using Oil Immersion Objective • How to Establish the Position of Objects

• If the illumination is inadequate, use the Seen:
concave side of the mirror as Objects observed in the field can be placed
recommended for the x40 objective. in relation to the hands of a clock.
Note: For example, a schistosome egg is placed at
Important: “2 o’ clock” in the illustration.
i. In most microscopes now it is not the • Inversion of Images:
objective holder but the stage that is moved
The image is seen inverted by the lenses:
up or down by the coarse and fine adjustment
screws. In this case the screws must be turned - Objects seen at the bottom of the field
in the opposite direction to bring the image are actually at the top.
into focus.
ii. Wipe the immersion oil from the objective
with lens paper or a muslin cloth at the end
of each use. However, in general avoid
wiping the objective unless when it appears
dirty.
iii. Depth of the Field: The image is seen in
depth when a low power objective is used.
The depth of focus is small and the
impression of depth intensified when higher
power objectives (x40, x100) are used, and - Objects seen on the left hand side of the
the fine adjustment be used to examine every field are actually on the right.
detail from the top to the bottom levels of
focus of the object observed (e.g., the
• Moving the Object:
different nuclei in a spherical amoeba cyst). - If you move the slide to the right, the
object examined moves to the left.
- If you move the slide towards yourself, 2. Special lens tissue paper or, if unvailable,
the object examined moves away from white absorbent paper (toilet paper). Special
you. lens paper is a paper free from abrasive
particles.
• Changing Objectives:
3. A piece of chamois leather, if possible
Modern microscopes are made so that when (otherwise a non-fluffy rag).
you change from a low power objective to a more
powerful one to examine the same object, the 4. Lens cleaning fluid: It is used to clean optical
object remains more or less in focus. If this is surfaces. It does not harm the coatings of
not the case, raise the nose-piece before changing the lens and does not soften the sealers and
to the more powerful objective and refocus. cements around the lens.
Note: Consult the manufacturer’s manual for
specifications regarding lens cleaning fluids, as
requirements are different depending on the
microscope.
Ethyl ether and xylene are the commonly
used lens cleaning fluids. Petrol can be used if
xylene is not available. Ethyl ether is extremely
inflammable and xylene is toxic. These must,
x10 x40
Changing Objectives always be stored safely to avoid any accident.
Alcohol, acetones or any other ketones should
Before changing objectives, make sure that not be used, unless recommended by the
the object examined is in the middle of the field, manufacturer, as they may dissolve the sealants
so that it is not lost after the change. around the lens.
5. A plastic microscope cover: After using the
When the reading observation has been
microscope, cover it with a plastic or
made, rotate the objective away from the slide.
polythene bag.
Then release the tension from the slide holder
and remove the slide. 6. A small rubber bulb: Maintain an adequate
supply of bulbs and fuses for every
Routine Maintenance of the Microscope microscope.
The microscope needs daily attention to keep 7. A fine paint brush: One should use air to blow
it in good working order and thus to ensure away any dust particles from the surface of
reliable laboratory results. Special care is the microscope. Carefully clean the
required in hot and humid climates. mechanical stage as tiny pieces of broken
Note: In all cases, the manufactures manual glass may be present. A simple air brush can
should be consulted for specific instructions. be made in the laboratory by attaching a
pasteur pipette to a rubber bulb.
Equipment Required
8. In hot, humid climates:
Note: The manufacturer’s manual must be consulted
for specific instructions. • If there is electricity, a warm cupboard
1. Pieces of old cloth and a fine soft linen heated by 1 or 2 light bulbs (40 watts).
handkerchief, all washed and clean. • If there is no electricity, a desiccator 15-
Instruments 191
20 cms. in diameter with not less than • If the microscope does not have a built-in
250 gms. of dry blue silica gel (which light source, then the table should be placed
indicates humidity by turning pink). near a window, away from direct sunlight and
9. Drying agents: Keep dry silica gel or any arrangements made for the provision of a
other drying agent in the microscope cabinet lamp.
to reduce moisture. Regenerate the drying • As far as possible, the microscopy room
agent when necessary. Dry silica gel (blue should be free from dust and should not be
in color) absorbs moisture inside the box. damp.
Its color changes to pink when it is unable • If the microscope is to be used everyday, do
to absorb more moisture. When this occurs, not remove it from the site of installation,
it should be dried by keeping in a hot air provided security is assured.
oven or heating in a sauce pan. When
• When the microscope is not in use, keep it
completely dry, it regains its original blue
covered with a polythene or plastic cover and
color and can be re-used.
take necessary precautions against fungus.
If silica gel is not available, disposable and
(Dust is the worst enemy of the microscope.
cheap drying agents like salt and rice can be used.
Always keep the microscope properly
Rice is convenient and inexpensive. As soon as
covered. Fungus is also a major problem.
it is no longer dry and crisp, it must be replaced.
Always keep the microscope in dry
This method will work only if the cabinet or surroundings.)
box closes tightly. If no good closed space is • In humid areas, store the microscope every
available, a plastic bag may be used provided it night in a cabinet fitted with an electric bulb
is made of thick polythene and sealed each time. (5 W or 40 W). This is switched on at night
If a lamp for heating is used at night, then to reduce humidity.
simultaneous ventilation is an advantage, and the
• If the microscope is used intermittently and
space does not have to be closed tightly.
requires storage for prolonged periods, keep
Installation and Storage of Microscope it in an air-tight plastic bag with about 100g.
• Install the microscope on a sturdy, level table. of a drying agent. Remember to regenerate/
Equipment and instruments which generate replace drying agents (silica gel or dry rice)
vibrations, such as centrifuges and fortnightly or as needed.
refrigerators, should not be placed on or near • If only a wooden box is available, keep the
this table. microscope in it with some dry silica gel or
• The height of the table should be convenient dry rice.
for the user. As an alternative or in addition, Maintenance of Lenses
an adjustable stool should be made available
• Avoid collection of dust and immersion oil
to make microscopy comfortable.
on the objectives and eyepieces by keeping
• The table should be away from water, sinks the microscope covered.
and racks containing chemicals, to prevent
• Do not allow immersion oil to touch any of
damage to the microscope from spashes or
the objectives other than the oil immersion
spills.
objective.
• Always keep the eyepieces in place to protect as this might result in scratches on the lens.
the inner surface of the objective. If the field of view is not clear despite
• Close the holes of missing objectives in the cleaning, and the microscope works well with
nose-piece by using special caps that are another lens, then the lens has been permanently
provided, or by sealing with adhesive tape. damaged and must be repaired or replaced.
• Keep the lenses dry and avoid the application If the field of view is not clear even after
of oil or any other liquid to these lenses. changing the lenses (objective and eyepiece),
Removal of Dust from Lenses there is probably dirt or fungus on the tube
prisms. These can be checked by removing the
Check for dust or dirt on the lenses eyepieces, and examining the upper part of the
(eyepieces, objective, condenser and illuminator microscope tube with the light fully open. Fungus
lenses) by seeing if the image appears hazy or is seen as threads, dots or a woolly layer.
with black dots.
Cleaning the Objectives
• If the black dot moves when the eyepiece is
rotated, this means that the dust is on the Inspection of the Objective
eyepiece. • Carefully unscrew the objective from the
• If the black dot moves when the slide moves nose-piece.
then the dust is present on the slide. • Gently remove one eyepiece to use as a
• If these two are ruled out, presume that the magnifier (or use a magnifying glass).
dust is on the objective. Dust on objectives • Grasp the objective in one hand with the front
shows as dots if it is inside. lens face up.
• If the dust is outside the objective it shows
• Hold the eyepiece in the other hand with the
as a hazy image.
top lens facing down.
Do not remove the dust from the lenses by • Bring the eyepiece very close to your eye
wiping these with a cloth as this can scratch the and focus on the objective. Change the angle
lens and damage it permanently. Dust can be of the objective so that light can reflect off
removed with a camel-hair/artist’s brush or by its surface. The two lens surfaces will be
blowing air over the lens with an air brush. Dust about 2.5 cms. apart. Try to avoid them
on the inner surface of the objective can be touching each other.
removed by using a soft camel-hair brush (artist’s
• Inspect the objectives for scratches, nicks,
brush).
cracks, deterioration of seal around the lens,
Removal of Oil from Lenses or oil seepage into the lens.
The presence of oil on the lenses produces a Dry Objectives
hazy image. The localization of oil can be done
Breathe on the lens and wipe with a soft
by the same method as has been described above
cloth, moving the cloth across and not circularly.
for localization of dust.
Oil should be removed with the help of lens Oil Immersion Objectives
paper using lens cleaning fluid as recommended Remove the oil with lens paper or absorbent
by the manufacturer. This can be applied gently paper. If there are traces of old immersion oil or
with lens paper. Do not use force to remove oil if cedarwood oil has been used, moisten the paper
Instruments 193
very slightly with xylene or toluene, then wipe This problem can be overcome by cleaning,
again with dry paper. Every evening before polishing and lubricating the sliding channel and
putting the microscope away, remove any dust the ‘rack and pinion’. First remove the dust with
on the objectives by puffing air with the rubber a camel-hair/artist’s brush or by blowing air;
bulb. If necessary, remove any remaining dust clean it with a solvent such as petrol, polish with
using the fine paint brush. mental polish and apply high quality silicone
grease to lubricate the moving parts.
Cleaning the Eyepieces
Stiff movements may also be due to
• Clean the upper surface of the upper lens
mechanical bending of some part. Rectify the
(where you apply your eye) with a soft cloth
fault or call the service engineer. With prolonged
or tissue paper.
use, the up and down movement of the
• Clean the lower surface of the lower lens, mechanical stage becomes loose. The stage,
inside the microscope tube, with a fine paint therefore, slides down during examination
brush. resulting in loss of focus. Adjust the tension with
• If there is dust inside the eyepiece, unscrew the tension adjustment device as recommended
the upper lens and clean the inside lenses by the manufacturer.
using only air from the rubber bulb and a
fine paint brush. Maintenance of Light Source
• The supply of voltage (110 V or 220 V) must
Cleaning the Condenser and Mirror always conform to that specified for the
• The condenser is cleaned in the same way as microscope.
the objectives, with a soft cloth or tissue • An adequate number of spare bulbs and fuses
moistened with xylene. should be available.
• The mirror is cleaned with a soft cloth • Do not touch the bulbs with bare hands.
moistened with alcohol. • Provide adequate ventilation to take care of
Cleaning the Support and Stage heat generated by light.
• Clean with chamois leather or a soft non- • Provide voltage protection, if necessary.
fluffy cloth. • Before switching the lamp on, adjust the
variable voltage regulator to minimum.
• Never use xylene, which may remove the
Switch on the lamp and slowly increase the
black paint from the microscope.
voltage until the desired intensity is
• The stage can be cleaned thoroughly using achieved.
absorbent paper impregnated with petroleum
jelly. Care of the Microscope
Maintenance of Mechanical Moving After Daily Use
Parts • Bring the variable voltage regulator setting
Mechanical moving parts of the microscope to the minimum before turning off the lamp.
may become too stiff or too loose. Turn off the light source of the microscope.
• Gently wipe the immersion oil off the
Stiffness is due to accumulation of dust or
objective, condenser and mechanical stage
because the sliding channel has become rough.
with lens paper or muslin cloth.
• Replace the cover of the microscope and cupboard is at least 5°C warmer than that of
take necessary precautions against fungus. the laboratory.
Each Month For example:
• Use an air brush to blow away dust. Clean • Temperature of laboratory : 26' C.
the objectives, eyepieces, and condenser • Temperature inside cupboard : 32°C.
with lens cleaning fluid. Do not put fluid
directly on the lenses; instead, apply it to the
lens paper and then clean.
• Remove the slide holder from the mechanical
stage and clean.
• With a tissue moistened with water, wipe the
dust off the body of the microscope and the
window of the illuminator in the base of the
unit.
Every Six Months
Thoroughly inspect, clean and lubricate the
microscope after consulting the manufacturer’s
Labs with Electricity
manual. This should preferably be done by
professional service personnel.
Note: The microscopes must be kept in the warm
Additional Precautions to be Taken in cupboard even if the laboratory is air conditioned.
Hot Climates 2. Laboratories Without Electricity: The
A. Hot Humid Climates microscope can always be kept in the open
air, in the shade but near a sunny spot. Never
In hot humid climates, if no precautions are
taken, fungus may develop on the microscope,
particularly on the surface of the lenses, in the
grooves of the screws and under the paint, and
the instrument will soon be useless. This can be
prevented as described below:
1. Laboratories with Electricity: Every
evening, place the microscope in a warm
cupboard. This is simply a cupboard with a
tight-fitting door, heated by one or two 40
watt light bulbs (for a cupboard just big
enough to take 1-4 microscopes, one bulb is
enough). The bulb is left on continuously,
even when the microscope is not in the
coupboard.
Check that the temperature inside the Labs without Electricity
Instruments 195
put the microscope in its wooden box (even or a fine paint brush. If dust articles remain
overnight) but always use a cover. The on the surface of the objective, remove with
microscope must however be cleaned daily lens paper.
to get rid of dust. 4. If there is a wet season lasting more than a
Ideally, the laboratory should be visited every month, take the precautions recommended
3 months by a specialist who takes the above for hot humid climate.
microscope to pieces and:
Fungal Growth on the Microscope
• Inspects the surfaces of the lenses and
the prism for the first signs of fungus. Fungus is common in hot and humid
climates. These conditions prevail for most of
• Lubricates the metal parts with a special the year in south-east Asia, and therefore
liquid oil that has cleaning properties. precautions are necessary. Fungal growth should
B. Hot Dry Climates be suspected when a part or all of the image
becomes unclear or hazy. If fungal growth is
In hot dry countries, the main problem is dust
advanced, the image becomes dim and hardly
(sand storms, etc.). Fine particles work their way
anything can be seen.
into the threads of the screws and under the
lenses. This can be avoided as follows: Fungus can attack all microscopes within a
few years if no precautions are taken, even if
“anti-fungal treated” lenses are used.
The lenses, the eyepiece tube and prisms of
the microscope are often the first place for fungal
growth. The eyepiece tube can be checked by
taking out the eyepieces and inspecting the inner
part of the tube with the light on. Cleaning of
the eyepiece tube is difficult and should be done
only by authorized personnel.
Factors Facilitating Fungal Growth
• Hot and humid environment.
• Storage cabinets made of wood, leather or
plastic without a desiccant.
• Storage in cupboards or drawers.
• Storage in small, dark unventilated rooms.
Cleaning the Lenses
How to Prevent Fungal Growth
1. Always keep the microscope under a air tight
plastic cover when not in use. Put it away in • Store the microscope every night in a cabinet
its wooden box every evening. fitted with an electric bulb (5 W or 40 W).
The bulb should be preferably fitted at the
2. At the end of the day’s work, clean the top of the cabinet so that it is near the tube
microscope thoroughly by blowing air on it (head of the microscope). Keep the bulb
from a rubber bulb. switched on overnight. If this technique is
3. Finish cleaning the lenses with a lens brush used, the cabinet should have holes for
ventilation so that air flows freely. Do’s for Good Microscopy

• Or alternately, use a drying agent, such as • Place the microscope on a level, vibration-
silica gel or rice, continuously. When using free surface. Never keep it on the surface
a drying agent be sure the microscope is where a centrifuge is placed. Also, keep it
confined to a wooden box or air-tight plastic always from refrigerators and air
bag. Be sure to regenerate/change the drying conditioners.
agent. • Store the microscope in a cabinet fitted with
• Clean the microscope regularly. Wear thin an electric bulb (5 W or 40 W) which is
cloth/latex gloves when handling microscope switched on in order to reduce humidity.
lenses. Otherwise, fungus may grow where • Always carry the microscope with one hand
finger prints were left. supporting the base and the other hand
• If none of the above are feasible, keep the around the arm.
microscope in a place with a good circulation • Place the microscope in a location from
of air. When not in use, the microscope can which it need not be moved frequently.
be kept in direct sunlight for a few hours to • Turn the nose-piece to the objective with
reduce moisture. lowest magnifying power before removing
• Although generally not feasible in peripheral the slide and when the microscope is not in
centres, continuous air conditioning is very use.
effective in preventing fungal growth. • Cover the microscope when not in use, taking
Keeping microscopes in AC stores is only all precautions to prevent growth of fungus.
recommended for prolonged storage, not if
• Adjust the variable voltage regulator setting
they have to be taken out daily.
to minimum before switching on the lamp
How to Remove a Film of Fungus and increase the voltage slowly until the
Remove fungal growth as soon as it appears desired intensity of light is achieved.
and frequently thereafter. Moisten a wad of • Always keep the condenser up, adjusting the
cotton wool with a fungus cleaner which is light intensity by using the illuminator
recommended by the manufacturer. Use lens regulator. Remember to adjust the iris
cleaner if the fungus cleaner is not available. diaphragm, opening to about 80% of its
maximum when using the immersion
Clean the lens by moving the cotton wool in
objective, or to slightly less for lower power
circles or back and forth under moderate
objectives.
pressure. If necessary, repeat the same procedure
with a fresh wad of cotton wool. Wipe the lens • Always place the slide with the specimen side
with a fresh dry wad of cotton. Contact the up.
service engineer if this does not remove fungal • For focusing, always turn the stage up
growth. towards the objectives while looking from
the side and not through the eyepieces, so as
Do not attempt to clean parts of the
to avoid turning it up too far and damaging
microscope which are not accessible (such as
the objective. Only do the actual focusing,
prisms) and which may require disassembling
looking, through the eyepieces, by lowering
the instrument.
the stage away from the objectives.
Instruments 197
• Always keep the immersion oil bottle capped • Never leave the microscope without the
and free from dust and debris. eyepieces unless the openings are plugged.
• Use a dropper and not a glass rod to put • Do not exchange objectives of two
immersion oil on the slides without touching microscopes unless you are certain that their
it. mechanical tube length specifications are
• Gently wipe off immersion oil from the lens identical.
after each session of use with lens paper or • Do not keep the microscope in a closed space
muslin cloth. This is sufficient if food quality or under a cover in a humid climate without
oil is used (use synthetic oil recommended taking precautions against fungal growth. If
by the manufacturer). nothing in this regard can be done, then the
• The cover slip should conform to the microscope should be kept without a cover
specifications for the objective of the in a well-ventilated space, preferably under
microscope. Most oil immersion objectives a working fan.
are corrected for cover slip of 0.17 mm. • Do not introduce bubbles into the immersion
thickness. oil by stirring it, or suckling or expelling the
oil violently. A bubble under the objective
Dont’s for Good Microscopy will cause glare and lower contrast, thus
• Do not use cotton wool, ordinary paper, bad reducing the quality of the image.
quality facial tissue or coarse cloth to clean • Never put the microscope away with
the lens as the coarse fibres can scratch the immersion oil on the objective.
surface of the lens. • Never carry the microscope by the limb with
• Do not use xylene (or petrol) excessively to one hand; use both hands, one under the foot,
clean the lens. Excess oil can be usually the other holding the limb.
wiped off with lens paper or muslin cloth. If • Never touch electric bulbs with bare fingers.
good quality immersion oil is used, xylene Natural oil from the skin may burn and
is usually not needed. Avoid using darken its surface causing premature
cedarwood oil. decrease in light intensity. Use lens paper to
• Never clean the lenses of the objectives and hold the bulb when inserting it.
eyepieces with ethanol. • Do not increase the intensity of the light
• Never dip the objectives in xylene or ethanol source beyond the maximum permitted
(the lenses would become unstuck). value.
• Do not clean lenses frequently. This may
cause scratching and chipping of lenses. ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
• Never touch the objectives with your fingers. This is a completely modern microscope.
• Never clean the supports or the stage with Through this, the human eye can see and measure
xylene. the ultra-microscopic particles.
• Never clean the inside lenses of the eyepieces Advantages
and objectives with cloth or paper (this might
• It uses a beam of electrons instead of a light
remove the anti-reflecting coating); use a fine
beam.
paint brush only.
• Instead of glass lenses, electromagnetic fields Uses

are used. • Used in tropical medicine for the
• It’s resolving power is 0.6 - 0.7 nm., which examination of blood films and dissections
is much greater than that of a light of mosquitos for malaria in rural surveys.
microscope. • Examination of blood films and the
cerebrospinal fluid for carriers of sleeping
• It’s magnification is upto 1 million times i.e.
sickness.
106.
• Examination of urine and stools for eggs.
Disadvantages • Examination of sputum in tuberculosis
• As electrons travel long distances in a surveys.
vacuum. Hence, living cells cannot be used. • Also used for the dissection of snails in
schistosomiasis and the rapid diagnosis of
• Very small fragments of tissues can be
cholera (which can be done within seconds
examined. For examining under an electron
and with no adjustment whatever).
microscope, ultra-thin sections are cut in a
specially designed microtome with a glass • Used for examination of sediments in
or diamond knife. This ultra - thin section is considerable volumes of fluid, in blood
placed under very thin 150 A membrane counts and in a variety of other operations
made from colloidion contro-cellulose), in rural surveys in circumstances in which
fermvar (polyvinyl fermol), carbon, no other microscope can be used.
aluminium or boryllium.
• The matter to be examined is fixed in osmium INSTRUMENTS FOR QUALITY
tetraoxide and formaldehyde to prevent ANALYSIS
damage to the tissues.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY BOTTLE
THE McARTHUR MICROSCOPE (PYKNOMETER)
This is a flat bottomed, bulb-like bottle made
The McArthur microscope is an instrument
of glass with a long, tapering neck. A well-ground
which is not only capable of the highest
solid glass stopper with a narrow bore fits in the
magnifications and a number of unusual forms
neck. If the bulb of the bottle is filled with a liquid
of work, it is no larger than a miniature camera,
and the stopper placed in its position, a little
weighs less than half a kilogram, and can be used
excess liquid comes out through the bore and
in the hand.
the bottle contains a fixed volume of the liquid.
Features The internal volume of the bottle is generally
• It has automatic focussing. 20, 25 or 50 cm3.
In a standard bottle, the volume and the
• Gives direct instead of an inverted image.
temperature at which the volume is exact, are
• Is extremely rugged. marked on the bottle.
• Has a wide range of accessories including Since the volume or the liquid changes with
equipment for immersion, dark-ground temperature, a specific gravity bottle should
illumination and phase contrast. always be held by the neck and never by the bulb.
The bottle is especially particularly suitable for
Instruments 199
measuring the specific gravity of liquids and of covering different ranges of relative density.
granular solids. In addition, there are also other types of
hydrometers serving special purposes, e.g.,
HYDROMETER ‘Lactometer’ which is used for testing milk.
It is a glass-made instrument used for rapid Uses: It is used for rapid and easy
and easy measurement of relative density or measurement of the ‘relative density’ or ‘specific
specific gravity of different liquids. gravity’ of different liquid.
A common hydrometer consist of three parts:
Points to Note When Reading Hydrom-
1. A long narrow graduated stem (B). eters
2. A tubular bulb (A). Cleanliness: Before using either glass or
3. A round bulb (C). metal hydrometers, it is essential to remove any
The round bulb (C) grease or dirt by washing in water and drying
contains lead shots or with soft, absorbent material, after which the
mercury, making the stem should be kept free from the natural grease
apparatus heavy at the of the fingers.
bottom, to keep it upright Temperature: It is desirable that the
when immersed in a liquid, hydrometer and the liquid under test should be
whose density is to be at the same temperature as the surrounding
ascertained. atmosphere to avoid any change in density whilst
readings are being taken. If the temperature of
The tubular hollow the liquid differs from the temperature
part displaces sufficient adjustment marked on the scale, an appropriate
liquid in which it is dipped correction should be applied.
and it floats vertically with Stirring: Before taking a reading, the liquid
its stem more or less should be thoroughly stirred from top to bottom
immersed in the liquid. to obtain a uniform density. Make certain that
The upper stem is the liquid is free from air bubbles and that both
graduated and these the liquid and the hydrometer are at rest before
markings give the readings taking a reading.
of the relative density of Immersion: To obtain accurate readings,
the liquids. The stem is immerse the hydrometer slowly in the liquid to
made thinner for better a point about 1/8” below the point at which it
sensitivity of the Hydrometer
floats naturally, before releasing.
hydrometer.
Observation: When the liquid is clear, the
Since its weight is constant, the hydrometer undersurface should be observed and the eye
dips more in a lighter liquid than in a heavier should be raised gradually upto the surface, first
liquid as while floating, the weight of the seen as an eclipse, becomes a straight line. Where
displaced liquid must be equal to its weight in this line intersects the hydrometer scale is the
every case. correct reading.
Such type of common hydrometers are When the liquid is opaque, such as milk, or
generally made in sets of four or more, each where the liquid is not sufficiently clear to enable
the above method to be used, the top surface of diameter of 24 mm. with lead shots and wax
the liquid should be observed. An allowance, poised. Scales sub-divided every 0.001° specific
however, should be made for the height of the gravity in a minimum scale length of 70 mm.
meniscus on the hydrometer stem and this height Maximum permissible error 0.001° specific
should be estimated as an equivalent length on gravity adjusted for use at 60° F.
the hydrometer scale. If difficulty is experienced
in estimating this height, float the hydrometer Varieties:
in a clear liquid of the same character as that Range in Degrees Specific Gravity
being tested and take the distance between the
0.650° to 0.700°
top and bottom of the meniscus.
0.700° to 0.750°
Specific Gravity Hydrometers 0.750° to 0.800°
Specially designed for testing light liquids. It 0.800° to 0.850°
is made as recommended by the American 0.850° to 0.900°
Society for Testing Materials. 0.900° to 0.950°
For Petroleum Products and Other 0.950° to 1.000°
Liquids of Similar Surface Tensions
For Alcohol
Long Form Overall length 335 mm. (maximum) with
Overall length 335 mm. (maximum) with torpedo shaped bulbs having a maximum
torpedo shaped bulbs having a maximum diameter of 27 mm. with lead shots and wax
diameter of 27 mm. with lead shots and wax poised. Scales sub-divided every 0.0005° specific
poised. Scales are sub-divided at every 0.0005° gravity in a minimum scale length of 125 mm.
specific gravity in a minimum scale length of 125 Maximum permissible error 0.0005° specific
mm. Maximum permissible error 0.0005° specific gravity adjusted for use at 60° F.
gravity adjusted for use at 60°F.
Varieties:
Varieties: Range in Degrees Specific Gravity
Range in Degrees Specific Gravity 0.950° to 1.950°
0.650° to 0.700° For Alcoholic solutions with specific
0.700° to 0.750° gravities less than 0.950.
0.750° to 0.800°
0.800° to 0.850° Specific Gravity Hydrometers
0.850° to 0.900° (Commercial Grade)
0.900° to 0.950°
Shot and wax poised, with scales graduated
0.950° to 1.000°
and figured in black. Adjusted for use at 60°F
1.000° to 1.050°
(15.5° C) for temperate climates, or 84° F (29°C)
1.050° to 1.100°
for tropical climates.
Short Form 6” Length, 0.050° Specific Gravity Series,
Overall length 270 mm. (maximum) with sub-divided in 0.001° specific gravity.
torpedo shaped bulbs having a maximum
Instruments 201
Varieties:
Range in Range in Baumé Hydrometers
Specific Gravity Specific Gravity For Liquids Heavier Than Water
0.600° to 0.650° 1.300° to 1.350° Shot and wax poised, adjusted for use at 60°
0.650° to 0.700° 1.350° to 1.400° F (15.5° C) for temperate climates or 84° F
0.700° to 0.750° 1.400° to 1.450° (29° C) for tropical climates.
0.750° to 0.800° 1.450° to 1.500° Rational Baumé Scale, where,
0.800° to 0.850° 1.500° to 1.550°
0.850° to 0.900° 1.550° to 1.600° Degrees Sp. Gr. = 144.3
0.900° to 0.950° 1.600° to 1.650° 144.3 - Degrees Baumé
0.950° to 1.000° 1.650° to 1.700°
1.000° to 1.050° 1.700° to 1.750°
1.050° to 1.100° 1.750° to 1.800°
1.100° to 1.150° 1.800° to 1.850°
1.150° to 1.200° 1.850° to 1.900°
1.200° to 1.250° 1.900° to 1.950°
1.250° to 1.300° 1.950° to 2.000° Varieties:
Range Sub-divided Figured Length
Degrees Degrees Degrees
9” Length, 0.050° Specific Gravity Series,
,
Baumé Baumé Baumé
sub divided in 0.001° specific gravity.
0° to 10° 0.1° 1° 9”
Varieties:
10° to 20° 0.1° 1° 9”
Range in Range in
20° to 30° 0.1° 1° 9”
Specific Gravity Specific Gravity
30° to 40° 0.1° 1° 9”
0.600° to 0.650° 1.300° to 1.350°
40° to 50° 0.1° 1° 9”
0.650° to 0.700° 1.350° to 1.400°
50° to 60° 0.1° 1° 9”
0.700° to 0.750° 1.400° to 1.450°
0.750° to 0.800° 1.450° to 1.500° 60° to 70° 0.1° 1° 9”
0.800° to 0.850° 1.500° to 1.550° 0° to 20° 0.2° 2° 9”
0.850° to 0.900° 1.550° to 1.600° 20° to 40° 0.2° 2° 9”
0.900° to 0.950° 1.600° to 1.650° 40° to 60° 0.2° 2° 9”
0.950° to 1.000° 1.650° to 1.700° 0° to 50° 0.1° 10° 9-½”
1.000° to 1.050° 1.700° to 1.750°
0° to 70° 0.1° 10° 12”
1.050° to 1.100° 1.750° to 1.800°
1.100° to 1.150° 1.800° to 1.850° For Liquids Lighter Than Water
1.150° to 1.200° 1.850° to 1.900° Shot poised, adjusted for use at 60° F (15.5°
1.200° to 1.250° 1.900° to 1.950° C) for temperate climates or 84° F 29° C) for
1.250° to 1.300° 1.950° to 2.000° tropical climates.
U.S.A. Baumé Scale, where “The Spcific Gravity t1/t2 of a liquid =

Degrees Sp. Gr. = 140.0 Mass of a given volume of the liquid at temp. t1.
130.0 + Degrees Baumé Mass of an equal volume of pure water at temp. t2”
Range Sub-divided Figured Length Specific Gravity of Hydrometers (Com-

Degrees Degrees Degrees mercial Grade)
Baumé Baumé Baumé
6” Length to 0.100” Specific Gravity Series,
10° to 30° 0.2° 2° 10” sub-divided in 0.002° specific gravity.
30° to 50° 0.2° 2° 10” Range in Specific Gravity
10° to 60° 1° 10° 10”
0.600° to 0.700°
British Standard Density Hydrometers 0.700° to 0.800°
0.800° to 0.900°
Made in accordance with B.S. 718 0.900° to 1.000°
which covers five series of hydrometers 1.000° to 1.100°
graduated in terms of Density (Grammes 1.100° to 1.200°
per millilitre) at 20º C. The interval 1.200° to 1.300°
covered is 0.600 to 2.000. 1.300° to 1.400°
These instruments are based on the 1.400° to 1.500°
definition that “The Density (g/ml.) of a 1.500° to 1.600°
liquid at a temperature ‘t’, is the mass in 1.600° to 1.700°
grammes per millilitre of the liquid at ‘t’” 1.700° to 1.600°
1.800° to 1.900°
These series of hydrometers are
1.900° to 2.000°
supplied for how medium or high surface
tension. 9” Length, 0.100º to Specific
Max Min. Nominal Sub. Tolerance Max. Gravity Series, sub-divided in 0.001°
Total Scale Range Dividing Bulb specific gravity.
Length Length of g/ml. Diam. Range in Specific Gravity
m.m. m.m. Scale m.m.
0.600° to 0.700°
335 105 0.020 g/ml. 0.0002 +/- 0.0002 40 0.700° to 0.800°
335 125 0.050 g/ml. 0.0005 +/- 0.0005 27 0.800° to 0.900°
270 70 0.050 g/ml. 0.001 +/- 0.001 24 0.900° to 1.000°
250 85 0.100 g/ml. 0.002 +/- 0.002 20 1.000° to 1.100°
190 40 0.050 g/ml. 0.002 +/- 0.002 20 1.100° to 1.200°
1.200° to 1.300°
British Standard Specific Gravity 1.300° to 1.400°
1.400° to 1.500°
Hydrometers
1.500° to 1.600°
Made in accordance with B.S. 718 to the 1.600° to 1.700°
same details tabulated above except that the 1.700° to 1.600°
hydrometer graduated in terms of specific gravity 1.800° to 1.900°
based on the definition that: 1.900° to 2.000°
Instruments 203
6” Length, 0.200° Specific Gravity 12” Length, 1.000° Specific Gravity Series,
Series, sub-divided in 0.005° specific Gravity. sub-divided in 0.010° specific gravity.
Range in Specific gravity Range in Specific Gravity

0.600° to 0.800° 1.000° to 2.000°
0.800° to 1.000° 1.000° to 2.000° Sp. Gr.
1.000° to 1.200° & 0° to 70° Baumé
1.200° to 1.400°
14” Length, Universal Series, sub-divided
1.400° to 1.600° in 0.010° Specific Gravity
1.600° to 1.800° Description
1.800° to 2.000°
0.700° to 2.000° Sp. Gr. Long slender
9” to 10” Length, 0.200° Specific Gravity Bulb, shot poised
Series, sub-divided in 0.002° specific gravity.
Range in Specific Gravity LACTOMETER

0.600° to 0.800° A lactometer is a glass tube
0.800° to 1.000° with a bulge in the middle used for
1.000° to 1.200° testing the specific gravity of milk.
1.200° to 1.400° The bottom is a ‘bulb’ with a few
1.400° to 1.600° spots. The top portion of the glass
1.600° to 1.800° tube is closed at the end and is
1.800° to 2.000° graduated. The markings gives the
readings of specific gravity. This
instrument can record specific
10” Length, 0.300° Specific Gravity gravity from 1015 - 1040.
Series, sub-divided in 0.005° specific gravity. Generally while graduating, the
first two digits are omitted, for
Range in Specific Gravity
instance, only 15 is written in place
0.700° to 1.000° of 1015. A lactometer is graduated
1.000° to 1.300° for a definite temperature which is
generally 60°F. When a lactometer
1.300° to 1.600° is used for other temperatures, add
1.600° to 1.900° 0.1 to the reading of every degree
Lactometer
above 60°F or substract 0.1 from
9½” Length, 0.500° Specific Gravity Series,
the reading of every degree below
sub-divided in 0.010° specific gravity.
60°F.
Range in Specific Gravity Commercial Grade
1.000° to 1.500° Torpedo shaped bulbs, shot and wax poised.
1.500° to 2.000° Paper scale graduated in Specific Gravity and
equivalent Milk Scale. Adjusted for use at 60° F for temperate climates or 84° F for tropical climates.
Each in card case with instruction leaflet.
Range Sub-division Figured Length

Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr.
1.000° to 1.040° 0.001° 0.010° 6”

1.000° to 0.040° 0.005° 0.010° 5-3/4”
Glass Jar for Use

Description
6” overall x 1” diameter with lip at top
British Standard Lactometers

Made in accordance with B.S. 734 indicating density (mass per unit volume) in grammes per
millilitre at 20° C in a liquid having a surface tension of 46 dynes per cm. Torpedo shaped bulbs, shot
and wax poised.
Size Range Sub-divided Figured Max.

No. Gm./ml. Gm./ml. Overall Length Bulb Diameter
1 1.025° to 1.035° 0.0002° 240 mm. 26 mm.
2 1.025° to 1.035° 0.0005° 215 mm. 21 mm.
3 1.025° to 1.035° 0.0005° 160 mm. 18 mm.
1A 1.015° to 1.025° 0.0002° 240 mm. 26 mm.
2A 1.015° to 1.025° 0.0005° 215 mm. 21 mm.
3A 1.015° to 1.025° 0.0005° 160 mm. 18 mm.
Special Lactometer (Quevenne Type) Combined Form

Thermometer and scale in stem, above hydro-meter scale.
Range Thermometer Sub-divided Length

Specific Gravity Range
1.015° to 1.040° 0° to 35°C 1° C 11¼”
Special Lactometer (Quevenne Type) Plain Form

Cylindrical bulb, shot poised, paper scale graduated to indicated specific gravity percentage of
water in skimmed milk, percentage of water in whole milk. Adjusted for use at 15.5° C.
Instruments 205
Range Sub-division Figured Length

Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr.
1.015° to 1.040° 0.001° 0.005° 8”
SALINO METERS
Salinometers are used for Testing boiler water. Cylindrical shaped bulbs, shot poised.
Range Sub-divided Length Temperature

Adjustment
0 to 4/32 “Blow” scale 1/128 9-1/2” 200° F
0 to 24 ozs./gallon 0.25 oz./gallon 9.1/2” 200° F
“Blow” scale combined 1/128 and 0.25 9-1/2” 200°F
with ozs./gallon ozs./gallon
995/1035 ozs./cubic ft. 1 oz./cubic ft. 10” 60°F
SOIL HYDROMETERS
Used for quantitative determination of the distribution of particle sizes in soil.
Specially designed bulbs, shot poised.
A.S.T.M. No. Range Sub-divided Length Temperature

Adjustment
151H 0.995º to 1.038º 0.001º 11” 68º F
Specific gravity Specific gravity
152H -5 to 60 gm./litre 1 gm./litre 11” 68º F
Graduated Jars
These are for use with soil hydrometers in the mechanical analysis of soils.
Description
Graduated for a volume of 1000 ml.
Soil hydrometers are also used for determination of particle sizes distribution in soil. Made in
accordance with B.S. 1377.
Range Sub-divided Length Temperature Adjustment
0.995º to 0.001 345
0.030º g/ml g/ml m.m. 20º C
0.990º to 0.001 265
1.010º g/ml g/ml m.m. 20º C
STARCH HYDROMETERS
Starch hydrometers are used for laundry use. Torpedo-shaped bulbs, shot and wax poised.

0º to 24º 0.5º 9” 60º F
Twaddell Twaddell
URINOMETERS
Urinometers are used for testing urine. Torpedo-shaped bulbs, shot and wax poised.

1.000º to 1.060º Sp. Gr. 0.002º Sp. Gr. 5” 60° F
1.000º to 1.060º Sp. Gr. 0.002º Sp. Gr. 3” 60° F
1.000º to 1.030º Sp. Gr. 0.001º Sp. Gr. 5” 60° F
Graduated jars for use with the Urinometer described above.
Description Diameter Height

Graduated from 0 to 2 ounces 1-1/16” 5-1/2”
TWADDELL HYDROMETERS
For Liquids Heavier Than Water

Torpedo shaped bulbs, shot and wax poised, adjusted for use at 60º F (15.5º C) for
temperate climates or 84º F (29º C) for tropical climates. 1 Degree Twaddell = 0.005º
specific gravity.
6” Length
Twaddell Number Range in Degrees Sub-divided Figured

Twaddell ºTwaddell ºTwaddell
1 0º to 24º 1º 2º
2 24º to 48º 1º 2º
3 48º to 74º 1º 2º
4 74º to 102º 1º 2º
5 102º to 138º 1º 2º
6 138º to 170º 1º 2º
7 170º to 200º 1º 2º Twaddell
Hydrometer
Instruments 207
9” Length Shot poised bulb.

Twaddell Range in Sub-divided Figured Range Sub-divided Length Temperature
Number Degrees ºTwaddell ºTwaddell Adjustment
Twaddell 0 to 100% 2% 10” 60°F
1 0º to 24º 0.5º 2º Sikes
2 24º to 48º 0.5º 2º
3 48º to 74º 0.5º 2º Torpedo shaped bulbs, shot and wax poised.
4 74º to 102º 0.5º 2º Range Sub-divided Length Temperature
5 102º to 138º 0.5º 2º Adjustment
6 138º to 170º 0.5º 2º 0 to 20° 0.2° 10” 51°F
7 170º to 200º 0.5º 2º
20 to 40° 0.2° 10” 51°F
40 to 60° 0.2° 10” 51°F
Special Ranges
60 to 80° 0.2° 10” 51°F
Range in Sub-divided Figured Length
80 to 100° 0.2° 10” 51°F
Degrees ºTwaddell ºTwaddell
Twaddell
These instruments can be supplied as a set
0º to 3º 0.1º 1º 9” in a hardwood box.
0º to 5º 0.1º 1º 9”
0º to 6º 0.1º 1º 9” Sikes SA and B (Combined) Bedford Scale
0º to 10º 0.1º 1º 10” Torpedo shaped bulb, shot and wax poised.
0º to 12º 0.1º 1º 10”
Adjustment
ALCOHOL METER
0 to 20° 0.2° 10” 51°F
Tealles, graduated in percentage alcohol by
volume. Shot poised bulb.
Adjustment
0 to 100% 2% 10” 60°F
Gay-Lussac, graduated in percentage alcohol by

volume
Shot poised bulb.
Adjustment
0 to 100% 2% 10° 15°F
,
Alcohol Meter, graduated in percentage

alcohol by weight. Alcohol meter
Proof Spirit POLARIMETRY
Torpedo shaped bulb, shot and wax poised.

Adjustment
40° U.P. to 2° 10” 60°F
60° O.P.
REFRACTOMETRY
Refractometry is one of the simplest
physicochemical methods of analysis. The main Rotary
Polarimeter
advantage of this method is that it requires a very
small amount of the analyte and can be performed
in a very short time. It is used for identifying drugs
and their purity, and quantitative determination.
Refractometer
Design of a Rotary Polarimeter
It is based on measuring the refractive index a. Side View; b. Back View.
of the analyte. The refractive index is one of the 1. Magnifying glass for reading scale.
fundamental physical properties of a substance. 2. Eyepiece.
A pure substance is characterised by a definite 3. Screw for setting scale at zero with the aid of
refractive index. a removable screw.
When ray of light travels from one 4. Transmission knob.
transparent media into another, the direction of 5. Chamber for tubers.
the ray changes at the interface and the ray is 6. Sample tube.
7. Electric bulb.
refracted.
8. Rotating housing with ground glass light filter.
Note: The refractive index is measured by a special 9. Tumbler switch.
instrument known as Refractometer.
Instruments 209
The polarimetric method of analysis is based when put to ultraviolet light have violet
on the ability of substances to rotate the plane of fluorescence.
polarization when polarized light passes through
them. PHOTOMETRY
Substances rotating the plane of polarization Photometric methods of analysis are based
of light to the right or left are called optically on the ability of an analyte to selectivity absorb
active. light.
If the plane of polarization rotates to the right The analysis of substance based on the
(clockwise), the substance is said to be measurement of light absorption includes
dextrorotatory. spectroscopy and photocolorimetry.
If the plane of polarization rotates to the left,
Spectroscopy is based on the absorption of
the substance is said to be levorotatory, the prefix
monochromatic light which means light, of a
is (-) sign.
definite wave length (0.2 to 20 μm) in the visible
The deflection of the plane of polarisation ultraviolet and infrared regions of the spectrum.
from the initial position expressed in angular There are various types of spectrometers and
degree is called “Angle of Rotation” and is spectrophotometers for measurement of light
designed by the Greek letter “α”. absorption. Monochromatic lights are used by the
This angle of rotation depends on certain help of an optical system known as the
factors: Monochromator.
a. Nature of the optically active substance.
POTENTIOMETRY
b. Layer of thickness.
This method is used to determine the
c. Temperature.
hydrogen ion concentration in a solution (the pH
d. Nature of the solvent. of the medium) and establish the equivalence
e. Wavelength of the light and it is determined point of titration.
at 20ºC and at the wave length of Sodium The method is based on the change in the
Spectrum D line (589.3 mm.). potential of an electrode immersed in an analyte
solution and consists of measuring the
FLUROMETRY electromotive force between two electrodes.
Analysis of some drug substances are made
by studying the emission spectra of the analysis. POLAROGRAPHY
Some substances do not give emission by This method is used in qualitative and
themselves but they are chemically converted so quantitative assessment of some medicinal
that they fluoresce. i.e. Adrenalin, Folic acid. Here substances. It is based on measuring the current
are a few examples which fluorence. When put arising in the process of oxidation or reduction of
to ultraviolet irradiation i.e. caffeine and nicotine an analyte on the surface of a microelectrode.
■
3-5
Cleaning of Utensils
Maintainence of scrupulous cleanliness in common test for cleanliness of glass apparatus

laboratories cannot be over-emphasised. This is that after being filled with distilled water, when
section deals with cleaning of laboratory the water is withdrawn, only an unbroken film
apparatus. of water should remain. If the water collects in
drops, the vessel is dirty.
GENERAL RULES FOR CLEANING Various methods are available for cleaning
• All utensils should be washed thoroughly, glassware. Many commercially available
immediately after use. detergents are manufactured with special
formulations for cleaning laboratory glasswares.
• Simple cleaning can be done with soda and
Laboratory stock solution of a mild and
hot water.
inexpensive detergent can be made. It may
• Never wash vessels made of metal with ac- consist of a 10% (or as deemed necessary)
ids. solution in distilled water. For cleaning a burette,
• HCl, HNO3, Aqua regia or a concentrated 2 ml. of stock solution is diluted with 50 ml. of
solution of potassium bichromate in concen- distilled water and poured into the burette. It is
trated sulphuric acid is effective in remov- allowed to stand for 30-60 seconds. The detergent
ing dirt and other stands from glass vessels. is then run off and the burette is rinsed three times
with tap water followed several times with
• Methylated spirit, ether, chloroform or ben- distilled water. A 25 ml. pipette may be similarly
zene can also be used to remove greasy or cleaned using 1 ml. of the stock solution
oily materials. deionised with 25-30 ml. of deionised water.
A method that is frequently employed is
CLEANING OF GLASS APPARATUS
filling the apparatus carefully with chromic acid
All glass apparatus like flasks, burettes, cleaning mixture, a nearly saturated solution of
pipettes, test tubes, etc. must be perfectly clean, powdered sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O8. 2H2O)
otherwise the results will be unreliable. A in concentrated sulphuric acid. Potassium
chromate is usually not preferred as it is not very lubricant are applied to the length of the plug on
soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid. This lines roughly midway between the ends of the
mixture is allowed to stand for several hours. It bore of the plug. Upon replacing in the barrel
is then poured off and the apparatus is thoroughly and turning the tap a few times, a uniform thin
rinsed with deionised water and allowed to drain film of grease is distributed round the ground
until dry. joint. A spring or some other form of retainer
It is advisable to clean the tips of burettes by may then be attached to the key to lessen the
filtering sodium dichromate-sulphuric acid chance of it becoming dislodged when in use.
mixture through glass wool placed in the apex
of a glass funnel. This helps in removing sludge CLEANING OF PLATINUM APPARATUS
that may be present in the tips of the burette. All platinum wares should be kept clean and
An effective cleaning agent, claimed to be polished. If a platinum crucible is stained, a small
much faster in action is obtained by cooling a quantity of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3. 10H2O)
mixture of 100 gms. of potassium hydroxide should be fused in the crucible and the molten
(KOH) in 50 ml. of water adding methylated solid poured out on to the slab. The residual solid
spirit to make it upto 1 litre. This mixture should is dissolved out with water and the vessel then
be handled very carefully. Glassware must be digested with concentrated hydrochloric acid.
rinsed with distilled or deionised water everytime This treatment is repeated, if necessary. If fusion
before use. The outsides of the vessel must be with sodium bicarbonate is not effective, it is then
dried with a lint-free glass cloth which is reserved substituted with potassium hydrogen sulphate
exclusively for this purpose and which is frequent (KHSO 4), disodium tetraborate, potassium
laundered. The cloth must not be used to clean hydrogen flouride, etc. All these agents must be
the insides of vessels. handled with proper care. Platinum vessels must
not be squeezed to loosen the solidified cake after
When required, the glassware should be
a fusion. It will cause deformation and denting.
dried in a drying cabinet (except for measuring
vessels, which are never dried by heating). To remove the iron stains, the covered
crucible with a 1-2 gm. of pure ammonium
LUBRICANTS FOR GLASS STOPCOCKS chloride (NH4Cl) is heated for 2-3 minutes.
The object of lubricating the stopcock of a CLEANING OF POROUS CRUCIBLES

burette is to prevent sticking or ‘freezing’ and to
ensure smoothness in action. The simplest A new crucible should be washed with
lubricant is pure vaseline, but this is rather soft, concentrated hydrochloric acid and then with
and unless used sparingly, portions of the grease distilled water.
may readily become trapped at the point where
the jet is joined to the barrel of the stopcock, CLEANING OF MORTARS AND PESTLES
eventually blocking the jet. Commercial
Mortars and pestles are very commonly used
lubricants for stopcocks are available from
in homoeopathic laboratories for pulverising
laboratory suppliers. Silicone based lubricants
drug substances and also for triturations.
should not be used as they tend to creep and cause
Cleaning depends upon the type of mortar and
contamination of the inside of the burette.
pestle used.
To lubricate the stopcock, the plug is • Porcelain Mortar and Pestle: It is washed
removed from the barrel and two thin streaks of
with boiling water and when cool, it is rinsed
Cleaning of Utensils 213
with distilled water using a brush. It is then hair sieve. After drying they are again rinsed with
dried thoroughly by heating. dilute alcohol and then again dried throughly at
• Iron or Stainless Steel Mortar and Pestle: a moderate temperature, under the sun. Do not
wash corks with hot water of steam as they get
At first it is scrubed under running water
discolored and may loose their shape.
using a hard brush; then rinsed with warm
water and distilled water successively using CLEANING OF TINCTURE PRESS
a soft brush. It is dried with a clean cloth
and alcohol to prevent rusting. The cloth The components of the press are separated
and each washed thoroughly under running
must be frequently laundered.
water. It is then washed with distilled water and
• Glass Mortar and Pestle: First wash with thoroughly dried.
hot water and then with cold water while
rubbing with a hard brush. Dry under high CLEANING OF WOODEN
temperature. While drying, a quantity of INSTRUMENTS
strong alcohol is burnt inside the mortar, tak- Modern laboratories seldom use wooden
ing care of the handle of the pestle. instruments. If used, they must be scrubed with
After mercurial preparations, wash the a hard brush under running water; then it is rinsed
mortar and pestle with HNO3 to neutralise the with a soft brush in warm water; finally cleaned
residue. with distilled water and sun-dried.
CLEANING OF SPATULA CLEANING OF A KNIFE
Horn spatula is washed under running water. Wipe it after washing and keep it dry to avoid
It is then washed with alcohol and wiped dry with rusting.
a clean cloth. The cloth should be frequently
CLEANING OF A PERCOLATOR
laundered.
Horn spaptula should not be washed with Clean it after every preparation. Wash it
hot water. It must be kept away from sodium several times with hot water using a brush. Then
carbonate (Na2CO3. 10H2O). rinse with purified water followed by alcohol and
dry at moderate temperature. The velvet cork that
According to Dr. Hahnemann, in §270 of the
is used is thrown away.
6th edition of Organon:
‘Mortar’, ‘pestle’ and ‘spatula’ must be CLEANING OF BOTTLES
cleaned well before they are used for another Keep the bottles in cold water for 6-7 hours.
medicine, washed first with warm water and Remove the filth using a hard brush. After
dried, both mortar and pestle, as well as spatula removing the filth, wash with warm water and
are then put in a kettle of boiling water for half then rub with a soft brush. Wash now with
an hour. purified water followed by rinsing with strong
alcohol. Expose the bottles to the sun for drying.
CLEANING OF CORKS
CLEANING OF PHIALS AND GLASS
Now-a-days corks have been replaced by
glass stoppers as they can easily cleaned. Wash them several times with hot water
However, if they are used, first gently rub them using a phial brush. After washing, rinse with
under tap water followed by purified water in a alcohol and dry at moderate temperature.
■
3-6
Hazardous Instruments
Certain instruments if not handled carefully are liable to cause injury to self and to others. This
section deals with such instruments and methods of eliminating or reducing hazards cause by them.
Equipment Equipment How to Eliminate or Reduce the Hazard
1. Hypodermic needles Accidental inoculation • Do not recap or clip needles.

aerosol or spillage. • Use a needle-locking type ofsyringe to pre-
vent separation of the needle and syringe,
or use a disposable type where the needle
isan integral part of the syringe unit.
• Use good laboratory technique, e.g.. fill
the syringe carefully to minimize air
bubbles and frothing of inoculum.
- Avoid using syringes to mix infectious
liquids; if used, ensure that the tip of
the needle is held under the surface of
the fluid in the vessel and avoid exces-
sive force.
- Wrap the needle and stopper in a cot-
ton pledget moistened with an appro-
priate disinfectant before with drawing
the needle from a rubber-stoppered
bottle.
- Expel excess liquid and air bubbles
from the syringe vertically into a cot-
ton pledget moistened with an appro-
priate disinfectant or into a small bottle
containing cotton.
• Use a biological safety cabinet for all

operations with infectious material.
• Restrain animals while they are being
inoculated. Use blunt needles or cannulas
for intranasal or oral inoculation. Use a
biological safety cabinet.
2. Centrifuges Aerosols, splashing and tube • Autoclave after use and ensure proper dis-
breakage. posal.
3. Ultra-Centrifuges Aerosols, splashing and • Use sealable buckets (safety cups).

tube breakage.
• Install HEPA filter between centrifuge and
vacuum pump.
• Maintain log book of operating hours for
each rotor and a preventive maintenance
programme to reduce risk of mechanical
failure.
• Load and unload buckets in a biological
safety cabinet.
4. Anaerobic jars Explosion, dispersing • Ensure integrity of wire capsule around

infectious materials. catalyst.
5. Dessicators Emplosion, dispensing • Place in a stout wire cage.

glass fragments and
infectious materials.
6. Homogenizers, tissue Aerosols and leakage. • Operate and open equipment in a biologi-
grinders cal safety cabinet.
• Use specially dsigned models that prevent
leakage from rotor bearings and O-ring
gaskets or use a stomacher.
• Before opening the blender bowel wait for
10 minutes to allow the aerosol cloud to
settle. Refrigerate to condense aerosols.
7. Sonicators, ultrasonic Impaired hearing, • Ensure insulation to protect against

cleaners dermatitis. subharmonics.
• Wear gloves for protection against high-fre-
quency and detergent action of skin.
8. Culture stirrers, Aerosols, splashing and • Operate in a biological safety cabinet or

shakers, agitators spillage. specially designed primary containment.
Hazardous Instruments 217
• Use heavy duty screw-capped culture

flasks, fitted with filter-protected outlets if
necessary and well secured.
9. Freeze-driers Aerosols and direct contact • Use O-ring connectors to seal the unit
(lyophilizers) contamination. throughout.
• Use air filters to protect vacuum lines.
• Use a satisfactory method of decontamina-
tion, e.g., condenser.
• Provide an all-metal moisture trap and a
vapor condenser.
• Carefully inspect all glass vacuum vessels
for surface scratches. Use only glassware
designed for vacuum work.
10. Domestic-type Provide ignition sources • Place warning sign on domestic type
refrigerators (thermostats, light refrigerators: “Do not store flammable
switches, heater strips, etc.) solvents in this refrigerator.
that can ignite vapors from • Modify by relocating manual temperature
stored flammable solvents. controls to the exterior of the cabinet and
sealing all points where wires pass from the
refrigerator compartment.
Note: Self-defrosting refrigerators cannot be
modified in this way.
11.Water-baths and Growth of microorganisms. • Regular cleaning and disinfection.

Warburg baths Sodium azide forms
• Do not use sodium azide for preventing
growth of organisms.
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3-7
First-aid in Laboratory
First-aid is the skilled application of ac- • Handle them gently.

cepted principles of medical treatment at the time • Protect them from cold.
and place of an accident. It is the approved
method of treating a casualty until he is placed The term ‘first-aider’ describes any person
in the care of a doctor for definitive treatment of trained in the principles and practice of first-aid
his injury. and who possesses a ‘Certificate of Competence’
from a recognized first-aid training authority.
The primary purposes of first-aid are three-
This ‘Certificate of Competence’ usually has
fold:
limited validity (3-4 years), following which a
1. To sustain life. refresher course and re-certification are
This includes: necessary.
• Resuscitation procedures. The well-recognized priorities in first-aid
• Control of bleeding. treatment are:
2. To prevent a patient’s condition from wors- • Act quickly, quietly and methodically.
ening. • Reassure the casualty.
This includes: • If breathing has stopped, start resuscitation;
• Cover wounds. control bleeding.
• Guard against the onset of shock.
• Immobilize fractures and large wounds.
• Do not remove clothes unnecessarily.
• Place the patient in the correct position.
• Do not attempt to do too much.
3. To promote recovery.
• Do not allow people to crowd around.
For this, • Arrange for appropriate medical care.
• Reassure the patient.
In health-care premises there is usually a
• Relieve their pain. requirement that trained first-aiders are available
on site. A list of individuals so trained should be • Mouthpiece for mouth-to-mouth resuscita-

prominently displayed within the laboratory tion in cases of suspected infection; resusci-
together with telephone numbers of the tation face mask with one-way valve for use
emergency services. First-aid rooms or areas, in cases of say cyanide poisoning or facial
suitably equipped and readily accessible should damage.
be available to all health-care laboratories. • A first-aid manual, e.g., of the Red Cross,
Red Crescent or St. John’s Ambulance.
MINIMUM FIRST-AID FACILITIES The contents of the first-aid box should be
The minimum first-aid facilities consist of: inspected regularly to ensure that they remain
in satisfactory condition and should be
• First-aid box.
replenished immediately after use.
• First-aid equipment.
• Eye irrigation equipment. EYE IRRIGATION
• Antidotes to poisonous chemicals used in the
Eye irrigation equipment should also be
laboratory and instructions for their use.
readily available and the staff should be trained
• Protective clothing and safety equipment for in its correct use. Single-use packages containing
the person rendering first-aid. sterile water or saline, are preferred because they
offer the least risk of infection. If these are not
THE FIRST-AID BOX available and the wash-bottle types are provided,
their contents should be changed regularly and
The first-aid box should be constructed from
checked to ensure that they remain in satisfactory
materials which will keep the contents dust and
condition. Irrigation systems that are connected
damp-free. It should be kept in a prominent
to the main water supply are satisfactory only
position and be easily recognized. By
where the supply is of a high bacteriological
international convention, the first-aid box is
standard.
identified by a white cross on a green
background.
FIRST-AID TRAINING
The contents of the first-aid box should be
restricted to the following: While any accident or incident requiring
• Instruction sheet giving general guidance. first-aid treatment can occur in the
pharmaceutical laboratory, special training
• Individually wrapped sterile adhesive dress-
should be given in the management of accidents
ings in a variety of sizes.
most likely to occur in these circumstances.
• Sterile eye-pads with attachment bandages. These include:
• Triangular bandages. 1. Cuts and abrasions, needle-stick injuries.
• Sterile coverings for serious wounds. 2. Burns, scalds, corrosive injuries.
• Safety pins. 3. Electrical injuries and shock.
• A selection of sterile but unmedicated wound 4. Asphyxia.
dressings. 5. Poisoning.
6. Accidents involving chemicals.
First-aid in Laboratory 221
1. Needle-stick Injuries, Cuts and • Sodium hydroxide.

Abrasions • Potassium hydroxide.
The individual should remove protective Regardless of the cause of the burn injury,
clothing, encourage free bleeding followed by the skin lesion is the same i.e. tissue destruction.
liberal washing of the affected part and hands in
soap and water; wounds should not be sucked. Immediate Treatment
Calendula lotion should be applied and a The immediate need is to reduce the heat.
protective first-aid dressing done. The accident Quench flames and cool tissues with cold water
should be recorded. The injured worker should or any other non-inflammable fluid in hand.
then go immediately to the first-aid room and Remove smouldering clothes by seizing them in
inform staff of the cause of the injury and the a non-burning area. Otherwise smother the
agent involved. If considered necessary, a flames by whatever means possible.
physician should be consulted and his advice Burns frequently occur in frightening
followed. circumstances and reassurance to the casualty is
of the greatest importance.
2. Burns, Scalds and Corrosive
The casualty may suffer from shock, related
Injuries
to the extent of the burned area and this is
Burns are caused by dry heat which may arise exacerbated by loss of fluid from the tissues and
from: by oozing from the wound. The injured area
• Fire, flame, contact with hot objects. rapidly becomes red, swollen and blistered.
• Friction. The aims of the first-aid treatment of burns
• Electrical current. are:
Scalds arise from moist heat and are a. To reduce the effects of heat and alleviate
produced by: pain.
• Hot water. b. To lessen contamination and the risk of in-
• Steam. fection.
• Hot oil. c. To reduce discomfort and swelling.
d. To ensure an adequate fluid intake.
The potential for accidents involving acids,
alkalis and other corrosive chemicals is high in e. To get the severely burned or scalded casu-
the health-care laboratory where such substances alty to medical attention as quickly as pos-
are in common use. sible.
Examples include: Immersion of the burned part in cold water,

if possible, will reduce the spread of heat in the
• Hydrochloric acid.
tissues and reduce the pain. The part should be
• Nitric acid. gently cleaned and dried. Lotions, ointments and
• Sulphuric acid. oil-based dressings should not be applied.
• Glacial acetic acid. Blisters should not be pricked. To avoid the risk
• Trichloroacetic acid. of interference to the local blood supply, anything
• Chromic acid. of a constricting nature should be removed or
loosened, e.g. rings, bracelets, belts, etc., before Fumes from strong acids or alkalis,
the part starts to swell. A lotion of Cantharis ø especially when heated are respiratory irritants
is applied to the part and Cantharis 30 gives and can produce pulmonary edema. Fumes from
internally. The casualty should be given small burning petrol have a very high carbon monoxide
and frequent cold drinks and protected from content.
draughts and cold. In casualties, seen some time The management of such casualties is:
after the injury, it is unnecessary to remove burnt
clothing since it has already been rendered sterile • Remove patient from the danger area.
by the heat. Wet clothing, however, should be • Treat for asphyxia.
removed. • Transfer the patient urgently for medical at-
If the burned area is liable to become dirty, tention.
e.g. hand or foot, it should be lightly covered by
a sterile or clean dressing. 3. Injuries Due to Electrical Current
Injury produced by electric current results
Burns From Corrosive Chemicals
from the passage of the current through the body.
It is important to flush the area with copious Several types of injury may occur.
amounts of running water. Contaminated clothing
should be removed but the first-aider should take Contact Burns
care not to contaminate himself during the These are usually found at the points of the
process. To prevent the accumulation of the body where the current has entered and left. Firm
corrosive substance underneath the affected part contact with moist skin is more damaging than
(sumping), free drainage should be ensured. After contact with dry skin. It should be appreciated
this decontamination procedure, the burned area that tissues deep to the skin may also be affected
is treated as a wound. and that the actual depth of the injury may not
Phenol derivatives (carbolic acid be apparent for some days. If the casualty is not
compounds) are commonly used in pharma- thrown clear, he may be fixed to the point of
ceutical laboratories. These substances penetrate contact and receive very severe local burns. The
rapidly and deeply into tissues. Unless quickly first-aider should switch off the current and pull
removed, their penetrative and corrosive action out the plug. If this is not possible the victim
continues. Systemic absorption can result in should be physically removed from danger. There
serious renal damage. After their immediate is the added danger to the first-aider attempting
treatment, casualties with phenol burns should to isolate the casualty from the electrical source.
be seen urgently by a doctor. Immediate surgery The first-aider should devise an imprompt system
may be necessary to limit further damage. for separating the victim from live contact
without touching him with bare hands. As
Additional Hazards moisture is a conductor, the first-aider should
Asphyxia is a common complication in burns ensure that he is standing on dry, non-conducting
caused by major fires; the oxygen having been material before attempting to remove the casualty
consumed by the fire. This is aggravated by from danger. This can then be attempted with a
smoke which irritates the respiratory tract and length of dry cloth, rubber sheet, non-metallic
lungs. rope or electricians rubber gloves. Contact with
the casualty’s arm pits should be avoided as these
may be moist from perspiration. First-aid If the unconscious subject is lying on his
treatment of burns may then be started. back, the tongue will fall back and block the
airway. To ensure an open airway:
Flash Burns
a. Support the nape of the neck and press the
If high voltage current jumps a gap, causing top of the head backwards.
an arc, the flash so produced may burn exposed
parts of the skin or damage the eyes. While the b. Press the angles of the jaw forward from
injury is usually superficial, it may look very behind.
alarming as a wide area will be blackened by the These manoeuvres extend the head on the
volatilized, metal; when cleaned, however, much neck and lift the tongue clear of the airway.
of the skin will be found to be intact. A flash If the breathing centre is capable of initiating
burn will usually affect both eyes; if only one breathing, as soon as the airway is opened the
eye is giving trouble the cause is probably a casualty will gasp several times and then start to
foreign body. If the eyes are affected, the casualty breathe.
should receive immediate medical attention.
If the casualty does not start to breathe
Ventricular Fibrillation and Shock spontaneously, then mouth-to-mouth
Although ventricular fibrillation is resuscitation should be attempted.
considered to be the main cause of death by
Opening the Airway
electrical shock, there is also some evidence that ii. Mouth-to-mouth Resuscitation:
death may be due either to asphyxia or cardiac
For mouth-to-mouth resuscitation the
arrest. Breathing may cease and the carotid pulse
casualty should remain in the “open-airway”
may be impalpable. Under these circumstances,
position. If there is any doubt that the casualty
the resuscitative procedure should commence as
may be infectious, use the resuscitation
a matter of urgency. There are three main steps:
mouthpiece. In cases of cyanide or similar
i. Ensure patent airways. poisoning, where the casualty’s expired air may
ii. Give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. be toxic to the first-aider, use the one-way valve
iii. Apply external cardiac compression. face mask.
i. To Ensure Patent Airways: The following steps should then be taken in

the order given:
a. Extend the casualty’s neck and tilt the head f. When you see the victim’s chest rise, remove
backwards. your mouth to allow the air to escape from
b. Open your mouth wide and take a deep his lungs, and turn your head to one side.
breath. g. Give the victim four inflations to saturate the
c. Pinch the victim’s nostrils together between blood with oxygen.
your index finger and thumb. h. Check the carotid pulse.
d. Seal your lips around the victim’s mouth; if If the carotid pulse is present, continue to
this is not possible use the mouth-to-nose inflate at the normal breathing rate of 12-18
technique. In this method, close the patient’s breaths per minute; if the stomach contents are
mouth during inflation with the thumb hold- regurgitated turn the victim’s head to one side
ing the lower jaw. and clean out his mouth. When there are signs
e. Blow into the victim’s lungs until they are of natural respiration, adjust your breathing to
filled. coincide with that of the victim. Signs of recovery
include return of natural color, quivering or slight
movement of the body and gasping. When
breathing is restored, place the victim in the
recovery position.
Clearing the Airway If the carotid pulse is absent, the victim’s
pupils are widely dilated and the body color
remains blue-grey, external cardiac compression
should be started while continuing to ventilate
the lungs in the ratio of one inflation of the lungs
to six or eight depressions of the sternum.
When the patient begins breathing unaided
Positioning for and no further first-aid is required place him/her
Mouth-to-mouth
Resuscitation in the recovery position.
iii. Recovery Position:
For placing the victim in the recovery
position follow the steps given below:
Positioning for • Kneel at the side of the casualty.
Mouth-to-mouth
Resuscitation • Turn the head towards you.
• Push the casualty’s nearest arm under his/
her back.
• Pull the other arm over the chest.
• Cross the far leg over the nearest leg.
Finding the • With one hand, grasp the casualty’s leg by
Carotid Pulse the clothing on the far hip.
• Pull the casualty over on your knees, while
protecting the head with your other hand.
• Bend the upper leg forward. iv. External Cardiac Compression

• Free the lower arm and extend it backwards. The method for external cardiac compression
• Place the upper arm in a bent position for- is as follows:
wards. • Place the victim on his back on a firm sur-
• Tilt the casualty’s head back to ensure a clear face, usually the floor.
airway. • Strike the chest over the area of the heart;
• Check the breathing. this may start the heart beating sponta-
neously.
• If there is no response, commence external
cardiac compression.
Recovery Position 1 Recovery Position 3
Recovery Position 2 Recovery Position 4
Recovery Position 5
• Observing the size of the pupils.

• Feeling for the carotid pulse.
• Watching for improvement in the victim’s
color.
The lung-heart resuscitation may have to be
continued until the victim gets definitive medical
aid. If there are two first-aiders, one should
undertake inflation of the lungs, note the size of
the pupils and feel for carotid pulsation while
the other undertakes cardiac compression.
Recovery Position 6; Readjusting the Airway
4. Asphyxia
• Kneel at the side of the patient. Asphyxia is produced by general lack of
• Define the lower half of the sternum. oxygen in the blood or by failure of its delivery
to the tissues. If untreated, breathing and heart
• Place the heel of your hand on this part of
action will stop.
the bone keeping the palm and fingers off
the chest. Clinically, the following features are noted:
• Cover this hand with your other hand. • Breathing rate and depth increase.
• Congestion of the head and neck occurs.
• With arms straight rock forward and press
down on the lower half of the sternum; the • Face, lips, conjunctivae and nail beds of the
pressure should be firm and controlled: er- fingers turn blue (cyanosis).
ratic or violent action is dangerous. In an • Noisy breathing with frothing may occur.
unconscious adult, the sternum can be • Consciousness is lost.
pressed towards the spine for 3.5-4.0 cms. • Fits may occur.
• Repeat the pressure once per second. In the health-care laboratory, asphyxia can
Check the effectiveness of the compression occur under a number of circumstances:
of the heart by:
Cardiac Compression 1 Cardiac Compression 2

• Conditions affecting the utilization of oxy- defective appliances, cracked pipes or flues in
gen: an enclosed, poorly ventilated space.
− By the blood — carbon monoxide poi- The inhalation of fumes from partial
soning. combustion of fuel and from internal combustion
− By the tissues — cyanide poisoning. exhausts are a danger.
• Local conditions affecting the airways: Clinically There is:
− Spasm — irritant gases. • Pink coloration of lips and skin.
− Obstruction — tongue falling back in the • Confusion, stupor.
unconscious casualty; swelling of tis- • A state resembling alcoholic intoxication.
sues in scalding.
If prolonged exposure has occurred, the
− Compression — swelling due to injury. victim may be in coma.
• Conditions affecting the respiratory centre:
The First-aid Actions Are:
− Poisoning. • If the victim is in a room or an enclosed
• Conditions affecting the mechanism of res- space, before entering, ventilate your lungs
piration: then hold your breath.
- Central origin — epilepsy, rabies, en- • Go in and get the victim out.
cephalitis. • If you cannot do so at once, cut off the source
− Regional origin — injury to upper part of gas.
of the spinal cord. • Obtain a full supply of fresh air by opening
• Compression of the chest: doors and windows.
− Crush injuries. • If a smouldering hazard exists, be very care-
ful not to increase the fire-risk by creating a
Treatment of Asphyxia is Aimed at draught.
• Ensuring an open airway so that air can reach
the lungs. 6. Accidents Involving Chemicals
• Ensuring an adequate circulation so that oxy- In these events prompt action is essential and
gen can reach the tissues. medical assistance is often necessary, but first-
If this is not achieved, then damage to the aid should not be delayed until medical aid
brain and other vital organs will occur. To attain arrives.
these treatment objectives both mouth-to-mouth Areas that have special or unusual chemical
respiration and external cardiac compression will hazards should be posted with appropriate
often be required. Success depends on immediate warning signs and signs that show the location
recognition and swift action. of safety showers and eye-wash stations.
5. Poisoning Eyes
Carbon-monoxide Poisoning If chemicals get into the eyes they should be
washed thoroughly with clean water for at least
With the introduction of non-toxic domestic
15 minutes. Such treatment, given promptly, will
gases, this should become much less prominent.
probably minimize damage to the eye, but no
In the work place it usually arises through
attempt should be made to touch the eye or to Lungs: Remove from exposure; rest and keep
remove particulate matter, this is part of medical warm; in severe cases, or if exposure has been
treatment. great, obtain medical attention.
Gassing Skin: Drench the skin copiously with water;
remove contaminated clothing; in severe cases
Casualties often arise after failure of a vessel
obtain medical attention; blisters or burns should
or connection resulting in the liberation of gas.
receive medical attention.
The gas may be recognized by smell, by the color
coding on a cylinder or by a notice displayed Mouth: Wash out the mouth thoroughly with
indicating the nature of the hazard. Generally, water and give water to drink together with milk
the affected person should be taken into the fresh of magnesia or milk. Keep patient warm and
air, clothing around the neck and waist loosened quiet.
and the victim kept warm. If breathing is shallow Alkalis
or weak, oxygen will have to be given by a
qualified person. If breathing has ceased, E.g., sodium, potassium, ammonium or
artificial respiration should be commenced calcium hydroxides.
immediately. Anyone exposed to toxic gases Lungs: Remove from exposure, rest and keep
should be kept under observation, however trivial warm; in severe cases or if exposure has been
the exposure may have been. great, obtain medical attention.
Chemical Contamination of Clothing Skin: Drench the skin with plenty of water;
remove contaminated clothing and wash before
Clothing may accidently become saturated
re-use; in severe cases, obtain medical attention.
with solvents or other chemical solutions. The
clothing should be removed immediately and Mouth: Wash out the mouth thoroughly with
decontamination procedures instituted. The water; give copious water followed by vinegar
victim should be kept warm. or 1% acetic acid to drink or give copious
amounts of lemon juice; obtain medical attention.
Accidents Involving Specific Chemicals
Narcotics
This section is devoted to examples of first-
aid actions appropriate to individual hazardous E.g., carbon tetrachloride, chloroform,
chemicals. Foresight is important in dealing with tetrachloroethane, anesthetic gases.
these hazards, and it is necessary for the Lungs: Remove from exposure, rest and keep
laboratory and each individual in it to be aware warm; in severe cases obtain medical attention
of the emergency procedures appropriate to each and apply artificial respiration if breathing has
situation. Where specific antidotes exist, these stopped.
should be posted together with instructions for
Skin: For narcotics which are also corrosive,
their use. Accidents arise from inhalation,
drench the skin with water and wash with soap
infection or exposure to skin.
and water; remove contaminated clothing and
Acids wash before re-use; unless contact has been
E.g., acetic, sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric slight, obtain medical attention.
and phosphoric acids. Mouth: Wash out the mouth thoroughly with
water.
Cyanides Skin: Remove contaminated clothing and

E.g., hydrogen cyanide, sodium or potassium swab contaminated skin with glycerol, liquid
cyanide, acetonitrile. polyethylene glycol or a mixture of liquid
polyethylene glycol (70 parts) and methylated
Lungs: Obtain medical attention; wear spirit (30 parts) for at least 10 minutes; obtain
breathing apparatus; remove casualty from medical attention; wash contaminated clothing
exposure and remove all clothing, place in the before re-use.
open air; if casualty is breathing, break a capsule
of amyl nitrite over a cloth and let the casualty Mouth: Wash out the mouth thoroughly with
inhale for 15-30 seconds each minute until water; give plenty of water or milk to drink;
trained personnel can administer cobalt edetate obtain medical attention.
injection; if breathing has stopped apply artificial Organophosphorus Compounds
respiration (use one-way valve mask) to aid
Lungs: Obtain medical attention; wear
inhalation of amyl nitrite.
breathing apparatus; remove casualty from
Skin: Obtain medical attention; administer exposure and remove clothing, placing it in the
amyl nitrite and proceed as above; if a cyanide open air; if breathing has stopped, apply artificial
antidote is preferred and the casualty is respiration, and persevere until medical aid
conscious, administer the antidote and when arrives.
vomiting has ceased, continue as above.
Mercury Compounds
Mouth: Obtain medical attention; administer
amyl nitrite and proceed as above; if a cyanide Lungs: Remove from exposure, rest and keep
antidote is preferred and the casualty is warm; obtain medical attention.
conscious, administer the antidote and when Skin: Drench the skin with water and wash
vomiting has ceased, continue as above. with soap and water; remove contaminated
clothing and wash before re-use; unless contact
Phenols
has been slight, obtain medical attention.
E.g., phenol, cresol.
Mouth: Wash out the mouth thoroughly with
Lungs: Remove from exposure, rest and keep
water and give a large quantity of milk to drink;
warm; in severe cases or if exposure has been
obtain medical attention.
great, obtain medical attention.
■
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Section 4
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METROLOGY
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4.1 Basic System of International Unit.
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4.2 Systems of Measuring.
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4.3 Comparison of Thermometric Scale.
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4.4 Conversion Unit and Conversion Factors.
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Home is where I work and I work everywhere.
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4-1
Basic System of International Unit
The latest system of measurement of quan- produced in vaccum corresponding to the tran-
tities is based on S.I. units. The S.I. unit is the sition between the levels 2p10 and 5d5.
abbreviation of System Internatinal d’ units. It is The kilogram, is the mass of a cylinder of
internationally accepted and was approved by the irridium and platinum kept at “International Bu-
General Conference of Weights and Measures reau of Weights and Measures”.
in 1960.
The second, is the unit of time; it is time
The basic S.I. units are: gap of 9192631770 periods of the radiation cor-
Meter; kilogram; second; ampere, kelvin; responding to the transition between two hyper-
candela and mole. fine levels of ground state of ceasium 133 atom.
Some physical quantities in the basic S.I. The kelvin, the measure of temperature, is
units and their symbols are given below: equal to 1/273.16 part of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water.
Physical Quantity Unit Symbol
1. Length meter m The ampere, is that constant current which
produces a force of 2x107 Newton per meter be-
2. Mass kilogram kg
tween these two parallel conductors of infinite
3. Time second s length kept 1 meter apart in vaccum.
4. Temperature kelvin K The candela, is the intensity at the surface
5. Luminous intensity candela Cd of 1/600.000 sq. metre of a black body at the
6. Electric current ampere A freezing point of platinum under a pressure
101325 Newton per sq. metre.
The meter, is the length of 1650763.73 wave
lengths or radiations of the atom of krypton-86
Mathematical Signs of Some Greek Alphabets Some Constants

Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol Electronic Charge (e) = 4.77 x 10-10 e.s.u.
Alpha α Theta θ Xi ξ Electronic Mass (m) = 9.035 x 1-033 gm.
Beta β Kappa κ Pi π Plank’s Constant (h) = 6.547 x 10-27 erg. sec.
Gamma γ Omega ω Rho ρ Avogadro’s Number (N) = 0.6064 x 1024/mole.
Delta δ Psi ω Sigma σ Boltzman’s Constant = 7.284 x 103
Epsilon ε Lambda λ Tau τ Rydberg’s Constant (Rn) = 1967.759/cm.
Eta η Mu μ Phi φ Mass of Hydrogen Atom = 1.67 x 10-24
Nu υ Chi χ
235
4-2
Systems of Measuring
WEIGHT and length are related and the units of volume

are comparable to the units of weight. The fun-
Means the measure of the respective gravi-
damental unit of measurement in the metric sys-
tational force acting upon a particular body,
which is directly proportional to its mass con-
tent. Variation of temperature, pressure, altitude
and latitude have an effect on the weight, and
which are to be considered where precise weigh-
ing is required.
MEASURE
Means determining the volume or extent a International Prototype Metre
particular body occupies, which varies apprecia-
bly with the rise and fall of temperature, spe- tem is the unit of length i.e., the meter. It is de-
cially in cases of gas and liquid. fined as the distance between 2 lines at 0° C on a
There are two systems of measuring drugs: platinum-iridium bar known as Internation Pro-
totype Meter which is deposited at the Internation
1. Metric system.
Bureau of Weights and Measures.
2. Apothecaries system.
The meter is 1,553,164.13 times the wave-
The Metric System: It is defined as the in- length of red cadmium line in air at 760 mm.
ternationally accepted decimal system of weights pressure at 15°C. It is equal to about 39.37 inches
and measures. It is the only legal system at and is written as 1m.
present. It is the one which is used in continental
Europe. It has the following advantages: The Litre, is the unit of capacity. It is the volume
units are divided into tenth, the unit of volume occupied by a mass of one kilogram of water at
4ºC. It is used to measure liquids. One litre oc- IMPERIAL SYSTEM (BRITISH)
cupies 1 c.c. of space. It is represented as 1 L. It
Applied to weights and measures, used
can be further divided into decilitre, centilitre
throughout the United Kingdom, instead of those
and millilitre.
various ones, which were formerly in local uses.
1L = 1000 ml.
• Measures of Mass or Weights
1ml = 1/1000 L.
Gram is the standard unit for weight. It is Pound Ounces Grains
(lb.) (oz.) (gr.)
the weight of 1 ml. of water at 4º C. It is used for
l = 16 = 7,000
measuring solid substances. It is represented as
1 gm. l = 437.5
• Measures of Mass or Weights • Measures of Capacity or Volume

10 milligrams (m. gm.) = 1 centigram Pint Fluid ounces Fluid drachms Minims
10 centigrams (c. gm.) = 1 decigram (Pt.) (Fl. oz.) (Fl. dr.) (M)
10 decigram (d. gm.) = 1 gram 0 £ oz £ Drach
10 grams (gm.) = 1 decagram l = 20 = 160 = 9600
10 decagram (D. gm.) = 1 hectogram 1 = 8 = 480
10 hectograms (H. gm.). = 1 kilogram l = 60
• Measures of Capacity or Volumes
10 millilitres (ml.) = 1 centilitre • Measures of Capacity to Weight (Impe-
10 centilitres (cl.) = 1 decilitre rial)
10 decilitres (dl.) = 1 litre 1 minim (M) = 0.91 troy grains.
10 litres (l.) = 1 decalitre 1 fluid drachm (fl. dr.) = 54.68 troy grains.
10 decalitres (dal.) = 1 hectolitre 1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.) = 437.5 troy grains.
10 hectolitres (hl.) = 1 kilolitre 1 fluid pound (fl. lb.) = 7,000 troy grains.
• Measures of Lineal or Lengths 1 pint (pt.) = 8,750 troy grains.
1 millimeter (mm.) = 10-3 meter.
1 centimeter (cm.) = 10-2 meter. APOTHECARY’S SYSTEM (U.S.A.)
1 decimeter (dm.) = 10-1 meter.
Applied by the pharmacists before 1979,
1 meter (m.) = Length of Inter-
based on troy ounce (T. oz.).
national proto
type meter at • Measures of Mass or Weights
0°C Pound Ounces Drachms Scruples Grains
1 decameter (dam.) = 10 meter. (lb) (oz.) (dr.) )∈( (gr.)
1 hectometer (hm.) = 102 meter. 32 32
1 micron (μ) = 10-6 meter. 1 = 12 = 96 = 288 =5,760
Relation of Capacity to Weight 1 = 8 = 24 = 480
1 litre (L) = 1,000 mils.= 1,000.028 c.c.= 1 = 3 = 60
997.18 grams (at 20°C). 1 = 20
Systems of Measuring 237
• Measures of Capacity or Volumes 1 pound (lb.) = 453.59 gram
Gallon Pints Fluid Fluid Minims

1 ounce (oz.) = 28.350 gram
(gal.) (pt.) ounces drachms (M) 1 grain (gr.) = 0.0648 gm. (approx.).
C 0 (fl. oz.) (fl. dr.) Measures of Length
f32 f 3
2 1 meter (m) = 39.370 inches or
1 =8 =128 =1,024 =61,440 3.280833 feets or
1 = 16 = 128 =7,680 1.093611 yards.
1 = 8 = 480
1 centimeter (cm.) = 0.39370 inch.
1 = 60
1 millimeter (mm.)= 0.039370 inch
Relation of Capacity to Weight (Apothecary’s)
1 micron (μ) = 0.00003937 inch.
1 minim (M) = 0.949 troy grain.
1 inch (in.) = 25.400 millimeters or
1 fluid drachm (fl. dr.) = 56.96 troy grains. 2.5400 centimeters.
1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.) = 465.69 troy grains. 1 foot (ft.) = 304.80 millimeters or
1 pint (pt.) =7,261.11troy grains. 0.3048 meters or 30.480
centimeters.
1 gallon (gal.) = 58,328.88 troy grains.
1 yard (yd.) = 914.40 millimeters or
0.9144 meters 91.440 cen-
RELATIONS OF METRIC AND IMPE- timeters.
RIAL SYSTEM
Measures of Capacity TABLE OF APPROXIMATE EQUIVA-
1 litre ( lit.) = 1.7598 pints or 35.196 LENCES ADOPTED IN STATING
fluid ounces or 0.2201 DOSES
gallon.
Millilitres Minims Millilitres Minims
1 millilitre (ml.) = 16.984 minims. Grams Grains Grams Grains
1 pint (pt.) = 568.25 mils. or 0.56825 (Metric) (Imperial) (Metric) (Imperial)
litre.
10 150 0.8 12
1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.) = 28.412 mils or
0.028412 litre. 8 120 0.6 10
6 90 0.5 8
1 fluid drachm (fl.dr.) = 3.5515 mils.
5 75 0.4 6
1 minim (min.) = 0.059192 mil.
4 60 0.3 5
1 gallon (gal.) = 4.5460 litres. 3 45 0.25 4
Measures of Weight 2.6 40 0.2 3
1 kilogram (kg.) = 2.2046 pounds or 154.32 2 30 0.15 2½
grains or 35.274 ounces. 1.6 25 0.12 2
1 gram (gm.) = 15.432 grains or 0.0353 1.3 20 0.1 1½
ounces. 1 15
1 milligram (mg.) = 0.015432 grain
Milligrams Grains Milligrams Grain * Standard drop measure (as per recommen-
dation of Brussels conference - 1902):
80 11/3 2.5 1/24 • External diameter at the delivery end is 3 mm.
60 1 2 1/30
• Deliver 20 drops of water, when held verti-
50 3/4 1.5 1/40 cally, total weight of which is between 0.9
40 3/5 1.2 1/50 gm. to 1.1 gm. at 15°C.
30 1/2 1 1/60
1 drop is not exactly 1 minim and 60 drops
25 2/5 0.8 1/80 is not exactly 1 fluid drachm (fl. dr.).
20 1/3 0.6 1/100
Ordinarily 100 drops or 60 minims of water
16 1/4 0.5 1/120
is equivalent to 1 fl. dr. 1 drop is generally con-
12 1/5 0.4 1/160 sidered as being about a minims. However, drops
10 1/6 0.3 1/200 vary so much in size that they should never be
8 1/8 0.25 1/240 used for children nor as a measure of powerful
drugs.
DOMESTIC /HOUSEHOLD ** Tea-spoon:
MEASURES (APPROXIMATE) There is no definite standard for it. Differ-
ent sizes of spoons are available. An average 1
Domestic English Metric teaspoon is equal to 5 ml.
Measures Equivalents Equivalents
Note: Every house should have a measuring
1 drop* = 1 minim = 0.6 ml. glass in which well-marked garduations are eas-
1 tea spoonful** = 1 fluid drachm = 4 mils/5 mils. ily visible. This rules out approximation of any
½ tea spoonful = ½ fluid drachm = 2 ml. kind. A homoeopathic physician should have
1 desert spoonful = 2 fluid drachm = 8 mils. proper knowledge about domestic measures so
that a housewife can easily give or take the proper
1 table-spoonful = 4 fluid drachm = 15 mils.
amount of medicine without any hesitation.
2 table-spoonful = 8 fluid drachm = 30 mils.
1 wine-glassful = 2 fluid drachm = 60 mils.
■
1 tea-cupful = 4 fluid ounces = 120 mils.
1 tumblerful (small) = 8 fluid ounces = 240 mils.
1 tumblerful (large) = 10 fluid ounces = 300 mils.
239
4-3
Comparison of Thermometric Scale
Temp. - 40° to 100°C
Cent Reau Fhr Cent Reau Fhr Cent Reau Fhr
°C °R °F °C °R °F °C °R °F
-40 -32.0 -40.0 21 6.8 69.8 61 48.2 141.8
-38 -30.4 -36.4 22 17.6 71.6 62 49.6 143.6
-36 -28.8 -32.8 23 18.4 73.4 63 50.6 145.4
-34 -27.2 -29.2 24 19.2 75.2 64 51.2 147.2
-32 -25.6 -25.6 25 20.0 77.0 65 52.0 149.0
-30 -24.0 -22.0 66 52.8 150.8
26 20.8 78.8
-28 -22.4 -18.4 67 53.6 152.6
27 21.6 80.6
-26 -20.8 -14.8 68 54.4 154.4
28 22.4 82.0
-24 -19.2 -11.2 69 55.2 156.2
29 23.2 84.2
-22 -17.6 -7.6 70 56.0 158.0
30 24.0 86.0
-20 -16.0 -4.0 71 56.8 159.8
31 24.8 87.8
-18 -14.4 -0.4 72 57.6 161.6
32 25.6 89.6
-16 -12.8 +3.2 73 58.4 183.4
33 26.6 91.4
-14 -11.2 6.8 74 59.2 165.2
34 27.2 93.2
-12 -9.6 10.4 75 60.0 167.0
-10 -8.0 14.0 35 28.0 95.0
36 28.8 96.8 76 60.8 168.8
-8 -6.4 17.6
37 29.6 98.6 77 61.6 170.6
-6 -4.8 21.2
-4 -3.2 24.8 38 30.4 100.4 78 62.4 172.4
-2 -1.6 28.4 39 31.2 102.2 79 63.2 174.2
0 0.0 32.0 40 32.0 104.0 80 64.0 176.0
+ 1 +0.8 33.8 41 32.8 105.8 81 64.8 177.8
2 1.6 35.6 42 33.6 107.6 82 65.6 179.6
3 2.4 37.4 43 34.4 109.4 83 66.4 181.4
4 3.2 39.2 44 35.2 111.2 84 67.2 183.2
5 4.0 41.0 45 36.0 113.0 85 68.0 185.0
6 4.8 42.8 46 36.8 114.8 86 68.8 186.8
7 5.8 44.6 47 37.6 116.6 87 69.6 188.6
8 6.4 46.4 48 38.4 118.4 88 70.4 190.4
9 7.2 48.2 49 39.2 120.2 89 71.2 192.2
10 8.0 50.0 50 40.0 122.0 90 72.2 194.0
11 8.3 51.8 51 40.8 123.8 91 72.8 195.8
12 9.6 53.6 52 41.6 125.6 92 73.6 197.6
13 10.4 55.4 53 42.4 127.4 93 74.4 199.4
14 11.2 57.2 54 43.2 129.2 94 75.2 201.2
15 12.0 59.0 55 44.0 131.0 95 76.0 203.0
16 12.8 60.8 56 44.8 133.8 96 76.8 204.8
17 13.6 62.6 57 45.6 134.3 97 77.6 206.6
18 14.4 64.6 58 46.4 136.4 98 78.4 208.4
19 15.2 66.02 59 47.2 138.2 99 79.2 210.2
20 16.0 68.2 60 48.2 140.0 100 80.0 212.0
4-4
Conversion Units and Conversion Factors
CONVERSION OF UNITS
Unit Inches Pounds Tolas Seers Miles Yards Inches Tone Gallons
to (av) to to to to to to to to
Cms. Kg. Grams Kgs. Kms. Meter M. Mtrs Kilos Litres
1 2-54 0-45 11-66 0-93 1-61 0-91 25-40 1016-05 4-55

2 5-08 0-91 23-33 1-87 3-22 1-13 50-80 2032-09 9-09
3 7-62 1-36 34-99 2-80 4-82 2-74 76-20 3048-14 13-64
4 10-16 1-81 46-66 3-73 6-44 3-66 111-60 4046-19 18-18
5 12-70 2-27 5832 4-67 8-05 4-57 127-00 5080-23 22-73
6 15-24 2-72 69-98 560 9-66 5-49 152-40 6069-28 27-28
7 17-78 3-18 81-65 6-53 11-27 6-40 177-80 7112-23 31-08
8 20-32 3-63 93-31 7-46 12-88 7-32 203-20 8128-38 36-37
9 22-86 4-08 104-97 8-43 14-48 8-23 228-60 9144-42 40-91
10 25-40 4-54 116-64 9-33 16-09 9-14 254-00 10160-47 45-46
20 50-80 9-08 233-32 18-77 32-18 18-30 508-00 20320-94 90-92
30 76-20 13-62 350-00 28-15 48-30 27-45 762-00 30481-41 136-38
40 101-60 18-16 466-64 37-54 64-40 36-60 1016-00 40641-88 181-84
50 127-00 22-70 583-32 46-93 80-53 45-74 1270-00 50802-35 227-30
100 254-00 45-40 1166-64 93-00 161-00 91-50 2540-00 101604-70 454-64
SOME CONVERSION FACTORS
S.No. Unit to be Converted Unit to Which Converted Multiplication Factors

LENGTH Multiply With
1. To convert Centimeter To Inches 0-3937
2. ” ” Inches ” Centimeter 2-541
3. ” ” Meters ” Yards 1-0936
4. ” ” Yards ” Meter 0-9144
5. ” ” Miles “ Kilometers 1-6093
6. “ “ Kilometers “ Feets 3280-8

7. “ “ Kilometer “ Miles 0-6241
8. “ “ Meters “ Feets 3-281
9. “ “ Millimeters “ Inches 0-03937
MASS
10. “ “ Kilogram “ Pounds 2-2046
11. “ “ “ “ Seers 1-0717
12. “ “ “ “ Tons 0-0000842
13. “ ” Pounds “ Tons 0-0005
14. “ “ Pounds “ Kilograms 0-4536
15. “ “ Quintals “ Maunds 2-679
16. “ “ “ “ Hundred mt. 1-968
17. “ “ Seers “ Kilograms 0-9331
18. “ “ Tons “ Kilograms 1016-0
19. “ “ Tons “ Pounds 2000-0
20. “ “ Maunds “ Quintals 0-03732
21. “ “ Ounces “ Grams 28-349
22. “ “ Grams “ Ounces 6-03527
23. “ “ Gram “ Tolas 0-857
24. “ “ Tolas “ Grams 11-6638
AREA
25. “ “ Sq. Inches “ Sq. Feet .00694
26. “ “ Sq. Feet “ Sq. Inches 144-00
27. “ “ Sq. Cm. “ Sq. Inches 0-155
28. “ “ Sq. Inches “ Sq. Cm. 6452
29. “ “ Sq. Meter “ Sq. Feet 10-764
30. “ “ Sq. Km. “ Acres 247-1
31. “ “ Acres “ Hectares 0-4047
32. “ “ Sq. Yard “ Sq. Meter 0-8501
33. “ “ Sq. Meters “ Sq. Yard .196
VOLUME
34. “ “ Cu. Cm. “ Cu. Inch 16-387
35. “ “ Cu. Feet “ Cu. Meter 0-028320
36. “ “ Cu. Meter “ Cu. Feet 35-3144
37. “ “ Cu. Meter “ Cu. Yard 1-308
38. “ “ Cu. Yard “ Cu. Meter .7646
39. “ “ Litres “ Gallons 0-22
40. “ “ Gallon “ Litres 4-546
41. “ “ Cu. Yard “ Cu. Feet 27-00
42. “ “ Cu. Feet “ Cu. Yard 0-3704
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Section - 5
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PREPARATION TO PRESERVATION
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5.1 Explanation of Some Terms.
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5.2 Methods of Preparation of Homoeopathic Drugs.
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5.3 Modern Methods of Preparation of Drugs.
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5.4 Comparison: New Method and Old Method.
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5.5 Preparation of Medicines From Sarcodes, Nosodes.
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5.6 Methods of Preparation - GHP.
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5.7 Methods of Preparation - HPUS.
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5.8 Standardisation of Medicine.
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I conceal no steps no manipulation in the process.
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5-1
Explanation of Some Terms
Tincture: A solution prepared with the help after them; and they are the precursors of the
of alcohol by treating the drug substance, whether corresponding potencies of the respective drugs.
it is of vegetable, animal or mineral origin. It Attenuation: To attenuate means to make
contains only the soluble part of a drug. slender or thin, and ‘attenuation’ means the act
Mother Tincture: It is the original tincture of attenuating. During the attenuating process,
prepared with the aid of alcohol, directly from the material content of the drug continues to be
the crude drug, secured from any source. They rarefied progressively. As such, in homoeopathy
are prepared according to the homoeopathic the word ‘attenuation’ is used synonymously with
technique, retaining all the medicinal properties dilution or potentisation.
of a drug. Dilution: It is the method of mixing one
Solution: It is a mixture of a soluble liquid with another liquid. To dilute means to
substance in water, or a mixture of two or more make or to become thin, and dilution means a
aqueous solutions. diluted thing or being diluted.
Mother Solution: The original solution Serial Dilution: It means that each dilution
prepared with the aid of purified water, directly is prepared from the dilution that immediately
from the crude drugs of any origin, which are proceed it.
not soluble in alcohol. Drug Power or Drug Strength: It means
Mother Powder (Trituration): The original the strength of a drug in a mother tincture, mother
powder prepared with the aid of saccharum lactis solution or mother powder. It indicates the
directly from the crude drug of any kingdom, amount of the drug in proportion to its solvent.
which is neither soluble in alcohol nor in purified Magma: Any crude mixture of mineral or
water. organic material (i.e., plant or animal) in a thin
Mother tinctures, mother solutions and pasty state, a doughy pasty mass.
mother powders are denoted by the sign ø (theta)
Note: But a doughy mass left after expression of Filter: Means to separate the insoluble
a liquid part of a substance is not a magma in suspended materials from a liquid, solution or
pharmacy. tincture, passing the liquid through some porus
Menstrum: It is a liquid which is capable medium which will not allow the suspended
of penetrating the tissues of plant or animal materials to pass through, and the process is
substances and capable of dissolving the active known as filtration.
principles. Maceration: It is a specific process, being
Merc: It is the inert, fibrous, and insoluble used from ancient times. In this process, a
material remaining after expression of the juice pulverized or finely divided drug or substance is
from drug material or after maceration or simply soaked or dipped for a long time in a
percolation. menstrum, and is properly shaked occasionally,
until the menstrum thoroughly penetrates the
Decant: Means to pour slowly the resulting
cellular structure of the dissolved substance, so
solution or tincture from a mixture of solid
that the soluble content is softened and dissolved
substances in a liquid vehicle, without disturbing
completely.
the unmixed solid material or the sediment at
the bottom. The process is known as decantation. Succussion and Trituration: These are the
methods by which mechanical energy is
Strain: Means to separate out the tincture
delivered to our preparation in order to imprint
with force from solid drug materials and the
the pharmacological message of the original drug
process is known as straining.
upon the molecules of the dilutent.
■
247
5-2
Methods of Preparation of
Homoeopathic Drugs
There are three essential processes involved “trituration”, it is a prolonged circular grinding
in preparation of remedies: with a mortar and pestle. Once this trituration
1. By preparing mother tinctures. has obtained 6x or 1/106, this can be dispersed
into alcohol water diluent. Thereafter it is treated
2. By preparing mother solutions.
like a soluble substance.
3. By triturating the medicinal substance.
From the pharmaceutical point of view there OLD METHOD OF
are two main classes of original substances: PREPARATION OF DRUG
a. Soluble. SUBSTANCES
b. Insoluble. From § 264 - 271 of Organon of Medicine,
Hahnemann has given instructions in preparing
Soluble: In the class of soluble substances,
homoeopathic medicine from vegetable, animal
mother tinctures (alcohol-water extraction) of the
and mineral ‘drug substances.’
plant material are used. The symbol ø is used to
denote the mother tincture of any soluble Dr. Hahnemann discovered his own
substance. For soluble substances, alcohol and methods of making the mother preparation and
water are applied. At each stage, rhythmical the succeeding potencies.
violent agitations are carried out, either by hand His classifications in making mother
or machine, and this is known as “succussion”. preparations are still maintained by some
Insoluble: Insoluble original (i.e. natural) manufacturing concerns.
substances are prepared in a different way. The There are three ways of preparation
diluent in one sense is lactose. The physical depending upon the sources, solubility and
process applied at each stage is known as moisture content of the drug substance.
A. MOTHER TINCTURE C. TRITURATIONS

By immensing the drug substance of the Prepared by grinding the drug source.
animal and vegetable kingdom in strong alcohol. • Class VII
• Class I Trituration of drug, insoluble medicinal
Medium juicy plants, mainly European. substances.
• Class II • Class VIII
Medium juicy plants, also mainly European. Triturations of liquid insoluble medicinal
• Class III substances.
Least juicy plants, all American and some • Class IX

European. Trituration of fresh animal and vegetable
• Class IV substance. This method has now been discarded.
Dried vegetable and animal substances.
SOLVENTS (VEHICLES) USED
B. MOTHER SOLUTION The solvents or vehicles generally used in
the preparation of mother tincture or solution are:
Prepared by dissolving drug substances of
• Strong Alcohol: Mother tinctures are usually
minerals and chemical origin in purified water
prepared with strong alcohol as alcohol is a
or alcohol.
great solvent. Besides alcohol, no other
• Class V solvent has so unique a power of extracting
Aqueous solutions, which are water soluble. medicinal properties from the crude drug
It is further divided into two classes. ingredients. Also, it prevents decomposition
- Class V-A of the drug substances and the preparations
remain intact when prepared with strong
These are easily soluble in water. alcohol.
- Class V-B Example: Aconite ø; Belladonna ø
These are easily soluble in water but require • Purified Water: Some acids like nitric acid
a large quantity of water to dissolve in. or those in class V do not dissolve in alcohol.
• Class VI Their tinctures are prepared with purified
Alcoholic solutions, which are alcohol water. However their higher potencies are
soluble. It is also further classified into two prepared with dispensing alcohol i.e.
groups. rectified spirit 60 O.P.
- Class VI-A Example: Niric acid ø.

• Glycerine: Certain animal poisons are
These are easily soluble in alcohol.
prepared and preserved in glycerine.
- Class VI-B
Example: Lachesis ø, Elaps ø, Crotalus ø,
These are also easily soluble in alcohol but etc.
acquire a large quantity to dissolve in. Note: Sugar of milk is the vehicle used in
trituration.
Methods of Preparation of Homoeopathic Drugs 249
I. PREPARATION OF MOTHER PREPARATION OF MOTHER

TINCTURES TINCTURE
Dr. Hahnemann classified the drugs obtained
DEFINITION OF TINCTURE
from vegetable kingdom and some from animal
All alcoholic or hydroalcoholic solutions sources for the preparation of mother tincture
prepared from an animal or vegetable drug or a into four classes, depending upon their juice
chemical substance. content:
• Class - I (most juicy plants).
DEFINITION OF MOTHER TINCTURE • Class - II (medium juicy plants).
According to W.A. Dewey, “The strongest • Class - III (least juicy plants).
liquid preparation of drugs used in homoeopathy, • Class- IV (dried vegetable and animal
and made by macerating or dissolving the drug substances and also from fresh animals).
or portions of it in alcohol or water.
Tincture preparation for Class I to III is given
It is denoted by ø. Mother tincture is used to in the 5th edition of Organon of Medicine,
prepare the potency of the respective drug. footnote 267.
“Although equal parts of alcohol and freshly
DRUG POWER OF A MOTHER
expressed juice are usually the most suitable
TINCTURE
proportion for effecting the deposition of the
It is the amount of crude drug contained in a fibrinous and albuminous matters yet for plants
tincture. Drug power 1/6 means that the tincture that contain much thick mucus (e.g. Symphytum
contains 1 part of drug substance and 5 parts of officinale, Viola tricolor, etc.), or an excess of
solvent. albumen (e.g. Aethusa cynapium, Solanum
Drug power is also called drug strength. It is nigrum, etc.), a double proportion of alcohol is
estimated by the proportion of the medicinal generally required for this object. Plants that are
substances which it represent, just at the strength very deficient in juice, as Oleander, Buxus,
of a solution or trituration is estimated by the Taxus, Ledum, Sabina, etc. must first be pounded
proportion of medicinal substance, it contains. up alone into a moist, fine mass, and then stirred
up with a double quantity of a alcohol, in order
Utility of a Drug Power of a Mother Tincture that the juice may combine with it and being thus
Knowledge of drug power is important for extracted by the alcohol, may be pressed out;
potentisation from mother tincture to prepare the these latter may also when dried be brought with
1st potency as depending upon the drug power, milk-sugar to million fold trituration, and then
the amount of vehicle and tincture is determined. be further diluted and potentized”.
Suppose, drug power of a mother tincture is ½, We find that various homoeopathic
then potentisation is carried under the centesimal pharmacopoeias have deviated from
scale by taking 2 minims of the mother tincture Hahnemann’s method of preparation of mother
and 98 minims of dispensing alcohol. Similarly, tinctures and potencies.
under decimal scale it is done by taking 2 minims
of mother tincture and 8 minims of alcohol.
Class - I pharmacopoeia) is cut into small pieces

The plants in class I contain a large quantity with a well-polished steel knife, free
of juice. It includes most of the European plants. from rust on a clean chopping board.
• Pound it to a pulp in a porcelain mortar
The tincture is prepared by mixing equal
and pestle.
parts by weight of the drug juice and alcohol (i.e.
in 1:1 ratio). • The pulp is now enclosed in a clean linen
cloth and the juice expressed by means
The fundamental rule for preparation of
of a press, or by wringing the cloth.
dilution and potentization in this class has been
described in Hahnemann’s Materia Medica Pura • Weigh the expressed juice and then pour
under the drug ‘Belladonna’ (it is applicable to into a glass jar.
juicy, but not viscid material and not containing • Immediately add an equal quantity by
resins, terpins and volatile oils). weight of strong alcohol to it or
fermentation may take place.
Preparation of Mother Tincture
• Shake the mixture vigorously for a few
1. Required Material: minutes and pour into a well-stoppered
bottle. Allow it to stand for eight days
a. Ingredients:
in a cool, dark place.
• Selected drug substances i.e. fresh
plants. • The clear supercumbent fluid is then
• Strong alcohol. decanted and filtered. Pour this filtered
juice into a clean phial provided with a
b. Apparatus: best quality new, non-porous, velvet
• Wooden chopping board. cork.
• Knife.
• Porcelain mortar and pestle. 3. Calculation of Drug Power:
• Horn made spatula. Drug Solvent/Vehicle Mother
• Linen cloth, new and sterile. Substance (Strong Alcohol) Tincture
• A small clean beaker.
• Glass-stoppered phial. 1 ml. 1 ml. 1 ml.
• Glass funnel with stand.
• Filter paper. In 2 ml. mother tincture, the drug substance
• Clean phial with a new, non-porous is 1 ml. In 1 ml. mother tincture, the drug
velvet cork. substance is ½ ml.
• Balance with weight box. ∴ Drug power (D.P.) = ½.
• Pen.
• Paper. Potentisation by Succussion
• Gums. a. Centesimal Scale:
• Scissors.
For 1st Potency, 1c: Take 2 minims of the
2. Procedure: mother tincture and 98 minims of dilute alcohol.
• The fresh plant or plant parts like, root, Mix and give 10 downward strokes of equal
bark, leaves, etc. (as prescribed in the strength (succussions). The 1st potency is ready.
For 2nd Potency, 2c: Take 1 minim of the Hyoscyamus niger

1st potency and 99 minims of dispensing alcohol. Lilium tiglinum
Mix and give 10 downward strokes of equal Menyanthes trifoliata
strength. The second potency is ready. Millefolium
All succeeding potencies are prepared by Petroselinum sativum
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency and Plantago major
99 minims of dispensing alcohol followed by 10 Ranunculus bulbosus
downward strokes. Solanum nigrum
b. Decimal Scale: Taraxacum officinalis
For 1st Potency, 1x: Take 2 minims of the Thlaspi bursa pastoris
drug mother tincture and 8 minims of dilute Solanum mammosum
alcohol. Mix the and give 10 downward strokes Urtica urens
of equal strength (succussion). The 1st potency Verbascum thapsus
is ready. 2. Roots :
For 2nd Potency, 2x: Take 1 minim of 1x Arum dracontium
potency and 9 minims of dilute alcohol and mix. Causticum
Give 10 downward strokes of equal strength to Arum trifolium
obtain 2x potency. Arum maculatum
All succeeding potencies are prepared by Bryonia alba
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency and 9 Cicuta virosa
minims of dilute alcohol followed by 10 Cyclamen europeum
downward strokes. Rumex crispus
Drugs Under Class I Tamus communis
3. Stem with Leaves:
Vegetable Source:
Clematis erecta
1. Whole Plant:
Aconitum napellus 4. Modified Stem (Bulb):
Anagallis europaeum Colchicum autumnale
Asarum europaeum 5. Leaves:
Bryophyllum calycinum
Belladonna
Calendula officinalis
Bellis perennis
Cephalandra indica
Chamomilla
Digitalis purpurea
Chelidoneum majus
Lactuca virosa
Conium maculatum Lamium album
Convallaria majalis Sambucus nigra
Cynadon dactylon Sempervivum tectorum
Drosera Solanum arrebenta
Dulcamara 6. Flowers:
Gratiola officinalis Cannabis sativa
7. Fruits: gives a hundred fold potentized dilution; one

Rhamnus catharticus drop of this is shaken in the same way with
8. Seeds: another 100 drops of fresh alcohol which gives
Avena sativa the ten-thousand dilution and one drop of this
9. Bark: shaken with 100 drops of alcohol, the million
Granatum fold. And thus in thirty such phials, the potentized
dilution is brought to the decillion fold.”
Instructions by Dr. Hahnemann
Dr. Hahnemann gave instructions for the Class - II
preparation of the mother tincture from the juicy This class includes plants which contain only
plant. “Fresh juice of the freshly gathered a small quantity of juice. These are also mostly
indigenous plants is first extracted. In order to European.
obtain the medicinal qualities in the most The fundamental rule for preparation of
complete and certain manner as in fresh state, it tincture in this class has been described in
is immediately mixed with equal parts of alcohol Hahnemann’s Materia Medica Pura under
(of a strength sufficient to burn in a lamp). Now, ‘Thuja’.
it is kept in a well-stoppered bottle for a day and “The green leaves of the Thuja occidentalis
a night. This results in deposition of fibrinous are first bruised to a fine pulp by themselves,
and albuminous matters at the bottom of the then stirred up with two thirds of their weight of
bottle. Then the clear supercumbent fluid is to alcohol and the juice then expressed.”
be decanted off for medicinal use. This is applied to non-mucilagenous mate-
Alcohol is added to prevent any fermentation rials containing resins, terpins or volatile oils.
of vegetable juice. The entire medicinal power
of the vegetable juice is thus retained (perfect
and uninjured) forever by keeping the 1. Principle:
preparations in well-corked bottles and protected Prepare the tincture by adding two parts of
from sunlight, heat and strong-smelling strong alcohol by weight to three parts of
substances. the juice of the plant by weight (i.e., the ratio
is 2 : 3).
Instructions by Dr. Hahnemann — § 267,
Organon of Medicine, 5th Edition. 2. Required Material:
Hahnemann also gave instructions for a. Ingredients:
preparation of dilution and potentisation of juicy • Selected drug substance i.e., the
plants. plant or its parts.
• Strong alcohol.
This is given in Materia Medica Pura, Vol.
I, under ‘Belladonna.’ b. Apparatus:
• Wooden chopping board.
“Two drops of the juice mixed with equal
parts of alcohol, taken as unity (as with other • Knife.
vegetable juices), and shaken with 99 to 100 • Porcelain mortar and pestle.
drops of alcohol by two downward strokes of • Horn made spatula.
the arm (whose hand holds the mixing phial) • Linen cloth, new and sterile.
• A small clean beaker. However, loss of medicinal substance in 1

• A glass-stoppered phial. c.c. is = 1/3 c.c.
• Glass funnel with stand. ∴ Loss of medicinal substance in 3 c.c. is =
• Another clean phial provided with 1/3 x 3 c.c. = 1 c.c.
best quality of new, non-porous,
Hence, net medicinal substance left = (3 -1)
velvet cork.
c.c. = 2 c.c.
• Filter paper.
• Balance. There is no loss of vehicle (strong alcohol).
• Weight.
Net Medicinal Solvent/Vehicle Mother
• Pen.
Substance (Strong Alcohol) Tincture
• Paper.
2 c.c. 2 c.c. 4 c.c.
• Gum.
• Scissors. In 4 c.c. mother tincture, net medicinal
3. Procedure: substance is = 2 c.c
• The fresh plant or parts of the plant are ∴ in 1 c.c. mother tincture, net medicinal
cut into small pieces with a well- substance is = 2/4 c.c. =½ c.c.
polished steel knife on a clean chopping Drug power (D.P) = ½ c.c.
board. Potentisation by Succussion
• Pound them to a pulp porcelain with
mortar and pestle. a. Centesimal Scale:
• Weigh the chopped drug. For every three For 1st Potency, 1c: Take 2 minims of the
parts of the drug, add two parts by mother tincture and mix with 98 minims of dilute
weight of alcohol. alcohol. Give 10 downward strokes of equal
• Moisten the entire quantity of chopped strength. The 1st potency is ready.
drug with just the quantity of alcohol For 2nd Potency, 2c: Take 1 minim of the
necessary to bring the entire mass into a 1st potency and mix with 99 minims of
thick pulp. After this, the remaining dispensing alcohol. Give 10 downward strokes
portion of alcohol is added to the drug of equal strength. The 2nd potency is ready.
and kept aside for two or three days.
All succeeding potencies are prepared by
• Strain the above mix through a piece of mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with
new linen cloth. 99 minims of dispensing alcohol and giving 10
• Allow the tincture thus obtained to stand downward strokes.
for eight days in a well-stoppered bottle,
in cool, dark place. b. Decimal Scale:
• After eight days, filter and pour the For 1st Potency, 1x: Take 2 minims of the
tincture into a clean phial provided with mother tincture and mix with 8 minims of dilute
the best quality, velvet cork. alcohol. Then give 10 downward strokes of equal
strength to obtain. 1x potency.
4. Calculation of Drug Power
Ratio of medicinal substance: Strong alcohol For 2nd Potency, 2x: Take 1 minim of 1x
= 3:2 potency and mix with 9 minims of dilute alcohol.
Give 10 downward strokes of equal strength to Preparation of Mother Tincture

obtain 2x potency. 1. Principle:
All succeeding potencies are prepared by Prepare the tincture by adding two parts by
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with 9 weight of alcohol to one part of the plant or
minims of dilute alcohol and giving 10 downward plant part.
strokes.
2. Required material:
Drugs Under Class II a. Ingredients:
Vegetable Kingdom: • Selected drug substance, plants or
• Whole Fresh Plant: their part.
Euphrasia (excluding root) • Strong alcohol.
Mercurialis perennis b. Utensils and Apparatus:
Thymus serpyllum • Wooden chopping board.
Viola tricolor • Knife.
Vinca minor • Porcelain mortar and pestle.
Veronica beccabunga • Horn made spatula.
• Leaves: • Linen cloth, new and sterile.
• A small, clean beaker.
Oleander
• A glass-stoppered phial.
Rhus toxicodendron
• Another clean phial with new non-
Thuja occidentalis
porous, velvet cork.
Uva ursi
• Glass funnel with stand.
Viscum album. • Filter paper.
• Fresh Roots : • Balance
Symphytum (G.H.P) • Weight box.
• Bark: • Pen.
Mezereum • Paper.
• Buds: • Gum.
Prunus spinosa • Scissors.
• Twigs: 3. Procedure:
Taxus baccata • Cut the fresh plant or plant parts into
• Strobila (Catkin): small pieces with a well polished steel
Lupulus knife on a clean chopping board.
• Pound it to a pulp in a porcelain mortar
Class-III and pestle.
This class includes plants which are less • Weigh the pulp and transfer it into a glass
juicy. They are mostly American plants. jar.
However, some European plants are also • Add double the quantity by weight of
included in this class. strong alcohol to it.
• First moisten the pulp with 1/6th part of For 2nd Potency, 2c: Take 1 minim of the
alcohol and thoroughly mix it. The rest 1st potency and mix with 99 minims of alcohol.
of the alcohol is then added and kept in Give ten downward strokes of equal strength to
a well-stoppered bottle. obtain the 2nd centesimal potency.
• Allow the entire mixture to stand for 8 All succeeding potencies are prepared by
days in a cool, dark place. mixing one minim of the preceding potency with
• After 8 days, the tincture is decanted, ninety-nine minims of dispensing alcohol and
strained through the new linen cloth and giving 10 downward strokes.
filtered. b. Decimal Scale:
• Then pour it into a clean phial provided For 1st Potency, 1x: Take 6 minims of
with a best quality, new, non-porous, mother tincture and mix with 4 minims of dilute
velvet cork. alcohol. Give ten downward strokes of equal
strength to obtain 1x potency.
4. Calculation of Drug Power:
For 2nd Potency, 2x: Take 1 minim of the
Ratio of medicinal substance: Strong alcohol 1x potency and mix with 9 minims of dilute
=1:2 alcohol. Give ten downward strokes of equal
But loss of medicinal substance in 1 c.c. strength. The 2x potency is ready.
= 2/3 c.c. All succeeding potencies are prepared by
Net medicinal substance = (1-2/3) c.c. mixing 9 minims of dilute alcohol with 1 minim
= 1/3 c.c. of the preceding potency and giving 10
Vehicle loss in 1 c.c. = 1/6 c.c. downward strokes.
\ Vehicle loss in 2 c.c.= 2x 1/6 c.c = 1/3 c.c Drugs Under Class - III
\ Net vehicle = (2 - 1/3) c.c = 5/3 c.c.
Vegetable Source:
Net Medicinal Solvent/Vehicle Mother • Whole Plant: Absinthium; Acalypha indica;
Substance (Strong Alcohol) Tincture Achyranthes aspera; Adonis vernalis;
1/3 c.c 5/3 c.c. (1/3+5/3) Aethusa cynapium; Anthoxanthum
odoratum; Anthemis nobilis; Arnica
c.c.= 2 c.c.
montana; Chenopodium; Chimaphila
In 2 c.c. mother tincture, net medicinal umbellata; Cistus canadensis; Convallaria
substance = 1/3 c.c majalis; Echinacea angustifolia; Equisetum
In 1 c.c. mother tincture, net medicinal hyemale; Erigeron canadense; Hepatica
substance = 1/3 x ½ c.c = 1/6 c.c. biloba; Hypericum perforatum; Lilium
tigrinum; Lobelia inflata; Lycopus
Drug power (D.P.) = 1/6 c.c.1/6 c.c. virginicus; Mentha piperita; Mitchclean ella
Potentisation by Succussion repens; Nabalus serpentaria; Penthorum
sedoides; Plantago major; Pulsatilla;
a. Centesimal Scale: Ranunculus bulbosus; Ruta graveolens;
For 1st Potency, 1c: Take 6 minims of the Thymus serpyllum; Urtica urens; Verbascum
mother tincture and mix with 94 minims of dilute thapsus; Viola tricolorclean clean clean clean
alcohol. Give ten downward strokes of equal clean clean clean clean clean clean clean
strength. The 1st centesimal potency is ready. clean.
• Roots: Actaea spicata; Aletris farinosa ; • Flowers: Cannabis sativa; Grindelia robusta;
Apocynum cannabinum; Aralia racemosa; Melilotus alba; Melilotus officinalis;
Artemisia vulgaris; Arum triphyllum; Solidago virgaurea; Trifolium repens;
Asarum canadense; Asclepias incarnata; Trifolium pratense.
Caladium seguinum; Caulophyllum • Fruits: Aesculus hippocastanum; Aesculus
thalictroides; Cimicifuga racemosa; glabra; Carica papaya; Crataegus
Collinsonia canadensis; Ficus indica; oxyacantha; Gymnocladus canadensis; Ilex
Gelsemium sempervirens; Hydrastis opaca; Prinos verticillatus; Xantoxylum
canadensis; Iris versicolor; Inula helenium; fraxineum.
Juncus effusus; Lappa major; Leptandra • Seeds: Avena sativa; Eugenia jambos.
virginica; Menispermum canadense; Nuphar • Bark: Abies canadensis; Alnus serrulata;
luteum; Nymphaea odorata; Paullinia Baptisia tinctoria; Berberis aquifolium;
pinnata; Phytolacca decandra; Pimpinella Berberis vulgaris; Daphnae indica;
saxifraga; PodophyIlum peltatum; Pothos Gossypium herbascum; Myrica cerifera;
foetidus; Raphanus sativus; Rumex crispus; Populus tremuloides; Prunus padus; Ptelea
Sabal serrulata; Sanguinaria canadensis; trifoliata; Rhus aromatica; Rhus glabra; Salix
Symphytum officinale; Trillium pendulum; nigra; Viburnum opulus; Xantoxylum
Triosteum perfoliatum; Veratrum viride; fraxineum.
Wyethia helenoides.
• Algae: Ficus vesiculosus.
• Leaves: Abroma augusta; Aegle folia; Agave • Fungi: Agaricus muscarius; Secale
americana; Cotyledon umbilicus; Ilex cornutum; Polyporus pinicola.
casseine; Eupatorium perfoliatum; Justicia • Lichen: Sticta pulmonaria.
adhatoda; Kalmia latifolia; Lachnanthes
tinctoria; Mimosa humilis; Ocimum Instructions by Dr. Hahnemann
sanctum; Oxydendron arboreum; Plumbago Hahnemann gave instructions for the
littoralis; Rhus toxicodendron; Rumex preparation of the mother tincture and the 1st
acetosa; Salvia officinalis; Sempervivum potency, in Materia Medica Pura under Scilla
tectorum; Thuja occidentalis; Tradescantia (Squilla).
diuretica; Viscum album.
“In order to make the solution of Squilliun
• Stems (Only): Cactus grandiflorus. alcohol, the simplest and best mode is to cut out
• Stem with Leaves: Rhus venenata; Sabina. a fresh piece of 100 grains weight from a very
• Rhizome: Piper methysticum. fresh squill-bulb, to pound it in a mortar,
gradually adding 100 drops of alcohol, till it
• Bulb: Allium cepa; Allium sativum; Scilla
becomes a fine uniform pulp, then to dilute and
maritima.
thoroughly mix it with 500 drops of alcohol; to
• Herbs: Buxus sempervirens; Gaultheria allow it to stand for some days, to decant the
procumbens; Ledum palustre; Silphium clear supernatant brownish tincture, and to mix
lacinatum. 6 drops of this with 94 drops of alcohol by means
• Young Shoots: Artemisia abrotanum; Myrtus of ten succussions, so as to form the first dilution
communis; Pinus silvestris. (1/100)”.
• Twigs: Ficus religiosa; Juniperus virginiana;
Taxus baccata.
Class - IV 3. Procedure :
Class IV includes dry plants, herbs and • Pulverise the dried vegetable and animal
animal substances which may be either dried or substances into a fine powder and the
fresh. fresh animal substances into a fine pulp.
The fundamental rules for preparation of this • Weigh the powder or pounded drug
class has been described by Hannemann in substances and put in a glass jar.
Materia Medica Pura under, ‘Staphysagria’ and • Now add five times its weight of strong
‘Spigelia’. alcohol and mix it with the pulp or
powder.
• After thorough mixing, keep the entire
1. Principle:
mass in a glass-stoppered bottle in a cool,
The tincture is prepared by adding five parts dark place for 15 days.
by weight of strong alcohol to one part by
• Shake the mixture well, twice daily.
weight of pulp or powder of the medicinal
substance. • After 15 days, decant the clear tincture.
The residual substances are strained in
2. Required Material:
the new linen cloth and added to the
a. Ingredients: previously decanted tincture. This is
• Selected drug substance. again filtered through a filter paper and
• Strong alcohol. stored in a glass-stoppered phial.
b. Apparatus: 4. Calculation of Drug Power
• Wooden chopping board. Drug Substance Vehicle (Strong Alcohol)
• Knife. 1 grain 5 grains
• Porcelain or iron mortar and pestle.
However, drug substance loss in 1 grain: ½ grain
• Horn made spatula.
∴ Net drug substance : 1- ½ grain = 1/2 grain
• A linen cloth, new and sterile.
Vehicle loss in 1 grain : 1/10 grain
• A clean small beaker.
∴ Vehicle loss in 5 grains: 5x1/10 grain = 1/2
• A glass-stoppered phial.
grain
• Another clean phial with a new non-
Net vehicle: 5-½ grain = 9/2 grain
porous velvet cork.
• Glass funnel with stand. Net Drug Net Vehicle Mother
• Filter paper. Substance Tincture
• A glass rod. ½ grain 9/2 grain (1/2 + 9/2) grain
• Balance. = 5 grains
• Weight box. 5 grains mother tincture contains drug substance:
• Pen. 1/2 grain
• Paper. Hence, 1 grain mother tincture contains drug
• Gum. substance = 1/2x 1/5=1/10 grain
• Scissors. ∴ Drug power (D.P.) = 1/10
On the other hand, for preparing 5 grains of dioica; Jalapa; Veratrum viride; Zingiber
mother tincture, 1 grain drug substance and 5 officinale.
grains of vehicle is required. − Dried: Calotropis gigantea;
Potentisation by Succussion Ipecacuanha; Ratanhia; Rheum;
Sarsaparilla; Senega; Sumbul; Valeriana
a. Centesimal Scale: officinalis; Veratrum album.
For 1st Potency, 1c: Take 10 minims of • Leaves (Dried): Eucalyptus globulus;
mother tincture and mix with 90 minims of Pilocarpus; Rhododendron chrysanthemum;
alcohol. Give 10 downward strokes of equal Senna; Tabacum.
strength to get the first centesimal potency.
• Herbs: Gaultheria procumbens; Ledum
For 2nd Potency, 2c: Take 1 minim of the palustre; Spigelia.
first centesimal potency and mix with 99 minims
of alcohol. Give 10 downward strokes of equal • Flowers: Cannabis indica; Cina; Crocus
strength and the second centesimal potency is sativus; Grindelia robusta; Helianthus
ready. annuus; Melilotus officinalis.
All succeeding potencies are prepared by • Fruits: Aegle marmelos; Amloki; Capsicum
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with annuum; Carya alba; Colocynthis; Cubeba
99 minims of alcohol and giving 10 downward officinalis; Dolichos pruriens; Piper nigrum;
strokes. Xantoxylum fraxineum.
• Seeds: Cedron; Cocculus indicus; Coffea
b. Decimal Scale:
cruda; Ignatia amara; Illicium anisatum;
For 1st Potency, 1x: Since the drug power is Jatropha curcas; Lathyrus sativus; Nux
1/10, it corresponds to 1x potency. Here 1x moschata; Nux vomica; Physostigma;
potency is same as the mother tincture of the Ricinus communis; Sabadilla; Sinapis alba;
drug. Sinapis nigra; Staphysagria; Syzygium
For 2nd Potency, 2x: Take 1 minim of the jambolanum.
mother tincture or 1x potency and mix with 9
• Bark (Dried): Alstonia scholaris; Azadirachta
minims of alcohol. Give 10 downward strokes
indica; Cinchona officinalis; Cinnamomum;
of equal strength to obtain the 2x potency.
Cundurango; Jonosia asoka; Piscidia
All succeeding potencies are prepared by erythrina; Prunus virginiana; Sassafras
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with, officinalis; Terminalia arjuna.
9 minims of alcohol and give to downward
• Juices: Aloe socotrina; Anacardium
strokes.
orientale; Opium.
Drugs Under Class - IV • Gums: Kino australiense.
Vegetable Source: • Gum-resin: Asa foetida; Euphorbium
• Whole Plant: Arnica montana; Hydrocotyle officinarum; Gambogia.
asiatica. • Algae: Ficus vesiculosus.
• Roots: • Fungi: Bovista; Ustilago maydis.
− Fresh: Abroma augusta radix; Geum • Lichen: Sticta pulmonaria; Usnea barbata.
urbanum; Helleborus niger; Helonias • Spores: Lycopodium clavatum.
Animal Source: II. PREPARATION OF MOTHER

Apis mellifica; Aranea diadema; Asterias SOLUTIONS
rubens; Badiaga; Cantharis; Coccus cacti;
DEFINITION
Mygale lasiodora; Spongia tosta; Tarentula
cubensis; Theridion. Mother solution or ø solution is defined as
the drug, pharmaceutically prepared from a drug
Instructions by Dr. Hahnemann substance of mineral and chemical origin as the
Hahnemann gave instructions for the strongest alcoholic or aqueous solvent by the
preparation of the mother tincture and potencies process of dissolving in alcohol or purified water
is given in Materia Medica Pura under or exposing as the case may be.
Staphysagira and Spigelia.
Under Staphysagria (Stavesacre) CLASSES UNDER MOTHER SOLUTION
“A drachm of the seeds of Delphinium There are two classes:
staphysagria is pulverized, along with an equal
1. Class - V (Aqueous Solution): It includes
quantity of chalk (for the purpose of absorbing
chemical drugs which are soluble in purified
oil) and macerated, without heat and daily
water. Hahnemann further classified them into
succussion, for a week in 600 drops of alcohol,
Class V (A) and Class V(B) depending upon the
in order to form the tincture.”
solubility in the strength of 10% or 1 %,
“Ten drops of the tincture are first intimately respectively.
mixed by succussion with two strokes of the arm
2. Class - VI (Alcoholic Solution): It
with ninety drops of alcohol in order to obtain
includes chemical drugs which are soluble in
the first dilution (1/100) of this one drop mixed
alcohol. Hahnemann further classified them as
in the same way with another 100 drops of
VI(A) and VI(B) depending upon their solubility
alcohol gives the 1/10000th dilution; and in
in the strength of 10% or 1 %, respectively.
manner through thirty diluting phials in all, the
dilution brought so far that the last phial, which Class - V(A)
is that destined for medicinal use, contains a
It deals with the method of preparation of
decillion fold dilution (to be marked 1x).
aqueous solutions with purified water. The
Under Spigelia substances which are included in in this class
“The tincture is made by macerating for a are easily soluble in purified water.
week, without heat and with a daily shaking fifty Preparation of Mother Solution
grains of the powder of whole plant of Spigelia
anthelmia in 500 drops of alcohol. 1. Principle:
The preparation of potencies is very vaguely 1 part by weight of medicinal substance is
mentioned, as under. dissolved in 9 parts by weight of purified
water.
“For the homoeopathic employment the
decillion fold dilution, each diluting phial of 100 2. Required Material :
drops being shaken not oftener than twice, is a. Ingredients:
almost too strong, even when but a small portion • Required medicinal substance.
of a drop of it is given for a dose.”
• Purified water
b. Apparatus: purified water. Give 10 downward strokes of

• Porcelain mortar and pestle. equal strength. The 1st centesimal potency is
ready.
• Clean glass phial with new cork. For 2nd Potency, 1c: Take 1 minim of the
1st potency and mix with 99 minims of alcohol.
• Minim glass.
Give 10 downward strokes of equal strength and
• Balance with weight box. the 2nd potency is ready.
• Conical flask.
• Pen. mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with
• Gum. 99 minims of alcohol and giving ten downward
• Paper. strokes.
• Scissors. b. Decimal Scale:
3. Procedure: For 1st Potency, 1x: As the drug power is 1/
• First, test the purity of the medicinal 10, it corresponds to 1x potency.
substance. Then 1 part by weight of the For 2nd Potency, 2x: Take 1 minim of the
medicinal substance is taken in a well- 1x potency i.e. mother solution and mix with 9
cleaned, round glass phial and mixed 9 minims of purified water. Give10 downward
parts by weight of purified water, taking strokes of equal strength to give the 2x potency.
care that at least 1/4th of the phial
remains vacant.
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with 9
• The phial is now closed with the cork minims of alcohol and giving 10 downward
and a homogenous solution is prepared strokes.
by shaking gently.
Drugs Under Class - V(A)
4. Calculation of Drug Power:
Mineral and Chemical Source:
Medicinal Vehicle Mother • Acids: Aceticum acidum; Chromicum
Substance (Purified Water) Solution acidum; Muriaticum acidum; Nitricum
1 grain 9 grains 10 grains acidum; Phosphoricum acidum;
Sulphuricum acidum.
In 10 grains of mother solution, the medicinal
substance = 1 grain • Inorganic Compounds: Ammonium carb.;
Ammonium caust.; Ammonium mur.;
In 1 grains of mother solution, the medicinal Ammonium nit.; Argentum nit.; Aurum mur.;
substance = 1/10 grain Baryta acetica; Baryta mur.; Calcarea
∴ Drug power = 1/10. acetica; Calcarea mur.; Causticum; Ferrum
mur.; Kalium carb.; Kalium chlor.; Kalium
Potentisation by Succussion
caust.; Natrium mur.; Natrium selenicum.
a. Centesimal Scale:
Vegetable Source:
For 1st Potency, 1c: Take 10 minims of the
• Balsam; Balsamum peruvianum.
mother solution and mix with 90 minims of
Class - V(B) In 100 grains of mother solution the

Class V (B) includes substances which are medicinal substance is = 1 grain
easily soluble in water, but they are soluble in a In 1 grain of mother solution, the medicinal
greater quantity of water. substance is = 1/100 grain
Preparation of Mother Solution ∴ Drug power = 1/100.
1. Principle: Potentisation by Succussion
1 part by weight of medicinal substance in
99 parts by weight of purified water.
2. Required Material : For 1st Potency, 1c: As the drug power is 1/
100, it corresponds to the 1st centesimal potency.
a. Ingredients:
• Required medicinal substance. For 2nd Potency, 2c: Take 1 minim of the
1st potency i.e. mother solution and mix with 99
• Purified water.
minims of dilute alcohol. Give 10 downward
b. Apparatus: strokes of equal strength, the 2nd potency is
• Porcelain mortar and pestle. ready.
• Clean glass phial with cork.
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with
• Minim glass.
99 minims of alcohol.
• Balance with weight box.
• Conical flask. b. Decimal Scale:
• Pen. For 2nd Potency, 2x: As the mother solution
• Pencil. contains 1/100 drug power, it corresponds to
• Gum. (1/100=1/10 x 1/10) 2x potency.
• Scissors.
For 3rd Potency, 3x: Take 1 minim of the 2x
3. Procedure: potency i.e. mother solution and mix with 9
• Firstly, the purity of the medicinal minims of dilute alcohol. Give 10 downward
substance is tested. Then to 1 part by strokes of equal strength, the 3x potency is ready.
weight of medicinal substance (taken in All succeeding potencies are prepared by
a well-cleansed, round glass-phial) 99 mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with
parts by weight of purified water is 9 minims of alcohol and give ten downward
added, taking care that atleast 1/4th of strokes.
the phial remains vacant.
Drugs Under Class - V(B)
• Close the phial with a cork and a
homogenous solution is prepared by Mineral and Chemical Source:
gentle shaking.
Oxalicum acidum; Picricum acidum;
4. Calculation of Drug Power Phosphoricum acidum; Fluoricum acidum;
Medicinal Vehicle Mother Bromium; Kalium bichromicum; Kalium
Substance (Purified Water) Solution bromatum; Mercurius cyanatus; Hydrocyanicum
acidum; Antimonium tartaricum; Kalium
1 grain 99 grains 100 grains
permanganicum; Platinum muriaticum; Cuprum cleaned round glass-phial, to which 9

aceticum; Kalium hydrobromicum; Plumbum parts by weight of strong alcohol is
aceticum; Kalium chloricum; Borax; Causticum. added, taking care that atleast 1/4 th of
the phial remains vacant.
Class - VI(A) • Close the phial with a cork and a
This class includes substances which are homogenous solution is prepared by
only soluble in alcohol. shaking gently.
The fundamental rule for this class has been 4. Calculation of Drug Power:
discussed in Hahnemann’s, ‘Materia Medica
Pura’ under ‘Guaiacum’. Medicinal Vehicle Mother
Substance (Purified Water) Solution
Preparation of Mother Solution:
1 grain 9 grains 10 grains
1. Principle:
In 10 grains of mother solution the medicinal
• 1 part by weight of medicinal substance substance = 1 grain
is dissolved in 9 parts by weight of strong
alcohol (as per A.H.P.). In 1 grain of mother solution, the medicinal
substance = 1/10 grain
• 2 parts by weight of medicinal substance
is dissolved in 9 parts by weight of ∴ Drug power = 1/10
alcohol (as per B.H.P.). Potentisation by Succussion
2. Required Material: a. Centesimal Scale:
a. Ingredients: For 1st Potency, 1c: Take 10 minims of the
• Required medicinal substance. mother solution and mix with 90 minims of
• Strong alcohol. strong alcohol. Give 10 downward strokes of
b. Apparatus: equal strength. The 1st centesimal potency is
ready.
• Porcelain mortar and pestle.
• Horn made spatula. For 2nd Potency, 2c: Take 1 minim of the
• Clean glass phial with new cork. 1st potency and mix with 99 minims of alcohol.
Give 10 downward strokes of equal strength
• Minim glass.
which results in 2x potency.
• Balance with weight box.
• Conical flask. All succeeding potencies are prepared by
• Pen. mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with
99 minims of alcohol and giving 10 downward
• Gum.
strokes.
• Paper.
• Scissors. b. Decimal Scale:
3. Procedure: For 1st Potency, 1x: As the drug power 1/

10; it corresponds to 1x potency.
• First test the purity of the medicinal
substance. Then take 1 part by weight For 2nd Potency, 2x: Take 1 minim of the
of the medicinal substance in a well- 1x potency i.e. mother solution and mix with 9
minims of strong alcohol. Give 10 downward • Clean glass phial with cork.
strokes of equal strength and the 2x potency is • Minim glass.
ready. • Balance with weight box.
All succeeding potencies are prepared by • Conical flask.
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with 9 • Pen.
minims of alcohol and giving to downward • Pencil.
strokes of equal strength. • Gum.
Drugs Under Class - VI(A) • Scissors.
Mineral and Chemical Source: 3. Procedure:
Benzoicum acidum; Carbolicum acidum; • First test the purity of the medicinal
Calcarea caust.; Camphora; Amylenum nitrosum; substance. Then take 1 part by weight
Glonoinum; Carbonicum hydrogenisatum; of the medicinal substance in a well-
Chloralum hydratum (chloral hydrate); cleaned round glass phial and add 99
Chloroformum; Methyl alcohol; Myroxylon parts by weight of strong alcohol, taking
toluiferum; Nicotinum; Nitri spiritus dulcis. care that atleast 1/4th part of the phial
remains vacant.
Vegetable Source:
• The phial is closed with a cork and a
Abies nigra; Guaiacum officinale; Opopanax homogenous solution is prepared by
chironium. shaking gently.
Class - VI(B) 4. Calculation of Drug Power:
This class includes those substances which Medicinal Vehicle Mother
are soluble in larger quantities of alcohol. Substance (Strong Alcohol) Solution
Preparation of Mother Solution 1 grain 99 grains 100 grains
1. Principle: In 10 grains of mother solution, the medicinal
• Dissolve 1 part by weight of the substance = 1 grain
medicinal substance in 99 parts by ∴ In 1 grain of mother solution, the
weight of alcohol. medicinal substance = 1/100 grain
• Dissolve 1 part by weight of the ∴ Drug power = 1/100.
medicinal substance in 50 parts by
weight of alcohol (as per G.H.P.). Potentisation by Succussion
2. Required Material: a. Centesimal Scale
a. Ingredients: For 1st Potency, 1c: As the drug power of
• Required medicinal substance. the mother solution is 1/100, it corresponds to
• Strong alcohol. the 1st centesimal potency.
b. Apparatus: For 2nd Potency, 2c: Take 1 minim of the

1st potency i.e. mother solution and mix with 99
• Porcelain mortar and pestle.
minims of dilute alcohol. Give 10 downward
strokes of equal strength. This gives the 2nd III. PREPARATION OF MOTHER
potency. SUBSTANCE
All succeeding potencies are prepared by DEFINITION
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with
Mother substance is defined as the drug
99 minims of alcohol and giving 10 downward
pharmaceutically prepared from a drug substance
strokes of equal strength.
which is insoluble in liquid vehicles and is
b. Decimal Scale prepared by the process of trituration with sugar
For 2nd Potency, 2x: As the mother solution of milk. Mother substance is represented as 0.
has a drug power of 1/100, it automatically Class VII, Class VIII and Class IX are
corresponds to (1/100=1/10x1/10) 2x potency. included in this category.
For 3rd Potency, 3x: Take 1 minim of the 2x • Class VII: It includes dry insoluble
potency i.e. mother solution and mix with 9 substances.
minims of dilute alcohol. Give 10 downward • Class VIII: It includes liquid insoluble
strokes of equal strength. This gives the 3x substances.
potency. • Class IX: It includes fresh vegetables
and animal substances.
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with 9 Class - VII
minims of alcohol and giving ten downward
This class includes dry medicinal substances
strokes of equal strength.
which in their crude state are neither soluble in
Drugs Under Class - VI(B) purified water nor in alcohol.
Mineral and Chemical Source: The fundamental rule for this class has been
Arsenicum album; Benzoicum acidum; described by Hahnemann ‘Materia Medica Pura’
Carboneum chloratum; Carboneum sulphuratum; under ‘Arsenicum’.
Eupionum; Glonoinum; Hydrocyanicum acidum; Trituration or Preparation of Mother
Iodium; Kalium iod.; Kreosotum; Lacticum Substance
acidum; Mercurius corrosivus; Natrium
1. Principle:
hydroiodicum; Petroleum; Sulphur.
1 part by weight of the medicinal substance
Animal Source: to 99 parts (in centesimal scale) or 9 parts
Mephitis; Tarentula cubensis; Trombidium (in decimal scale) by weight of sugar of milk
muscae domestica; Upas antiaris. gives 1st trituration.
Nosodes: 2. Required Material:

a. Ingredients:
Psorinum.
• Required amount of crude drug
Vegetable Source substance.
Croton tiglium; Oleum cajuputum; Oleum • Required amount of sugar of milk.
ricini; Terebinthiniae oleum; Oleum santali; b. Apparatus:
Opium; Oleum succini; Santoninum. • One clean, unglazed porcelain
mortar and pestle.
• One clean horn spatula. For 5c Potency: Take 1 minim of the 4th
• An empty clean phial of the required potency; add 99 minims of alcohol to it. This
size. gives the 5th potency.
• A stop-clock or a watch. The following potencies are prepared by
• A freshly marked new velvet cork mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with
• Label paper. 99 minims of alcohol.
• Balance
• Weight box. b. Decimal Scale:
• Paste. For 8x Potency: Take 1 grain of the 6x
• Scissors. trituration and dissolve in 50 minims of purified
• Pen. water. Then mix it with 50 minims of alcohol.
• Gum. 8X potency is ready.
• Scissors. For 9x Potency: Take 1 minim of the 8x
3. Procedure potency and mix it with 9 minims of alcohol to
give the 9x potency.
The following potencies are prepared by
• Add one part by weight of the
mixing 1 minim of the preceding potency with 9
medicinal substance to 99 parts by
minims of alcohol.
weight of sugar of milk to give the
(For details see ‘Trituration’ wide
1st trituration.
‘Potentisation’ chapter).
• The all following triturations are
prepared by adding one grain of the Drugs Under Class - VII
preceding trituration to 99 grains of
sugar of milk. Vegetable Source:
Aloe socotrina; Aesculus glabra;
b. Decimal Scale: Ammoniacum gummi; Benzoicum; China;
• Add one part by weight of the Coffea cruda; Cundurango; Crocus sativus
medicinal substance to 9 parts by (G.H.P); Ignatia amara; Nux vomica; Opium;
weight of sugar of milk. It gives the Polyporus officinalis; Rheum (A.H.P);
1st trituration. Sarsaparilla (G.H.P); Ustilago maydis.
• The following triturations are
prepared by adding one grain of the Animal Source:
preceding trituration to 9 grains of Badiaga; Cantharis; Carbo animalis;
sugar of milk. Corallium rubrum; Sepia; Spongia; Tarentula
hispania.
Conversion of Trituration Into Liquid
Potency Mineral and Chemical Source:
a. Centesimal Scale: • Acids: Benzoicum acidum; Boricum acidum;

Citricum acidum; Gallicum acidum;
For 4c Potency: Take 1 grain of the 3rd Oxalicum acidum; Picricum acidum;
trituration and dissolve it in 50 minims of purified Salycylicum acidum; Tartaricum acidum.
water. This is then mixed with 50 minims of
• Elements: Alumina; Argentum metallicum;
alcohol. The 4th potency is ready.
Aurum met.; Cuprum met.; Ferrum met.;
Iodium; Iridium met.; Niccolum met.; “One grain of white arsenic reduced to
Palladium; Plumbum; Selenium; Stannum powder is rubbed up with thirty-three grains of
met.; Sulphur; Tellurium; Zincum met. powdered milk-sugar in a porcelain mortar
• Compounds: Ammonium brom.; Ammonium (unglazed) with an unglazed pestle for six
carb.; Ammonium iod.; Ammonium phos.; minutes, the triturated contents of the mortar
Ammonium picricum; Ammonium scraped for four minutes with a porcelain spatula,
then rubbed a second time, without any addition
valerianicum; Antimonium ars.; Antimonium
to it, for six minutes and again scraped for four
iod.; Antimonium crudum; Antimonium
minutes. To this thirty-three grains of milk-sugar
oxydatum; Antimonium sulphuratum
are now added, triturated for six minutes and after
aureum; Argentum mur.; Argentum iodatum;
another four minutes of scraping, six minutes of
Argentum nit.; Arsenicum alb.; Arsenicum
triturating and again four minutes of scraping,
iod.; Arsenicum sulphuratum flavum;
the last thirty-three grains of milk-sugar are
Arsenicum sulphuratum rubrum; Aurum
added, triturated for six minutes, whereby after
muriaticum; Aurum muriaticum natronatum;
a last scraping, a powder is produced which, in
Aurum sulphuratum.; Baryta carb.; Baryta
every grain, contains 1/100th of a grain of
mur.; Calcarea ars.; Calcarea brom.; Calcarea uniformly potentised arsenic. A grain of this
carb.; Calcarea fluor.; Calcarea iod.; Calcarea powder is, in a similar way, three times, with
phos.; Calcarea sulph.; Cuprum ars.; Cuprum thirty-three grains of fresh milk-sugar, in one
carb.; Cuprum sulph.; Ferrum ars.; Ferrum hour (thirty-six minutes of triturating, twenty-
brom.; Ferrum iod.; Ferrum sulph.; Ferrum four of scraping), brought into the state of a
carb.; Ferrum magneticum; Ferrum phos.; potentised pulverulent attenuations, one hundred
Carbo veg.; Kalium ars.; Kalium bich.; times, more diluted. Of this one grain (containing
Kalium brom.; Kalium carb.; Kalium 1/10000th of a grain of arsenic) is rubbed up for
chloricum; Kalium iod.; Kalium nitricum; a third hour in a similar manner with ninety-nine
Kalium sulph.; Kalium mur.; Kalium phos.; grains of milk sugar, this represents a pulverulent
Magnesium carb.; Magnesium mur.; arsenic dilution of the million fold degree of
Magnesium oxydatum; Magnesium phos.; potency. One grain of this is dissolved in 100
Magnesium sulph.; Mercurius cyanatus; drops of diluted alcohol (in the proportion of
Mercurius dulcis; Mercurius solubilis equal parts of water and alcohol) and shaken with
Hahnemanni; Mercurius sulph.; Natrium two succussions of the arm (the phial being held
ars.; Natrium carb.; Natrium phos.; Natrium in the hand). This gives a solution which diluted
sulph.; Natrium sulphu-rosum; Paraffinum; by means of twenty-six more phials (always one
Naphthalinum; Anilinum sulph. drop from the previous phial added to ninety-
• Minerals: Graphites; Hecla lava; Benzoicum nine drops of alcohol of the next phial, and then
acidum; Molybdinum sulphuratum; Adamas; succussed twice, before taking one drop of this
Tetradymitum; Silicea. and dropping it into the next phial), furnishes
the required potency, the decillionth (X)
Instructions by Dr. Hahnemann development of power of arsenic.”
Hahnemann gave instructions in his ‘Materia
Class - VIII
Medica Pura’ under ‘Arsenicum’ for the
Class VIII includes medicinal substances
preparation of trituration.
which are neither soluble in purified water, nor
in alcohol. They are subjected to trituration with b. Decimal Scale:

sugar of milk. Same as for Class VII.
The fundamental rule for this class has been
Drugs Under Class - VIII
described by Hahnemann in ‘Chronic Diseases’
under ‘Petroleum’. Animal Sources:
Trituration or Preparation of Mother • Venoms: Crotalus; Elaps; Lachesis;
Substance Naja; Vipera; Apium virus; Bufo rana;
Bungarus krait; Jararaca.
1. Principle:
• Other Animals: Araninum.
Same as for Class VII.
Vegetable Sources:
2. Required Material:
• Myristica sebifera; Croton tiglium.
a. Ingredients:
Same as for Class VII. Nosodes:
b. Apparatus: • Lyssinum; Malandrinum; Vaccininum;
Same as for C lass VII. Variolinum.
3. Procedure: Minerals:
The process is same as for Class VII. • Petroleum.
However some points must be known regarding Note: Nosodes, venoms, etc. are included in Class
this class, which differ from that of Class VII. VIII. One should triturate them with sugar of milk
• In decimal scale, 9 parts of sugar of milk is and then to convert them into liquid potencies as per
taken to prepare the medicine but it should Hahnemann’s directions. However, A.H.P. includes
not be divided into 3 equal parts as sugar of some nosodes along with some fresh vegetable drug
milk, in this case is already in a very small substances in Class IX.
in quantity and if it is further divided into 3
Instructions by Dr. Hahnemann
parts, the mixture of oily medicinal
substances and vehicles will become paste- Hahnemann gave instructions for trituration
like, preventing trituration. in his book ‘Chronic Diseases’ under
Hence the entire quantity of sugar of milk ‘Petroleum’.
should be taken at a time in the mortar and “For the first trituration with one hundred
the trituration should be done thrice, for grains of sugar of milk we take one drop instead
twenty minutes. of one grain of petroleum”.
• The adequate amount of sugar of milk should
first be taken in the mortar and then the Class-IX
medicinal substance should be poured over This class deals with preparation of
it to prevent sticking of the oily medicinal medicines from vegetables and animal
substance over the surface of the mortar. substances by trituration, in solid form.
Conversion of Trituration Into Liquid The fundamental rule for this class has been
Potency discussed in the Chronic Diseases, under,
‘Agaricus’.
Same as for Class VII.
Trituration or Preparation of Mother Drugs Under Class - IX

Substance 1. Vegetable Sources:
1. Principle: Anacardium orientale; Boletus satanas;
2 parts by weight of the medicinal substance Boletus suaveolens; Agaricus muscarius; Elaeis
is triturated with 99 parts (centesimal scale) guineensis; Solanum oleraceum.
or 9 parts (decimal scale) by weight of sugar
2. Animal Sources:
of milk to produce the 1st trituration.
Amphisbaena vermicularis; Blatta
2. Required Material: americana; Blatta orientalis; Cervus brasilicus;
a. Ingredients: Delphinus amazonicus; Fel piscium; Fel tauri;
Same as under Class VII. Ovi gallinae pellicula; Spingurus martini; Vulpis
fel; Vulpis hepar; Vulpis pulmo.
b. Apparatus:
Same as Class - VII. 3. Nosodes:
Anthracinum; Carcinosinum; Malan-
3. Procedure:
drinum; Medorrhinum; Psorinum; Syphilinum.
It is the same as in Class VII. However, the
ratio of the medicinal substance and sugar of milk Instructions by Dr. Hahnemann
is 2:99 (centesimal scale) or 2: 9 (decimal scale). The instructions for the preparation of
Note: 2 parts by weight of the medicinal trituration under this class have been given by
substance are taken as there is always some loss in Hahnemann in ‘Chronic Diseases’ under
the medicinal substance by evaporation during Agaricus muscarius or Toad stool.
trituration. “Of the Toad stool carefully dried, take one
grain or two grains of the fresh plant and triturate
Conversion of Trituration Into Liquid
it like any of the other medicines with sugar of
Potency
milk for three hours; this preparation is
a. Centesimal Scale: afterwards dissolved, attenuated and potentised
Same as Class VII. by two successive strokes for every potency until
b. Decimal Scale: we reach the thirtieth potency.
Same as Class VII. ■
269
5-3
Modern Methods of Preparation of Drugs
In Hahnemann’s method (old method) of 2. Second for the fresh plant juices.
preparation, the drug strength of various classes The modern method has also rejected this
of drug substances are different owing to the double standard. Thus a uniformity of standard
difference in the solubility of the drugs in various is secured through the modern method.
solvents. To overcome this lack of uniformity of
drug strength, Homoeopathic Pharmacopoea of At the outset of making homoeopathic
United States (H.P.U.S.) in 1941, barring a few preparations, we shall have to note carefully the
exceptions prescribed a uniform standard of 10% following general principles:
drug strength for most medicinal preparations. After procuring the crude drug substances,
This is the ‘modern or new method’ of the first step will be to qualify them for medicinal
preparation of tinctures and potencies, in which use, which involves two forms or conditions:
the tincture contains 1 gm. of the dry drug i. The liquid form or liquid tincture
substance in 10 c.c. of tincture. The tincture solutions.
hence contains 1/10th part of medicinal
substance i.e. a drug strength of 1/10, which ii. The solid form, or trituration.
corresponds to 1x trituration.. All the drug substances soluble in alcohol,
This modern standard eliminates the purified water or glycerine, will have to be
centesimal scale of potency, the previously properly made into tinctures or solutions and next
adopted classification of medicinal substances their attenuations or dilutions. The moist or
and the different classes of formulas for soluble drug substances can be made into
preparing homoeopathic medicines. triturations with milk sugar, but all partially
soluble or insoluble substances should be made
The old method provided two types of in trituration form only.
standardisation:
Aqueous mother solutions, are prepared from
1. One for the cases of alcoholic tincture of dry substances which are soluble in water, but are
drugs.
insoluble in alcohol, as well as from those which dilutions prepared from them. All these
when soluble in alcohol, are subject to the variabilities cause great uncertainty in the
‘chemical changes’ or ‘decompositions’. They strengths of tinctures and their dilutions. As such,
embrace the mineral kingdom especially. the modern method has evolved ways for
They are to be dissolved in the proportion securing uniformity in strength or drug power.
of 1/10, 1/100 or 1/1000, etc. or as the case may All drug substances containing water or fresh
require, depending upon their degrees of succulent plants should be treated according to
solubility. Aqueous solutions are generally the fundamental rule, that dry crude drugs should
unstable and they must not be kept for long be taken as the starting point from whence to
periods. calculate the strength of the tincture.
If any liquid acid or drug contains water, this Hence, the dry crude drug substance has been
must also be taken out from the solvent, and the made the unit from which to estimate the drug
anhydrous acid or drug be taken as the unit of strength in all tinctures and triturations.
strength. Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India
Alcoholic solutions of tinctures of solids or (H.P.I.) also follows the ‘new method’. However,
semi-solids are made of various varieties of drug the German Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia
substances, which are partially or wholly soluble continues to follow Hahnemann’s method of
in alcohol. They embrace all plants and different preparation of tinctures and potencies.
parts of plants, e.g., roots, stems, rhizomes, bulbs,
barks, leaves, fruits, seeds, gums resins, balsams, ESTIMATION OF PLANT
alkaloids, etc. They also include minerals and MOISTURE
different chemicals which are more readily
Plant moisture is defined as the juice
soluble in alcohol than in water.
contained in a plant.
Substances like camphor, iodine,
phosphorus, volatile oils, etc., which are
PROCEDURE
volatilised on triturating, they are better prepared
as tinctures. • Cut the drug substance with a chopping knife
on a chopping board.
Majority of the tinctures or mother tinctures
• Weigh the chopped substance and record it.
are derived from plant materials. To upkeep the
standard and purity, attention must be taken • Weigh an empty crucible. Place the chopped
during preparation. drug substance in the crucible, which is then
placed on a water bath. The gentle heat of
It is to be noted very carefully that tinctures the water bath evaporates the juice of the
must be of uniform strength. The respective plant.
strengths vary greatly due to the ‘variability’ of
• Keep the chopped substance on the water
water contained in the same plant at different
bath and weigh the substance every 15
seasons, conditions of growth, procurement time
minutes after cooling for a minute. This
and storage.
process is continued till the weighing scale
The variability of water contained in the shows no further reduction of weight. This
solvent, especially in alcohol, also adds to the means that there is no more moisture left in
variability of tinctures, and of the succeeding the drug substance.
Modern Methods of Preparation of Drugs 271
• Now compare the final weight of the PREPARATION OF MOTHER

substance with that taken before. This TINCTURE BY NEW METHOD
difference will give the amount of moisture
A pre-requisite in the preparation of mother
content in the drug substance, for which
tincture is estimation of water content in the drug
allowance should be made while preparing
substances that are not anhydrous. It is done by
the menstrum.
gravimetric, volumetric or titrimetric method, as
This dry crude drug substance, secured on
given in chapter ‘Sampling and Methods of
evaporation, will be taken as the unit of strength,
Analysis’.
the tincture will be made to represent one part of
this dry substance in each ten parts of the finished The dry crude material after evaporation is
tincture with a few exceptions. taken as the unit of strength, the tincture being
After determining how much quantity of dry made to represent one part of this crude material
substance is present in the given quantity of the in each ten parts of the completed solution.
fresh moist material, this is to be compared with Having determined how much of dry substance
the respective tincture formula for this drug, as is contained in a given quantity of the fresh moist
specified in the pharmacopoeia. If its weight be material, it shall be compared with the special
below that prescribed as the standard in the said tincture formula for this drug.
formula, add sufficient purified water to the moist
magma to equal the standard weight. But, if the A. MACERATION
weight of the moist drug substance or magma is
above the standard weight, as specified in the It is a long process used for the treatment of
formula, then by cautious evaporating in a large quantities of drug substances, needing much
moderate temperature, enough of the drug time for the extraction of their medicinal
moisture will have to be reduced, so that the principles.
weight equals the standard weight. Substances used for maceration, include
The moisture content of drug substance may hard, gummy, mucilaginous substances and those
be deficient or excess, but the finished and final substances having much viscid juice which
tincture must maintain some definite proportion prevent the rapid penetration of alcohol
of alcohol and water with that of the drug (menstrum) into the mass. Hard, gummy and
substance dissolved i.e., the dry drug substance mucilagenous drug substances do not allow the
must be present in the ratio of 1 : 10, in the final alcohol or menstrum to penetrate them rapidly
tincture (with a few exceptions). due to the smallness of their inter-molecular
After determining the moisture content, the space. After cutting or pounding the drug
formula of the respective drug is adjusted as per substance, the surface for penetration of alcohol
the specified formula for this drug. Next, the increases.
entire drug material is pounded to the finest pulp
state possible and is then continued according to Apparatus
one of the processes of maceration or percolation. • Macerating jar with lid.
Dry substances, before being employed in • Drug material.
the processing preparation, should be reduced • Menstrum.
to the proper degree of fineness, as specified in
• Chopping board and knife.
the pharmacopoeia.
Procedure • After the maceration, press out the residue

and triturate the residual substance lightly
a. Pre-process or Preparation:
in a mortar and mix with about twice its bulk
• Calculate the moisture content of the of finely powdered substance.
drug substance with the help of a water
bath. • Next add to it the remaining half of the
solvent and subject to the process of
• The temperature should be between 15-
percolation.
20ºC and pressure N.T.P.
• Alcohol and purified water are used as • The percolated clean liquid is then added to
menstrum. the previously decanted liquid.
• The drug substance should be in contact • Next, filter the resultant tincture and store
with the vehicle for a long time. into a well-closed bottle in a dark cool place.
• Press the merc after removing the liquid Note: 1. The volume of mother tincture obtained
portion. may be less than the formula
prescribed in the pharmacopoeia due to:
b. Process:
• Evaporation of alcohol.
• The desired drug substance is reduced to
• Contraction; due to mixture of
magma (or if unreducible, in its natural state), alcohol and water.
and placed in a macerating jar or stainless
2. If the volume of mother tincture, so
steel vessel, with a lid so constructed that it obtained is more than the formula
checks evaporation of alcohol. prescribed, then reduce the volume by:
• Next, the required (pre-calculated) solvent • Gentle heat.
or menstrum is added to the magma, such
• Deduct the portion of water by adding a
that the whole mass is covered, if possible.
calculating amount of strong alcohol.
The macerating vessel is then kept sealed in
a dark cool place, and powerfully shaken In mixing strong alcohol with water, a
daily. The temperature should be within the contraction or decrease in volume may occur,
range of 15°C to 20’C. whereas, during liquidification of solids, an
The period required for proper extraction of increase in volume will occur. The finished
the drug substance varies according to their tincture should, in either case, be measured and
nature. Hence, the maceration process compensated for, as directed in the standard
continues for about 2 to 4 weeks. method of preparation relating to each respective
• After this period, decant the tincture and drug.
press out the residue through a clean linen
bag or with the help a of tincture-press. B. PERCOLATION
• Measure all the tincture, and if necessary, add
It is a comparatively short process, but is a
more of the prescribed menstrum to reach
special method used for the extraction of dried
the required volume, and again filter.
vegetable and animal drug substances. This
If alcohol fails to act readily on the viscid process is carried out in a special vessel known
and mucilaginous drug substances, in such a case: as the percolator.
• Use only one-half the quantity of the solvent
and macerate as above.
Description of a Percolator another. There is a separate arrangement for entry

There are different types and sizes of of air after complete closure.
percolators. They may be made of stainless steel, If the percolator is not provided with a stop-
porcelain or glass. It consists of two parts: cock, insert a cork in the lower orifice, having
1. The percolator proper. first made a longitudinal small groove, so that
by pressing the cork into the neck of the
2. The receiver.
percolator with required force, the flow of the
The two parts are connected to each other tincture may be regulated or stopped as desired.
with some rubber tubing and a glass rod.
2 Percolator
3
1. Menstrum (vehicle).
2. Sand.
4
3. Filter paper.
4. Drug substance.
5 5. Stop-cock.
6. Rubber tube.
6 7. Receiver with the markings.
1. Percolator Proper 2. Receiver

It is the upper part of the percolator, This is the lower part, kept below the
consisting of two parts: percolator proper. It a glass jar provided with a
a. Head. wide mouth and a stop-cock.
b. Neck.
Principle on Which a Percolator Works
The ‘head’ is the upper, pear or conical
shaped portion, fitted with a stop - cock at the When a liquid, capable of dissolving only a
top. part of the powdered material (which is spread
on a porous material) passes through succeeding
The ‘cock’ forms the lower end which is layers of powder, it gets saturated. The solution
connected through rubber tubing and glass rod is subjected to two forces:
to the receiver vessel, kept below the bottom of
• Force of capillary attraction, by which the
the percolator.
power tries to retain the liquid.
The cork placed in the head and neck are
• Force of gravity. This being stronger, it
rubbed very roughly so that the cork and the
causes the downward displacement of the
upper body can conveniently fit with one
standard solution.
The physical forces acting over the process The dry powdered drug is moistened by
of percolation are: mixing with sufficient menstrum with the help
• Gravity. of a pestle or spatula in a mortar. This makes the
• Viscosity. powder more absorbable by the menstrum.
• Friction. B. If the drug substance is fresh, reduce it to a
• Adhesion. fine, uniform pulp.
• Osmosis. If in large scale, the juice is pressed out from
the pulp and the residue is uniformly mixed
• Capillary attraction.
with an equal quantity of powdered green
• Surface tension. grass. The juice, taken out is kept in the
receiver of the percolator and is allowed to
Preparation of Drug Substance for
mix with the percolated fluid.
Percolation
A. If the drug substance is dry and hard, it is Preparation of the Percolator
finely powdered to give a uniform
A piece of fine, clean muslin is tied to the
consistency.
neck of small percolators without a stop-cock. A
The drugs should be reduced to proper ‘tow’ is then placed on the muslin. ‘Tow’ is an
degree of fineness, as specified under each obstruction made of a porous material, kept in
monograph of drugs in different pharmacopoeias or above the neck and below the powdered drug
and all of which must pass through a sieve. substance. It consists of the following layers,
from below upwards:
Standard of Powder Fineness and Relative
Mesh Screen • Plug of absorbent cotton, inserted in the neck.
• 1/4” thick layer of coarse sand.
i. Coarse powder (#20), standard mesh
screen, 20 meshes to the inch. (All • 1/2” thick layer of medium coarse sand.
particles pass through a No. 20 sieve and • Layer of maximum coarse sand. One may
not more than 40% through a No. 60 use powdered green glass instead of sand. It
sieve.) controls the flow of liquid well.
ii. Moderately coarse powder (#40), Preparation of Mother Tincture
standard mesh screen, 40 meshes to the
inch. (All particles pass through a No. 1. Required Material:
40 sieve and not more than 40% through a. Ingredients:
a No. 80 sieve.) • Drug substance.
iii. Fine powder (#60), standard mesh • Menstrum i.e. strong alcohol.
screen, 60 meshes to the inch. (All b. Apparatus:
particles pass through a No. 60 sieve and • Percolator with sieves and stopcock.
not more than 40% through a No. 100 • A glass rod with cork.
sieve.)
2. Procedure:
iv. Very fine powder (#80), standard mesh
• Moisten the prescribed quantity of pulp
screen, 80 meshes to the inch. (All
or powdered drug substance with a small
particles pass through a No. 80 sieve.)
amount of menstrum (strong alcohol).
• This is spread uniformly over ‘tow’ (the • Allow it to stand for 24 hours or more, as
layers are described above). prescribed in the pharmacopoeia.
• Gently press the pulp/powder down with • After allowing it to stand for the prescribed
a broad flat cork which is fixed at the amount of time, open the valves and regulate
end of a glass rod. This results in a the stop-cock or cork in such a manner, that
uniform, compact mass free from the liquid percolates drop by drop (it should
fissures or empty spaces. not exceed 10-30 drops/minute).
Note: If the mass is coarse or if strong alcohol is • Keep a constant watch over the level of
used, the pressing should be firm. menstrum. It should always be above the
If the mass is of fine powder, the pressing should level of the mass. Hence, a fresh quantity of
be light. menstrum is added at intervals, taking care
that the arrangement in the percolator is not
• The upper surface of the mass is covered with
disturbed.
a disc of filter paper or a thin layer of finely
powdered glass or sand. • The process is continued till the required
amount of menstrum has been procured, and
• Take enough quantity of the menstrum to just
the last drop has been received in the
cover the mass. Pour it slowly and gently
receiver.
down a glass rod which is attacked to a flat
cork. Pour the menstrum such that the fluid • After the last drop has been received, pour a
may fall on the cork and spread gradually sufficient amount of menstrum to cover the
over the surface without displacing or mass in the percolator. Close the lid to
disturbing the provided glass or sand. prevent percolation. Let it stand for 6 hours.
• After the menstrum has been poured, remove • After 6 hours, open the cork and allow the
the rod and the cork. Close the lid of the liquid to drop into the receiver. Test this
percolator to prevent contamination from tincture in a laboratory for its drug strength
draft and evaporation. Close the mouth of and then filter it through white filter paper
the percolator with a cork as soon as the directly into glass bottles which are tightly
liquid begins to drop. corked.
Maceration Percolation
1. It is a long process requiring around 2-4 It is a shorter process requiring approximately
weeks. 24 hours.
2. Used for hard, gummy and muscilagenous Used for soft, dry, non-gummy and non-
substances. mucilagenous substances.
3. Here only fresh animal or vegetable Here both dry or fresh drug substances can be
substances are used. used.
4. Mother tincture can not be obtained directly. Mother tincture can be obtained directly.
Decantation has to be carried out before Decantation is not necessary before filteration.
filtration.
5. Menstrum is added to the drug substance. Menstrum passes through the drug substance.
Further Potentization
As discussed earlier, in the new method, the drug prover of the tincture is equivalent to 1x potency
of the decimal scale.
2x is prepared by mixing 1 part of 1x potency or mother tincture with 9 parts of the vehicle and
giving 10 downward strokes of equal volume.
The succeeding potencies are prepared by mixing 1 part of the preceding potency with 9 parts
of dispensing alcohol and giving 10 downward strokes of equal strength.
■
5-4
Comparison: New Method and Old Method
There are a lot of differences between the The modern method follows the old method
old and modern method of preparation of drugs. in the preparation of Class VA, VB, VIA, VIB,
There are also some similarities which also must where the respective amount of drug power i.e.
be kept in mind while comparing the two. 1/10, 1/100, etc. has been calculated on the basis
• Both the methods adopt the same process of of their respective solubilities in purified water
‘immersion’ for preparation. or alcohol. The method of preparation for Class
VII is also the same in both the methods. Here,
• In the preparation of certain drugs like
in Class VII, amorphous, crude or insoluble
Causticum, Hepar sulphuris, Calcarea
substances are included which are insoluble in
carbonica, Mercurius solubilis, etc.,
purified water or alcohol or a mixture of both in
Hahnemann showed his originality and
any proportion. Hence, here the dry crude drug
speciality. The modern method also complies
has been taken as a unit of medicinal strength
in full conformity with Hahnemann’s
from where the respective drug power is
particular directions regarding their mode of
ascertained.
preparation.
S. No. Old Method Modern Method
1. It was introduced by Dr. Hahnemann. It was introduced by the Ameican and British
pharmacopoeia.
2. Only fresh animal and vegetable drug Air dried drug substances are used.
substances are used.
3. In the preparation of mother tinctures, In the new method there is no such
mother solutions and triturations from drug classifications.
substances, belonging to vegetable and
mineral kingdoms, the old method
recommends 9 different classes.
4. The old method classifies the drug substances There are no such classifications in the
of the plants in 4 classes, depending upon their modern method.
juice content, e.g., most juicy, moderate juicy,
dry plant and animal drugs.
5. In the preparation of mother tinctures from In the modern method there are only two
vegetable and animal kingdom, the old method methods:
prescribes different methods, e.g., for Class I i. Maceration
plant juices to be used; for Class II the plant
ii. Percolation.
substances are mixed with alcohol and then
strained; for Class III and Class IV the drug These are applied according to the nature
substances (dried vegetable and animal) are of the drug substances.
mixed with alcohol and the resulting mixture is
allowed to stand for 8 days.
6. The drug power varies in the old method, e.g. 1/ For securing uniformity in strength, the
2 for Class I and Class II drugs; 1/6 for Class III modern method prescribes a uniform
drugs, and 1/10 for Class IV, Class VA and Class standard of 1/10 drug power in all the
VI A drugs. cases; excepting a few ones, depending
on their low solubility, e.g. Ambra grisea
and Arsenicum album, drug power 1/100;
Chloralum (solution) drug power 1/100;
Moschus, drug power 1/20, etc.
7. The old method prescribes double standards, The modern method eliminates this
wherefrom to calculate the respective drug double standard and calculates the
strength, e.g. from dry drugs and from the fresh respective drug power or strength, taking
plant juice. only the dry drug substance as the unit,
wherefrom to calculate the strength.
8. The old method maintains two scales for the The modern method maintains only the
preparation, the decimal and the centesimal. decimal scale. Preparations according to
50 millesimal scale have also been
started, according to the 6 the edition of
Organon.
9. In the preparation of mother tinctures, especially Modern method takes into account the
those of fresh substances containing moisture plant moisture and also of the moisture
(i.e. water or juice), the different classes of the content of animal drugs as a part of the
old method cannot produce mother tinctures of solvent or vehicle and not as the part of
uniform and equal strengths, as it does not take the medicinal content.
into account the respective moisture contents
of drug substances. The moisture contents vary
according to the geology and meteorological
conditions and also nature of procurement and
maturity of the substance. In the old method,
the moisture of the plant or the animal substance
is taken as a part of the medicinal content.
Comparison: New Method and Old Method 279
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALLOPATHIC AND HOMOEOPATHIC MOTHER

TINCTURE
S. No. Allopathic Mother Tincture Homoeopathic Mother Tincture
1. Allopathic drugs are made from dried Homoeopathic tincture are usually made from
plants, generally mixed with a foreign fresh plants, because their medicinal
substance. properties are far superior to dry ones.
For e.g., tincture of Sanguinaria contains For e.g. tincture of Sanguinaria is made from
acetic acid; tincture of Opium contains Sanguinaria alone; tincture of Opium and
phosphate of lime; tincture of Rheum Rheum are pure, etc. Only when fresh plants
contains cardamom, etc. are not available, dry ones are used.
2. These tinctures are mixed with other Mother tinctures are not mixed with other
substances. substances. They are preserved and utilised
to prepare potencies in their absolute pure
state.
3. Allopathic tinctures are standardised on the Homoeopathic tincture are prepared using the
basis of the alkaloid, glucosides, etc. whole plants, leaves, fruits, etc., as the case
may be without considering the alkaloid
content in the medicinal substances.
■
5-5
Preparation of Medicines from
Sarcodes and Nosodes
PREPARATION OF SARCODES of the preceding attenuation with nine parts of

the diluent.
Sarcodes are homoeopathic attenuations of
wholesome organs, tissues, or metabolic factors Centesimal Attenuation Scale
obtained from healthy specimens. Sarcodes are
The fresh source material is coarsely ground.
prepared according to homoeopathic
One part is combined with 99 parts of glycerol
specifications, provided the basic substance is
85% and homogeneously dispersed and
not altered and the FINAL PRODUCT is not
succussed to produce 100 parts of the 1c
adulterated by any pathogen or other deleterious
attenuation. Filter if necessary.
substance. For collection and preparation, refer
to the individual monographs. One part of the 1c attenuation is succussed
with 99 parts of diluent to produce 100 parts of
the 2c attenuation. Subsequent liquid
PREPARATION OF POTENCY
attenuations are prepared by succussing one part
Decimal Attenuation Scale of the preceding attenuation with 99 parts of
diluent.
The fresh source material is coarsely ground.
One part is combined with nine parts of glycerol
85% and homogeneously dispersed and PREPARATION OF NOSODES
succussed to produce 10 parts of the 1x Homoeopathic preparation from pure
attenuation. Filter if necessary. microbial culture obtained from diseased tissue
One part of the 1x attenuation is succussed and clinical materials (secretions, discharges,
with nine parts of glycerol 85% to produce 10 etc.) are known as nosodes or biotherapeutic
parts of the 2x attenuation. Subsequent liquid preparations. These are processed from original
attenuations are prepared by succussing one part stock built from isolated microbes, diseased and
clinical materials from which the primary stocks containing proteins such as blood agar, serum
are prepared. Depending upon the nature of agar have also been recommended. Freshly
material used these may be divided into the isolated organisms invariably of S-type** are
following 4 groups: recommended for use. Stock nosodes should be
*N I: Preparations made from lysate of made from recently isolated organisms only.
micro-organisms capable of producing bacterial Where this is impracticable, the culture should
endotoxin. be kept below 50oC so that they retain their full
antigenic value. Stock cultures are most often
For e.g., Typhoidinum, Paratyphoidinum, E.
maintained in lyophylised state.
coli-bacillinum, Staphylococcinum, etc.
N II: Products made from micro-organisms Repeated subcultures of a strain degenerates
capable of producing exotoxins. For e.g., and lowers its antigenic value and have been
Diphtherinum. found to be less useful and not recommended.
N III: Preparations made from purified Unless otherwise specified in the individual
toxins. monograph, the culture is allowed to incubate
N IV: Preparation made from micro- for 24 hours at 37oC. At the end of incubation,
organisms/viruses/clinical materials from human the micro-organisms are harvested under aseptic
convalescence or diseased subjects. For e.g., conditions by pouring a sterile isotonic salt
Variolinum, Influenzinum, Psorinum, solution on the solid media and then generally
Syphilinum and Morbillinum. shaking or scraping until all the micro-organisms
have been suspended. If scraping is necessary,
removal of culture medium should be avoided.
GENERAL METHOD FOR COLLECTION
Subsequently the suspension is centrifuged at
AND PREPARATION OF A STRAIN
5,000 R.P.M. for 30 minutes (3980-4070G, ICE
Microbes available as pure organism are International centrifuge). The supernatant fluid
obtained from suitable clinical material. The is discarded and bacterial pellets are re-
material collected from subjects suffering from suspended in 0.9 per cent sodium chloride
the disease are isolated, cultured and identified. solution, shaken well and centrifuged again. The
Their properties are studied for complete suspension of bacteria is examined again for
identification as per the individual monograph purity. It is essential that purity of the strain is
and they are lyophilised to ensure preservation maintained during incubation and handling.
and stability of characteristics. Purity is checked at different stages. In case of
contamination, the lot should be rejected and a
The first step involved should be preparation
fresh strain is used. After 24 hours of growth in
of culture medium in which homoeopathic
incubation, a colony is re-examined for checking
nosodes are to be prepared. The solid medium
the characteristics and purity of the strain. The
generally recommended is nutrient agar which
culture is then taken up in the 0.9 per cent
is generally satisfactory in most cases. In other
aqueous sodium chloride solution.
instances special solid culture medium
* The prefix N (denoting Nosodes) has been given to differen- STRENGTH

tiate it from the conventional methods of preparation as ad-
vised for other drugs by Hahnemann.
The growth is suspended again in isotonic
** Smooth type.
solution, shaken to break up the clumps and to
Preparation of Medicines from Sarcodes & Nosodes 283
make a uniform suspension; number of bacteria upto 6x are kept in hermetically sealed ampoules
in each ml. of suspension is estimated and is and stored in conditions prescribed under the
adjusted to 20 millions viable cells per millilitre individual monograph.
(2X1010). It forms the original stock in case of
Group N IV
drugs of groups N I and N II. For group N III and
N IV, the strength of IX should be 1 part of the Preparations are made by the Hahnemannian
pure material in 10 parts of the suspending/ method of trituration class IX, H.P.l., Vol. I, 262,
diluting material which may be lactose or is followed. Attenuations upto 6x should be
glycerine as suggested in individual monographs. stored between 4-6oC.
PREPARATION
Notes:
• Centrifuge speed in all the above operations should
Group N I not be below 10,000 R.P.M. The operation should
Bacteriolysis of the suspension containing be for 30 minutes or till complete separation in a
20 billion viable cells per ml. in distilled water refrigerated centrifuge.
is carried out by a sonicator till most of the • The supernatant liquid should be filtered with a
seitz filter or membrane filter.
bacterial cells are ruptured. The material is
centrifuged at 10,000 R.P.M. for 30 minutes • No chemicals, antiseptic or bacteriostatics should
be mixed at any stage of the operation with the
(3980-4070 G, ICE International centrifuge). The
material. In cases where normal saline solution is
supernatant is filtered through a sietz filter and
used, full care should be taken to completely
the cell free extract containing the endotoxin, is remove the same before attenuation.
treated with an equal volume of strong alcohol. • Preservation of all the products and potencies
This strength is sealed in a separate ampoule and below 6x should be done in a refrigerator at 4o to
is labelled as primary stock nosode. This serves 6o.
as 1x for preparation of homoeopathic dilutions. • Live organisms should be handled with care,
This should be preserved at 4-6o. following aseptic conditions.
Group N II • Bacterial count means total number of organisms/
ml. (live or dead).
The toxigenicity of the strain is established • As far as possible, the substance used in the original
before use. The suspension having 20 billion proving should be taken as the starting raw
viable cells/ml. is mixed with an equal volume material.
of strong alcohol and hermetically sealed under • To check the hygienic condition of the laboratory,
aseptic conditions. It is labelled as primary stock plate count should be done from time to time.
nosodes. This serves as 1x. This should be • Test for sterility as mentioned for aerobic and
preserved between 4-10o. Further attenuations are anaerobic organisms in I.P. 1964 should be made
made in dispensing alcohol in the ratio 1:9. This before issue of any nosode, 6x or below for
must comply with the test for sterility before therapeutic use or for manufacture of higher
being issued. attenuations.
• All potentices below 3x of group N I, N II and N
Group N III III should bear date of manufacture and a life
Preparations are made by trituration in period of six months from the date of manufacture.
lactose with drug strength 1/10. Attenuations ■
5-6
Methods of Preparation - German
Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia
GERMAN HOMOEOPATHIC (I):

PHARMACOPOEIAL METHODS
FOR MANUFACTURE OF BASIC W(Nx - No)
E1 = [kg] (1)
HOMOEOPATHIC POTENCIES & 100
THEIR DILUTIONS W = Weight of filtrate in kg.
NO = Dry residue or solid content in per cent
METHOD 1: Mother Tinctures and as required by monograph.
Liquid Dilutions
NX = Dry residue or solid content of filtrate
Mother tinctures by Method 1 are mixtures in per cent.
of equal parts of expressed juice and ethanol 86
Combine the filtrate with the required
per cent.
amount of ethanol 43 per cent. Leave to stand at
Express the finely cut plants or parts of a temperature not exceeding 20º C for not less
plants, and immediately mix the expressed fluid than 5 days; filter if necessary.
with an equal part by weight of ethanol 86 per
cent. Leave to stand in a closed container for not Potentization
less than 5 days at a temperature not exceeding
Decimal:
20°C; filter.
The 1st decimal dilution (1x) is made with 2
Adjustment to any parameter given in the
parts of the mother tincture and 8 parts of ethanol
monograph.
43 per cent.
Determine the dry residue or solid content
The 2nd decimal dilution (2x) with 1 part of
of the above filtrate. Calculate the amount of
the 1st decimal dilution and 9 parts of ethanol
ethanol 43 per cent (E1) required, using Formula
43 per cent. Subsequent dilutions are produced METHOD 2b: Mother Tinctures and
in the same way. Liquid Dilutions
Centesimal: Mother tinctures made in accordance with

Method 2b are manufactured as per Method 2a,
The 1st centesimal dilution (1c) is made with
using ethanol 62 per cent (ethanol content is
2 parts of the mother tincture and 98 parts of
approximately 30 per cent).
ethanol 43 per cent.
Use ethanol 30 per cent to adjust to any
The 2nd centesimal dilution (2c) with 1 part
concentration required in the monograph.
of the 1st centesimal dilution and 99 parts of
ethanol 43 per cent. Subsequent dilutions are Potentization
produced in the same way.
Decimal:
METHOD 2a: Mother Tinctures and
The 1st decimal dilution (1x) is made with 2
Liquid Dilutions
parts of the mother tincture and 8 parts of ethanol
Mother tinctures manufactured by Method 30 per cent.
2a are produced by macerating the material as
described below (ethanol content is The 2nd decimal dilution (2x) with 1 part of
approximately 43 per cent). the 1st decimal dilution and 9 parts of ethanol
15 per cent. Subsequent dilutions are produced
The plants or parts of plants are finely in the same way.
minced. A sample is used to determine loss on
drying. To the minced plant material add METHOD 3a: Mother Tinctures and
immediately not less than half the amount by Liquid Dilutions
weight of ethanol 86 per cent and store in well
Mother tinctures for Method 3a are produced
sealed containers at a temperature not exceeding
according to Method 2a (ethanol content
20oC.
approximately 60 per cent), with the following
Calculate the amount of ethanol 86 per cent difference: The required amount of ethanol 86
required (E 2), for the plant material, using per cent (E3), is calculated according to formula
formula (2), deduct the amount of ethanol that (3).
has already been used, and add the final amount 2MD
to the mixture. E3 = [kg] (3)
100
MD
E2 = [kg] (2) M = Weight of plant material in kg.
100 D = Loss on drying in sample, in per cent.
M = Weight of plant material in kg. Use ethanol 62 per cent to adjust to any
D = Loss on drying in sample, in per cent. concentration required as per monograph.
Leave the mixture to stand for not less than
10 days at a temperature not exceeding 20oC, Potentization
shaking repeatedly. Express and filter. Decimal:
Adjust to any parameters given in the The 1st decimal dilution (1x) is made with 3
monograph, as for Method 1. Potentize as shown parts of the mother tincture and 7 parts of ethanol
under Method 1. 62 per cent.
Methods of Preparation — German Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia 287
The 2nd decimal dilution (2x) with 1 part of Use ethanol 30 per cent to adjust to any
the 1st decimal dilution and 9 parts of ethanol concentration required in the monograph.
62 per cent. Subsequent dilutions are produced
in the same way. For dilutions from the 4th Potentization
decimal onwards use ethanol 43 per cent. Decimal:
Centesimal: The 1st decimal dilution (1x) is made with 3
The 1st centesimal dilution (1c) is made with parts of the mother tincture and 7 parts of ethanol
3 parts of the mother tincture and 97 parts of 30 per cent.
ethanol 62 per cent. The 2nd decimal dilution (2x) with 1 part of
The 2nd centesimal dilution (2c) with 1 part the lst decimal dilution and 9 parts of ethanol 15
of the 1st centesimal dilution and 99 parts of per cent. Subsequent dilutions are produced in
ethanol 43 per cent. Subsequent dilutions are the same way.
METHOD 4a: Mother Tinctures and
METHOD 3b: Mother Tinctures and Liquid Dilutions
Liquid Dilutions Method 4a is for mother tinctures
Mother tinctures for Method 3b are produced manufactured according to the maceration or
according to Method 3a, using ethanol 73 per percolation methods described in the Tinkturen
cent (ethanol contents approximately 43 per (tinctures) monograph in the German
cent). Pharmacopoeia using 1 part of the drug to 10
Use ethanol 43 per cent to adjust to any parts of ethanol in suitable concentration (unless
concentration required in the monograph. otherwise stated in the monograph). If adjustment
to a given value is necessary, the required amount
Potentization of ethanol in the concentration prescribed or used
Decimal: for manufacture is calculated according to
The 1st decimal dilution (1x) is made with 3 formula (1). The calculated amount of ethanol is
parts of the mother tincture and 7 parts of ethanol combined with the filtrate. The mixture is left to
43 per cent. stand for not less than five days at a temperature
The 2nd decimal dilution (2x) with 1 part of not exceeding 20o C, after which it is filtered if
the 1st decimal dilution and 9 parts of ethanol required.
30 per cent.
Potentization
The 3rd decimal dilution (3x) with 1 part of
the 2nd decimal dilution and 9 parts of ethanol Decimal:
15 per cent. Subsequent dilutions are produced The mother tincture is equivalent to the 1st
in the same way. decimal dilution (ø = 1x).
The 2nd decimal dilution (2x) is made with
METHOD 3c: Mother Tinctures and
Liquid Dilutions
1 part of the mother tincture and 9 parts of ethanol
of the same concentration.
Mother tinctures for Method 3c are produced
according to Method 3a using, ethanol 43 per The 3rd decimal dilution (3x) with 1 part of
cent (ethanol contents approximately 30 per the 2nd decimal dilution and 9 parts of ethanol
cent). of the same concentration.
Ethanol 43 per cent is used for subsequent the 2nd decimal dilution and 9 parts of ethanol
dilutions from the 4th decimal upwards unless a of the same concentration.
different concentration is prescribed; the method Ethanol 43 per cent is used for subsequent
is the same as for the 3rd decimal dilution. dilutions from the 4th decimal upwards; the
Centesimal: method is the same as for the 3rd decimal
dilution.
The 1st centesimal dilution (1c) is made with
10 parts of the mother tincture and 90 parts of Centesimal:
ethanol of the same concentration. The 1st centesimal dilution (1c) is made with
The 2nd centesimal dilution (2c) with 1 part 10 parts of the mother tincture and 90 parts of
of the 1st centesimal dilution and 99 parts of ethanol of the same concentration.
ethanol 43 per cent, unless another concentration The 2nd centesimal dilution (2c) with 1 part
is prescribed, Subsequent dilutions are produced of the 1st centesimal dilution and 99 parts of
in the same way. ethanol 43 per cent. Subsequent dilutions are
METHOD 4b: Mother Tinctures and
Liquid Dilutions
METHOD 5a: Solutions
Method 4b is for mother tinctures Liquid preparations made by Method 5a are
manufactured according to the maceration or solutions produced from basic drug materials and
percolation methods described in the Tinkturen a liquid vehicle. Unless otherwise prescribed in
(tinctures) monograph in the German the monograph, 1 part of the basic drug material
Pharmacopoeia using 1 part of animals, parts of is dissolved in 9 parts (= 1x) or 99 parts (= 1c or
animals or animal secretions and 10 parts of 2x) of the liquid vehicle and succussed. Absolute
ethanol in suitable concentration. If adjustment ethanol, purified water, glycerol 85 per cent and
to a given value is necessary, the required amount the ethanol-water mixtures listed in the CHP are
of ethanol in the concentration prescribed or used used as vehicles.
for manufacture is calculated according to If ethanol 15 per cent is the prescribed
formula (1). The calculated amount of ethanol is vehicle for the liquid preparation, the solution
combined with the filtrate. The mixture is left to may also be produced by the following method:
stand for not less than five days at a temperature 1 part of the basic drug material is dissolved in
not exceeding 20oC, after which it is filtered if 7.58 parts of water, to produce the 1x; add 1.42
required. parts of ethanol to the solution. To produce the
1c or 2x, 1 part of the basic drug material is
Potentization
dissolved in 83.4 parts of water, adding 15.6 parts
Decimal: of ethanol to the solution.
The mother tincture is equivalent to the 1st
decimal dilution (ø = 1x). Potentization
The 2nd decimal dilution (2x) is made with Decimal:
1 part of the mother tincture and 9 parts of ethanol The 2nd decimal dilution (2x) is made with
of the same concentration. 1 part of the mother tincture and 9 parts of ethanol
43 per cent, unless another vehicle is prescribed.
The 3rd decimal dilution (3x) with 1 part of
Subsequent dilutions are in the same way.
Centesimal: prescribed. Triturations upto and including the

The 2nd centesimal dilution (2c) is made 4th dilution are triturated by hand or machine in
with 1 part of the 1st centesimal dilution (1c) a ratio of 1 to 10 (decimal dilution) or 1 to 100
and 99 parts of ethanol 43 per cent, unless another (centesimal dilution). Unless otherwise stated,
liquid vehicle is prescribed. Subsequent dilutions the basic drug materials are reduced to the
are in the same way. particle size given in the monograph (mesh
aperture). Quantities of more than 1,000 g are
METHOD 5b: Aqueous Solutions triturated by mechanical means.
Liquid preparations made by Method 5b are The duration and intensity of trituration
solutions produced from basic drug materials and should be such that the resulting particle size of
water for injections. Unless otherwise stated in the basic drug material in the 1st decimal or
the monograph, 1 part of the basic drug material centesimal dilution is below 10 μm at 80 per cent
is dissolved in 9 parts (= 1x) or 99 parts (= 1c or level; no drug particle should be more than 50
2x) of water for injections and succussed. μm.
Triturations up to and including the 4th
Potentization decimal or centesimal are produced at the same
duration and intensity of trituration.
Decimal:
The 2nd decimal dilution (2x) is made with Trituration by Hand
1 part of the solution (1x) and 9 parts of water Divide the vehicle into three parts and
for injections. Subsequent dilutions are produced triturate the first part for a short period in a
in the same way. porcelain mortar. Add the basic drug material and
Aqueous solutions produced by Method 5b triturate for 6 minutes, scrape down for 4 minutes
are normally processed immediately; their use with a porcelain spatula, triturate for a further 6
is limited to the manufacture of preparations by minutes, scrape down again for 4 minutes, add
Methods 11, 13,14,15,39a and 39c. the second part of the vehicle and continue as
above. Finally add the third part and proceed as
Solutions made according to Method 5b and before. The minimum time required for the whole
their liquid dilutions must comply with the process will thus be 1 hour. The same method is
‘Sterility Test’ given in the German followed for subsequent dilutions.
Pharmacopoeia if stored.
For triturations above the 4x or 4c dilute 1
Labeling part of the dilution with 9 parts of lactose or 99
parts of lactose as follows: In a mortar, combine
Preparations made according to Method 5b
one third of the required amount of lactose with
carry the designation ‘aquos.’ after the indication
the whole of the previous dilution and mix until
of the potency; the same applies to presentations
homogeneous. Add the second third of the
made from them.
lactose, mix until homogeneous, and repeat for
METHOD 6: Triturations the last third.
Preparations made according to Method 6 Trituration by Machine
are triturations of solid basic drug materials with Upto and including the 4th dilution,
lactose as the vehicle unless otherwise triturations are made in a machine fitted with a
scraping device that ensures even trituration. Quantities of more than 1,000 gms. are made
Other machines may be used, providing the by mechanical trituration; the type of mixer,
particle sizes produced meet requirements. mixing period, drying time and length of the final
To produce a trituration by machine, triturate mixing stage are determined in a single trial run,
one third of the vehicle, add the basic drug recorded and written down in the operating
material and triturate; finally add the remaining instructions for the production process.
vehicle in two equal portions and triturate. The
time required to produce one trituration by
Potentization
machine is not less than 1 hour. Mother tinctures, solutions and liquid
Dilutions above the 4x or 4c are made by dilutions are potentized in the relative quantities
diluting 1 part of the dilution with 9 parts of laid down for their production. Lactose serves
lactose or 99 parts of lactose and combining one as the vehicle; the amount of lactose added must
third of the required amount of lactose in a be such that the total weight is 10 parts for
suitable mixer with the whole of the previous decimal and 100 parts for centesimal potencies.
dilution and mixing until homogeneous. Add the
METHOD 8a: Liquid Preparations
second third of the lactose, mix until
Made From Triturations
homogeneous, and proceed in the same way with
the last third of the lactose. Preparations made by Method 8a are liquid
preparations produced from triturations made by
The choice of a suitable mixer and the mixing
Method 6.
time required to achieve homogeneity are
established in a single trial run for each type of To produce a 6x liquid dilution, 1 part of the
apparatus and recorded. Additional requirements 4x trituration is dissolved in 9 parts of water and
relating to the machine in question are succussed. 1 part of this dilution is combined
determined, recorded and written down in the with 9 parts of ethanol 30 per cent to produce
operating instructions for the production process. the 6x liquid dilution by succussion. In the same
way, the 7x liquid dilution is made from the 9x
METHOD 7: Triturations trituration, and the 8x liquid dilution from the
6x trituration. From the 9x upwards, liquid
Preparations made by Method 7 are solid
decimal dilutions are made from the previous
preparations of mother tinctures and solutions
decimal dilution with ethanol 43 per cent in a
and their dilutions with lactose as the vehicle.
ratio of 1 to 10.
The total amount of lactose required is To produce a 6c liquid dilution, 1 part of the
transferred to a suitable apparatus, and the 4c trituration is dissolved in 99 parts of water
prescribed amount of the liquid preparation in and succussed. 1 part of this dilution is combined
the previous dilution stage is gradually mixed with 99 parts of ethanol 30 per cent to produce
in. The moist homogeneous mix is dried with the 6c liquid dilution by succussion. In the same
care, ground if necessary and sieved before way, the 7c liquid dilution is made from the 5c
mixing again thoroughly. trituration, and the 8c liquid dilution from the 6c
The amount of lactose used should be such trituration. From the 9c upwards, liquid
that the preparation will have the prescribed total centesimal dilutions are made from the previous
weight when the manufacturing process is centesimal dilution with ethanol 43 per cent in a
complete. ratio of 1 to 100.
The 6x, 7x, 6c and 7c liquid dilutions Except for ‘uniformity of content’, they must
produced by the above method must not be used comply with the Tablets monograph for uncoated
to produce further liquid dilutions. tablets in the German Pharmacopoeia.
Permitted excipients are starch, in
METHOD 8b: Aqueous Preparations
Made From Triturations concentrations of up to 10 per cent— and calcium
bicarbonate or magnesium stearate—in
Preparations made by Method 8b are
concentrations of up to 2 per cent. A saturated
aqueous preparations produced from triturations
lactose solution or starch paste or ethanol in
made by Method 6.
suitable concentration is used if granulation is
To produce a 6x liquid dilution, 1 part of the required.
4x trituration is dissolved in 9 parts of water for
injections and succussed. 1 part of this dilution Tablets prepared solely from preparations
is combined with 9 parts of water for injections produced by Method 6 or 7 are single doses
to produce the 6x liquid dilution by succussion. containing 100 or 250 mg. of the particular
In the same way, the 7x liquid dilution is made preparation. The weight of excipients is
from the 5x trituration, and the 8x liquid dilution additional to this.
from the 6x trituration. From the 9x upwards,
Labeling
liquid decimal dilutions are made from the
previous decimal dilution with water for Tablets are labelled with the dilution stage
injections in a ratio of 1 to 10. in accord with preparation by Method 6 or 7.
6x and 7x liquid dilutions made by the above
METHOD 10: Granules (Globule)
method must not be used to produce further liquid
dilutions. Preparations made by Method 10 are
Aqueous preparations made by Method 8b granules (globuli). They are produced by
are normally processed immediately; their use transferring a dilution to sucrose granules (size
is limited to the manufacture of presentations by 3:110-130 granules weigh 1g) by moistening 100
Methods 11, 13, 14, 15, 39a and 39c, mixtures parts of sucrose granules evenly with 1 part of
by Method 16, and potentized mixtures by dilution. The ethanol content of the dilution
Method 40b. should not be less than 60 per cent. If this is not
Aqueous preparations made by Method 8b the case, it will be necessary to go against
must comply with the ‘Sterility Test’ of the Methods 1 to 4b and produce the final
German Pharmacopoeia if stored. potentization of the decimal or centesimal
dilution which is to be used with ethanol 62 per
Labeling cent.
Preparations made by Method 8b carry the Following impregnation in a closed vessel,
designation ‘aquos.’ after the indication of the the granules (globuli) are air dried. They are
potency; the same applies to presentations made labelled with the dilution stage of the dilution
from them. used to impregnate them.
The following granule sizes may be used in
METHOD 9: Tablets special cases:
Tablets made by Method 9 are produced from
Size 1 470-530 granules weigh 1g.
preparations made by Method 6 or method 7.
Size 2 220-280 granules weigh 1g. Labeling

Size 3 110-130 granules weigh 1g. Different potencies combined for further
potentization must be stated. Added vehicles
Size 4 70- 90 granules weigh 1g.
must be stated.
METHOD 12a: Liquid External Appli-
cations
Size 7 10 granules weigh approx. 1g.
Preparations made by Method 12a are
Size 8 5 granules weigh approx. 1g. tinctures for external use produced as follows:
Size 9 3 granules weigh approx. 1g. • Using mother tinctures made by Method 1
or 2a or 19a, combine 2 parts of the mother
Size 10 2 granules weigh approx. 1g.
tincture with 3 parts of ethanol 43 per cent.
METHOD 11: Parenteral Preparations • Using mother tinctures made by Method 2b
or 19b, combine 2 parts of the mother
Preparations made by Method 11 are sterile,
tincture with 3 parts of ethanol 62 per cent.
injectable dilutions of one or more homoeopathic
preparations. They are designed for injection and • Using mother tinctures made by Method 3a
must comply with the Parenteralia monograph or 19c, combine 3 parts of the mother tincture
in the German Pharmacopoeia. The only with 2 parts of ethanol 62 per cent.
additives permitted are agents used to make the • Using mother tinctures made by Method 3b
preparations isotonic and adjust the pH; or 19d, combine 3 parts of the mother
preservatives may be used in specific cases. tincture with 2 parts of ethanol 43 per cent.
Sodium chloride is normally used to make • Using mother tinctures made by Method 3c
preparations isotonic; other agents used for that or 19e, combine 3 parts of the mother tincture
purpose must be declared. with 2 parts of ethanol 30 per cent.
Parenteral preparations for human use are • Using mother tinctures made by Method 4a
supplied in single dose glass ampoules. Multi- or 4b or 19f, combine 1 part of the mother
dose glass containers may be used for veterinary tincture with 1 part of ethanol in the
preparations. concentration used to make the mother
tincture; by extracting dried plants or parts
‘Uniformity of content’ tests (V.5.2.2) are not of plants with ethanol in a ration of 1:5 (as
required. With parenteral preparations produced per method 4a or 19f).
from preparations containing ethanol, care is
taken to keep the final ethanol content as low as Tinctures for external use may contain up to
possible. 10 per cent of glycerine as an additive.
Note: Tinctures for external use are not for
This may be achieved by mixing and /or
internal use and are labelled to indicate this.
potentizing with water for injections or the
solution of isotonizing agent. For potentization, METHOD 12b: Liquid External Appli-
an ethanol free vehicle is used for the last two cations
decimal dilution stages and the last centesimal
dilution stage respectively.
tinctures for external use produced by Method
2a with ethanol 73 per cent.
The method differs from Method 2a in that METHOD 12d: Liquid External Appli-
the amount of ethanol 73 per cent required (E) is cations
calculated using the following formula: Preparations made by Method 12d are oils
4MD for external use produced with 1 part of the dried
E= [kg]
plants or parts of plants and 10 parts of vegetable
100
oil, using the method given below. Groundnut
M = Weight of plant material in kg. oil, olive oil or sesame oil are normally used;
D = Loss on drying in sample, in per cent. other oils must be declared.
Moisten 1 part of the minced drug with 0.25
Labeling
parts of ethanol. Cover and leave to stand for
approximately 12 hours before combining with
labelled ‘ad usum externum’
10 parts of vegetable oil. Heat the mixture to 60
- 70oC and maintain it at that temperature for
METHOD 12c: Liquid External Appli-
cations approximately 4 hours. Express and filter.
Preparations made by Method 12c are Labeling

tinctures for external use produced by maceration Preparations made by Method 12d are
according to the following method: labelled ‘H 10%’.
Finely mince the plants or parts of plants, Storage
unless flowers only are used. Use a sample to
Protected from light, in sealed containers,
determine loss on drying. To 1 part of the plant
as far as possible full ones.
material add immediately 2.88 parts of water and
1.12 parts of ethanol and store at a temperature METHOD 12e: Liquid External Appli-
not exceeding 20°C. The additional amount of cations
water (W) required is calculated according to the
Preparations made by Method 12e are oils
formula:
for external use produced with 1 part of the dried
W= 4MD [kg] plants or parts of plants and 20 parts of vegetable
100 oil, using the method given below. Groundnut
M = weight of plant material in kg. oil, olive oil or sesame oil are normally used;
D = loss on drying in sample, in per cent, other oils must be declared.
and added to the mixture. Moisten 1 part of the minced drug with 0.25
Leave to stand for not less than 5 days at a parts of ethanol. Cover and leave to stand for
temperature not exceeding 20oC; stir the mixture approximately 12 hours before combining with
every morning and evening during those 5 days. 20 parts of vegetable oil. Heat the mixture to 60
Express and filter. - 70 ºC and maintain it at that temperature for
approximately 4 hours. Express and filter.
Labeling
Preparations made by Method 12c are Labeling
labelled ‘LE 20%’. Preparations made by Method 12e are
labelled ‘H 5%’.
Storage
Store protected from light.
Storage Labeling
Store protected from light, in sealed Preparations made by Method 12g are
containers, as far as possible. labelled ‘W 5%’.
METHOD 12f: Liquid External Appli- Storage

cations Store protected from light, in sealed
Preparations made by Method 12f are oils containers, as far as possible.
for external use produced with 1 part of the dried
plants or parts of plants and 10 parts of vegetable METHOD 12h: Liquid External Appli-
oil, using the method given below. Groundnut cations
oil, olive oil or sesame oil are normally used; Preparations made by Method 12h are oils
other oils must be declared. for external use produced by mixing 1 part of an
Combine 1 part of the minced drug with 10 essential oil with 9 parts of vegetable oil.
parts of vegetable oil. Heat under carbon dioxide Groundnut oil, olive oil or sesame oil are
to approximately 37o C and maintain at that normally used; other oils must be declared.
temperature for 7 days; during that time, the
mixture is stirred for 5 minutes every morning Labeling
and evening, with the vessel kept closed. Express Preparations made by Method 12h are
and filter. labelled ‘10%’.
Labeling
Storage
Preparations made by Method 12f are
labelled ‘W 10%’. Store protected from light, in sealed
containers, as far as possible.
Storage
Store protected from light, in sealed METHOD 12i: Liquid External Appli-
containers, as far as possible. cations
Preparations made by Method 12i are oils
METHOD 12g: Liquid External Appli- for external use produced by mixing 1 part of an
cations essential oil with 19 parts of vegetable oil.
Preparations made by Method 12 g are oils Groundnut oil, olive oil or sesame oil are
for external use produced with 1 part of the dried normally used; other oils must be declared.
plants or parts of plant and 20 parts of vegetable
oil, using the method given below. Groundnut Labeling
oil, olive oil or sesame oil are normally used; Preparations made by Method 12i are
other oils must be declared. labelled ‘5%’.
Combine 1 part of the minced drug with 20
parts of vegetable oil. Heat under carbon dioxide Storage
to approximately 37o C and maintain at that Store protected from light, in sealed
temperature for 7 days; during that time, the containers, as far as possible.
mixture is stirred for 5 minutes every morning
and evening, with the vessel kept closed. Express
and filter.
METHOD 12j: Liquid External Appli- Storage

cations
Store protected from light.
Liquid external applications made by
Method 12j are oily preparations for external use METHOD 13: Ointments
made from liquid dilutions.
Preparations made by Method 13 are made
To produce an oily dilution 3x, 1 part of from one or more homoeopathic preparations in
liquid dilution 1x is succussed with 9 parts of a suitable basis, usually wool alcohols ointment
anhydrous ethanol. 1 part of this dilution is basis. Other bases must be declared. Ointments
treated in the same way to produce liquid dilution must comply with the Salben monograph of the
3x. 1 part of liquid dilution 3x is mixed with 99 German Pharmacopoeia.
parts of vegetable oil.
Not permitted are auxiliary substances such
The same method is used to produce oily as antioxidants, stabilizers and—except in the
dilution 4x from liquid dilution 2x, and oily case of hydrous gels and oil-in-water emulsions-
dilutions from the 5x onwards. Olive oil is preservatives.
normally used; other oils must be declared.
Labeling
Labeling
Ointments containing the homoeopathic
preparation in a ratio of 1 : 10 in the case of
Method 12j are labelled ‘oleos’.
mother tinctures and decimal dilutions, and of 1
: 100 in the case of centesimal dilutions are
METHOD 12k: Liquid External Appli-
cations labelled with the homoeopathic preparation used.
Preparations made by method 12k are METHOD 14: Suppositories
tinctures for external use. They are made by the
following method: Preparations made by Method 14 are made
from one or more homoeopathic preparations and
Fresh plants or parts of plants are finely
a suitable basis. Hard fat is normally used as the
minced. Loss on drying is determined on a
base; other bases must be declared. Suppositories
sample. 1 part of plant material is immediately
must comply with the requirements of the
combined with three parts of water and heated
Suppositorien monograph in the German
to boiling for 30 minutes; water lost by
Pharmacopoeia. Additions other than the
evaporation is replaced. After this, 3.76 parts of
excipients listed under that heading in the G.H.P.
water and 2.24 parts of ethanol 96 per cent are
are not permitted. ‘Uniformity of Content’ tests
added. The additional amount of water required
(V.S.2.2) are not required.
(W) is calculated as for Method 12c and added
to the mixture. Leave to stand for not less than 5 Labeling
days at a temperature not exceeding 20o C; stir
the mixture every morning and evening during Suppositories containing the homoeopathic
those 5 days. Express and filter. preparation in a ratio of 1:10 in the case of mother
tinctures and decimal dilutions, and of 1 : 100 in
Labeling the case of centesimal dilutions are labelled with
the homoeopathic preparation used.
Method 12k are labelled ‘decoctum LE 10%’.
METHOD 15: Eye Drops Labeling

Eye drops made by Method 15 are sterile Composition is shown in such a way that the
aqueous fluids with a residual ethanol content nature and amount of basic drug materials and
of not more than one per cent. of liquid and/or solid preparations incorporated
They are produced from one or more in the mixture is clearly apparent. Liqueur wine
homoeopathic preparations and comply with the used in the production of vehicles must be
requirements of the Augentropfen (eye drops) declared on the container.
monograph in the German Pharmacopoeia. They
contain no additives except for preservatives and METHOD 17: LM Potencies
agents used to make the isotonic and adjust the To produce a LM 1 potency, dissolve 60 mg.
pH. of a 3c trituration of the substance to be
To manufacture the eye drops, use water for potentized in 20.0 ml. of ethanol 15 per cent (=
injections or the solution of the isotonizing agent, 500 drops). Transfer 1 drop of the solution to a
normally sodium chloride, to produce the last two small vial, add 2.5 ml. of ethanol 86 per cent (=
decimal dilutions and the last centesimal dilution 100 drops) and shake vigorously 100 times.
respectively; other isotonizing agents must be Moisten 100 g. of size 1 granules (approximately
declared. Ethanol free drug vehicles may also 50,000 granules) evenly with the solution;
be added. following impregnation in a closed container the
granules are air-dried. They represent the LM 1
Labeling potency.
State potency stages that have combined To produce the LM 2 potency, transfer 1
before being taken to higher potency stages; state granule of the LM 1 potency to a small vial and
drug vehicles, if added. dissolve in 1 drop of water; add 2.5 ml. of ethanol
86 per cent (= 100 drops) and shake vigorously
METHOD 16: Mixtures 100 times. Moisten 100 g. size 1 granules
Preparations made by Method 16 are: (approximately 50,000 granules) evenly with the
solution; following impregnation in a closed
• Liquid and/or solid preparations in which the
container the granules are air-dried. Higher
vehicle has been added in a proportion other
potencies are produced by the same method.
than 1 to 10 or 1 to 100.
To produce liquid LM potencies, dissolve 1
• Mixtures of liquid and/or solid preparations.
granule of the required potency in 10.0 ml of
• Mixtures of liquid and/or solid preparations ethanol 15 per cent. The solution is the same
to which vehicles and/or auxiliary substances potency as the granule dissolved in it.
have been added.
All types of presentations may be produced METHOD 18a: Heat Treated Mother
from the above mixtures. Mixtures containing Tinctures and Liquid Dilutions of
These
liqueur wine and/or preparations made by
Method 16 must not be processed further. Liquid Mother tinctures made by Method 18a are
external applications are manufactured as produced like mother tinctures made by Method
mixtures of preparations made by Methods 12a- 2a and heat-treated.
i.
The mixture containing the total amount of METHOD 18b: Heat Treated Mother
ethanol 86 per cent required is heated to 37ºC in Tinctures and Liquid Dilutions of
a covered container and maintained at that These
temperature for one hour, stirring occasionally. Mother tinctures made by Method 18b are
After cooling, the mixture is processed as under produced like mother tinctures made by Method
Method 2a. 2b and heat-treated.
The mixture containing the total amount of
Potentization ethanol 62 per cent required is heated to 37 º C
Decimal: in a covered container and maintained at that
The 1st decimal dilution (1x) is made with: temperature for one hour, stirring occasionally.
After cooling the mixture is processed as under
2 parts of the mother tincture and 8 parts of Method 2a. Use ethanol 30 per cent to adjust to
ethanol 43 per cent, the 2nd decimal dilution (2x) any value required by the monograph.
with 1 part of the 1st decimal dilution and 9 parts
of ethanol 30 per cent. Potentization
The 3rd decimal dilution (3x) is made with Decimal:
1 part of the 2nd decimal dilution and 9 parts of The 1st decimal dilution (1x) is made with 2
ethanol 15 per cent. Subsequent dilutions are parts of the mother tincture and 8 parts of ethanol
produced in the same way. 30 per cent.
Labeling The 2nd decimal dilution (2x) with 1 part of
the 1st decimal dilution and 9 parts of ethanol
Preparations made by Method 18a are 15 per cent.
labelled ‘ethanol, digested’; the same applies to
Subsequent dilutions are produced in the
presentations made from them.
same way.
■
5-7
Methods of Preparation—H.P.U.S.
LIQUID PREPARATIONS by volume of solution, and hence equal to the

OF DRUGS first decimal dilution, to be marked 1x.
All substances soluble in the menstruum or If not soluble in the proportion of 1 to 10,
vehicles are to be made into solutions or tinctures they should be made by adding one (1) part by
and their attenuations. However, moist and / or weight of medicinal substance to 99 parts by
soluble substances may also be made into volume of sufficient solvent to make one hundred
triturations with lactose. Below 8x, all insoluble (100) and the solution marked 2x (or 1c).
substances or partially soluble substances should If liquid substances contain water, this also
be made into triturations only. should be deducted from that contained in the
The first solution or tincture is made in the solvent, and the anhydrous substance taken as
proportion of 1/10 in water or alcohol of suitable the unit of strength.
strength, unless otherwise specified in the
monograph. TINCTURES OR ALCOHOLIC
Aqueous solutions are made of substances SOLUTIONS
which are soluble in water but not in alcohol, or Most medicines used in homoeopathic
of those which, when soluble in alcohol, are practice can be prepared in the form of tinctures
subject to chemical change or decomposition. (as well as in the form of attenuations). Tinctures,
Aqueous solutions are, as a rule, unstable, and also referred to as “mother tinctures” are made
will keep but a short time. from a variety of zoological or botanical
Solutions of chemical substances are to be substances which are wholly or partially soluble
made on the decimal scale, that is, in the in alcohol of various strengths. Such substances
proportion of one (1) part by weight of soluble comprise of all plants and parts of plants, such
medicinal substance (solid or liquid) to which is as bark, root, wood, fruit, bud, flower, seed, resin,
added sufficient solvent to make ten (10) parts gum and balsam.
A. TINCTURES OF BOTANICAL • Tinctures With an Alcohol Content of 55%

SUBSTANCES v/v: When the botanical substance contains
As most tinctures are made from plants or volatile oils, tannins or alkaloids, provided
their parts, their treatment deserves special the moisture content is not higher than 83
mention. It is very important that tinctures be of per cent (example: Berberis vulgaris, Cynara
uniform strength; they should not vary greatly scolymus).
on account of the variability of water contained • Tinctures With an Alcohol Content of 45%
in the same species at different seasons and under v/v: When the botanical substance contains
different conditions of growth and handling after mucilage, sugars, etc., provided the moisture
collection. content is less than 85 per cent (example:
Fresh succulent plants and other substances Allium cepa).
containing water should be treated according to • Tinctures With an Alcohol Content of 35%
the following fundamental rule: The dry crude v/v: When specified in the individual
substance is taken as the starting point from monograph (example: Avena sativa).
whence to calculate the strength of the tincture. Botanical substances with a moisture content
Plant moisture is to be determined through an higher than 85 per cent, such as mushrooms,
appropriate differential method and proper succulent plants or fruits (e.g., Citrus limonum),
allowance made in preparation of the menstrua. or fleshy roots (e.g., Raphanus sativus), cannot
The dry crude material remaining after be used for preparing 1/10 tinctures, as the
evaporation is taken as the unit of strength, the alcohol content of such tinctures would not be
tincture being made to represent one (1) part by high enough to enable them to be stored.
weight of this dry crude material in ten (10) parts Tinctures of such substances are therefore
by volume of completed solution. In some cases prepared with a drug content of 1/20, and will
the tincture represents one (1) part by weight of be so noted in the appropriate monograph.
the dry crude material in 20 parts by volume of
A tolerance of +/-15% of the stated alcohol
completed solution, or as otherwise specified in
strength is permissible.
the monograph.
Having determined how much moisture is Decoction
contained in the fresh moist material, calculate
This process can be preferable in the
the quantities of strong alcohol and water to be
treatment of fibrous drug material. Such would
added according to the following general rules:
be the case with roots, barks and woody
• Tinctures With an Alcohol Content of 90% substances.
v/v: When the botanical substance is a gum After carefully weighing the dried material,
or resin, or when it contains volatile oils, prepare the menstruum as calculated according
provided the moisture content is less than to the rule given in the preceding section. Place
42 per cent (example: Asa foetida). the material and the menstrum in a suitable well-
• Tinctures With an Alcohol Content of 65% stoppered container and allow it to stand
v/v: When the botanical substance contains overnight. After this time, heat the mass, under a
volatile oils, tannins or alkaloids, provided reflux condenser, and maintain at the boiling
the moisture content is less than 79 per cent point for 30 minutes. After cooling, the container
(example: Millefolium, Cinchona). should be well stoppered and placed in a dark
Methods of Preparation — H.P.U.S. 301
room at normal temperature, and shaken at • Succus-tapped: The exudations of the living
appropriate intervals. The time necessary for the plant are obtained by puncturing the bark or
extraction and solution of the medicinal incising the plant part to be drained. It may
substance is variable, and it is safe to allow the be necessary to insert a spout or mechanical
further process of maceration to continue from drain to prevent resealing of the orifice. The
two to four weeks. There upon, decant the clear exudation is allowed to thicken. The
liquid and press out the residue. inspissated juice is then processed as
All tinctures made with this additional specified in the particular monograph. The
process, and all attenuations prepared from these final product should be suitably stabilized
tinctures, must bear the term “Decoction” on all to prevent chemical degradation and
labeling as part of the name of the drug, just microbial contamination.
before the designation of the homoeopathic All tinctures made with this additional
strength. process, and all attenuations from these tinctures,
must bear the term ‘succus’ on all labeling as
Succus or Non-alcoholic Solutions part of the name of the drug just before the
In some cases, it is appropriate to provide designation of the homoeopathic strength. In
certain drugs using a process called succus. In general, the drug strength of the succus is other
these cases, as specified in the monograph, a then 1:10 or 1:100, and is specified in the
succus or non-alcoholic extract should be monograph. For further attenuation, the succus
prepared. In all cases, the finished product should should be diluted to 10% drug strength (on a dry
be suitably stabilized to prevent deterioration of weight basis) prior to attenuation.
the extract. A suitable system should be used to
prevent microbial contamination in compliance Maceration
with H.P.U.S. and U.S.P. standards. This process is preferable in the treatment
If the succus is intended for oral, ophthalmic, of large quantities of drug material needing ample
topical or other uses, the appropriate H.P.U.S. time for the extraction of medicinal properties.
and/or U.S.P. guidelines for those particular Such would be the case with gummy and
routes of administration will apply, i.e., a succus mucilaginous substances, or those having much
intended for ophthalmic use should be in full viscid juice which would prevent the alcohol
compliance with H.P.U.S. guidelines for from permeating the mass as rapidly as is the
ophthalmic solutions. case in the process of percolation.
• Succus-expressed: The freshly gathered Having ascertained the quantity of water,
plant or parts thereof are chopped and according to the rule given in the preceding
pounded to a pulp. The pulp is then subjected paragraph, place the material (reduced to magma,
to pressure; the expressed juice is gathered or in its natural state if unreducible) into a
in a clean container. The juice is then mixed macerating jar or wide mouthed bottle, and add
with equal parts by weight of diluent (water, the required quantity of solvent covering, if
alcohol, etc.). The mixture is allowed to stand possible, the whole mass. The jar or bottle should
for eight days or more, after which the liquid be carefully stoppered or sealed to prevent
is decanted and filtered. The final product evaporation. It is placed in a dark room at normal
should be suitably stabilized to prevent temperature and shaken at appropriate intervals.
chemical degradation and microbial The time necessary for the extraction and
contamination.
solution of the medicinal substance is variable, • Cover the surface of the mass with a disc of
and it is safe to allow the process of maceration filter paper.
to continue from two to four weeks. There upon • While holding down the mass by suitable
decant the clear liquid and press out the residue. means, pour the solvent upon the contents
If the drug substance is viscid or of the percolator until the mass is covered,
mucilaginous, and is not readily acted on by the allowing the fluid to run gently down the rod
alcohol, use only one-half of the solvent prepared so that the filter medium may not be
for the purpose. After the maceration, press out displaced.
the residue, triturate it lightly in a mortar, add • Cover the percolator to prevent evaporation.
twice its bulk of suitable homoeopathically inert • Close the valve or stop-cock as soon as the
filter medium, and with the remaining half of fluid begins to drop, and allow it to stand 24
the solvent, subject the whole to the process of hours or longer, according to the nature of
percolation. Then add the clear percolated and the contents.
filtered liquid to that previously decanted one
• Allow the fluid to pass through the percolator
and preserve the now completed tincture in a well
into the receiver, drop by drop, regulating it
closed container in an appropriate area.
by means of the stop cock so as to limit the
Percolation flow to 10 to 30 drops per minute.
• The menstruum should be cautiously and
This method is usually preferred for the
frequently added so as to maintain a surface
extraction of dried substances that have been
reduced to the proper degree of fineness. above the powder, thereby preventing access
of air. Proceed in this manner until the
• After carefully weighing the dried material, requisite quantity has passed into the
prepare the menstruum as prescribed in the
receiver.
monograph under the heading ‘Preparation
and Classification’. Traditionally, homoeopathic tinctures also
have been prepared with the addition of heat.
• Carefully mix the ground substance with a
Three methods are described below:
sufficient quantity of this menstruum to
render it uniformly and distinctly damp, and 1. Incubation: This process can be utilized in
transfer it to a suitable percolator. Allow it the treatment of drug material needing ample
to stand for one hour; then pack it firmly in time for extraction, and in which a gentle
the percolator. elevation of temperature will afford a better
• The percolator should be provided with a breakdown of complex sugar constituents
stop-cock or another device to control the into simple mono and disaccharides, leading
flow through the unit. Insert a plug of to a more complex extraction of medicinal
absorbent cotton into the neck above the stop properties.
cock, and cover this with a layer of suitable Having ascertained the quantity of water,
filter medium. according to the rule given in the preceding
• Spread the powdered substance, first section, place the material (reduced to
sufficiently moistened with a portion of the magma, or in its natural state if unreducible)
menstruum, little by little, evenly upon the into a macerating jar or wide mouthed bottle,
filter, and press the mass down with a broad, and add the required quantity of solvent,
inert tamper. covering, if possible, the whole mass. The
jar or bottle should be carefully stoppered the extraction and solution of the medicinal
or sealed to prevent evaporation, and the substance is variable, and it is safe to allow
whole warmed to 37º C. It should be the further process of maceration to continue
maintained at this temperature, with from two to four weeks. There upon decant
occasional agitation, for one hour. After the clear liquid and press out the residue.
cooling, the jar or bottle should be placed in All tinctures made with this additional
a dark room at normal temperature, and process, and all attenuations prepared from
shaken at appropriate intervals. The time these tinctures, must bear the term “infusion”
necessary for the extraction and solution of on all labeling as part of the name of the drug,
the medicinal substance is variable, and it is just before the designation of the
safe to allow the further process of homoeopathic strength.
maceration to continue from two to four
weeks. There upon decant the clear liquid 3. Decoction.
and press out the residue.
B. TINCTURES OF ZOOLOGICAL
All tinctures made with this additional SUBSTANCES
process, and all attenuations prepared from
Zoological substances comprise of living or
these tinctures, must have the term
dried insects or other animals, or parts of animals.
“incubation” on all labeling as a part of the
name of the drug just before the designation Tinctures of zoological substances are
of the homoeopathic strength. obtained by maceration in alcohol at 65 per cent
v/v, except in some cases specified in the
2. Infusion: This process can be preferable in monographs. These tinctures are made to
the treatment of dried botanical drug represent one (1) part by weight of the crude
materials containing large amounts of material in 20 parts by weight of completed
aromatic principles. Such would be the case solution.
with substances having relatively high
The preparation of these tinctures is made
concentrations of dehydrated aliphatic
according to the following process of maceration:
hydrocarbons.
Put the crude substance, suitably divided, into
After carefully weighing the dried material, the quantities of alcohol and water calculated to
the amount of alcohol and water are obtain a 1/20 tincture with an alcohol strength
calculated according to the rules given in the of 65% v/v. Allow maceration for not less than
pharmacopoeia section. Place the material three weeks, stirring sufficiently. Decant, allow
and the alcohol into a suitable container and to stand for 48 hours, and filter.
allow to stand covered for 15 minutes. After The tinctures resulting from either the
this time, the water, previously heated to process of maceration or percolation from
boiling, is poured over the preparation, and, botanical or zoological substances are filtered
under a reflux condenser, the entire mass is directly into containers of glass or other inert
maintained at the boiling point for 5 minutes. materials. These shall be stoppered and placed
After cooling, the container should be well in an appropriate area, each to be marked with
stoppered and placed in a dark room at the sign ø, indicating the strongest liquid
normal temperature, and shaken at preparation made directly from the medicinal
appropriate intervals. The time necessary for substance, and also showing the proportion of
medicinal substance which the tincture Subsequent liquid or solid attenuations are
represents. Except in special cases specified in made by serial progression, succussing or
the monographs, the shelf life of the tinctures is triturating one (1) part of the preceding
five years from the manufacturing date. The shelf attenuation to nine (9) parts of the vehicle, and
life or its attendant expiration date shall apply represent the following proportions of active
only to the tincture as a finished dosage form, principle (i.e., dried medicinal substance):
and not to any subsequent dilution or product 2x = 10-2
prepared from it. 3x = 10-3
Before use, tinctures of botanical and 4x = 10-4
zoological origin are subjected to tests and assays 5x = 10-5
according to classical analytical procedures: 6x = 10-6
• Description: Color, odor and taste. 7x = 10-7
• Identification: Identity reactions are made 8x = 10-8
to reveal the presence of a specific
constituent or a group of constituents such B. CENTESIMAL SCALE OF
as alkaloids, etc. ATTENUATION
• Test: Determination of the alcohol content One millilitre (1.0 ml.) of the first centesimal
and non-volatile residue, and thin layer liquid attenuation (1c), or one gram (1.0 g.) of
chromatographic analysis. the first centesimal trituration (1c) represents
• Assay: When the tincture contains an active 0.01 gram (10.0 mg.) of the dry crude medicinal
principle in measurable amounts. substance.
One millilitre (1.0 ml.) of the 2nd centesimal
ATTENUATIONS liquid attenuation (2c) or one gram (1.0 g.) of
the 2nd centesimal trituration (2c) represents
The Pharmacopoeia Convention hereby
0.0001 gram (0.1 mg.) of the dry crude medicinal
adopts the decimal, centesimal and fifty
substance.
millesimal systems as the standard scales of
attenuation and notation, under which each Subsequent liquid or solid attenuations are
successive attenuation or trituration contains just made by serial progression, succussing or
1/10, 1/100 or 1/50,000 as much of the drug triturating one (1) part of the preceding
substance as the preceding attenuation or attenuation to 99 parts of the vehicle, and
trituration. represent the following proportions of active
principle (i.e, dried medicinal substance):
A. DECIMAL SCALE OF ATTENUA- 2c=10-4
TION 3c=10-6
One millilitre (1.0 ml.) of tincture, one 4c=10-5
millilitre of 1x aqueous solution, or one gram
(1.0 g.) of 1x trituration represents 0.10 gram of C. FIFTY MILLESIMAL SCALE OF
dry crude medicinal substance. ATTENUATION
One millilitre (1.0 ml.) of 2x attenuation, or One millilitre (1.0 ml) of the first fifty
one gram (1.0 g.) of 2nd trituration contains 0.01 millesimal attenuation (1LM) represents 4.0 X
gram of the dry crude medicinal substance. 10-9 g. of dry crude medicinal substance.
306
Methods of Preparation — H.P.U.S. Textbook of Homoeopathic Pharmacy
One millilitre (1.0 ml.) of the second fifty e.g., Arsenicum album, Phosphorus, Sulphur,
millesimal attenuation (2LM) represents 8.0 X etc., their original solutions shall be prepared in
10-4 g. of dry crude medicinal substance. accordance with the respective monographs. In
the centesimal scale, the 1x solution or tincture
Method of Manufacture is divided by 10 to produce the first centesimal
• For solid substances, proceed according to (1c), then by 100 to produce each succeeding
the centesimal scale to the 3c trituration. attenuation, 2c, 3c, 4c, etc.
Initially, for liquid substances, impregnate
Homoeopathic liquid attenuations are
the lactose in a proportion of 1 to 100
designated according to the method of
beginning with the liquid substance (mother
attenuation. The designations, which must appear
tinctures). The second and third triturations
on the labels, are shown in the following table:
are carried out in the same way as when
starting with solid products. Desig- Scale Method of
• Take 0.062 g. of the 3c trituration, add 500 nation Attenuation
drops of a mixture composed of 1 part 95%
v/v alcohol and 4 parts distilled water. x or D Decimal (1/10) Hahnemannian
• Add 1 drop from the result of step 2 to 2.0 CH or c Centesimal (1/100) Hahnemannian
ml. of 95% v/v alcohol. Succus. The result CK or K Centesimal (1/100) Korsakovian
is 1LM. LM Fifty millesimal
• Pour 1 drop of the 1LM on 0.575 g. #10 (1/50,000) Hahnemannian
pellets (500 #10 pellets). Take 1 pellet and
add to 2.0 ml. of 95% v/v alcohol. Succus. The preferred designation for decimal
The result is 2LM. attenuations is x, which clearly indicates the scale
• Pour 1 drop of the 2LM on 0.575 g. > #10 used. All decimal attenuations are prepared
pellets (500 #10 pellets). Take 1 pellet and according to the Hahnemannian method.
add to 2.0 ml. of 95% v/v alcohol. Succus. The preferred designation for Hahnemannian
The result is 3LM. centesimal attenuations is CH, which clearly
• Repeat step 5 until the 30LM is obtained. indicates both the scale used and the method of
attenuation. As C or ‘c’ is a synonym of CH, it
LIQUID ATTENUATIONS can be only used to designate an attenuation that
is prepared according to the Hahnemannian
In the decimal scale, the original quantity of method.
medicine is divided progressively by ten so that
the first decimal (1x contains 1M, the second The preferred designation for Korsakovian
decimal (2x) 1/100, and the third decimal (3x) centesimal attenuations is CK, which clearly
1/1000 of the original substance suspended in, indicates both the scale used and the method of
and attenuated or expanded by, the diluent attenuation.
(alcohol, water, etc.). Each tincture (with some The designation M refers to neither scale nor
exceptions to be stated) is equal or equivalent in method of attenuation. M is equivalent to 1000,
medicinal strength to the first decimal attenuation and is used in place of the numeral 1000 in
(1/10), designated 1x. Korsakovian centesimal attenuations. For
Where certain substances are insoluble in the example, 1M indicates a 1000CK attenuation,
proportion of 1 to 10 and require more solvent, 10M a 10,000CK attenuation.
A. HAHNEMANNIAN ATTENUATIONS Add 99 parts of diluent to the 1 part tincture

- MULTIPLE FLASK METHOD OF remaining in the vial. Succus thoroughly. The
PREPARATION resulting solution is the first Korsakovian
A new, well cleaned, stoppered glass vial of attenuation, designated 1CK.
appropriate capacity is employed. Empty the vial once more. Add 99 parts of
One part (e.g., 10 ml. of tincture or 1x diluent to the 1 part of the 1CK remedy. Succus
solution) is poured into this vial. Nine parts (e.g., thoroughly. The resulting solution is the second
90 ml.) of diluent is added (if the tincture Korsakovian attenuation, designated 2CK.
represents 1/20 of the crude medicinal substance, Continue this procedure until the desired
pour 2.0 ml. of this tincture and add 8.0 ml. of attenuation level is attained.
diluent). This mixture is succussed thoroughly With respect to substances that are not
and labeled 2x. soluble in water or alcohol, prepare three
In a new, well cleaned, stoppered glass vial, successive triturations (to 1/100) in lactose. Then
pour 10 ml. of 2x attenuation and 90 ml. of move on to the liquid phase and follow the
diluent; with appropriate succussion the 3x procedure outlined above.
attenuation is obtained. Either the Hahnemannian or Korsakovian
Continue this procedure until the desired method can be used until the 200th attenuation;
attenuation level is attained. thereafter, the Korsakovian system is generally
used.
In order to prevent possible misinterpretation
of the detailed instructions for the preparation For liquid attenuations intended for
of attenuations of soluble substances, it is medicating purposes, dispensing alcohol should
emphasized that the above instructions are for be used for the final liquid attenuation.
the decimal system. When homoeopathic solutions are intended
Attenuations may be prepared according to for oral or sublingual administration in liquid
the centesimal system in a similar manner, with form, the final attenuation may be prepared with
appropriate adjustment of the proportions of an appropriate percentage of alcohol:
medicinal substance and diluent. • Alcohol at 60% v/v: For the 2x attenuation
obtained from a tincture when appropriate;
B. KORSAKOVIAN ATTENUATIONS - • Alcohol at a Minimum of 20% v/v: For
SINGLE FLASK METHOD OF
the other attenuations.
PREPARATION
A well cleaned, stoppered glass vial of A homoeopathic solution intended for oral
appropriate capacity is employed. or sublingual administration in liquid form may
be produced in non-alcoholic media, provided
Add a measured volume of the tincture to the final dosage form is prepared with a suitable
the vial. Succuss thoroughly and empty the vial preservative system and is protected from
either by turning it upside down or by suction. decomposition. Any preservative agent must
The emptying process employed must remove comply with U.S.P. standards.
99 per cent of the original volume of tincture,
leaving 1 per cent of the original volume in the
vial.
SOLID ATTENUATIONS: ml. bottle, 500 ml. bottles, and sintered glass
TRITURATIONS funnel can be placed 1
60 ml. bottle of 30% v/v alcohol 1
• Attenuations of solid substances are prepared
by trituration of the crude substance with 1 litre bottle of 70% v/v alcohol 1
lactose, U.S.P, in a mortar and pestle for Platinum handle 1
small amounts or in a mechanical triturator
Procedure for Preparation of 1c Attenuation:
for large amounts, in the proportion of one
(1) part by weight of the crude substance and Place 5 ml. of 30% v/v alcohol in a 15 ml.
nine (9) parts by weight of lactose to produce bottle. Place the carded cotton near the burner.
the 1x trituration. Take the culture tube and, using pliers, remove
• As with liquid attenuations, in the decimal the stopper close to the flame of a bunsen burner.
scale each step is accomplished by triturating First, flame the platinum handle along its
one (1) part of the original attenuation with entire length and allow it to cool. Then use it to
nine (9) parts of lactose. In the centesimal scrape as much culture as possible and to put it
scale, one (1) part by weight of the 1x into the 15 ml. bottle, while trying to crush the
trituration is triturated with nine (9) parts by strain against the sides of the bottle in order to
weight of lactose to produce the 1c obtain a homogeneous suspension (this, of
trituration, then is divided by 100 to produce course, depends on the consistency of the strain).
each succeeding trituration, 2c, 3c, 4c, etc. Stopper the 15 ml. bottle.
Triturations may be dispensed in the form Flame the platinum handle again. It should
of powders or tablet triturates, either of which be passed through the flame in a horizontal
may be dissolved or mixed aqueous solutions. position, from left to right. This should be done
slow to avoid spluttering the strain.
ATTENUATION FROM MICRO- Use metal tongs and flame the carded cotton.
SCOPIC FUNGAL STRAINS Stopper the culture tube after having passed the
mouth of the tube through the flame.
Given the risk of contamination during
handling of fungal strains, these attenuations are Potentize the 15 ml. bottle. 1c attenuation is
prepared under a laminar flow hood. obtained.
Apparatus: Preparation of the 2c Attenuation

Equipment for Each Strain (to be sterilized Place 400 ml. of 70% v/v alcohol in a 500
the day before in a drying oven, for 1 hour at ml. bottle, then add the 5 ml. of the 1c fungal
150°C): strain suspension. Place the 15 ml. bottle in the
15 ml. bottle 1 jar of bleach. It is not necessary to rinse the 15
250 ml. bottle 2 ml. bottle containing the suspension.
500 ml. bottle 2 Wipe the stopper and rim of the 500 ml.
1 litre bottle 1 bottle with an alcohol soaked piece of cotton to
No. 3 sintered glass funnel 1 remove any possible fungal suspension. Be very
caution when opening the bottle to prevent
Additional Equipment: contaminating the work area with the suspension.
A big jar filled with bleach in which the 15 ■
5-8
Standardisation of Medicine
To ensure that the finest quality of drug 4. Maximum absorption.

substances are being used, analytical chemistry 5. Total solids.
becomes indispensable. Manufacturing indus- 6. Optical rotation.
tries rely upon both qualitative and quantitative 7. Refractive index.
analysis to ensure their raw materials meet cer-
8. Viscosity (in case of oils).
tain specifications and to check the quality of
9. pH value.
the final product. Raw materials should be ex-
amined to ascertain that there are no unusual 10. pk value.
substances present which might upset the qual- 11. Thin layer chromatography (T.L.C.) with Rf
ity of drug manufactured. The value of the raw (Rate of flow) range; Paper chromatography;
material may be governed by the amount of the High performance liquid chromatography
required constituents it contains, a quantitative (H.P.L.C.).
analysis is performed to establish the proportion
of the essential components. This procedure is FINISHED PRODUCT STANDARDS
called assaying. The final product is subject to OF MEDICINE SO FAR NOTIFIED IN
quality control to ensure its essential components INDIA
are present within a predetermined range of com-
They are:
position, whereas impurities do not exceed cer-
tain specified limits. Abroma augusta
Abrotanum
STANDARDS OF MOTHER Acalypha indica
TINCTURES Acidum aceticum
Tests should be conducted to ascertain: Acidum muriaticum
1. Specific gravity. Acidum nitricum
2. Alcohol content (expressed in p.v.). Acidum phosphoricum
3. Assay for constituents. Acidum sulphuricum
Aconitum napellus Bellis perennis

Aesculus hippocastanum Berberis vulgaris
Aethusa cynapium Borax
Agaricus muscarius Bryonia alba
Agnus castus Cactus grandiflorus
Allium cepa Calcarea arsenicosa
Aloe socotrina Calcarea carbonica
Alumina Calcarea fluorica
Ammonium carbonicum Calcarea phosphorica
Ammonium causticum Calcarea sulphurica
Ammonium muriaticum Calendula officinalis
Amylenum nitrosum Calotropis gigantea
Anacardium orientale Camphora
Andrographis paniculata Cannabis indica
Antimonium arsenicosum Cantharis
Antimonium crudum Carduus marianus
Antimonium tartaricum Caulophyllum thalictroides
Apis mellifica Ceanothus americanus
Apocynum cannabinum Chamomilla
Aralia racemosa Chelidonium majus
Argentum metallicum Chininum arsenicosum
Argentum nitricum Chininum sulphuricum
Arnica montana Cicuta virosa
Arsenicum album Cimicifuga racemosa
Arsenicum iodatum Cinchona officinalis
Arsenicum sulphuratum flavum Coffea cruda
Arsenicum sulphuratum rubrum Colchicum autumnale
Artemisia vulgaris Colocynthis
Asa foetida Conium maculatum
Arum triphyllum Crataegus oxyacantha
Aurum metallicum Croton tiglium
Aurum muriaticum Cuprum arsenicosum
Avena sativa Cuprum metallicum
Azadirachta indica Digitalis purpurea
Baptisia tinctoria Dioscorea villosa
Baryta carbonica Drosera rotundifolia
Baryta muriatica Dulcamara
Belladonna Echinacea angustifolia
Standardisation of Medicine 311
Eupatorium perfoliatum Natrium phosphoricum

Euphrasia officinalis Natrium sulphuricum
Ferrum metallicum Nux moschata
Ferrum phosphoricum Nux vomica
Geranium maculatum Ocimum sanctum
Graphites Phosphorus
Gymnema sylvestre Phytolacca
Hamamelis virginica Platinum metallicum
Helleborus niger Plumbum metallicum
Holarrhena antidysenterica Podophyllum peltatum
Hydrastis canadensis Psoralea corylifolia
Hydrocotyle asiatica Pulsatilla nigricans
Hyoscyamus niger Rauwolfia serpentina
Hypericum perforatum Rhus toxicodendron
Ignatia amara Ruta graveolens
Iodium Sabadilla
Ipecacuanha Sabina
Justicia adhatoda Sanguinaria canadensis
Kalium bichromicum Secale cornutum
Kalium carbonicum Selenium metallicum
Kalium iodatum Senega
Kalium muriaticum Sepia
Kalium sulphuricum Silicea
Kreosotum Spongia tosta
Ledum palustre Stannum metallicum
Lycopodium clavatum Staphysagria
Magnesium carbonicum Sulphur
Magnesium muriaticum Sulphur iodatum
Mercurius corrosivus Syzygium jambolanum
Mercurius dulcis Tabacum
Mercurius iodatus flavus Terminalia arjuna
Mercurius iodatus ruber Thuja occidentalis
Mezereum Tribulus terrestris
Myrica cerifera Veratrum viride
Natrium carbonicum Withania somnifera
Natrium muriaticum Zincum metallicum
EXAMPLES OF FINISHED PRODUCT pH : 5.8 to 6.8.

STANDARDS NOTIFIED SO FAR IN Wt. per ml. : 0.884 g. to 0.912 g.
INDIA
Total solids : Not less than 0.50 per cent w/
v.
ABROMA AUGUSTA
l max : 265 nm.
Mother Tincture.
Identification : i. To 2 ml. add a few crys-
Alcohol content : 42.0 to 46.0 per cent v/v.
tals of phloroglucinol fol-
pH : 5.5 to 6.0 lowed by hydrochloric
Wt. per ml. : 0.930 g. to 0.950 g. acid; a cherry red color is
Total solids : Not less than 1.0 per cent w/ produced which changes
v. to brown.
Identification : i. To 1 ml add a drop of di- ii. Carry out TLC of mother

lute hydrochloric acid; a tincture using chloroform:
pink color is produced. methanol (9:1 v/v) as mo-
bile phase and alcoholic
ii. Carry out TLC using chlo- aluminium chloride solu-
roform: methanol (9:1 v/ tion as spray reagent; six
v) as mobile phase. Under spots appear at Rf 0.20,
UV light, spots appear at 0.55, 0.68, 0.78 (all blue)
Rf 0.08, 0.68 and 0.85. 0.88 and 0.93 (both red).
ABROTANUM ACIDUM ACETICUM

Mother Tincture. Potency : 1x.
Alcohol content : 72.0 to 76.0 per cent v/v. Properties : Colorless liquid; odor vin-
pH : 5.2 to 6.0 . egar-like and sharp. Contains
Wt. per ml. : 0.850 g. to 0.920 g. not less than 9.40 per cent v/v
and not more than 10.40 per
Total solids : Not less than 1.130 per cent
cent v/v of C2H4O2.
w/v.
Reaction : Acidic to litmus.
l max : 290 and 320 nm.
Assay : Complies with the assay
Identification : Carry out TLC using n-bu-
method given under Acidum
tanol: acetic acid: water
aceticum.
(4:1:1 v/v) as mobile phase.
Under UV light, three spots Potency : 2x.
appear at Rf 0.43, 0.83 (blue) Properties : Colorless liquid; odor vin-
and 0.94 (red). egar-like and sharp. Contains
not less than 0.09 per cent v/v
ACALYPHA INDICA and no more than 1.04 per
Mother Tincture. cent v/v of C2H4O2.
Alcohol content : 57.0 to 61.0 per cent v/v. Reaction : Acidic to litmus.
Assay : Complies with the assay droxide using methyl orange

method given under Acidum as indicator. Each ml. of 0.1
aceticum. N sodium hydroxide is equiva-
Potency : 3x. lent to 0.00365 g. of HCl.
Properties : Colorless liquid, odor vin- Potency : 3x.
egar-like. Contains not less Properties : Colorless liquid. Contains not
than 0.09 per cent v/v and not less than 0.095 per cent w/v
more than 0.10 per cent v/v and not more than 0.105 per
of C2H4O2. cent v/v of HCl.
Reaction : Acidic to litmus. Reaction : Acidic to litmus.
Assay : Weigh accurately about 50 g. Assay : Weigh accurately about 25 g.
and put into a stoppered flask and put into a stoppered flask
and titrate with 0.05 N sodium and titrate with 0.1 N sodium
hydroxide using phenolphtha- hydroxide using methyl or-
lein solution as an indicator. ange as indicator. Each ml. of
Each ml. of 0.05 N sodium hy- 0.1 M sodium hydroxide is
droxide is equivalent to 0.003 equivalent to 0.00365 g. of
g. of C2H4O2. HCl.
ACIDUM MURIATICUM BARYTA MURIATICA

Potency : 1x. Potency : 1x.
Properties : Colorless liquid, taste acrid. Properties : White amorphous powder.
Contains not less than 9.50 Contains not less than 9.40
per cent w/v and not more per cent w/w and not more
than 10.50 per cent v/v of than 10.40 per cent w/w of
HCl. BaCl2. 2H2O.
Reaction : Acidic to litmus. Assay : Complies with the assay
Assay : Complies with the assay method given under Baryta
method given under Acidum muriatica.
muriaticum. Potency : 2x.
Potency : 2x. Properties : White amorphous powder.
Contains not less than 0.94
: Colorless liquid, taste acidic.
per cent w/w and not more
than 1.04 per cent w/w of
per cent v/v and not more than
BaCl2. 2H2O
1.05 per cent w/v of HCl.
Assay : Dissolve about 5 g. accurately
Reaction : Acidic to litmus.
weighed in 50 ml. of water
Assay : Weigh accurately about 4.0 g. and follow the assay method
into a stoppered flask and ti- given under Baryta muriatica.
trate with 0.1 N sodium hy-
Potency : 3x.
Properties : White amorphous powder. tincture using methanol:

Contains not less than 0.094 ammonia (100:1.5 v/v) as
per cent w/w and not more mobile phase and
than 0.104 per cent w/w of Dragendorff’s reagent as
BaCl2.2H2O. spray reagent. Under UV
Assay : Weigh accurately about 20 g., light two spots appears at
char in a silica crucible. Dis- Rf 0.64, 0.70 (blue). With
solve the ash in 25 ml. of wa- spray reagent one spot ap-
ter, add 5 ml. of nitric acid, pears at Rf 0.21 corre-
50 ml. of 0.01 N silver nitrate sponding to atropine.
and 3 ml. of nitrobenzene and iii. Carry out Co-TLC with
shake vigorously for ten min- atropine and scopolamine
utes. Titrate the excess of sil- on silica gel ‘G’ using
ver nitrate with 0.01 N am- methanol : ammonia
monium thiocyanate using (100:1.5 v/v) as mobile
ferric ammonium sulphate so- phase and Dragendrorff’s
lution as indicator. Each ml. reagent as spray reagent.
of 0.01 N silver nitrate is Spots corresponding to at-
equivalent to 0.00122 g. of ropine and scopolamine
BaCl2.2H2O. appear.
BELLADONNA BELLIS PERENNIS

Mother Tincture. Mother Tincture.
Alcohol content : 41.0 to 45.0 per cent v/v. Alcohol content : 61.0 to 65.0 per cent v/v.
pH : 6.4 to 7. 0 pH : 5.0 to 6.5
Wt. per ml. : 0.926 g. to 0.948 g. Wt. per ml. : 0.880 g. to 0.930 g.
Total solids : Not less than 1. 0 per cent w/ Total solids : Not less than 0.80 per cent
v. w/v.
l max : 240 and 315 nm.
l max : 272 nm.
Identification : Carry out TLC using ethyl
Identification : i. Evaporate 1 ml to dryness,
acetate : formic acid: water
extract with chloroform,
(8:1:1 v/v) as mobile phase.
evaporate the chloroform
Under UV light two spots at
extract and treat the resi-
Rf 0.79 and 0.94 (both red)
due with a few drops of
appear.
nitric acid and evaporate.
Moisten residue with 10
BERBERIS VULGARIS
per cent w/v potassium
hydroxide solution; a vio- Mother Tincture.
let color is produced. Alcohol content : 47.0 to 51.0 per cent v/v.
ii. Carry out TLC of mother pH : 5.7 to 6.9
Wt. per ml. : 0.908 g. to 0.938 g. Potency : 3x.

Total solids : Not less than 0.65 per cent w/ Properties : White amorphous powder.
v. Contains not less than 0.094
λ max : 255 and 335 nm. per cent w/w and not more
than 0.107 per cent of
Identification : i. To 1 drop of 0.5 per cent
Na2B4O7. 10H2O.
aqueous ammonium mo-
lybdate solution. Evapo- Assay : Weigh accurately about 20 g.;
rate, moisten the residue dissolve in 125 ml. water and
with sulphuric acid; a follow the assay method given
brown color is produced under Borax.
which turns green on
standing BRYONIA ALBA
ii. Carry out Co-TLC with Mother Tincture.
berberine using methanol: Alcohol content : 57.0 to 61.0 per cent v/v.
ammonia (100:1.5 v/v) as pH : 5.5 to 7.0
mobile phase and Wt. per ml. : 0.883 g. to 0.940 g.
Dragendorff’s reagent as Total solids : Not less than 0.60 per cent w/
spray reagent. Spots cor- v.
responding to berberine
λ max : 267 nm.
appear.
Identification : i. To 1 ml. acidified with
BORAX hydrochloric acid add a
few drops of Mayer’s re-
Potency : 1x.
agent; a yellow precipitate
Properties : White amorphous powder. is produced.
ii. Evaporate 20 ml. mother
per cent and not more than
tincture to remove alco-
10.70 per cent of Na2B4O7.
hol. Extract the aqueous
10H2O.
part with 3x20 ml. chlo-
Assay : Complies with the assay roform, concentrate the
method given under Borax. chloroform layer to 2 ml.
Potency : 2x. and carry out TLC of chlo-
Properties : White amorphous powder. roform extract using chlo-
Contains not less than 0.94 roform : methanol (9:1 v/
per cent w/w and not more v) as mobile phase. Under
than 1.07 per cent of Na2B4O7. UV light four spots appear
10H2O. at Rf 0.28, 0.48, 0.82 and
0.93 (all blue).
Assay : Dissolve about 5 g. accurately
weighed, in 75 ml and follow CACTUS GRANDIFLORUS
the assay method given under
Borax. Mother Tincture.
Alcohol content : 68.0 to 72.0 per cent v/v. per cent w/w and not more
pH : 5.5 to 6.5 than 10.35 per cent w/w of
CaCO3.
Wt. per ml. : 0.860 g. to 0.890 g.
Total solids : Not less than 0.30 per cent w/ method given under Calcarea
v. carbonica.
l max : 260 and 268 nm. Potency : 2x.
Identification : Carry out TLC using n-bu- Properties : White amorphous powder.
tanol : acetic acid: water Contains not less than 0.94
(4:1:1 v/v) as mobile phase. per cent w/w and not more
Under UV light three spots than 1.04 per cent w/w of
appear at Rf 0.32. 0.40 and CaCO3.
0.73 (all blue). Assay : Char about 5 g. accurately
weighed in a silica crucible to
CALCAREA ARSENICOSA make ash and proceed with
Potency : 2x. the ash as given in assay
method under Calcarea car-
Properties : White amorphous powder. bonica.
Potency : 3x.
: White amorphous powder.
Ca3(AsO3)2.
Assay : Complies with the assay than 0.104 per cent w/w of
method given under Calcarea CaCO3.
arsenicosa. Assay : Char about 20 g. in a silica
Potency : 3x. crucible to make ash. Dis-
: White amorphous powder. solve the ash in minimum
Contains not less than 0.094 quantity of dilute hydrochlo-
per cent w/w and not more ric acid and follow the assay
than 0.104 per cent w/w of method given under Calcarea
Ca3(AsO3)2. carbonica.
Assay : Char about 20 g. accurately
CALCAREA FLUORICA
weighed in a silica crucible to
Potency : 1x.
make ash and proceed with
ash as given in assay method Properties : Whitish-grey amorphous
under Calcarea arsenicosa. powder. Contains not less
than 9.40 per cent w/w and not
CALCAREA CARBONICA more than 10.40 per cent w/
w of CaF2.
Potency : 1x.
Properties : White amorphous powder. method given under Calcarea
Contains not less than 9.35 fluorica.
Potency : 2x. per cent w/w and not more

: White amorphous powder. than 0.089 per cent w/w of
Contains not less than 0.94 Ca3(PO4)2.
per cent w/w and not more Assay : Weigh accurately about 20 g.;
than 1.04 per cent w/w of char it in a silica crucible to
CaF2. ash. Dissolve the ash in 25 ml.
Assay : Weigh accurately about 20 g. of water and follow the
and char in a platinum cru- method given under Calcarea
cible to ash; add about 1 g. of phosphorica. For titration use
sodium bicarbonate and so- 0.01 N potassium permanga-
dium nitrate and follow the nate solution. Each ml. of
method given under Calcarea 0.01 N potassium permanga-
fluorica. For titration use 0.01 nate is equivalent to 0.000517
N potassium permanganate. g and Ca3 (PO4)2.
Each ml. of 0.01 N potassium
permanganate is equivalent to RAUWOLFIA SERPENTINA
0.00039 g of CaF2. Mother Tincture.
CALCAREA PHOSPHORICA
pH : 5.7 to 6.3
Potency : 1x.
Wt. per ml. : 0.867 g to 0.877 g.
Properties : White amorphous powder.
v.
than 8.93 per cent w/w of l max : 298 nm.
Ca2(PO4)2. Identification : i. To 1 ml. of chloroform
Assay : Complies with the assay extract add 1 ml. of vanil-
method given under Calcarea lin sulphuric acid in ace-
phosphorica. tic acid and warm; an in-
tense violet-red color is
Potency : 2x.
produced.
ii. Mix 10 ml. of chloroform
Contains not less than 0. 81
extract with 20 ml. of dim-
ethyl benzaldehyde and
add 2 ml. of glacial ace-
Ca3(PO4)2.
tic acid; a green color is
Assay : Complies with the assay produced which changes
method given under Calcarea to red on addition of 2 ml.
phosphorica. of acetic acid.
Potency : 3x. iii. Evaporate 20 ml. on a
Properties : White amorphous powder. water bath to remove al-
Contains not less than 0.081 cohol, make the aqueous
part alkaline with ammo- butanol: acetic acid: water

nia and extract with 3x20 (4:1:1 v/v) as mobile phase.
ml. chloroform, concen- Under UV light 2 spots appear
trate the chloroform ex- at Rf 0.50, 0.78. With anti-
tract to 2 ml. and carry out mony trichloride spray re-
Co-TLC with reserpine agent, 2 spots appear at Rf
using chloroform: metha- 0.50 and 0.93.
nol (95:5 v/v) as mobile
phase. With Dragen- SABADILLA
dorff’s reagent a spot cor- Mother Tincture.
responding to Reserpine
appears.
pH : 6.2 to 6.9
RHUS TOXICODENDRON Wt. per ml. : 0.860 g, to 0.890 g.
Mother Tincture. Total solids : Not less than 0.50 per cent w/
v.
l max : 266 nm.
pH : 5.20 to 6.0
Identification : Evaporate 20 ml. of mother
Wt. per ml. : 0.860 g. to 0.890 g. tincture on a waterbath to re-
Total solids : Not less than 0.65 per cent w/ move alcohol, make the aque-
v. ous part alkaline with ammo-
l max : 261 nm. nia and extract with 3x20 ml.
chloroform, concentrate the
Identification : Carry out TLC of chloroform
chloroform extract to 2 ml.
extract using chloroform:
and carry out Co-TLC with
methanol (9:1 v/v) as mobile
Veratrine, using chloroform:
phase. Under UV light six
spots appear at Rf 0.07, 0.13,
phase and with Dragendorff’s
0.51, 0.73, 0.80 and 0.92 (all
reagent as spray reagent. Spot
blue).
corresponding to Veratrine
appears.
RUTA GRAVEOLENS
Mother Tincture. SABINA
Alcohol content : 66.0 to 70.0 per cent v/v. Mother Tincture.
pH : 5.0 to 6.0 Alcohol content : 80.0 to 85.0 per cent v/v.
Wt. per ml. : 0.880 g. to 0.930 g. pH : 4.7 to 5.2
Total solids : Not less than 1.5 per cent w/ Wt. per ml. : 0.840 g. to 0.860 g.
v. Total solids : Not less than 0.80 per cent w/
l max : 251, 315 nm. v.
Identification : Carry out TLC of concen- Identification : Carry out TLC of chloroform
trated mother tincture using n- extract using chloroform:
methanol (9:1 v/v) as mobile v) as mobile phase and

phase. Under UV light four Dragendorff’s reagent as
spots appear at Rf 0.13 spray reagent. Spot corre-
(greenish-yellow band), 0.30 sponding to Sanguinarine
(yellow), 0.62 (green), and a appears.
band from 0.63 to 0.90 (green
band). With antimony trichlo- SECALE CORNUTUM
ride reagent, six spots appear Mother Tincture.
at Rf 0.11 (yellow), 0.26 (vio-
let), 0.32 (green), 0.52 (vio-
let), 0.62 (brown) and 0.77 pH : 5.0 to 6.2
(red-brown). Wt. per ml. : 0.920 g. to 0.950 g.
SANGUINARIA CANADENSIS v.
Mother Tincture. l max : 248 nm.
pH : 5.50 to 6.20 extract using chloroform:
Wt. per ml. : 0.870 g. to 0.920 g. methanol (9:1 v/v) as mobile
Total solids : Not less than 0.80 per cent w/ phase. Under UV light five
v. spots appear at Rf 0.06 to 0.20
l max : 297 and 323 nm. (brown), 0.53 (brown), 0.71
Identification : i. Carry out TLC of chloro- (grey) and 0.97 (brown).
form extract using chloro- or
form: methanol (9:1 v/v) Evaporate 20 ml. mother tinc-
as mobile phase. Under ture on a waterbath to remove
UV light eight spots ap- alcohol. Make it alkaline with
pear at Rf 0.16, 0.22, 0.31, ammonia solution and extract
0.34, 0.59 (all grey), 0.88 it with 3x20 ml. chloroform.
(brown), 0.91 (yellow) Concentrate chloroform ex-
and 0.96 (brown). tract to 2 ml. and carry out Co-
TLC with Ergocryptine using
ii. Evaporate 20 ml. of chloroform:methanol (9:1 v/
mother tincture on a wa- v) as mobile phase and
ter bath to remove alco- Dragendorff ’s reagent for
hol. Make it alkaline with spray. Spot corresponding to
ammonia and extract with Ergocryptine appears.
3x20 ml. chloroform.
Concentrate the chloro- SELENIUM METALLICUM
form extract to 2 ml. and
carry out Co-TLC with Potency : 1x.
Sanguinarine using chlo- : Reddish-brown amorphous
roform : methanol (9:1 v/ powder. Contains not less
than 9.50 per cent w/w and not spots appear at Rf 0.11, 0.19,
more than 10.50 per cent w/ 0.25 and 0.44 (all brown).
w of Se.
Assay : Compiles with the assay SEPIA
method given under Sele- Mother Tincture.
nium. Alcohol content : 90.0 to 94.0 per cent v/v.
Potency : 2x. pH : 5.9 to 6.8
Properties : Reddish-brown amorphous
Wt. per ml. : 0.850 g. to 0.940 g.
powder. Contains not less
than 0.95 per cent w/w and not
v.
more than 1.05 per cent w/w
of Se. l max : 260 and 280 nm.
Assay : Weigh accurately about 5 g. Identification : Carry out TLC of chloroform
Char in a silica crucible to extract using chloroform:
make ash and follow the as- methanol (9:1 v/v) as mobile
say method given under Sele- phase. In iodine vapors two
nium. spots appear at Rf 0.44 and
Potency : 3x. 0.80.
Properties : Brownish amorphous powder.
SILICEA
per cent w/w and not more Potency : 1x.
than 0.105 per cent w/w of Se. Properties : White amorphous powder.
Assay : Weigh accurately about 20 g. Contains not less than 9.50
Char in a silica crucible to per cent w/w and not more
make ash and follow the as- than 10.50 per cent w/w of
say method given under Sele- SiO2.
nium. Assay : Take 1 g. dry and char in a
silica crucible at 500°, wash
SENEGA the residue with dilute nitric
Mother Tincture. acid, dry and weigh. It should
weigh not less than, 0.095 g.
and not more than 0.105 g.
pH : 4.5 to 5.6
Potency : 2X.
Wt. per ml. : 0.925 g. to 0.960 g. Properties : White amorphous powder.
Total solids : Not less than 1.80 per cent w/ Contains not less than 0.95
v. per cent w/w and not more
l max : 280 and 320 nm. than 1.05 per cent w/w of
SiO2.
extract using chloroform: Assay : Same as for 1x; it should
methanol (9:1 v/v) as mobile weigh not less than .0095 g.
phase. In iodine vapor four and not more than 0.0105 g.
TERMINALIA ARJUNA red). With antimony trichlo-

Mother Tincture. ride reagent, five spots appear
Alcohol content : 77.0 to 81.0 per cent v/v. at Rf 0.15 (violet), 0.85
(brown), 0.85 (violet), 0.92
pH : 4.2 to 5.0
(brown) and 0.96 (green).
Wt. per ml. : 0.850 g. to 0.870 g. or
Total solids : Not less than 1.0 per cent w/ Evaporate 20 ml. of mother
v. tincture on a water bath to re-
l max : 270 nm. move alcohol. Extract the
Identification : i. To 1 ml. of mother tinc- aqueous layer with 3x20 ml.
ture add a drop of sodium chloroform. Concentrate
hydroxide solution; a dark chloroform extract to 2 ml.
red color is produced. and carry out Co-TLC with
ii. To 1 ml. of mother tinc- Thujone using chloroform as
ture add a drop of mercu- mobile phase and antimony
ric chloride solution; a trichloride reagent as spray
precipitate is produced. reagent. Spots corresponding
to Thujone appear.
iii. Carry out TLC of chloro-
form extract using chloro-
TRIBULUS TERRESTRIS
form : methanol (9:1 v/v)
as mobile phase. Under Mother Tincture.
UV light six spots appear Alcohol content : 58.0 to 62.0 per cent v/v.
at Rf 0.05, 0.12, 0.37, pH : 5.4 to 6.4
0.45, 0.72 and 0.85 (all Wt. per ml. : 0.900 g. to 0.925 g.
blue fluorescence).
v.
THUJA OCCIDENTALIS
l max : 262 and 305 nm.
Mother Tincture.
Alcohol content : 80.0 to 84.0 per cent v/v. extract using chloroform:
pH : 4.6 to 6.5 methanol (9:1 v/v) as mobile
Wt. per ml. : 0.830 g. to 0.865 g. phase. Under UV light six
Total solids : Not less than 0.80 per cent w/ spots appear at Rf 0.26, 0.37,
v. 0.46, 0.52, 0.58 and 0.66 (blue
fluorescence).
l max : 260 and 325 nm.
Identification : Carry out TLC of chloroform VERATRUM VIRIDE
Mother Tincture.
phase. Under UV light eight Alcohol content : 72.0 to 76.0 per cent v/v.
spots appear at Rf 0.05, 0.12, pH : Between 6.2 to 6.8
0.22 (all red), 0.37 (blue), Wt. per ml. : 0.860 g. to 0.900 g.
0.47, 0.68, 0.84 and 0.93 (all
Total solids : Not less than 0.65 per cent w/ phase. Under UV light six
v. spots appear at Rf 0.03, 0.15,
l max : 264 and 320 nm. 0.42, 0.82, 0.89 and 0.95 (all
Identification : Carry out TLC of chloroform blue).
methanol (9:1 v/v) as mobile ZINCUM METALLICUM
phase. With Dragendorff’s Potency : 1x.
reagent three long spots ap- Properties : White amorphous powder.
pear at Rf 0.05 to 0.21, 0.25 Contains not less than 9.40
to 0.35 and 0.41 to 0.47. per cent w/w to not more than
or 10.40 per cent w/w of Zn.
Evaporate 20 ml. mother tinc-
ture on a water bath to remove
method given under Zincum
alcohol. Make it alkaline with
metallicum.
ammonia solution and extract
the aqueous part with 3x20 Potency : 2x.
ml. chloroform. Concentrate Properties : White amorphous powder.
the chloroform extract to 2 ml. Contains not less than 0.94
and carry out Co-TLC with per cent w/w and not more
Veratrine using chloroform: than 1.04 per cent w/w of Zn.
methanol (9:1 v/v) as mobile Assay : Weigh accurately about 5 g.;
phase and Dragendorff’s re- char it in a silica crucible to
agent as spray reagent. Spot make ash and proceed with
corresponding to Veratrine ash as given in the assay
appears. method under Zincum metal-
licum.
WITHANIA SOMNIFERA
Potency : 3x.
Mother Tincture.
Alcohol content : 72.0 to 76.0 per cent v/v. Contains not less than 0.094
pH : 5.5 to 6.4 per cent w/w to not more than
Wt. per ml. : 0.872 g. to 0.882 g. 0.104 per cent w/w of Zn.
Total solids : Not less than 0.35 per cent w/ Assay : Weigh accurately about 20 g.
v. Char in a silica crucible to
l max : 277 and 321 nm. make ash and proceed with
Identification : Carry out TLC of chloroform the ash as given in the assay
extract using chloroform: method under Zincum metal-
methanol (95:5 v/v) as mobile licum.
■
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Section - 6
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DYNAMISATION
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6.1 Study of Different Scales of Preparation.
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6.2 Study of Potentisation.
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6.3 Drug - Medicine - Remedy.
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6.4 Posology and Homoeopathy.
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The spirit is ever lasting, never changing ever.
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6-1
Study of Different Scales of Preparation
To bring uniformity of strength of various This scale is based on the principle that the
potencies, Dr. Samuel Hahnemann introduced a first potency should contain 1/10th part of the
standard scale for preparation of potencies. It was original drug and each succeeding potency
the centesimal scale. France uses this scale should contain 1/10th part of the previous
exclusively. In english speaking countries too, potency. The potency in this scale is denoted by
this scale is predominantly used. Later Dr. suffixing the letter ‘X’ or ‘x’ to the number
Constantine Hering introduced the decimal scale. indicating the potency i.e. the first potency is IX,
H.P.I. uses this scale for preparation of potencies. the second potency is 2X, and so on.
In 1921 with the publication of the sixth edition This scale is applicable in the old method,
of Organon of Medicine, another scale, viz., 50 established by Hahnemann for potentisation.
millesimal scale or L.M. scale was introduced This scale is used to make lower potencies,
for the preparation of potencies. especially those upto 6X. It is the only scale
used in the modern method of preparation of
SCALES OF POTENTISATION drugs.
• Scales for trituration:
Preparation of Potencies
- Decimal scale.
- Centesimal scale. Liquid Potencies
• Scales for succussion: A well-cleaned and round phial of 15 ml.
- Decimal scale. capacity is taken. 1 ml. of the tincture or solution
is poured in the phial and then 9 ml. of rectified
- Centesimal scale.
spirit (60 O.P.) i.e. dispensing alcohol is added
- 50 millesimal scale. to it. 1/3rd of the phial thereby remains empty
for succussion. It is now filled with a new velvet
DECIMAL SCALE
cork and ten downward strokes of equal strength
This scale was introduced by Dr. Constantine are given. 1x potency is thus prepared. The phial
Hering (1800 - 80) to potentise snake venoms; is tightly stoppered and labelled properly to
Vehsemeier gave a more detailed description of indicate the name of the medicine, potency and
this scale in 1836.
date of manufacturing. All succeeding potencies 10,000 as 10 M; 50,000 as 50 M or L.M; 100,000

are prepared under this scale by mixing one part as C.M; 500,000 as D.M; 1000,000 as MM and
of the preceding potency with nine parts of 500,000,000 as DMM.
dispensing alcohol. This scale is applicable for the process of
Solid Potencies potentisation by the old method as established
by Hahnemann. This scale is used for making
For making 1x potency, one part by weight
higher potencies. Centesimal scale has been
of the crude drug is triturated with nine parts by
discarded by the new official pharmacopoeia as
weight of sugar of milk, for a time period of one
10% drug strength is used as standard for
hour (which includes three 20 minutes stages of
uniformity; in the new method, only decimal
grinding, scraping and mixing).
scale is used.
All succeeding potencies are made by taking
one part of the preceding potency and triturating Preparation of Potencies
it with nine parts of sugar of milk. Trituration is Liquid Potencies
carried on up to 6x potency. The 8x liquid
A well-cleaned round phial of 15 ml. capacity
potency is prepared by succussion.
is taken. One part of the tincture is poured in the
CENTESIMAL SCALE phial and mixed with 99 parts of dispensing
alcohol which is added to the phial in such a way
The centesimal scale was introduced by Dr. that 1/3rd of the phial remains empty for
Samuel Hahnemann in his 5th edition of succussion. It is then corked with a well fitted,
Organon of Medicine (1833) in § 270. new, velvet cork and ten downward strokes of
The centesimal scale is based on the principle equal strength are given. The first potency of this
that the first potency should contain one scale ready. The phial is tightly stoppered and
hundredth part of the original drug and each labelled properly to indicate the name of the
succeeding potency should contain one medicine, potency and date of manufacturing
hundredth part of the potency preceding it. (preparing).
The potency in this scale is denoted by All succeeding potencies are prepared under
suffixing, the letter ‘C’ or ‘c’ to the number this scale by mixing one part of the preceding
indicating the potency. In practice it may also be potency with ninety-nine parts of dispensing
denoted by simple numericals with no suffix. The alcohol.
letter ‘C’ is the roman numeral for 100. Therefore
Belladonna 2C implies, Belladonna 200 which Solid Potencies
in turn implies 200th potency of Belladonna. For preparing the first potency, one part by
This scale is denoted by simply affixing the weight of the crude drug is triturated with ninety-
numericals after the name of the drug, e.g. Apis nine parts by weight of sugar of milk for a period
mel. 3, Apis mel. 6, which denote the 3rd and of one hour (which includes three 20 minutes
6th centesimal potency of Apis mel. These may stages of grinding, scraping and mixing).
be denoted by 3C or 6C but this kind of For the second potency, one part of the first
denotation may bring, confusion with ‘C’ which potency is triturated with ninety-nine parts of
means 100 as 2C= 200th potency. Some of these sugar of milk, in the usual way. Trituration is
potency strengths are designated by Roman done up to the 3rd potency and the fourth liquid
numericals e.g. 200 as cc ; 1000 as M or 1 M; potency is prepared by succussion.
Study of Different Scales of Preparation 327
Relation Between Decimal and changes advocated by the Master. It was brought
Centesimal Scales to the notice of the profession by Dr. Pierre
Schmidt, M.D., of Geneva in an article entitled,
Decimal Scale Centesimal Scale
The Hidden Treasure of the Last Organon,
1. 1x potency has 1/10th 1c potency has 1/100th published in the British Homoeopathic Journal,
part of the original part of the original
July - October 1954. Another article was
drug. drug.
published by him on this subject in the Journal
2. Here 2x contains: Here 2c= of the American Institute of Homoeopathy,
1/10 x 1/100 = 1c 1/100 x 1/100 =
December - January 1955 - 56. At last, in the
potency and so on. 1/10,000 = 4x potency.
April 1980 issue of ‘The British Homoeopathic
3. It is considered better This provides more
Journal’ Dr. Charles Pahud of Lozen, France
for lower potencies rapidly acting remedies
drew the attention of the World Homoeopathic
upto 6x. in higher potencies.
Physicians all over the World to the sixth edition
of the Organon in his article, ‘My Experience
50 MILLESIMAL SCALE OR L.M. About Hahnemann’s 50 Millesimal Scale
SCALE Potency’. These two learned men can rightfully
The 50 millesimal scale was introduced by be credited with opening the door of the hidden
Dr. Hahnemann in the 6th edition of Organon of treasure of the 6th edition of Organon of
Medicine in § 270. This name was given by Dr. Medicine.
Pierre Schmidt of Geneva. Potencies prepared In India and Bangladesh, the potency
under this method are named by Dr. Schmidt as, prepared by this scale is designated as 0/1, 0/2,
‘fifty-millesimal potencies’ as the material part 0/3, 0/4 and M/1, M/2, M/3, M/4, etc. In the west
of the medicine is said to be decreased by 50,000 it is designated as 1/0, 2/0, 3/0, etc.
times for each degree of dynamisation.
Master Hahnemann used to write 0/1, 0/2,
Hahnemann himself termed this new method as,
etc.
‘renewed dynamisation’ (§161).
Some authors have suggested, LM/1, LM/2,
In footnote 1, § 132 he writes, ‘new altered
LM/3, etc., Where ‘L’ stands for 50 and ‘M’ for
but perfected method” — “New dynamisation
millesimal.
method” etc. of Organon.
The numerator ‘0’ representing symbolically
☞ The manuscript of the 6th German edition
the poppy-sized globule employed in each
of the Organon was completed by Dr.
dynamisation.
Hahnemann in 1842. In a letter to his
publisher, Mr. Schaub, in Dusseldörf, Methods of Preparation
Hahnemann wrote, “I have now, after
Apparatus and Materials Required
eighteen months of work finished the sixth
edition of my Organon, the most nearly • Sugar of Milk: It should be of the purest
perfect of all. But, Hahnemann died on 2nd quality; it is used for the purpose of
July 1843 and as a result of which it saw the potentisation.
light of the day in 1921 when William • Purified Water: Of the purest quality.
Boericke published it. • Strong Alcohol: Of the purest quality.
Even after it was published, only a few (like • Sugar Globules: Those of the purest quality
Dr. Pahud of Lausanne) took notice of the great
are used. They should be free from dust porcelain mortar. Add one grain of the
particles which is achieved by passing them powdered drug to it. For 1 minute the
through a sieve. Then they are passed medicine and powder are mixed with a
through another sieve which will allow only spatula and grinded or rubbed for 6 minutes
globules of the prescribed size - hundred of with a pestle; then the mass is scraped from
which weigh a grain. the bottom and sides of the mortar and from
• Glazed Porcelain Mortar: The bottom of the pestle for 3 minutes. This is again
the mortar is roughened before hand with the followed by trituration for 6 minutes,
help of fine moist sand using a pestle and scraping for 3 minutes and mixing for 1
spatula. minute without adding anything new to the
mixture.
• Bottles (Made-up of Neutral Glass): After
filling the liquid in the bottles for • The second third of milk sugar is now added
potentisation, 1/3rd should be kept empty. and the above mentioned process is repeated
for the same period (i.e. 20 minutes).
• A Small Cylindrical Vessel (Made-up of
Glass, Porcelain or Silver): A small opening • The last third of milk sugar is mixed to the
is present at the bottom of the cylindrical above mixture and the 20 minute process is
vessel in which the globules are put to be again repeated.
medicated. They are moistened with a little • The powder thus prepared is put in a vial,
potentised medicinal alcohol. The globules which is well corked, protected from direct
are then stirred and poured out on blotting sunlight and accurately labelled indicating
paper, in order to dry them quickly. the name of the drug, potency and date of
manufacture. Each grain will contain 1/100
Procedure
of original drug substance.
The method of preparation of medicines • By the end of one hour, one third process of
according to the new method as described in the preparation of mother tincture is completed.
6th edition, has not yet found its way into any of
the homoeopathic pharmacopoeias. Second Stage:
Hahnemann has explained the mode of • One grain of the above preparation is taken
preparation in § 270 - 271 and their footnotes and triturated with hundred grains of sugar
(150 to 157) in the sixth edition of Organon of of milk in three stages (for a period of 1 hour)
Medicine. as mentioned in the first stage. The potency
prepared will be such that each grain will
Preparation of Mother Tincture contain 1/10,000 of the original drug
• One grain of the drug substance (dry or oily; substance. The prepared mixture is put in a
plant or animal matter) is triturated for three well stoppered and labelled vial.
hours with 1,00,00,00 grains (106 grams) of
sugar of milk i.e. upto the 3x potency Third Stage:
according to the method described below: • One grain of the above potency is triturated
with hundred grains of sugar of milk as
First Stage: mentioned earlier for 1 hour. Thus we have
• One-third of hundred grains (approximately a 3rd centesimal potency, where 1 grain has
33 grains) of milk sugar is taken in a glazed 1/1,00,00,00 of the original drug substance.
Fourth Stage: poppy seed globules get saturated by

• One grain of the 3rd potency is dissolved in absorbing one drop of the medicine.
500 drops of a mixture of one part of alcohol • Then the globules are transferred into a vial
and four parts of distilled water (viz, 500 which is well-stoppered and accurately
drops = 100 drops of alcohol and 400 drops labelled. Thus 0/1 potency is prepared.
of water). Thus, the dry trituration is
Further Potencies (Next Higher Potencies):
converted into the liquid form. This is the
mother tincture of 50 millesimal scale. It • Take only one globule of 0/1 potency in a
implies that mother tincture has the drug new, clean vial. Dissolve in a drop of water
strength of and then add 100 drops of alcohol to it. Give
100 powerful downward succussions.
1 x 1 = 1 1
500 10 6
5x10 8 ( 5,00,00,00,00 ) • With this alcoholic medicinal fluid, globules
are again moistened, spread upon blotting
Preparation of Potencies paper and dried; finally put into a well-
stoppered vial, stored protected from heat
0/1 Potency:
and sunlight and accurately labelled. Thus
• One drop of the mother tincture is put in a 0/2 potency is made.
vial. Add 100 drops of pure alcohol to it (the
• Every higher potency is thus prepared by
size of the vial should be such that it is 1/3rd
taking one globule of the previous potency.
empty). Give the vial one hundred strong
downward succussions with a hand against • The process is continued up to thirtieth
the other hand or a hard but elastic body. potency and each potency contains 1/
This is the medicine in the first degree of 50,000th part of the previous potency.
dynamisation, viz, first potency (0/1) of 50 Schematic Presentation of Preparation
millesimal scale. The drug strength will be: of 50 Millesimal Potencies
1 x 1 = 1 x 1 = 1 x 10x
First Stage (1 Hour)
5x10 8
100 5 1010
1 grain of powdered drug substance +100 grains
5 5 1010
[
= 1 x 5c 1 = 10x; 10x = 5c
] of sugar of milk
Grinding, scrapping, mixing 1st trituration
• To convert the liquid potency into globules, 1 hr. (20+20+20)
a small cylindrical vessel, shaped like a
Second Stage (1 Hour)
thimble, made of glass, porcelain or steel
with a small opening at the bottom is taken, 1 grain of 1st trituration +100 grains of sugar
into which poppy-sized globules (100 of of milk
them weigh 1 grain) are put to be medicated. Grinding, scrapping, mixing 2nd trituration
They are moistened with a small quantity of
1 hr. (20+20+20)
the medicine prepared.
• The moistened globules are then spread over Third Stage (1 Hour)
a piece of blotting paper so that the excess 1 grain of 2nd trituration +100 grains of
of medicine is removed. It is found that 500 sugar of milk
Grinding, scrapping, mixing • From the above prepared dose, instruct the
3rd trituration patient to take only about 1-2 teaspoon of
1 hr. (20+20+20)
the dose and discard the rest. Administer the
Fourth Stage remaining doses in the same manner.
1 grain of 3rd trituration +100 drops In case of any aggravation on taking the
dispensing alcohol + 400 drops of purified water medicine in the above described manner, stop
Mother tincture further dosage. The aggravation will subside in
a short while. After the aggravation subsides, the
0/1 Potency
same remedy is taken after diluting it in a 2nd,
1 drop mother tincture + 100 drops pure 3rd or 4th glass, prepared as described above.
100 succussions This way the aggravation can be controlled.
alcohol 0/1
Further Potencies Dosage

• A single, simple medicine should be
One globule of previous potency dissolved in a
administered at a time.
drop of water
• Each dose should be as small as possible
+ 100 succussions
Next potency. except in the following cases:
- Recent, erupted itch.
- Untouched chancre on the labia, sexual
How to Administer Medicine in 50
organs, mouth, etc.
Millesimal Potency
- Fig warts.
• Properly clean a 4 ounce phial with a new
cork. In these three cases the prescribed medicine
should be given in large doses in high degrees
• Fill 3/4th part of it with distilled water or
of dynamisation daily.
pure drinking water.
• The medicine should not be given in a single
• Add 15-20 drops of rectified spirit to it for
dose but in many doses. A single (No. 10)
the purpose of preservation.
globule soaked with medicine, touches only
• Crush one No. 10 globule of 0/1 or 0/2 or 0/
or few nerve fibers. But when it is crushed
3 (one globule of the selected medicine) with
and mixed with a bottle sugar of milk, and
2-3 grains of milk sugar. Add this to the
than dissolved in water, it will produce a very
bottle.
powerful medicine.
• Mark the phial in 7 doses. The medicinal
• Medicine, in the 50 millesimal scale should
solution is now ready for dispensing.
only be prescribed in the liquid form.
• Before ingestion, these 7 doses have to be
succussed 8, 10, 12, times depending upon Potency
he susceptibility of the patient (8 for a very • According to § 270 in the 6th edition of
sensitive patient; 12 for the least sensitive Organon, Dr. Hahnemann recommends
patient). potencies from 0/1 to 0/30 only. A majority
• After succussion; take one dose of the of the patients proceed towards ideal cure
medicine in a glass of pure water (capacity within 0/10 and there is no reason to use
about 4 ounces) and stir it well with a higher cases may need potencies even higher
teaspoon. than 0/30.
• Start the treatment from the lowest degree solution may be put in a second glass of water, thoroughly
stirred and teaspoonful doses or more be given. There are
of dynamisation (i.e. 0/1 to 0/3) and patients of so great sensitiveness that a third or fourth glass,
gradually proceed to higher potencies. similarly prepared, may be necessary. Each such prepared
glass must be made fresh daily. The globule of the high
Note: Some physicians start the treatment with 0.2 potency is best crushed in a few grains of sugar of milk which
and then proceed with 0/4, 0/6, 0/8 and so on or the patient can put in the vial and be dissolved in the requisite
start with 0/1 and proceed with 0/3, 0/5, 0/7 and quantity of water.] (with perhaps 8, 10, 12
so on. But this method is wrong as it goes against succussions) from which we give the patient one
the direction, as prescribed by Hahnemann. It is or (increasingly) several teaspoonful doses, in
also not scientific and has proven to be harmful
long lasting diseases daily or every second day,
to many patients.
in acute diseases every two to six hours and in
Time for Second Prescription very urgent cases every hour or oftener. Thus in
Continue the first prescription till the patient chronic diseases, every correctly chosen
experiences continued improvement without homoeopathic medicine, even those whose action
experiencing another complaint which had never is of long duration, may be repeated daily for
before appeared in his life. In such cases, first months with ever increasing success. If the
change the potency of the medicine from low to solution is used up (in seven to fifteen days) it is
high like from 0/1 to 0/2, or 0/3 to 0/4 and so on. necessary to add to the next solution of the same
medicine if still indicated one or (though rarely)
In case new symptoms are observed, another several pellets of a higher potency with which
more homoeopathically related medicine should we continue so long as the patient experiences
be selected and administered in the same manner. continued improvement without encountering
The dose, however may be modified through one or another complaint that he never had before
succussions depending upon the need. in his life. For if this happens, if the balance of
The potency of this new medicine is started the disease appears in a group of altered
from the lowest degrees of dynamisation i.e. 0/ symptoms then another, one more
1. homoeopathically related medicine must be
chosen in place of the last and administered in
Repetition of Doses
the same repeated doses, mindful, however, of
Dr. Hahnemann states in § 248 and § 249 of modifying the solution of every dose with
the 6th edition of Organon that: thorough vigorous succussions, thus changing its
§ 248 degree of potency and increasing it somewhat.
On the other hand, should there appear during
For this purpose, we potentize anew, the
almost daily repetition of the well indicated
medicinal solution [Made in 40, 30, 20, 15 or 8
tablespoonfuls of water with the addition of some alcohol or homoeopathic remedy, towards the end of the
a piece of charcoal in order to preserve it. If charcoal is used, treatment of a chronic disease, so-called (§ 161)
it is suspended by means of a thread in the vial and is taken
homoeopathic aggravations by which the
out when the vial is succussed. The solution of the medicinal
globule (and it is rarely necessary to use more than one balance of the morbid symptoms seem to again
globule) of a thoroughly potentized medicine in a large increase somewhat (the medicinal disease,
quantity of water can be obviated by making a solution in
only 7-8 tablespoonfuls of water and after thorough
similar to the original, now alone persistently
succussion of the vial, take from it one tablespoonful and manifests itself). The doses in that case must then
put it in a glass of water (containing about 7 to 8 spoonfuls), be reduced still further and repeated in longer
this is stirred thoroughly and then give a dose to the patient.
If he is unusually excited and sensitive, a teaspoonful of this intervals and possibly stopped several days, in
order to see if the convalescence need no further From § 248, it is clear that the repetition of
medicinal aid. The apparent symptoms (Schein- doses in 50 millesimal scale depends upon the
Symptoms) caused by the excess of the nature of the disease. Viz.,
homoeopathic medicine will soon disappear and • In long lasting diseases, like asthma, ulcers,
leave undisturbed health in its wake. If only a cancer, skin diseases, rheumatism,
small vial, say, a dram of dilute alcohol is used hypertension, etc., one or several teaspoon
in the treatment, in which is contained and doses may be given daily or every second
dissolved through succussion one globule of the day.
medicine which is to be used by olfaction every
• In acute diseases like typhoid, malaria,
two, three or four days, this also must be
diarrhea, dysentery, etc., every 2 to 6 hours.
thoroughly succussed eight to ten times before
each olfaction. • In very urgent cases like in tetanus, cholera,
chickenpox, etc., repeat every hour or
§ 249 oftener.
Every medicine prescribed for a case of In chronic cases, the indicated remedy can
disease which, in the course of its action, be given (repeated) daily for months with good
produced new and troublesome symptoms not results even if the remedy has a action of long
appertaining to the disease to be cured, is not duration.
capable of effecting real improvement [As all For second prescription, Dr. Hahnemann
experience shows that the dose of the specially suited
homoeopathic medicine can scarcely be prepared too small writes:
to effect perceptible amelioration in the disease for which it • If the patient experiences continuous
is appropriate (§ § 275-278), we should act injudiciously and
hurtfully were we when no improvement, or some, though it improvement, continue with the previous
be even slight, aggravation ensues, to repeat or even remedy, may be in a higher potency.
increase the dose of the same medicine, as is done in the
old system, under the delusion that it was not efficacious on • If some altered symptoms appear, chose
account of its small quantity (its too small dose). Every another homoeopathic remedy and
aggravation by the production of new symptoms—when
nothing untoward has occurred in the mental or physical
administer it in the same repeated doses.
regimen— invariably proves unsuitableness on the part of • If a homoeopathic aggravation occurs, the
the medicine formerly given in the case of diseases before
dose should be reduced and repeated at
us, but never indicates that the dose has been too weak.],
longer intervals. One can even stop giving
and cannot be considered as homoeopathically
the medicine for several days to see if
selected; it must, therefore, either if the
convalescence need no further medicinal aid.
aggravation be considerable, be first partially
neutralized as soon as possible by an antidote In § 249, Master Hahnemann discusses the
before giving the next remedy chosen more management of cases where, the seleced
accurately according to similarity of action; or medicine (for a disease), in the course of its
if the troublesome symptoms be not very violent, action produces new, troublesome symptoms
the next remedy must be given immediately, in which do not pertain to the disease to be cured.
order to take the place of the improperly selected Accoroding to Dr. Hahnemann such a medicine
one [The well informed and conscientiously careful physician is not homoeopathically well selected and their
will never be in a position to require an antidote in his practice management is as follows:
if he will begin, as he should, to give the selected medicine
in the smallest possible dose. A like minute dose of a better • If the aggravation produced is very violent,
chosen remedy will re-establish order throughout.]. treat it by first giving an antidote followed
by an accurately chosen homoeopathic • Dissolve the medicine in water.

remedy. • Give the smallest possible dose.
• If the aggravation is mild the second • The subsequent dose should be higher than
prescription can be made immediately to the previous one.
replace the wrong prescription.
• It should be administered after a fixed time
Time for Administration of Remedy period.
• In fevers, the most appropriate time for Advantages of Using 50 Millesimal
administering the remedy is just after the Potency
termination of the fever paroxysm.
• Far more dynamic than other potencies.
• Several acute and chronic diseases have a
• It’s action is much more gentle, permanent
definite period of aggravation during their
and rapid. Complying with Dr. Hahnemann’s
course. Do not give the medicine at that time.
high and only mission of cure.
For e.g., patients suffering from syphilis have
an aggravation at night. Hence, avoid • 50 millesimal produces the minimum
administering the medicine at night to these aggravation. Hence it can be safely used in
patients. even the most deplorable cases without any
fear.
• Several drugs have a specific period for
medicinal aggravation. This is not the right • Medicinal aggravation if any, is nominal and
time to administer these drug. controllable.
For e.g., • It has the highest development of latent
power which is developed by giving 100
Arsenicum alb. < 12 p.m. - 2 a.m.
succussions. This produces:
< 12 a.m. - 2 p.m.
- A rapid, long-lasting penetration.
Kaliums < 3 a.m. - 5 a.m.
- A gentle impact with minimal (if any)
Lycopodium < 4 p.m. - 8 p.m. medicinal aggravation.
Natrium mur. < 10 a.m. - 11 a.m.
- Permanent restoration of health.
Sulphur < 10 a.m. - 2 a.m.
• It has achieved quicker cures of chronic
• While prescribing for menstrual disorders, diseases. It has enabled the period of
the best time is in the post-menstrual period. treatment to be diminished to one half or one
Routes for Administration quarter or even less time. This scale of
potentisation can boldly face any challenge
• Oral (through the mouth).
with the allopathic medicines in regard to
• Olfaction (inhale through nose and mouth). quick recovery.
• By rubbing. • It can be repeated frequently (every hour or
• Through mothers milk or milk of the wet oftener) as and when necessary. Even drugs
nurse. having a long continued action Sulphur,
Thuja, Lycopodium, Calcarea carb., can be
Conditions for Administration
administered frequently and for long
• Select a perfectly homoeopathic medicine. durations (months) in this potency, safely.
• Use a highly potentised medicine. • By the use of this potency, the doctor can
judge the appropriateness of the medicine • It is infallible for cases where only palliation
within 2-4 days of chronic diseases and 2-4 is to be removed. Here, palliation is possible
hours or even earlier in acute diseases. without the least chance of an aggravation.
• When used by olfaction, it cures both acute • This system frees the patient and the
and chronic cases quickly without any severe physician from the tyranny of centesimal
medicinal aggravation. scale. Under this scale medicines can be used
• In 50 millesimal potency, the same off and on, when required. If one prescription
constitutional medicine can be used for both is formed to be wrong, the physician can start
palliative and curative purposes. Here no another carefully selected remedy
separate medicine is required when palliation immediately without first antidoting the
is needed. action of the first.
• Very effective and useful in mental diseases Disadvantages of Using 50 Millesimal
where there is an apprehension of • The medicine has to administered in the
aggravation on using the centesimal scale. liquid form only.
• 50 millesimal has proved useful in one-sided • A standard quantity of phial and cork should
diseases or in other cases which seem be used to preserve the medicine well.
incurable.
• In case of an aggravation while using this
• Repeated doses of 50 millesimal work scale, bring it to the notice of the physician
miraculously in cases of suppression which immediately. Further dilution and reduction
occurred long ago, putting the patient back in the frequency of repetition may be
on the process of cure. required.
• It has proven to be very efficacious and • The mode of preparation and use of this
helpful when administered in the primary medicine may reduce the enthusiasm to use
stage of psora, syphilis and sycosis. it amongst physicians and patients.
■
335
6-2
Study of Potentisation
Potentisation or dynamisation process was doctrines of homoeopathy. The subject has been
introduced into the science of therapeutics by taken up and persued by various authors. Dr.
Dr. Samuel Hahnemann. Homoeopathic Hahnemann’s view regarding dynamization also
dynamization is defined as a process by which constantly underwent alterations.
the medicinal properties, which are latent in
natural substances while in their crude state,
become aroused, and then become enabled to act EVOLUTION OF THE THEORY
in an almost spiritual manner on our life; i.e., on OF DYNAMIZATION
our sensible and irritable fibre. This development • In the year 1796, when his first essay
of the properties of crude natural substances announcing the discovery of a new
(dynamization) takes place, in the case of dry therapeutic principle, homoeopathy was
drug substances, by means of trituration in a published no mention of dynamization was
mortar, but in the case of fluid substances, by made.
means of shaking or succussion (Preface to 5th • In 1798, first hints on dilution of drugs were
volume of The Chronic Diseases). found in context to Sabina and Hyoscyamus
Stuart Close in ‘The Genius of Homoeopathy’ 1/16 - 1/30 grains of the concentrated
defines homoeopathic potentisation as: It is a solution and Stramonium 1/100 - 1/1000 of
mathematico-mechanical process for the the concentrated juice.
reduction, according to scale, of crude, inert or • Between 1799 and 1801, he advocated the
poisonous medical substances to a state of use of small doses which he called
physical solubility, physiological assimilability ‘infinitesimal doses’. In his treatise,
and therapeutic activity and harmlessness, for use “Treatise of Medicine and Collection of
as homoeopathic healing remedies. Selected Prescription” several remarks
In other words it is a physical process by concerning very small doses are mentioned.
which the latent curative properties of drugs are • In 1802, he used Veratrum 1/2000 grains,
brought into activity. Mezereum 1/400,000 grains, Stramonium 1/
Drug dynamization is the most controversial 300,000 grains, etc.
• Through 1803, Dr. Hahnemann’s experience ensues not only the most intimate mixture,
was growing and he was experimenting but at the same time and this is the most
higher and higher without making any final important circumstance, there ensues such a
decision about the dose and potency of drugs. great and hither to unknown and undreamt
• In ‘Medicine of Experience’ published in of change, by the development and liberation
1805, he talks about the dynamic action of of the dynamic powers of the medicinal
drugs and the infinitesimal dose required to substance so treated, so as to excite
cure even the severest disease. However, he astonishment.”
could not explain how the power, of the drug • In 1828-1833, ‘Chronic Diseases’ was
increased by an increase in the triturations published in which he has written about
and succussions. starting treatment with small doses (2nd or
• The 1st edition of the Organon of Medicine 3rd trituration), but experience taught him
was published in 1810 but the theory of to give preference to higher dilutions.
dynamization was not yet rooted. However, During this time, Dr. Hahnemann came upon
it was clear that Hahnemann’s theory was the strange idea of setting up a standard dose
developing as follows: for all curative homoeopathic remedies. This
- He wanted to give small doses as it standard was 30c.
prevented aggravations. In 1833, he published the 5th edition of his
- To reduce the dose, he mixed the drug Organon where Hahnemann’s final
substance with a non-medicinal vehicle discussion in favor of high potency rested
and subjected it to vigorous shaking on his conception of dynamisation of drugs
which increased the curative power of after dilution and succussion was put forth.
the drug. • In 1839, the 2nd edition of ‘Chronic
- Recorded evidence is present that Diseases’ was published where Hahnemann
Hahnemann, between 1812 and 1815 confirmed his dynamization of drugs by
used Arnica in the 18th and Nux in the saying, “Homoeopathic dynamisation of
9th centesimal potency. drugs are real awakenings of the medicinal
properties that lie dormant in natural bodies
- Between 1816 - 1827, Hahnemann
during their crude state, which then become
gradually increased the dilution of
capable of acting in almost a spiritual manner
medicines. At the same time Hahnemann
upon our life-that is to say, on our persistent
made a lot of followers and also faced a
(sensitive) and excitable fibres.
lot of criticism from allopaths.
• In 1825 he wrote in a journal “How can small
PROCESS OF POTENTISATION
doses of such very attenuated medicines as
OR DYNAMISATION
homoeopathy employs have any ‘effect’ on
the sick?” He writes here, “In the preparation Two process are employed in potentisation
of homoeopathic attenuations a small portion depending upon the solubility of the drug
of medicine is not merely added to an substance.
enormous quantity of non-medicinal fluid, A. Succussion.
or only slightly mingled with it but by the B. Trituration.
prolonged succussions and trituration, there
Study of Potentisation 337
A. SUCCUSSION They may involve a polymorisation or an

It is a mechanical process of potentisation electromagnetic effect.
of drug substances soluble in liquid vehicles by For succession it has now been accepted that
employing powerful downward strokes. ten strokes of equal velocity with measured
Succussion may be in water or alcohol or a strength are necessary.
mixture of both. However, the most commonly The A.H.P. and G.H.P. also advocate ten
used vehicle is alcohol (as in Class I, II, III, IV strokes.
and VI of Hahnemann’s method). For drug Jenichen had advocated that the degree
substances insoluble in alcohol, purified water of respective strength developed through
is the preferred vehicle. In such drugs too, after potentising, and was directly proportional to the
certain degree of attenuation, it becomes soluble number of strokes applied, and that every ten
in alcohol and further attenuations are made in strokes given, would increase the dynamic
alcohol. strength of the medicines by one degree.
Hence, by this process, dynamisation of But Dr. Finke of America did not endorse
liquid drugs is done. For this purpose, three scales the proposition of the stroke whatsoever, instead
are in use: he devised his own method of dynamisation.
Finke used to take one hundred drops of the drug
i. Decimal.
substance in a glass jug and allow a stream of
ii. Centesimal. distilled water to flow through the same. For
iii. 50 millesimal. every dram of water entering in and out of the
Method of Succussion vessel, Finke would count it as one potency; thus
for 100 drams of water entering and coming out
Hahnemann mentioned to make these of the vessel would raise the potency of the
attenuations by hands process only. Practically, containing drug substance to 100. Finke had only
it is too hard to pursue the Hahnemannian hand paid importance on the water with its exerting
process in cases of higher or highest potencies. force on a medicinal substance in raising the
Of late, these higher potencies or dilutions are potencies, and not on any strokes applied.
prepared by automatic machines.
Dr. Skinner in preparing liquid potencies had
The process of succussion is entirely also followed the above method to some degree.
different from simple mixing and agitating. The He designated such a process as ‘Fluxion
process of succussion is a new invention of method’.
Hahnemann at the renaissance period of the 18th Dr. Korskoff of Russia devised another
century. At a dilution of 1/1024 corresponding to method of dynamisation by simply keeping a
potencies of 12c or 24x, Avogadro’s limit has medicated pellet in a phial containing non-
been reached, beyond which there are medicated pure pellets of milk sugar. Korskoff
theoretically no molecules of original substance claimed that the dynamical power of these
left in the preparation. However, it is clinically medicated pelletes could influence and induce
and experimentally demonstrable that such the non-medicated pellets to be charged with the
potencies are still pharmacologically active and medicinal property.
preserve the therapeutic potentials of the original
1 part by volume of drug substance or
substance. The method of potentisation causes
previous potency is mixed with 9 or 99 parts
the pharmaceutical message of the original drug
(depending on the scale employed) by volume
to be impressed on the molecules of the diluent.
of liquid vehicle in a phial filling 2/3rd of it. It is poured over it so that the oily (dry substance)
then corked tightly. 10 downward strokes of doesn’t stick to the surface of the mortar.
uniform strength are given to the phial held in a
3. Class IX
hand against a hard but elastic body or against
the other hand. To maintain uniformity of This includes fresh vegetable and animal
strength, some authors have suggested that the substances like Psorinum, Medorrhinum, Blatta,
phial must be raised to the level of the shoulder Agaricus, etc. Here the ratio of drug substance
before every stroke. Each stroke should end in a to milk sugar is 2:99 (as per centesimal scale) as
jerk. there is always some loss of the drug substance
by evaporation during trituration.
B. TRITURATION
Two scales are in use for trituration:
It is a mechanical process of potentisation i. Decimal.
of minerals, inorganic substances, etc. which are
ii. Centesimal.
insoluble in liquid vehicles, by grinding them
with suitable solid vehicles. Sugar of milk is the Conditions Required for Trituration
vehicle commonly used. Drug substances 1. The room must be clean, of moderate
included in Class VII, VIII and IX are triturated temperature and dust-proof, for carrying out
to certain attenuations to make them soluble, in the process of trituration.
alcohol. Hahnemann originally described this 2. Utensils should be perfectly clean and
process of preparing medicine in his Chronic odorless.
Diseases, Volume I, page 183.
3. Surfaces of mortar and pestle must be
Substances for Trituration unglazed or made rough by rubbing them
with moist clean white sand.
1. Class VII
4. The mortar and pestle after being properly
Dry medicinal substances insoluble in cleaned in the usual way, should be washed
purified water and alcohol like Arsenicum alb., with alcohol and should be dried thoroughly.
Alumina, Graphites, Corallium, etc. Here the
5. After each trituration has been completed,
trituration ratio (for centesimal scale) is 1:99
all the utensils must be properly cleaned and
(drug substance: sugar of milk). The 99 parts of
dried for the next one.
milk sugar is divided into 3 equal parts of 33
parts each. Trituration takes place by the 3 usual 6. In triturating drugs like Graphites, Mercury,
stages of 20 minutes each. Plumbum, etc. the utensils should be cleaned
sufficiently, thoroughly and repeatedly.
2. Class VIII 7. In triturating Plumbum, the pestle should be
These are liquid insoluble medicinal rubbed very softly.
substances like Petroleum, Naja, Crotalus, 8. In triturating Ferrum metallicum, the mortar
Lachesis, etc. The trituration ratio for centesimal must be kept often warm for removing
scale is 1:99 (drug: milk sugar). Here, 99 parts moisture, while triturating.
of milk sugar should not be divided into 3 equal 9. Dr. Burt advises the use of a small amount
parts as the quantity of milk sugar in very less. of alcohol for moistening the milk sugar
Hence, the entire sugar of milk should be taken during trituration, as it will save the troubles
at a time in the mortar and the drug substance is of scrapping and stirring.
Note: i. Triturations are not made arbitrarily, but First Stage: 1 part crude drug and 3 parts
there is some definite process in trituration. milk sugar is taken in a requisite mortar and
Firmly gripping the pestle with the hand properly mixed with a spatula. Then the mixture
having the thumb on the top, the pestle must is steadily and thoroughly rubbed or triturated
be fully pressed down and moved anti-
for 6 minutes in a uniform circular movement,
clockwise or clockwise if the person be a left-
handed. The motion should be circular going
either clockwise or anti-clockwise. Next cleanly
away from the centre spirally and moving scrape the particles adhering to the inner walls
back to the centre. By this process practically of the mortar and the pestle for 3 minutes. Next,
all the particles get a uniform rubbing. mix or stir the whole triturated mass for 1 minute.
ii. To increase the productivity and cost of Thus, the total time required for rubbing or
production mechanical devices are being triturating followed by scrapping and then mixing
employed now-a-days. In this context the followed by stirring would be 6+3 +1 = 10
H.P.I, directs that it is not feasible to give minutes.
strict rules for such mechanical appliances
in all their interdependent details. The same process for triturating for 6
minutes, scraping for 3 minutes and stirring for
Decimal Scale of Trituration 1 minute is to be repeated again.
Principle Thus the first stage of trituration will be
For making the 1st potency, triturate one part completed in (10+10) = 20 minutes.
by weight of the crude drug with 9 parts by Second Stage: In this stage 3 parts by weight
weight of milk sugar for one hour. All the of milk sugar, is added to the above triturated
following potencies are made by taking one part mixture.
of the preceeding potency with 9 parts of milk The same processes as are carried in the first
sugar. stage, are repeated in this case. So, in another 20
Requirements minutes the second stage of trituration will be
1. One clean unglazed motar. completed.
2. One clean unglazed pestle. Third Stage: Similarly this third stage is also
completed in 20 minutes, as in the 2nd stage.
3. One clean horn spatula.
4. Necessary amount of crude drug substance. Thus in (20+20+20) = 60 minutes times the
whole process of a trituration will be completed.
5. Necessary amount of milk sugar.
6. A stop-clock or a watch. Next the triturated material should be stored
in a clean phial, with the name and potency of
7. An empty clean phial of required size.
the medicine pasted on it, e.g., Natrium mur. 1x
8. A freshly marked new velvet cork. or Silicea 1x etc.
9. Label paper, a scissor and paste.
For making 2x trituration, 1 part by weight
Process: of the 1x trituration would be triturated with 9
The entire process of trituration is done in 3 parts by weight of milk sugar as above, time taken
main stages; and the total quantity of 9 parts milk altogether 60 minutes. All the following
sugar is divided in 3 equal parts, i.e., 3 parts of potencies are prepared by taking one part of the
milk sugar is used separately in the following 3 preceding potency with 9 parts of milk sugar.
stages:
Centesimal Scale of Trituration

The same method, as for potencies under decimal scale is carried on, is also applicable for
triturations under this centesimal scale, excepting that one part by weight of the drug substance will
be triturated with 99 parts by weight of milk sugar, for the period of one hour, including 3 stages,
each consuming 20 minutes as in the decimal scales, and dividing the 99 parts milk sugar in three
equal 33 parts. Thus we will get 1st potency of the centesimal scale. For the 2nd potency, triturate 1
part of the 1st potency with 99 parts of milk sugar in the usual way, and so on for the following
potencies.
This time honored but tedious method of preparation has been replaced by machines in all
modern homoeopathic pharmaceutical laboratories.
Schematic Representation of Trituration

Total time: 60 minutes.
Trituration
1st stage 2nd stage 3rd stage

(20 minutes) (20 minutes) (20 minutes)
10 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes

Rubbing: 6 minute Rubbing: 6 minute Rubbing: 6 min.
+ + +
Scrapping: 3 minute Scrapping: 3 minute Scrapping: 3 minute
+ + +
Mixing: 1 minute Mixing: 1 minute Mixing: 1 minute
Trituration According to H.P.I. Conversion of Trituration into Liquid

Take one part by weight of the crude drug Potencies (H.P.I.)
and one part by weight of sugar of milk in coarse Drug substances that are insoluble in water
powder. Mix the two for a moment and then rub and alcohol in their crude state become soluble
the mixture thoroughly for six minutes. After six after certain degree of attenuation.
minutes scrape the pestle and mortar with a Dissolve one part by weight of the 6x
spatula, and stir the mixture for four minutes. trituration in fifty parts by volume of purified
Again rub the mixture with the pestle for six water, to which fifty parts by volume of
minutes and stir for four minutes. Now add 3 dispensing alcohol is added. Give ten succussions
parts by weight sugar of milk and repeat the to this liquid mixture.
processes of rubbing, scraping and stirring. Then
7x liquid potency from 6x trituration is not
add 5 parts by weight sugar of milk and repeat
possible. The first potency prepared from 6x
the processes of rubbing, scraping and stirring.
trituration is 8x (4c). This is so because the ratio
At the end of this process we get 1x potency of
of trituration to water-alcohol solution is 1:100.
medicine.
Subsequent potencies may be prepared either in
the decimal or centesimal scale in the usual Zincum met., etc. (the general rule for
manner but in preparing the 9x potency from 8x these substances is mentioned in
use dilute alcohol; higher potencies are made in Hahnemann’s Materia Medica Pura,
dispensing alcohol. under Arsenicum).
It must be noticed that in centesimal scale v. Certain fresh vegetables and animal
preparation third trituration of drug is converted drugs, like Anacardium, Agaricus, Blatta
into fourth liquid potency, that is, 3c trituration orientalis whose lower triturations can
is converted to 4c liquid potency. not be stored. The principle of
trituration, etc. is mentioned in
Merits of Trituration Hahnemann’s Chronic Diseases, under
1. It arouses the latent medicinal properties of Agaricus and Blatta orientalis.
drugs which remain dormant in their crude Note: Regarding trituration, in aphorium 271 of The
states. Organon of Medicine, Hahnemann has clearly
said, “As pure or oxidised and sulphuretted metals
2. It increases the therapeutic potentialities and
and other minerals, petroleum, phosphorus, as
greater curative values than their crude form. also parts and juices of plants that can only be
A drug in potentised form possesses greater obtained in the dry state, animal substances,
healing power than in its crude form. neutral salts, etc., all these are first to be
3. It has the capacity to reduce and to potentised by trituration...”.
breakdown the drug’s particles to the finest 6. By trituration, the surface area, surface
possible particles. tension of a drug is increased enormously.
4. The drugs insoluble in vehicles like alcohol For example, a cube of 1 cm. has a surface
or water, become soluble by the process of area of 6 sq. cm.; if this cube be further
trituration (after 6th decimal or 3rd divided in cubes of ½ cm. then the total
centesimal trituration) surface area will be 12 sq. cm. If these cubes
5. Certain drugs are insoluble in the liquid be sub-divided in further small cubes, the
vehicles, so for their dynamisation purpose, relevant surface areas will increase
there is no alternative method but to triturate proportionately. By gradually increasing the
only. sub-divisions of these small cubes, the
surface area may be extended to the extreme.
For example:
7. The catalytic effects, colloidal properties and
i. Drug substances, e.g. Carbo veg.,
the absorptive qualities of drugs increase
Corallium rubrum, etc.
proportionately with the increase in surface
ii. Animal products, poisons or secretions area.
and Nosodes, like Carbo animalis, Castor
equorum, Crotalus cascavella or horridus, Demerits of Triturations
Lachesis, Vipera, Bufo, Anthracinum, 1. It is a cumbersome process with low
Hydrophobinum, Variolinum, etc. productivity, especially the old method.
iii. Certain oils etc., e.g., Petroleum. 2. It does not help complete inter-mixing and
iv. Certain minerals, compounds and interchanging of drug substances, where the
metals, e.g., Antimonium crudum, substance to be triturated are more harder
Argentum nitricum, Calcarea carb., than milk sugar, like some hard metals.
Ferrum met., Graphites, Kalium carb., 3. Milk sugar has some aldehydic property,
which may reduce some drug substances, widened immensely. For example sodium chloride
specially mercury compounds under the (NaCl), our common salt is widely found in nature
process of trituration. and is an essential part of our diet. This white,
Note: To increase the productivity and to minimise crystalline compound in material doses does not
the cost of production mechanical devices are possess any medicinal power. However, when
being employed now-a-days. But strict rules for subjected to potentisation, its marvellous curative
such mechanical appliances in all their powers in the latent state are unleashed which
interdependent details” has not yet been well laid serve to cure an array of diseased conditions.
down. This is one of the most convincing proofs, even
to the most prejudiced, of the fact that the
POTENCY AND DILUTION processes of succussion and trituration used in
Dilution is reduction of concentration of an homoeopathy, bring new powers into this world
active substance by addition of a neutral agent which the nature had kept hidden. Dr. Burnett
or a solvent. This process is employed to decrease takes “Natrium muriaticum as the test of the
the intensity of action of a substance. By this doctrine of drug dynamization”.
process the property of the substance does not Potentisation, not only renders deadly poisons
change. For example, when sulphuric acid is like snake venoms harmless but transforms them
diluted with water, it’s strong acidic character is into beneficent healing remedies. Substances
reduced in intensity but it’s properties do not which are medicinally inert in their crude nature
change. state like charcoal, Lycopodium, etc. are made
The extent of a dilution merely indicates the active and medicinally effective. Other drug
final volume of solution. A five fold dilution substances with weak medicinal powers have
means, addition of a sufficient solvent to make their medicinal qualities enhanced and their sphere
the final volume five times the original. With the of action widened by potentisation.
increase in the quantity, it’s properties are: Dr. Stuart Close in ‘The Genius of
Potentisation is dilution along with Homoeopathy’ points out the advantages of
pharmaceutical techniques of a succussion and dynamisation while distinguishing it with
trituration. This technique is responsible in vaccination.
arousing the latent curative properties of the • Dynamisation is purely physical, objective
substance. By potentisation, the property of the and mechanical.
substance can be changed. Inert crude substances
• It does not involve any uncertain, unseen,
can be converted into therapeutic agents. reliable nor unmeasurable factor. Its
elements are simply the substance or drug
USES AND ADVANTAGES OF to be potentiated, a vehicle consisting of
POTENTISATION sugar of milk, alcohol, or water, in certain
Dr. Samuel Hahnemann recognised that the quantities and definite proportions;
therapeutic action of a drug is the opposite of its manipulation under conditions which are
physiological action. To release the latent energy entirely under control.
of the drug while at the same time, depriving it • The resulting product is stable or may easily
of its destructive action, he perfected a simple, be made so; infact it is almost indestructible,
accurate and reliable mean, called potentisation. it is efficient and reliable in the treatment of
By this process, the field of therapeutics has been all forms of disease amenable to medication.
• The process is practically illimitable. potency from the corresponding 6x or 3 potency,

Potentisation of medicine can be carried to and so is known as ‘Jumping potency’ as Fluxion
any extent desired or required. potency. 7x liquid potency cannot be prepared
by this method.
FLUXION POTENCY In preparing the above potencies the relevant
It is a special and peculiar process where 6x procedure or rules must strictly be followed.
potency, obtained by trituration is converted to
8x potency by succussion without producing 7x STRAIGHT POTENCY
potency. Hence, fluxion potency is also known It is conversion of trituration to liquid.
as ‘Jumping potency’.
According to Dr. Burt of London, the 7x
It is the potency of the homoeopathic liquid potency of a requisite medicine can be
medicines, derived by displacement. Hahnemann prepared from its 6x trituration.
directed that all metallic substances must be
powdered and triturated into the corresponding Method
solid potencies. As because upto 6x or 3 1. Take 1 part of the requisite 6x trituration in
centesimal triturations, the medicinal content of a new, well cleaned round phial.
the drugs (be they original or crude or triturated), 2. Add 9 parts of purified water to it giving ten
are neither soluble in alcohol nor purified water. downwards strokes ending in jerks.
CONVERSION OF TRITURATION 3. Next take 1 part from this resultant 7x liquid
INTO LIQUID FORM BY FLUXION and mix 9 parts of alcohol with it.
4. Shake the phial 10 times with uniform
1. Take a 30 ml. new phial, with a new velvet
strength. 8x liquid potency is then ready.
cork and mark clearly the name of the
medicine and potency 8x or 4 on the cork
and on the outside wall of the phial. HIGH FLUXION POTENCIES
2. Take 0.2 mg. of the 6x or 3rd centesimal Liquid attenuations upto 500th or 1000th
trituration of the medicine in the phial. potency can be made by hand process. But for
making potencies higher than these, say 10M,
3. Pour 10 ml. (i.e., fifty parts) of purified water
50M, CM, etc., a huge amount of time, labor and
over it, and gently shake the phial to dissolve
alcohol will be required. To overcome this
the drug substance.
problem, during last 75 years some great
4. Now add 10 ml. (i.e. fifty parts ten) of dilute homoeopaths had invented machines, to make
alcohol, and after it is well corked, give fine these potencies, under the names of the relevant
equal downward stroke, which should end inventors, e.g., Swan, Deshere, Fincke, Boericke,
in jerks. The 8x or 4 potency is then ready. Lahrmann and Skinner, etc. Such high potencies
All further potencies are prepared by taking prepared with the help of machines are known
1 part of the preceding potency and 9 parts of as high fluxion potencies. In this process purified
alcohol under decimal scale or 99 parts of alcohol water is used as the ‘vehicle’ instead of alcohol,
in centesimal scale. for the intermediate steps.
In this method, by jumping we get 8x or 4 ■
6-3
Drug - Medicine - Remedy
In common parlance the terms drug, medicine been authentically ascertained, whereas the latter
and remedy are used interchangeably. However, has been proved (in homoeopathy on healthy
in homoeopathy a clear distinction is made humans) and its action on various constitutions
between them. and in various dosage is well established. It,
thereby, follows that the action of medicine can
DRUG be predicted prior to its administration.
The word ‘drug’ is derived from the French Therefore, it is employed in science of
word ‘drogue’ meaning ‘a dry herb’. therapeutics (application of medicine in disease
condition).
According to WHO the word ‘drug’ is
defined as ‘any substance that, when taken into
REMEDY
the living organism, may modify one or more of
its functions.” A substance becomes a drug due It is the indicated medicine given to sick
to its action and the quantity of material is according to individual symptom similarity. It is
irrelevant. Crude drugs, mother tinctures the medicine that heals. Remedy should satisfy
dilutions and potencies are all drugs as they have three cardinal principles of homoeopathy—law
the inherent power to alter the state of health. of similars; law of simplex and law of minimum
dose. Remedy thus selected brings about rapid
Crude drugs are drugs in their natural state cure in curable diseases. However, despite a
or raw state. They have three grades of action: careful prescription, a physician may sometimes
Mechanical, chemical and dynamic. Mechanical fail in selecting a simillimum. Under such
and chemical action are exhibited in their gross circumstances the subsequent line of action
material state. Dynamic action is brought out by depends on the changes, the first medicine has
potentisation. brought out in the patient. The knowledge of
relationship of remedies, thus becomes
MEDICINE inevitable.
Medicine is a proved drug. The major Remedies bear antidotal, concordant,
distinctive feature between the drug and the complementary, inimical and family relations
medicine is that the action of the former has not with each other.
• A substance which nullifies the effects of a relation. Halogen family consists of Bromine,
remedy is an antidote. Chlorine and Iodine.
• Remedies whose actions are similar, but of • When the action of one remedy is
dissimilar origin are said to be concordant complimented or augmented by the action
and they follow each other well. Few of another remedy, it is called,
examples of concordant remedies are China complementary relations. For e.g.,
and Calcarea; Pulsatilla and Sepia; Nitricum Belladonna and Calcarea; Sulphur and Nux
acidum and Thuja; Belladonna and vomica; Apis and Natrium muriaticum.
Mercurius. • The relationships of remedies has been
• Remedies which have a relation of enemity detailed by R. Gibson Miller which is given
towards each other are inimical and therefore in this book.
never give inimical medicines successively It should always be borne in mind that
like, Apis and Rhus tox.; Phosphorus and ultimate selection of a remedy should be based
Causticum; Silicea and Mercurius. on similarity it has with the symptoms exhibited
• The relation existing between remedies by the patient. Knowledge of relationship of
whose origin is similar is called family remedies aid in such selection.
■
347
6-4
Posology and Homoeopathy
POSOLOGY AND administration of the medicine. Basically, a

HOMOEOPATHIC POSOLOGY homoeopathic dose includes potency, quantity,
The term, posology originates from the form and number of administration of medicine.
Greek terms ‘posos’ and ‘logos’. Poso, means
how much. To us it is the science or doctrine of OTHER SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE
doses. Logos means discourses or study. In the other systems of medicine the doses
It is an important division of pharmacology. are calculated in the laboratory and from
The confidence in prescribing a drug is an experience.
essential factor for any practitioner to bring Every system of medicine has made some
success to the system of medicine. It is not a general rules depending on certain factors. The
science only but also an art. Paracelsus declared general pharmacological practice is to use the
that, “Poison in every thing and nothing is expression ‘milligrams per kilograms’. The
without poison. The dose makes it a poison or a applicability of this practice is not always feasible
remedy”. It indicates that from the very beginning in clinical medicine. A clinician has to face
of the history of medicine, the magic man or a certain problems.
physician has thought deeply on this important What should be the ‘first approximation’ of
division of pharmacology. a dose in cases of a child—adult and old people.
Doses vary with individual tolerance and Certain authors have formulated certain rules
susceptibility. Generally it is considered that for doses for which they have taken into
quantity of the drug substance which is required consideration:
to elicit the desired therapeutic response in the
i. Body weight.
individual.
ii. Body area.
Posology is the doctrine of doses of
medicine. According to homoeopathy, a dose is iii. Sex factors.
the particular preparation of medicine used, the iv. Time and place.
quantity form of preparation and the v. Emotional factor.
vi. Biochemical individuality. strength of the dose, susceptibility of the patient

vii. Tolerance. and the principle upon which it is given.
viii.Idiosyncracy, etc. The homoeopathic cure is obtained without
any other suffering or drug symptoms by
HOMOEOPATHIC POSOLOGY minimum dose. Homoeopaths prefer small doses
because:
In homoeopathy, it bears some speciality.
Small doses and homoeopathy are commonly • When a similar homoeopathic drug is
regarded as synonymus terms. It is almost an administered in a disease, little or no
accepted fact that the subject of doses is a very resistance is encountered (i.e. no organic
important one. The essential factors are: resistance).
i. Principle. • The homoeopathic drug acts in a manner
similar to the action of disease producing
ii. Remedy.
cause itself.
iii. Doses and the related subject of
• The homoeopathic dose is made so small that
potentisation.
it does not produce any pathogenetic
All are inter-mingled with each other. The symptoms or severe aggravation of the
subject of doses can be examined from two sides: already existing symptoms.
i. Doses in relation to pharmacy. • The homoeopathic drug is given singly and
ii. The doctrine of doses in relation to also in small doses, because its action will
homoeopathic philosophy (i.e. Organon of be complete and unmodified by other drugs.
Medicine and Chronic Diseases).
A well selected remedy may fail utterly if SELECTION OF A DOSE
the selection of the doses is not proper. It is very very important as even a carefully
The homoeopathic doctrine of dosage is selected remedy may fail if the potency is not
based upon the discovery of the opposite action correct. There is a general consensus over the
of large and small doses of medicine. It is an broad division of potency despite the great
another application of third Neutonian law of difference in opinion.
motion—‘action and reaction are equal and
opposite’. Low Potency Transition Potency High Potency
Opium in large doses will cause a deep sleep 24x (12c) 24x (12c)-200x Above 200x
and the narcosis in small doses under condition and below (100c) (100c)
will cure the same. Homoeopathic remedies are
never used for their physiological effect. The Factors responsible for the selection of
physiological action of a drug is not its potency are:
therapeutic or curative action. It is exactly the
• The susceptibility.
opposite of a curative action and is never
employed in homoeopathic practice for • The seat of the disease.
therapeutic purposes. The action of a drug may • The nature and intensity of the disease.
be ‘toxic’ (pathogenetic) or ‘curative’ • Stage and duration of the disease.
(therapeutic) depending upon the size and • Previous treatment.
Posology and Homoeopathy 349
I. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE PATIENT - Those having an intellectual occupation.

It is a very important guide for the selection - Persons who suffer from bad effect of
of a potency. Generally, more the susceptibility, excitement from imagination and
lesser is the medicinal quantity, hence higher the emotions.
potency. - Those who have sedentary occupations.
Factors determining the susceptibility are: - Persons who sleep long or lead an
a. Age effeminate life.
Susceptibility is maximum in a child and it • Give lower potencies to:
decreases gradually as age progresses to - Those who’s occupation involves a lot
youth and then at an increased pace till death, of physical labor and being outdoors.
as it has to fight the catabolism of advancing - Those who eat coarse food.
age. It is nil in a dead person. - Adapted to persons who get little sleep.
b. Temperament and Constitution - Those who are connected to or are
• According to Dr. Stuart Close give high continually exposed to liquor and
potencies to: tobacco trade.
- Sensitive individuals having a nervous, - People associated with drugs, perfumes
sanguine or choleric temperament. and chemicals.
- Intellectual persons who are quick to act - Those who are idiotic, imbecile, and deaf
and react. and dumb.
- Zealous and impulsive persons. d. Pathology
• According to Dr. Stuart Close give low Inter terminal cases where gross pathological
potency in repeated doses: conditions are present material doses or low
- Sluggish, coarse fibered individuals potency drugs should be given. A dynamic
having gross habits. medicine will not act here.
- Torpid, phlegmatic persons who are slow
II. THE SEAT OF THE DISEASE
to act and dull to comprehend.
- Persons possessing great muscular Depending on the organ affected, the potency
power which requires a power stimulus of the medicine is determined i.e. the more
to excite them. important the organ and greater the organic
• According to Dr. E. Wright, medium pathology, the more material will be the dose.
potencies are best suited to: III. THE NATURE AND INTENSITY
- Oversensitive patients, who prove any OF THE DISEASE
medicine given to them. They, hence
According to Dr. Elizabeth Wright:
require medium low potencies.
• Functional diseases with subjective
- Idiosyncratic patients. In extreme cases
symptoms respond well to high potencies,
of idiosyncracy, medium potencies are
where as organic conditions respond to lower
preferred.
potencies better.
c. Habit and Environment
• In acute disease, the susceptibility is
• Give high potencies to: generally high as they are temporary in
nature and do not involve much organic ROLE OF HAHNEMANN

changes. Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843) was a
• In an acute paroxysm of chronic disease, product of the 18th century medicine.
medium or low potencies are preferable.
Spinoza, Neuton, Harvey and Leuwenhoek’s
• Chronic diseases:
best work of 17th century gave a deep source of
- With no organic change: It is safe to
original inspiration and some attempts to reveal
begin with the 200th potency, unless it
the marvels of nature to many people of the day.
is precarious because of the nature of the
Though there was certain advancement in the
remedy and the depth of the miasm.
medical profession, yet on the question ‘life’
- With organic change: Lower potencies there were controveries amongst the physicians
preferable. and theologians. George Ernst Stahl (1660-1734)
IV. STAGE AND DURATION OF THE
tried to reconcile the view of both the parties by
DISEASE his theory, Anima. To him, the soul and body were
closely blended and the source of vital movement
• In incurable chronic diseases, lower and
was the soul or anima. Latter on Joseph Barthez
medium potencies are preferable.
(1734-1806) proclaimed his idea of vital
• In terminal stages of chronic diseases, very principle.
high potencies are preferred.
Still later John Brown (1735-88), who was
V. PREVIOUS TREATMENT closely associated with Cullen, classified all
diseases as sthenic or asthenic and advocated
Higher potencies are used in cases where
large and heroic stimulating drugs.
there is a history of an increased intake of many
crude drugs (allopathic or homoeopathic). Hahnemann being a product of the best
training of that day, followed in his early career,
The question of how much quantity of drug
the footsteps of his predecessors.
is required, may be said that it is the inverse ratio
of the similarity. It may be said in other words— Even after, Hahnemann saw the fruitful
the finer, more peculiar and more characteristic effects and light of law of cure, he continued to
symptoms or the remedy appear in a case, the use massive doses.
higher the degree of susceptibility and the higher In 1786, one of Hahnemann’s earliest works
the potency and the decisive amount is always a namely, “On the Nature and Treatment of
minimum and an infinitesimal. Venereal Disease”, long before he had any notion
One may refer to Dr. Boenninghausen’s of a general therapeutic rule for employment of
‘round about route’ —Large doses and with bad remedies in diseases, long before his peculiar
success. pharmaceutic process of potentisation, he
advocated giving enormous and repeated doses
APPROPRIATE DOSES of Mercury. For Lues Venerea he gave one grain
of soluble Mercury and for severe syphilis not
Form Infant Child Adult more than total eight grains. To him large doses
1. Globule 1 2 4 were—half a grain, of one, two, three grains of
2. Powder ¼ ½ 1 grain Mercury and for common employment quarter,
3. Tablets ½ 1 2 third, half, three-quarters, and one grain.
4. Tincture of solution ½ drop ½ drop 1 drop
In 1796, that is to say six years after his again shaken for a minute. Each drop of this last
experiment with Cinchona bark, which led to the solution, which is the prophylactic preparation
discovery of homoeopathic law, it was found that contains accordingly the twenty-four millionth
he was prescribing Arnica root in powder for part of a grain of extract of Belladonna;
dysentery. For children of four years of age he accordingly, twenty four drops of it are equal to
gave at first 4 grains daily, then 7, 8 and 9 grains one drop of the 3rd dilutions of the so-called
daily, for children of six to seven years, he started centesimal scale.
with 6 grains, gradually increasing the dose to Thus gradually Hahnemann diminished the
12 to 14 grains, for a child of 9 months the doses quantity of doses in a method known as
was first 2 grains which was later increased to 6 potentisation and came to the conclusion that
grains. doses must be smallest as possible.
Three grains of Veratrum album every In an essay “The Spirit of Homoeopathic
morning for 4 weeks was the dose he prescribed Doctrine,” first published in 1813, he stated that
and with which he cured a case severe spasmodic the smallest dose is sufficient and that a greater
asthma. one not necessary because the spiritual power of
In 1797 (Lesser Writing, p. 353) he the medicinal dose not in this instance
prescribed Veratrum for a colic in doses of 4 accomplish its object by means of quantity but
grains once a day. From an another essay (Ibid, by quality or dynamic fitness and a larger dose
does not cure the disease better but leaves behind
p. 369) that his doses were—Ipecacuanha—5
it a complex medicinal disease.
grains, Nux vomica 4 grain, twice a day,
Cinchona bark-in dram doses. In 1814, he recommended Bryonia and Rhus
tox. in 12th dilutions for an epidemic of typhus.
But in his essay “On the Cure and Prevention
of Scarlet Fever” published in 1801 which had In 1819, on the treatment of suicidal mania
referred to his method of treatment of the year the doses of gold were 6x.
1799 where we have the first indication of the In 1821, for the treatment of purpura miliaris
“infinitesimal posology” which is now looked he recommended Aconite in 24th dilution.
upon as an essential part of the homoeopathic Thus between the year 1825 to 1827 we find
system. a revolutionary change on Hahnemann’s
For the cure of the first stage of scarlet fever posology. In the 4th volume of Materia Medica
the dose of Belladonna prescribed was only the Pura published in 1826, Thuja, Spigelia and
432,000th part of a grain of the extract, a quantity Staphysagria where directed to be used in 30th
intermediate between our 2nd and 3rd dilutions. dilution. Hahnemann after his promulgation of
For prophylactic purpose the preparation of psora theory fixed upon the 30th dilution of the
Belladonna used was thus made: A grain of the centesimal scale as the appropriate dilution for
powdered extract was mixed up in a mortar with every remedy and one globule, no bigger than a
one hundred drops of distilled water, three poppy seed imbibed with this dilution as the most
hundred drops of diluted alcohol were then appropriate dose. His object in selecting such a
added, and the whole well shaken up in a bottle. minute dose was partly founded on his notion
One drop of this strong solution was added to that the smallest quantity of the medicine was
three hundred drops of diluted alcohol and more than a match for the disease, and partly, as
shaken for a minute, and of this one drop was he tells us in the fourth edition of the Organon,
added to two hundred drops of alcohol, and this to diminish the action of the medicine as much
as possible and at length it convinced him that taken at short intervals.

these very minute doses were the most • Physiological dose: A dose which stimulates
appropriate and at the same time he denies the the normal physiology or functions of
utility of large doses and stated that he never had various system or organs of our body. The
obtained the curative effect of the medicine until symptoms thus appearing are known as
he arrived at this diminution of the dose. physiological symptoms.
In the last years of his life he again allowed
himself a greater range of dose, chiefly by A HOMOEOPATHIC DOSE
extending the scale of dilution upward as high
Dr. Stuart Close M.D., says, “The
as 60th, 150th and even 300th dilution but also
physiological action of a drug is not its
downward to the 24th and occasionally much
therapeutic or curative action. It is exactly the
lower.
opposite of a ‘curative action’, and is never
Dose: It is a quantity of a particular medicine employed in homoeopathic therapeutic purpose”.
to be administered to an individual at a time.
So, in homoeopathy, for healing purpose no
medicine nor remedy is administered in a
VARIOUS KINDS OF DOSES physiological or massive dose.
There are various kinds of doses, e.g.: The ‘modus operandi’ of a homoeopathic
• Maximum Dose: It is the largest or dose of a remedy is carried on the ‘dynamic
maximum possible amount of a medicine, plane’. The physiological action of a drug,
which can be taken at a time by an adult not however, has nothing to do with the curative
endangering his life. action from the homoeopathic point of view,
• Fatal or Lethal Dose: The amount of such because homoeopathic remedies are never used
a dose is usually toxicological or narcotic, in physiological doses. The physiological action
which can even cause death of a living is toxic in nature, and therefore it injures the
organism. The fatal dose of different patient and is never used in homoeopathic
substances vary, which depend upon their practice.
respective toxicity. A fatal dose of a milder Symptoms are produced by massive doses
narcotic or poison will obviously be less than or by crude drugs and these symptoms are
that of a stronger narcotic or poison. pathogenetic and not curative.
• Minimum Dose: It is that amount of a Homoeopathic dosages require that no new
medicine, though in the smallest possible medicinal symptoms shall be produced as a result
quantity, that can produce a gentle remedial of their administration. These will be considered
effect and the least possible excitation of the as drug effect. But we may find a slight
vital force, and yet is sufficient to effect the aggravation of the symptoms already present
necessary change in it (Vide aphorism 246, immediately following the administration of the
Organon of Medicine). homoeopathic remedy which will soon recede
• Booster Dose: A dose administered and improvement continues.
subsequently to enhance the action of the Infinitesimal dose may also produce
initial dose. symptoms which is frequently found in very
• Fractional or Refractive or Divided Dose: susceptible patients. In fact, best provings are
It is the fraction of a full dose which is to be
obtained with high potencies on susceptible e.g., Nux-v. 30 was dispersed in water, sugar
persons. of milk or over globules etc.
There is a law of dosage as well as a law of - Repetition of dose. For e.g., Nux-v. 30 was
cure and when a homoeopathic remedy is to be repeated every 4 hours or was given at bed
used it should be based upon that law—natural time, etc.
law and order. The law is fixed and
unchangeable. REPETITION OF DOSES
“The quantity of action necessary to effect I. According to Hahnemann’s introductions in
any change in nature is the least possible; the the 5th edition of Organon:
decisive amount is always a minimum an
1. Condition and Progress of the Patient:
infinitesimal”.
• According to § 245, perceptible and
☞ In this context of ‘dose’ the readers should
continuous progress of improvement
read the following chapters of Organon of
completely contraindicates repetition.
Medicine and Chronic Diseases by
Hahnemann. • Only when improvement ceases, should
one repeat a dose.
Organon of Medicine (5th American
edition). Aphorism 112, 128, 156, 157, 159, 160 • According to § 248; repeat the medicine
and also one or chapters of Chronic Diseases by till cure is achieved or till a different
Hahnemann, theoretical part, American edition. group of symptoms arises which calls
for a different remedy all together.
• “But if these aggravated (page 205)... as
homoeopathically suitable as possible (page 2. Nature of Disease:
206)”. • For chronic diseases, repeat the dose at
• “The first error (page 207)... suitable an interval of 14, 12, 10, 8 or 7 days. If a
antipsoric (page 207). high potency in given, repeat only after
it has run its due course (action). If a
low potency is used, frequent repetition
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN is a acceptable.
HOMOEOPATHIC AND
• In acute exacerbations of chronic
ALLOPATHIC CONCEPT OF
diseases repeat at shorter intervals.
POSOLOGY
• In acute diseases, the medicine can be
Allopathic Concept repeated at short intervals like every 12,
The word ‘dose’ relates to the material quantity 8, 6, 4, or every hour or every 5 minutes.
of the medicine used.
3. Nature of Remedy:
Homoeoapthic Concept • Short acting remedies can be repeated
A ‘dose’ relates to the: at frequent intervals.
- Particular preparation of medicine to be used. • Deep acting remedies can be repeated
For e.g., for constipation Nux-v. 30 or 200 less frequently.
is used. • Lower potencies require frequent
- Quantity and form of that preparation. For repetitions.
• Higher potencies are not repeated so warned against using one remedy for one
frequently. set of symptoms and another remedy for
• Medicines having an alternting action, another set of symptoms in the same patient.
like Ignatia, Bryonia, etc. If after This should not be necessary if one works
prescribing a drug on strict hard enough for the right simillimum.
homoeopathic principles, there is no • § 274 states that if a single medicine is given
improvement, repeat a fresh, equally strictly on homoeopathic principles, it
small dose of the same medicine and renders efficient aid by itself alone.
improvement will soon follow. • If more than one remedy is prescribed it will
II. According to Kent’s instructions: be difficult to establish which one actually
In the second prescription, the 1st medicine cured, and the source of future guidance will
should be repeated if: be obscured.
• Improvement comes to a stand still. • While using two or more remedies there is a
• When original symptoms return after a possibility of synergistic action and the effect
period of time. can be the sum total of the effects of different
drugs.
WHY ONLY A SINGLE SIMPLE • If symptoms do disappear after following
MEDICINE IS GIVEN AT A TIME polypharmacy, there will be confusion in the
second prescription.
• § 272 states that during treatment of diseases,
only a single, simple medicine should be • As there is only one vital force in a person,
given at a time. the medicine prescribed to act on it should
always be one.
• According to § 273, it is wrong and useless
to give a complex treatment when simple • Polypharmacy may produce drug diseases.
means suffice. • The drugs in our materia medica have been
• In the footnote to § 272, Dr. Hahnemann has proved singly only.
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Section - 7
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PRINCIPLES
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7.1 Principles of Prescription.
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7.2 Principles of Medication.
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7.3 Principles of Dispensing.
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7.4 Principles of Drug Administration.
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7.5 Principles of External Application.
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7.6 Principles of Drug Proving.
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Freedom from ignorance is as essential as freedom from hunger.
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7-1
Principles of Prescription
The word ‘prescription’ is derived from the means ‘to take’. The oblique dash across
Latin word ‘prescriptio’ where ‘prae’ means R is probably a relic of the symbol Rx
before and ‘scribo’ means write. Prescription that represented a prayer to Jupiter.
means a written direction given by a physician
to his compounder or any pharmacist for 2. INSCRIPTION
preparing a remedy for his patient, which is most This part forms the main part of the
appropriate as considered by the attending prescription.
physician. This part contains:
a. The name of the remedy, potency and
BODY OF THE PRESCRIPTION its quantity.
The body of the prescription may be divided b. Also the vehicle, with its required quan-
into the following four parts: tity.
1. The superscription.
3. SUBSCRIPTION
2. The inscription.
3. The subscription. It includes the directions or instructions to a
4. The signature. compounder or dispenser as to how he should
dispense the remedy i.e., the way of combining
1. SUPERSCRIPTION and dispensing.
It is the heading, consisting of:
4. SIGNATURE
a. Name and address of the patient: Placed
at the top. The word ‘for’ may be writ- It contains:
ten before the name and address of the a. The direction: Which are given to the
patient. patient as to how he will take the rem-
b. Age and sex: Written below the name edy. The instructions should be short,
and address. simple and to the point. This includes.
c. The symbol Rx: It stands for the Latin • How to eat/use the medicine.
word ‘receipe’ (take thou of) which • When to come for a follow up.
• Any advice regarding diet, any precau- • Forms: A prescription may written in either
tion, lab examination, etc. simple english or in Latin. Simple forms of
b. Signature of the physician with the date and prescription are now generally popular
registration number (which is obtained from amongst the physicians.
the Central Council of Homoeopathy). • Legibility: The writting on the prescription
It is a valuable document and must be should be such that a compounder faces no
properly written and must be preserved by the difficulty while reading the prescription.
pharmacist, compounder or the patient after it • Accuracy: A prescription should accurately
has been served. describe the remedy, potency, dose and time
Note: However, according to some authors a model of administration.
prescription is divided into six parts: While writing a prescription observe the
1. The superscription (or the heading). following points:
2. The name of the patient. • Begin each line with a capital letter.
3. The inscription (or name and quantity of • Write the name of the medicine first and then
ingredients). the vehicle.
4. The subscription (directions to the • Use Latin names for the medicine. Directions
compounder). to dispenser should also be in Latin.
5. The sigma (directions to the patient).
• The directions to the patient should be given
6. The signature of the physician, date and in common language; the dispenser must also
registration. write the directions on the label of the
medicine either in english or in the
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN vernacular of the place.
IDEAL PRESCRIPTION • When in doubt, make sure to always write
• Norms: This means, ‘the rule’ or ‘a pattern’. in english. The dispenser must understand
It is very important in a prescription. A the meaning of expressions used.
prescription should be written in a set order • Read the prescription once before handing
i.e., superscription, inscription, subscription it over.
and signature.
ABBREVIATIONS COMMONLY USED IN PRESCRIPTION
S. No. Abbreviations Latin or Greek Words English Translation

1. AA/Aa/aa/ana. Ante Gibos Of each.
2. A.C., a.c. Ante Cibum Before food, Before meals.
3. Ad. Ad To, upto.
4. Add. Adde Add, let them be added, to be added, by adding.
5. Ad. Lib. Ad libitum To the desired amount, at pleasure, freely apply.
6. Admov. Admove
7. Ad us. exter. Ad usum externum For external use.
8. Aeq. Aequales Equal.
9. Agit. Agita Shake (thou) or stir (thou).
Principles of Prescription 359

10. Agit. a. us. Agita ante usum Shake before using.
11. Alb. Albus White.
12. Alt. hor. Alternis hors Every other hour.
13. Alt. noc. Alternis nocta Every other night.
14. Ante Ante Before.
15. Aq. Aqua Water.
16. Aq. bull. Aqua bulliens Boiling water.
17. Aq. comm. Aqua communis Common water.
18. Aq. dist. Aqua distillata Distilled water.
19. Aq. ferv. Aqua fervens Hot water.
20. Aq. pur. Aqua pura Pure water.
21. Aur. Auris The ear or ears.
22. Bene Bene Well.
23. Bib. Bibe Drink (thou).
24. Bis Bis Twice.
25. B.D./Bis in d. Bis in dies Twice daily.
26. B.I.D. Bis in dies Twice in a day.
27. Bid. Bidare Drink.
28. Bol. Bolus Large pill.
29. C. Cum With.
30. C Centum A hundred.
31. Cap. Capiat Let him (her) take.
32. Caps. Capsula A capsule.
33. Cera Cera Wax.
34. Cerat. Ceratum Cerate.
35. Chart. Charta A paper.
36. Cib. Cibus Food or meal.
37. Cito disp. Cito dispensetur Let it be dispensed quickly.
38. C.M. Cras mane To be taken tomorrow morning.
39. C.N. Cras nocte Tomorrow night.
40. C.V. Cras vespere Tomorrow evening.
41. Cochl. Cochleare Spoonful, by spoonful.
42. Cochl. ampl. Cochleare amplum A table spoonful.
43. Cochl. mag. Cochleare magnum A large spoonful.
44. Cochl. mod. Cochleare modicum A desert spoonful.
45. Cochl. parv. Cochleare parvum A teaspoonful.
46. Col. Cola Strain (thou).
47. Coll. Collyr. Collyrium An eye wash.
48 Collun. Collunarium A nose wash.
49. Collut. Collutorium A mouth wash.
50. Comp. Compositus Compounded.
51. Confricamen. Confricamentum A liniment.
52. Cong. Congius A gallon.
53. Cons. Conserva Conserva, keep (thou).
54. Contra Contra Against.

55. Cort. Cortex The bark.
56. Cuj. Cujus Of which.
57. Cyath. Cyathus Cup, wine-glass.
58. D. Dosis A dose.
59. d. da Give (thou).
60. de. de Of, from.
61. Dec. Decanta Pour (thou) off.
62. Decem Decem Ten.
63. Decim. Decimus The tenth.
64. De. D. in d. De die in die From day to day.
65. Det. Detur To be given, give.
66. Dieb. Alt. Diebus altenris On alternate day, every other day.
67. Dil. Dilute, dilutus Dilute (thou).
68. Dim. Dimidius Diluted one-half.
69. D. in p. ae. Dividatur in partes aequales let it be divided into equal parts.
70. D.t.d.no. iv. Denture tales dose no. iv. Let 4 such doses be given.
71. e ex.e From one of.
72. et et And.
73. Ft. Fiat, fiant Let them be made, let it be made.
74. F.m. Fiat mistura Make a mixture.
75. Ft. cerat. Fiat ceratum Let a cerate be made.
76. Ft. collyr. Fiat collyrium Let an eyewash be made.
77. Ft. H. Fiat haustus Make a draught.
78. Ft. linum. Fiat linimentum Let a liniment be made.
79. Ft. mist./F.m. Fiat mistura Let a mixture be made.
80. Ft. pulv. Fiat pulvis Let a powder be made.
81. Ft. solut. Fiat solution Let a solution be made.
82. Ft. ung. Fiat ungoentum Let an ointment be made.
83. Ft. pil. Fiat pilula Make a pill.
84. Ft. pulv. Fiat pulvis Make a powder.
85. Garg. Gargarisma A gargle.
86. Gm. g. Gramme Grams.
87. Grana/Gr. Grana A grain.
88. Granum Granum Grains.
89. Gt. Gutta Drop.
90. Gtt./ Gutt. Guttae Drops.
91. H. Hora An hour.
92. H.D./h.d. Hora decubitus At the hour of going to bed
93. Hic Hic This.
94. Hoc Hoc This.
95. Hor. Horis Hour.
96. H.S. Hora somni At bed time.
97. H.S.S. Hora sumendus To be taken at bed time.
98. Habt. Habeat Let him have.
99. In. d. Indes. in die Daily, in a day.

100. Lac Lac Milk.
101. Lat. dol. Lateri dolente To the painful side.
102. Lin. Linimentum A liniment.
103. Lot. Lotio A lotion.
104. M. Misce Mix.
105. m. Minim A drop.
106. Mag. Magnum Large.
107. Mist. Mistura A mixture.
108. Mitt./Mit. Mitte Send.
109. Mit. tal. Mitte tails Sand or such of this.
110. Mod. praescript. Modo praescripto As prescribed.
111. M.D.U. Moro dicto utendum To be used in the manner directed.
112. M. et. n. Mane et nocte Morning and night.
113. Mor. dict. Moro dicto To be used in the manner directed.
114. No. Numero, numerus Number.
115. Noct. Nocte At night.
116. Non Nox Not, do not.
117. Non rep. Non repe atur Do not repeat.
118. Nox Nox Night.
119. O./Oct. Octarius A pint.
120. Omn. man./O.M. Omni mane Every morning.
121. Omn. noct./O.N. Omni nocte Every night.
122. Omn. hor./O.H. Omni hora Every hour.
123. O. bih./Omn. bih. Omni bihora Every two hours.
124. O.d. Omni die Every day.
125. P.C. Post cibos; post cirbum After food.
126. Part. aeq./P. ae Parti aequales Equal parts.
127. P. a. a. Parti affectae aplicatur Let it be applied to the affected part.
128. P.V. Per vaginum By the vagina.
129. P.R./p.r. Per rectum By the rectum.
130. Parvus Parvus Little.
131. P.r.n. Pro re nata As occasion arises; when required.
132. Prox. Proximo Next.
133. Pulv. Pulvus, pulveres Powder.
134. q.h./qu.hor. Qu aqye hore Each hour, every hour.
135. Q.I.D./q.i.d. Quarter in die Four times a day.
136. Q.D. Quarter in die Four times a day.
137. Q.L. Quantum libet As much as required, as much as you wish.
138. Q.P. Quatum placet As much as you please.
139. Qu. hor. Quaque hora Each hour; every hour.
140. Q. S. Quantum sufficit A sufficient quantity.
141. Quarter Quarter Four times.
142. q. v. quantum vis, As much as you wish.
quanturi volueris As much as you wish.
143. Rx Recipe To take.

144. Rep. Repetatur, repe tantur Let it be repeated; let them be repeated.
145. S. Signa Mark.
146. S.S. Semesse Half.
147. s.s. Signa sufficit Sufficient marks.
148. Semel/semal Semel, semal Once.
149. Semel ind. Semel in die Once a day.
150. Semi h. Semi hora Half an hour.
151. Septimana Septimana A week.
152. Sig. Signa Mark, label.
153. Sing. Singulorum Of each.
154. Solv./Solvo Solvo To dissolve.
155. S.O.S./s.o.s. Si opus sit If necessary.
156. Stat. Statim Immediately.
157. Sum. Sume, sumat, Let him take.
Simantur Take (thou), let it be taken.
Sumantpur Let them be taken; to be taken.
158. S.V.R. Spiritus vini rectificatus Alcohol.
159. T.D. Ter die Thrice a day.
160. T.I.D. Ter in die Thrice a day.
161. Tr. Tincture Tincture.
162. Talis Talis Such; like this.
163. Ter. Tere Rule.
164. Trit. Tritura Trituration.
165. Uncia Uncia An ounce.
166. Ung. Unguentum An ointment.
167. Ut dict. Ut dictum As directed.
168. Vac. Ven. Vacuo ventriculo In empty stomach.
169. Vel Vel Or.
170. Vesp. Vesper The evening.
171. 3 = Scruplum = Scruple.
172. 3 ss = Half ounce.
173. 3iss = one and a half ounce.
174. 3iv/fziv/ 3ss = 15 ml. = 1 tablespoonful.
175. 3ii/fzii = 8 ml. = 1 dessert spoonful.
176. 3i/zi = 5 ml. = 1 teaspoonful.
177. 3 ss = 2 ml. = ½ teaspoonful.
FORMAT OF A PRESCRIPTION
For,
Name of Patient
Address of Patient
Age/Sex
Rx Superscription
Medicine, Potency
Dose Inscription
Vehicle
Mitte
Direction for Preparation Subscription
Quantity of Medicine
Sign
Direction to the Patient - Signature/Label
Signature of the Physician
Name of the Physician
Date of Prescription
Registration Number
EXAMPLES OF PRESCRIPTION (ii) For,
WRITING Miss Rina Singh
Age: 12 years.
Prescriptions may be written either in a Rx
‘simple form’ or in a ‘Latin form’. Phytolacca dec. 6
Simple Forms gt-1
(i) For, Sac lac. gts. V
M-one dose
Sri Ramnath Mathur, Send 6 such powders.
Naya Bazar, Lucknow. To be taken every two hours interval.
Age: 35 years. Stop when improvement starts.
Report thereafter.
Rx ........................ Superscription Sd/- S. Kundu
Belladonna 30. 20-6-85 Regd. No. 389 (C.C.H.)
8 globules No. 15 in purified water oz. II LATIN FORMS
.............................. Inscription.
In the printed pad
Mix. Put 12 marks. (i) For,
To be taken two hourly ................... Subscription. Mrs. Asha Kundan
43, Panchsheel Enclave, New Delhi.
..................................... Signature Age: 40 years.
..................................... Date Rx
Kali mur. 3x trit.
..................................... Regd. No. Grs.—VII; Ft-7D, Cito disp.
On the printed pad of the physician. Cap. Omn. Hor.
Sd/- P. Sharma
9-4-83 Regd. No. 10385
(ii) For, One packet to be taken early morning on

Sri Kapil Dev empty stomach, at least half an hour before any
3, Jones Colony, Kanpur food is taken. If no change seen second packet
Age: 28 years. to be taken the next day. Report after 15 days.
Rx
Sd/Dr. X.
Ipecac. 30
6 globules no. 15 15.9.04 Regd. No.: .....
Purified water oz. vi
C. Prescription in Which ‘Liquid Medicine
M. ft. mist.
T.D. Vac. Ven. in Globules’ is Given.
Sd/- A. Khully For,
9-10-84 Mr. X
Ref. No. 3370 24/Male
Rx
SOME SPECIFIC EXAMPLES Pulsatilla 200
A. Prescription in Which Liquid Medicine in Gtt v
Purified Water Has Been Prescribed. Globules No. 20, in dv i phial
, Add and shake well. Absorb excess medicine
For, if present with blotting paper.
Ms. X
30/Female Four globules one time a day, in morning
Rx half an hour after meal. Repeat the next day if
Aconite 200 no relief in complaint. Stop when improvement
Gtt i starts. Report thereafer.
Aqua dest ozi Sd/Dr. y.
M. Ft. Mist 15.9.04 Regd. No.: ...
Put four marks
D. Prescription in Which ‘Globules’ in
To be taken twice daily, morning and evening
half an hour before food. Stop when improve- Purified Water are Given.
ment starts. For,
Sd/Dr. Y. Mr. Y
15.9.04 Regd. No.: ... 23/Male
Rx
B. Prescription in Which Liquid Medicine Belladonna 200
Given in Sugar of Milk Has Been 4 globules No. 20
Prescribed. Aqua dest oz i
For,
M. Ft. Mist
Mr. Y
Put four marks
25/Male
To be taken at every one hour interval. Stop
Rx
when improvement begins. Report thereafter.
Sulphur 30
Gtt i Sd/Dr. X.
Sac. lac. Grs. vi 15.9.04 Regd. No.: ...
M. Ft. pulv. ■
Make two packets of powder
365
7-2
Principles of Medication
Medication or impregnation is a technique • They should be perfectly white in color.

which consists in fixing a homoeopathic liquid • Should be odorless.
attenuation on a matrix—pellets or globules,
• Should be able to withstand all the tests
tablets, lactose.
prescribed for sucrose or lactose.
GLOBULES Globules are medicated by placing them in

a vial and adding the liquid drug attenuation in
Globules are also called pellets or pilules. the proportion not less than one per cent, volume
They are made of pure sucrose, lactose or other by weight (i. e, one (1) drop for 2 g. or 1 dram),
appropriate polysaccharides. They are formed and shaking to obtain a form of medication. The
into small globular masses of different sizes, medicated globules are dried at a temperature
designated according to the diameter of ten (10) not exceeding 40oC.
globules measured in millimeters. Standard sizes
In medicating sucrose globules, care should
are as follows:
be exercised not to use a dilution having an
• Very small globules (#10). alcohol strength of less than 70%, or that of
• Small globules (#20). dispensing alcohol
• Regular globules (#35). The labeling of medicated globules should
• Large globules (#55). be marked with the degree of strength of the
Globules made of lactose will absorb liquid attenuation used in their preparation.
alcoholic dilutions containing a much larger
percentage of water than those made of sucrose. TABLETS
Tablets may be produced according to two
CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL approved methods. These methods include
GLOBULES preparation of Triturated Tablets or Tablet
• They should be made of the purest raw Triturates (T T) and Compressed Tablets (CT).
materials.
TABLET TRITURATES (TM) triturates may contain binders, excipients,

Definition lubricants and disintegrators.
Tablet triturates are defined as tablets Method

produced from moist materials on a triturate Compressed tablets are produced according
mould which gives them the shape of cut sections to a six step process with appropriate
of a cylinder. Such tablets must be completely modifications accepted.
and rapidly soluble. Automated methods, 1. The first step is production of the necessary
including the Coulton method, have been trituration according to techniques outlined
developed and are acceptable. in the Homoeopathic Phamacopoeia of the
Methods United States.
2. This preparation is then added to:
Tablet triturates are produced according to a
four step process, although appropriate a. The appropriate liquid attenuations and/
modifications have been accepted. These steps or,
include: b. The appropriate liquid media (purified
water, ethanol, etc.) to such an extent that
1. Preparation of a trituration according to
the lactose/trituration is thoroughly
methods prescribed in the Homoeopathic
moistened.
Pharmacopoeia of United States.
2. Addition of binders as necessary (the If binders are necessary, they may be added
generally accepted ratio for the binding at this juncture subject to the definitions and
solution is one part to fifteen parts of triturate restrictions outlined in the Tablet Triturate
material with variations accepted. Binding section regarding binding solutions.
solutions are composed of a binder, i.e., gum 3. Now granulate the moistened material with
arabic, microcrystalline cellulose, a the appropriate mesh screen.
preservative if necessary, an inert lubricant 4. The wet granulation is then introduced into
and purified water). a dehumidified area and the relative humidity
3. Moulding of the tablets by hand or with of that area is reduced by 35 - 40% with
appropriate automated equipment. respect to ambient humidity at room
temperature. Drying is accomplished at 70°-
4. Drying of the moulded tablets by introducing
110°F (21°- 43°C).
them into a dehumidified area and reducing
the relative humidity of that area by 35 - 40% 5. The dried granulation is then regranulated
with respect to the ambient humidity at a through an appropriate mesh screen and the
thermostatically controlled 70°-110°F(21°- necessary lubricants are added. Lubricants
43°C). such as mineral oil, talc, calcium stearate,
corn starch, etc, as approved by the United
COMPRESSED TABLETS (CT) States Pharmacopoeia, are acceptable.
6. The mixture is then compressed in a rotary
Definition
tablet compressor or any other similar
Compressed tablets are tablets formed by apparatus to the desired tablet size.
compression of a dry material. They contain no Compressed air or vacuum may be necessary
special coating. They are compressed from to remove any untableted material from the
powdered or crystalline solids and as with tablet Compressed tablets prior to sale or use.
Principles of Medication 367
Other Methods simplicity and usefulness to the physician and

Other methods of direct compression or patient. In other respects the forms and shapes
trituration, omitting moistening, granulation and of vehicles are of no importance and may be
regranulation, have been introduced in the last varied to suit taste and convenience only. For
several years. These methods are accepted, this purpose pharmacists have employed certain
provided they show no marked departure or forms made of sucrose and lactose. These may
deviation from standard preparation, handling be used simply as medicated powders or as
and treatment of homoeopathic triturations. pellets (globules), tablets, triturates, cones, etc.
These are made of a sufficiently small size to
MEDICATED TABLETS serve as a convenient vehicle and dose.
Medicated tablets may be produced by Liquid attenuations for parenteral
medication of inert tablets with one or more administration shall be prepared in accordance
liquid drug attenuations. Inert tablets are with the appropriate specifications of the current
Compressed tablets made of a diluent such as United States Pharmacopoeia. They must bear
lactose or sucrose, or a mixture of lactose and the Federal Legend and must be rendered sterile
sucrose, to which is added, if necessary, a binder according to section 16.
and/or lubricant. Inert tablets are medicated by Tinctures, liquids, and solid attenuations may
placing them in an appropriate container, adding also be dispensed as suppositories, ointments,
the liquid attenuation in the proportion of two cerates, gels, or lotions for topical use.
(2) per cent, volume by weight, and agitating to
obtain a uniform medication. The medicated OPHTHALMIC SOLUTIONS
tablets then are dried at a temperature not The title, ophthalmic solution, applies to
exceeding 40°C. The labeling of Medicated sterile solutions, essentially free from foreign
tablets should be marked with the degree of particles, suitably compounded and packaged for
strength of the liquid drug attenuation used in insertion into the eye.
their preparation.
GENERAL CONDITIONS
MEDICATED POWDERS
Ophthalmic solutions should be isotonic with
Medicated powders are prepared by adding tear fluid. As a rule, sodium chloride is used as
to 100 parts by weight of lactose to one (1) part the isotonic medium. Any other isotonic medium
by volume of the desired strength of liquid drug used must be declared. If necessary, ophthalmic
attenuation, mixing the same in a mortar with a solutions may be suitably buffered. No other
spatula, then triturating with a pestle until fully additives are permitted.
dry. The resulting powder should be labelled with
Ophthalmic solutions in multiple dose
the degree of strength of the liquid attenuation
containers must be preserved in a suitable
used in its preparation.
manner. Ophthalmic solutions for use in surgery
must be supplied in single use containers, contain
FORMS OF VEHICLES FOR
no preservatives and must be rendered sterile
DISPENSING according to section 16.
These, like all other conditions of Ophthalmic solutions are made by the
homoeopathic pharmacy, should be governed by potentization of base tinctures or solutions, or
by dilution with liquids. For the final potency in the isotonic medium; any other isotonic medium,
decimal dilution and centesimal dilution, only a used must be declared. If necessary, nasal
suitably prepared tonicity medium, made with solutions may be suitably buffered. Except for
water for injection, may be used. Preservatives materials which increased viscosity, no additives
or stabilizers may be added only after the final are permissible.
attenuation. Ophthalmic solutions must meet the Nasal solutions in multiple dose containers
specifications for ophthalmic solutions in the US must be preserved in a suitable manner.
Pharmacopoeia.
Nasal solutions are made by the potentization
SPECIAL LABEL CONSIDERATIONS of base tinctures or solutions, or by dilution with
liquid. For the final potency in decimal dilution
Each container shall bear a label stating the and centesimal dilution, only purified water or a
preservatives used. Multiple dose containers suitable medium may be used. Preservatives or
shall not exceed 15 ml. and must include a stabilizers may be added only after the final
warning that the preparation should not be used attenuation. Nasal solutions must meet the
more than 30 days after the seal has been broken. specifications for nasal products referred to in
the appropriate sections of the USP.
STORAGE
As a rule, ophthalmic solutions should be LABELS
stored protected from light. Containers must not Each container shall bear a label stating all
permit any quality loss by the entry of foreign preservative, isotonicity, viscosity and
substances into the preparation or by diffusion stabilization agents.
of the contents into the container walls. A dropper
should be an integral part of the container. STORAGE
Store protected from light. Containers must
NASAL SOLUTIONS
not permit any quality loss by the entry of foreign
The title, nasal solution, applies to the substances into the preparation or by diffusion
preparation of liquids for use as nose drops or of the contents into the container walls.
nose spray. Containers for nasal solutions must ensure an
adequate release of contents either in the form
GENERAL CONDITIONS of drops or by proper atomization.
Nasal solutions should be isotonic and ■
unhydric. As a rule, sodium chloride is used as
369
7-3
Principles of Dispensing
Dispensing means to prepare medicines for, The required quantity of medicine (usually
and distribute them to their users. in drops) is mixed with an adequate quantity of
purified water in a phial and dispensed. The
DISPENSING OF MEDICINE amount of medicine to be dispensed is according
to the prescription of the physician.
FORMS If purified water is not available. Boiled
Two forms of medicinal preparations are water, cooled and filtered, may be used.
present: Aqueous preparations must be used
• Liquid Preparations: Tincture, solutions, immediately as they are instable and decompose
liquid potencies. easily. Hence medicines which cannot be
• Solid Preparations: Trituration. preserved for a long time may be dispensed with
purified water.
Liquid preparations are dispensed with:
An advantage of dispensing the remedy in
• Purified water.
purified water and not sugar of milk or globules
• Sugar of milk. or tablets is that, medicine in this liquid state
• Globules. has a deeper penetrating action which rapidly
• Tablets. communicates to all parts of the body; its action
Triturations are dispensed either: is more spirit- like.
• Singly (i.e. without mixing with any other • Liquid Preparations Dispensed
vehicle) or, with Sugar of Milk
• In the form of tablets (called Tablet The required quantity of medicine (usually
triturates). in drops) is poured on an adequate quantity of
sugar of milk and mixed well. The amount of
METHODS OF DISPENSING
medicine and vehicle to be dispensed is based
• Liquid Preparations Dispensed on the prescription.
with Purified Water
Precaution: Sugar or milk should not be used Liquid Preparation Dispensed with
to medicate aqueous preparation as it will be Tablets
partially dissolved. Inert tables are medicated by placing them
Tincture Trituration in an appropriate container in the proportion of
1 drop on 1 grain (60 mg.) of tablets. Excess
This is sugar of milk saturated with a mother
liquid present is absorbed using blotting paper.
tincture. To make 1x potency of a tincture
The phial is well stoppered and labelled.
trituration; take 10 c.c. of the said mother tincture
and mix with 10 gms. of moderately heated sugar It is an accurate method of dispensing drugs
of milk in a heated mortar. Triturate for 1 hour. in a compact, palatable and an easily
After an hour, the menstruum is completely administerable form.
volatilized and a stable and perfectly dry Aqueous preparations are not dispensed with
substance is produced. tablets as the tablets get dissolved in water.
To make 2x and further succeeding Dispensing Triturations
potencies, take 1 part of the proceeding tincture
Triturations are usually dispensed without
triturate with 9 parts of sugar of milk. Triturate
any further addition of vehicles. An adequate
for 1 hour and an absolutely dry trituration is
amount of trituration is given according to the
obtained.
prescription of the physician.
Liquid Preparation Dispensed with Tablet triturations are not prepared while
Globules dispensing. They are commercially available.
Three fourth of a dry and clean phial is filled
Eye Drops and Ear Drops
with non-medicated globules. To it is added few
drops of the liquid medicinal preparation. Excess Eye lotions and ear drops made as per the
quantity of medicine present is absorbed into a standards set by H.P.I. are available in markets.
blotting paper which is pressed against the mouth Only such lotions and drops should be used. The
of the phial keeping the phial inverted. Then the practice of preparing them in dispensaries and
phial is well-stoppered and labelled. clinics should be strictly avoided. As the vehicle
in eye lotion is water, it gets decomposed easily
It is an accurate method of dispensing drugs
and becomes a fertile ground for micro-
in a compact, palatable and an easily
organisms. Commercially available eye lotions
administerable form. Aqueous preparations are
are treated with anti-microbial agents. Eye
not dispensed with globules as the globules get
lotions should be kept in refrigerators if possible.
dissolved in water.
■
371
7-4
Principles of Drug Administration
As homoeopathy bears in the field of that no more than one globule should be taken at
medicine a speciality and an originality, its route a time and that this globule should not exceed a
and mode of administration also has a speciality poppy seed in size.
which will be discussed in this chapter. Medicines may be given in the form of:
• Aqueous solutions.
ROUTES OF DRUG • Syrups.
ADMINISTRATION
• Elixirs.
In general, there are various methods of • Emulsions.
introducing drugs into the body. The principal • Mixtures.
methods are:
• Powders.
1. Oral.
• Capsules.
2. Sublingual.
• Pills.
3. Topical.
4. Parenteral. 2. SUBINGUINAL ROUTE
This route is adopted in cases presenting with
1. ORAL ROUTE
a thickly coated tongue which interferes with the
The most commonly preferred route of drug absorption and action of local medicines. For a
administration is the oral route. In the 1st edition local action, gargling has proven useful, like
of Organon of Medicine in § 252, Dr. Hahnemann Phytolacca decandra gargle in cases of acute
has directed that a drop of medicine mixed with tonsillitis. Gargles are solutions of drugs made
sugar of milk or a sugar globule imbibed with in purified water for local action in the mouth or
dilution, is to be laid upon the tongue and allowed throat.
to melt there. He cautions against drinking
anything for sometime after taking the medicine. 3. TOPICAL ROUTE
The sugar globules seem to have been introduced
Topical routes include the skin and the
into homoeopathy from the year 1813.
mucous membranes of nose, rectum and lungs.
Henceforth, Dr. Hahnemann was very particular
Hahnemann’s Opinion propagating their power to all other parts.” This

In the fourth edition of Organon of Medicine, observation is often falsely quoted as
he hints to the employment of medicines by contradictory to Hahnemann’s earlier statements.
olfaction, a procedure he subsequently grew very Olfaction Method
fond of. In the fifth edition of Organon of
Medicine he prefers it to every other mode of Several or just one globule is moistened with
administering the remedy. Here he says that : the liquid medicine and placed in a small phial.
The patient holds the open mouth of the phial
“Medicinal aura thus inhaled comes in
first in one nostril drawing in the air (during
contact with the nerves in the walls of the
inhalation) out of the phial into himself. If a
spacious cavities it passes through without
stronger dose is to be given, ask the patient to
obstruction, and thus produces a salutary
inhale the same vapor with the other nostril, more
influence on the vital force, in the mildest yet
or less strongly, depending upon the prescribed
most powerful manner, and this is much
strength.
preferable to every other mode of administering
the medicament in substance.” In case, both the nostrils are obstructed
(either through cold, or a polyp), inhale through
Dr. Hahnemann’s views regarding topical
the mouth by holding the open mouth of the phial
application have frequently changed. In § 197
between the lips.
and § 198 of 5th edition of Organon of Medicine,
Dr. Hahnemann has pointed out the disadvantage In case of small children, the open phial may
of local application in the following words: be placed near their nostrils while they are asleep.
“..... the simultaneous local application, Repetition of olfaction is the same as that of
along with the internal employment, of the the oral route.
remedy in diseases, whose chief symptom is a Olfaction is required in the following cases:
constant local affection, has this great
1. When giving oral medicines is not possible
disadvantage, that, by such a topical application,
as in case of lock jaw in tetanus, or during
this chief symptom (local affection) will usually
an epileptic fit.
be annihilated sooner than the internal disease
and we shall now be deceived by the semblance 2. In idiosyncratic patients also.
of a perfect cure . . . .. “ (§ 197) Mucosal Absorption
“The mere topical employment of medicines, a. Rectal Absorption: generally in the form of
that are powerful for cure when given internally, suppositions.
to the local symptoms of chronic miasmatic
b. Nasal Septum: By putting powders on the
diseases is inadmissible; for if the local affection
nasal septum.
of the chronic disease be only removed locally
and in a one-sided manner, the internal treatment Skin Absorption Method
indispensable for the complete restoration of the It is done in the form of liniments, lotions
health remains in dubious obscurity . ..... “ (§ and ointments.
198)
Mode of Application:
In § 289, “Every part of our body that
1. Epidermis i.e. by rubbing or friction through
possesses the sense touch is also capable of
the entire cutaneous surface of the body
receiving the influence of medicines, and of
where ever the epidermis is sound.
Principles of Drug Administration 373
According to the footnote to § 292, “Rubbing Route

- it appears to favor the action of medicines 1. Medicines are give by oral and olfaction
only in this way that friction makes the skin method.
more sensitive and the living fibres thereby
more capable of feeling, as it were, the Dose
medicinal power and of communicating to 1. ‘In no case it is requisite to administer more
the whole organism this health affecting than one single, simple medicine, at one
sensation. For example, application of time’—See § 272, 5th edition, Organon of
lotions, ointments, etc. over unbroken skin. Medicine.
2. En-epidemic i.e., the drugs are simply kept 2. ‘It is wrong to attempt to employ complex
in contact with the unbroken skin. They are means when simple means suffice.’
not rubbed in. For example, application of 3. ‘The smaller the dose of the homoeopathic
plaster, ointments, liniments, etc. over remedy is, so much the slighter and shorter
broken skin. is this apparent increase of the disease.
Miscellaneous 4. It is better to give a small poppy seed globule
soaked with the medicinal substance and
Through drops as in:
then to serve it either by dissolving it in a
1. Eyes: For e.g., Cineraria drops. small quantity of distilled water or sugar of
2. Ears: For e.g., Mullein oil. milk.
5. Corporeal constitution, magnitude of the
4. PARENTERAL ROUTE disease, nature of the medicinal substance,
This includes all forms of injections like: specially in psoric cases will decide the
1. Subcutaneous route. question of ‘smallest dose’ and repetition.
2. Intramuscular route. Repetition of Doses
3. Intravenous route. 1. ‘This minutest yet powerful dose of the best
4. Intra-arterial route. selected medicine be repeated at suitable
5. Intrathecal route. intervals which experiences shall pronounce
to be best adopted for accelerating cure i.e.
6. Intraventricular (cerebral ventricals)
do not repeat so long the signs of
route.
improvement continue. Hence, improvement
7. Intra-articular route. contra-indicates repetition.
8. Intracavity route (into viscera like 2. Only when the progress or improvement
pleura, peritonium or abscess cavitis). stops; repeat the dose.
9. Intra-amniotic route. 3. Continue repetition till recovery ensues or a
different group of symptoms arises which
MODE OF ADMINISTERING requires a totally different remedy (§ 248).
MEDICINES 4. In chronic diseases, repetition of medicine
Certain principles are followed for is at intervals of 14, 12, 10, 8, 7, or 5 days.
homoeopathic drug administration. For acute exacerbations in chronic diseases,
the medicine should be repeated at still
shorter intervals.
5. In acute diseases, medicine is repeated at 2. Dietic rules must be adapted, like our
frequent intervals like every 24 hours. In medicinal prescriptions, according to each
severely acute cases it may be oftener i.e. individual case. The object of dietetic
even every 5 minutes. restrictions is to prevent the patient from
6. Number of doses administered depends upon taking any medicinal substance that may
five influences: interfere with the medicine he is taking and
to prevent him from taking any food article
• Susceptibility of the patient: Suscepti-
that could aggravate his disease. Always
bility is the quality of an individual to
remember ‘what is one man’s meat is another
receive an impression. Susceptibility
man’s poison’.
varies in different individuals according
to age, temperament, constitution, hab- The diet and regimen which can have any
its, character of disease and environ- medicinal action, in order that the small dose
ment. may not be over-whelmed and extinguished
or disturbed by any irritant i.e.:
• Character and intensity of disease. Fre-
quent repetition in acute disease is ad- a. Nothing should be taken atleast 1/2 an
visable. hour before or after taking the medicine.
• Nature of the disease: It is the dimin- b. No new habits or addiction should be
ished or increased vital response of the indulged in while taking the medicine.
body. c. All emotional stress, strains and excite-
• Stage and duration of disease: How for ments should be avoided.
the disease has progressed will also de- 3. Specific dietery restriction:
termine the dose. • Coffee should be given up altogether in
• Previous treatment of disease: The type chronic diseases. Herbal tea or green tea,
of treatment taken and the duration for being medicinal should not be allowed
which it was taken places an important under any circumstance.
role is altering the susceptibility of the • Black tea should not permitted in pa-
patient. Therefore, it should be deter- tients with nervous symptoms or palpi-
mined before ascertaining the dose. It tation.
must be remembered that in acute dis-
• Strong stimulants like alcohol can be
ease where repeated dose is given, the
discontinued advantageously in many
medication should be stopped immedi-
cases.
ately when improvement in the condi-
tion of the patient is seen. • Snuffing is objectionable.
• Tobacco chewing should not be allowed.
Special Instructions
• Women with scanty menses should not
1. There are specific instructions for take saffron or cinnamon.
application of a remedy in cases of
• Persons with weak digestion should not
intermittent fever. The best time is when the
indulge in spices.
temperature is coming down; in cases of
menstrual difficulties, the best time is the • Dried and smoked fish should not be
post-menstrual period. used.
Principles of Drug Administration 375
• In acute diseases, the instinct of the permitted the smoking of tobacco is almost every
patient’s stomach is to be the physicians case. In Germany, during Hahnemann’s time,
guide. However, careful distinguishing drinking tea was a variety, while smoking tobacco
between the real craving of the stomach was almost a universal habit. Hahnemann himself
indulged in smoking!!
and morbid longings for food is of ut-
most importance as satisfaction of mor- However, when Hahnemann himself had
bid longings can cause dangerous impli- undertaken many experiments with his
cations. hypothesis, any new endeavour in
modernising the homoeopathic system, must
4. Restricted dietary items:
always be properly appreciated.
• In those who are addicted to coffee, it is
5. The most appropriate and efficacious time
better to propose it’s discontinuation it
for administering the medicine in cases of
gradually. Black tea or milk tea can be
intermittent fever is immediately or very
taken in moderation.
soon after the termination of the paroxysm
• Habitual smokers should be asked to (vide § 236 - 237, 5th edition of Organon of
limit the number of cigarettes smoked Medicine).
and should be withdrawn from their
6. Medicines should not be given during their
habit gradually.
aggravation time (day or night) of the drug.
• Spices and condiments should be con-
Note: In this context a person concerned with
sumed in only such quantities so as to
homoeopathy should read the following
make the food palatable. aphorisms of the 5th edition of Organon of
Note: Although Hahnemann was absolutely opposed Medicine — 288, 289, 290, 291, 292. Footnote
to the use of tea under all circumstances, he 2(288), 1(239), 1(292).
■
7-5
Principles of External Application
Homoeopathy mainly advocates internal application. Following sections appearing in 5th

medication alone on symptom similarity for the edition of Organon of Medicine clearly indicate
treatment of diseases. External applications are his refusal to sanction such practice and clearly
not in accordance with the principles of explains the reasons for such censorious
homoeopathy (5th edition Organon of Medicine, consideration.
§ 185-203). But in aphorisms 284-285 in his
Organon of Medicine, 6th edition, Hahnemann § 196
has given an exceptional allowance for external It might, indeed, seem as though the cure of
applications. It implies that while the curative such diseases would be hastened by employing
remedy should be continued internally, the same the medicinal substance which is known to be
medicine may only be used externally as a lotion, truly homoeopathic to the totality of the
liniment, ointment, etc. symptoms, not only internally, but also externally
External applications are used in various because the action of a medicine applied to the
cases like accidental cases, injuries, lacerations, seat of the local affection might effect a more
burns, to relieve muscle tension and antiseptic rapid change in it.
dressings.
§ 197
Homoeopathic medicines are dispensed as
external application in vehicles like the oils— This treatment, however, is quite
Almond, Rosemary, Sesame, Olive, etc. Also inadmissible, not only for the local symptoms
glycerine, soft paraffin, spermaceti, prepared arising from the miasm of psora, but also and
lard, starch, white wax, etc. especially for those originating in the miasm of
Note:Aphorism 285 of the 6th edition of Organon syphilis or sycosis, for the simultaneous local
has no corresponding aphorism in its 5th edition. application, along with the internal employment
of the remedy in diseases whose chief symptom
HOMOEOPATHIC VIEWPOINT is a constant local affection, has this great
disadvantage, that, by such a topical application,
Dr. Samuel Hahnemann has strongly
this chief symptom (local affection) will usually
disapproved external application or local
be annihilated sooner than the internal disease, § 200

and we shall now be deceived by the semblance Had it still been present to guide the internal
of a perfect cure; or at least it will be difficult, treatment, the homoeopathic remedy for the
and in some cases impossible, to determine, from whole disease might have been discovered, and
the premature disappearance of the local had that been found, the persistence of the local
symptom, if the general disease is destroyed by affection during its internal employment would
the simultaneous employment of the internal have shown that the cure was not yet completed;
medicine. but were it cured on its seat, this would be a
convincing proof that the disease was completely
§ 198
eradicated, and the desired recovery from the
The mere topical employment of medicines, entire disease was fully accomplished—an
that are powerful for cure when given internally, inestimable, indispensable advantage, [‘to reach
to the local symptoms of chronic miasmatic a perfect cure’ in the sixth edition].
diseases is for the same reason quite
inadmissible; for if the local affection of the § 201
chronic disease be only removed locally and in It is evident that man’s vital force, when
a one-sided manner, the internal treatment encumbered with a chronic disease which it is
indispensable for the complete restoration of the unable to overcome by its own powers,
health remains in dubious obscurity; the chief [‘instinctively’ in the sixth edition] adopts the
symptom (the local affection) is gone, and there plan of developing a local malady on some
remain only the other, less distinguishable external part, solely for this object, that by
symptoms, which are less constant and less making and keeping in a diseased state this part
persistent than the local affection, and frequently which is not indispensable to human life, it may
not sufficiently peculiar and too slightly thereby silence the internal disease, which
characteristic to display after that, a picture of otherwise threatens to destroy the vital organs
the disease in clear and peculiar outlines. (and to deprive the patient of life), and that it
may thereby, so to speak, transfer the internal
§ 199
disease to the vicarious local affection and, as it
If the remedy perfectly homoeopathic to the were, draw it thither. The presence of the local
disease had not yet been discovered at the time affection thus silences, for a time, the internal
when the local symptoms were destroyed by a disease, though without being able either to cure
corrosive or desicative external remedy or by the it or to diminish it materially. The local affection,
knife, then the case becomes much more difficult however, is never anything else than a part of
on account of the too indefinite (uncharacteristic) the general disease, but a part of it increased all
and inconstant appearance of the remaining in one direction by the organic vital force, and
symptoms; for what might have contributed most transferred to a less dangerous (external) part of
to determine the selection of the most suitable the body, in order to allay the internal ailment.
remedy, and its internal employment until the But (as has been said) by this local symptom that
disease should have been completely annihilated, silences the internal disease, so far from anything
namely, the external principal symptom, has been being gained by the vital force towards
removed from our observation. diminishing or curing the whole malady, the
internal disease, on the contrary, continues, in
Principles of External Application 379
spite of it, gradually to increase and Nature is of the most criminal procedures the medical
constrained to enlarge and aggravate the local world can be guilty of, and yet it has hitherto
symptom always more and more, in order that it been the one generally adopted, and taught from
may still suffice as a substitute for the increased the professional chairs as the only one.
internal disease and may still keep it under. Old Dr. Samuel Hahnemann has recommended
ulcers on the legs get worse as long as the internal the use of local application only in most
psora is uncured, the chancre enlarges as long as inveterate and difficult cases of sycosis.
the internal syphilis remains uncured, [‘the fig According to him:
warts increase and grow while the sycosis is not
“It is not necessary to use any external
cured whereby the latter is rendered more and
application, except in the most inveterate and
more difficult to cure’, in the sixth edition just
difficult cases, when the larger figwarts may be
as the general internal disease continues to
moistened everyday with the mild, pure juice
increase as time goes on.
pressed from the green leaves of Thuja, mixed
§202 with an equal quantity of alcohol (The Chronic
Diseases).
If the old-school physician should now
In the sixth edition of Organon of Medicine,
destroy the local symptom by the topical
Under § 284, it is given:
application of external remedies, under the belief
that he thereby cures the whole disease, Nature “Besides the tongue, mouth and stomach,
makes up for its loss by rousing the internal which are most commonly affected by the
malady and the other symptoms that previously administration of medicine, the nose and
existed in a latent state side by side with the local respiratory organs are receptive of the action of
affection; that is to say, she increases the internal medicine in fluid form by means of olfaction and
disease. When this occurs it is usual to say, inhalations through the mouth. But the whole
though incorrectly, that the local affection has remaining skin of the body clothed with
been driven back into the system or upon the epidermis, is adapted to the action of medicinal
nerves by the external remedies. solutions especially if the inunction is connected
with simultaneous internal administration.”
§ 203
Sixth edition of Organon of Medicine was
Every external treatment of such local published in 1921, years after the death of Dr.
symptoms, the object of which is to remove them Samuel Hahnemann. The authenticity of many
from the surface of the body, whilst the internal sections appearing in the sixth edition is
miasmatic disease is left uncured, as, for instance, controversial. Therefore, the fifth edition of
driving off the skin the psoric eruption by all sorts Organon of Medicine is considered the standard
of ointments, burning away the chancre by by the profession.
caustics and destroying the condylomata on their H.A. Roberts in his book, ‘The Principles
seat by the knife, the ligature or the actual and Art of Cure by Homoeopathy’ says:
cautery; this pernicious external mode of
treatment, hitherto so universally practised, has “If by local applications we mean something
been the most prolific source of all the that will thwart the expression of the disease,
innumerable named or unnamed chronic this certainly should not be considered beneficial
maladies under which mankind groans; it is one according to Hahnemann’s teaching, but if we
base our use of local applications upon physical ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION

principles, we may consider it.” 1. Rubbing: The frictions caused during
On the basis of this observation he suggests rubbing makes the skin more permeable for
the use of external applications in: absorption of the drug material.
• Psoriasis and like diseases, where the intense 2. Local applications.
itching present is purely mechanical (due to
scales) . TYPES OF EXTERNAL
He writes, “The scales can be removed very APPLICATIONS
easily and properly by Olive oil, followed
A. Liquid Vehicles Used for External
by a bathing of the part, for cleansing
Applications:
purposes.
• Purified water.
• Conditions like erysipelas, where there is
dryness of skin. According to H.A. Roberts, • Glycerine.
“Where there is great tension and dryness, • Olive oil.
may be temporarily relieved without • Almond oil.
violating Hahnemannian principles by laying • Rosemary oil.
on for a few minutes a soft cloth which has
• Sesame or Til oil.
been dipped in a normal salt solution”.
B. Semi-solid Vehicles Used for External
• To satisfy the thermic reactions of the body.
Applications:
Hot or cold local application to soothe the
discomfort of the patient is admissible if • Vaseline (soft-paraffin):
done according to the thermal modalities. - Yellow soft paraffin.
H.A. Robert’s points out, “It would be very - White soft paraffin.
objectionable to put cold applications on a • Waxes:
patient whose symptomatology calls for
- Bee’s waxes:
Rhus tox. It would be equally inconsistent
and aggravating to put a local hot application ♦ Yellow bee’s wax.
on a Pulsatilla patient, and one should guard ♦ White bee’s wax.
against using a hot water bottle at the feet of - Spermaceti.
Sulphur patients.” - Lanolin (anhydrous).
• Only one condition where local application • Prepared lard.
in the form of indicated potentized remedy
• Isinglass.
is permissible is where it is impossible to
administer it by mouth. This statement by • Soap:
H.A. Roberts is based on Hahnemann’s - Soft soap.
observations that mucous surfaces and - Hard soap.
denuded surfaces are receptive to the
- Curd soap.
indicated remedy, but in a limited degree than
through the alimentary canal. • Starch.
LIST OF EXTERNAL Requirement

APPLICATIONS • Apparatus:
• Glycerols. - A perfectly clean round phial with a
• Ointments. new, non-porous well fitting velvet
• Liniments. cork.
• Opodeldocs. - Balance with weight box or measur-
• Lotions. ing bottle.
• Cerates. - Labelling paper.
• Polutices. - Pen, paper, gums, scissors, etc.
• Fomentations. • Ingredients:
• Plasters. - Required amount of mother tincture
• Oils: or crude drug.
- Bouchi oil. - Required amount of glycerine.
- Mullein oil.
- Olive oil. Procedure
- Rosemary oil. 9 parts or 4 parts of glycerine is taken in a
- Arnica oil. clean round phial and 1 part of mother tincture
- Oil of Wintergreen. is poured over it and well stoppered. A
homogenous mixture is prepared by vigorous
• Injections:
shaking.
- Rectal.
In preparing glycerols a crude drug, finely
- Urethral.
triturate it in a mortar before mixing with
- Vaginal.
glycerine.
• Surgical dressings.
The ‘glycerols’ are very convenient
GLYCEROLS mixtures, and being soluble in water and alcohol,
can be diluted to make lotions, liniments, etc.
These are mixtures of solutions of mother
tincture in glycerine. Most of them are much Examples of Glycerol Preparations
viscous with jelly-like consistencies. • Calendula glycerol.
Preparation • Phytolacca glycerol.
• Hydrastis glycerol (Glycerol of Hydrastis).
Principle
• Borax glycerol (Glycerite of Borax).
One part by weight or volume of required
mother tincture or drug is mixed with nine parts • Glycerol of carbolic acid.
by weight or volume of glycerine. • Glycerol of starch.
The H.P.I. recommends addition of the Borax Glycerol
mother tincture of a drug or crude drug to It is the most commonly used glycerol. It is
glycerine in various proportions, excepting that said borax is anti-fungal, anti-bacteria, anti-
of starch, which is mode by mixing 1 part of the pruritic, and is used mostly on cases of gingivitis
required drug with 4 parts of glycerine. and stomatitis.
Glycerol of Starch (Glycero Amyli) Rx, Tr. Aloes Ø 3i

It is a form of ointment prepared in the Glycer 3ix M
following manner: For cracked skin, lips, nose, hands, etc.;
Starch - 1 part, glycerine - 8 parts: mix it in a fissured and sore anus.
glass mortar and rub together till intimately 2. GLYCER. AMYL.
mixed. Transfer the mixture to a porcelain dish.
Rx, Pulv. Amyli opt i
Apply heat, gradually raising to 116° C and stir
constantly till the starch particles are completely Glycer viii
broken and a jelly-like preparation is made. Add
For broken chilblains; fistula; prolapsus ani;
the requisite quantity of medicine in the
prevention of bed sores and irritation of skin from
proportion of one in ten.
any cause.
Note: It consists of the granules separated from the
3. GLYCER. BORACIS
mature grains of Zea mays Linn., family -
Graminae. In obtaining starch from the corn, Rx, Pulv. Boracis i
the germs are separated mechanically. First, the
cells are made soft so as to permit the escape of Glycer iv Solve.
starch granules, which is done by allowing them For thrush; pruritus valvae.
to become sour and decomposed; but the
fermentation process is stopped before the starch 4. GLYCER, HYDRAST.
is affected. On a small scale, starch is obtained Rx, Tr. Hydrastis can. 3i
from wheat flour, first by making a stiff ball- Glycer. ad ss M
like dough. The kneading is continued while a
thin stream of purified water is allowed to trickle For inflammation of uterus; sore nipples;
upon it. The starch is carried out with the water fissured anus; cracked lips; etc.
stream; leaving the ‘gluten’ as a soft elastic mass,
which on being, purified may be used for other Precautions
purposes. Starch may also be obtained from the • Proper cleaning of the utensils should be
tuber of potatoes, first grating them, next by done.
washing the soft mass upon a sieve, thus • Test the purity of glycerine before putting it
separating the cellular mass and allowing the in use.
starch granules to pass through. Next, the starch
must be washed thoroughly by decantation. In • Continue mixing till the color becomes
both the methods, the quality of the starch uniform.
depends upon the purity of water used. • A note, ‘For External Use Only’, must be
Description: A white, very fine powder, or pasted on the phial, under the name of the
irregular angular mass. In is readily reducible glycerol.
as a fine powder; odorless, taste characteristic,
slight, insoluble in cold water and alcohol. OINTMENTS
Mullein Oil These are semi-solid preparations. They

should have the required consistency so that they
It is prepared with glycerine and used as ear
may be readily applied on the skin by rubbing.
drops.
They should be soft and do not require melting
For example: on application. They are also called ‘Therapeutic
1. GLYCER. ALOES Creams’.
The ideal base for an ointment should not glass; and the spatula be of some special type,
retard the healing or should not bring any allergic so that it acts like a roller to pass over any particle
reaction to the skin. It should be non-greasy, non- in the ointment mixture; and at the end of each
dehydrating and non-irritating. operation the direction of movement of the
spatula may be reversed with a slight twist of
Preparation
the wrist.
Principle
b. Fusion Method
Mix one part by weight or volume of mother
tincture with nine parts by weight or volume of It is used for commercial or large scale
vaseline in the conventional system. production. This method is conveniently applied
when the base of ointments consists of white soft
Requirement paraffin, spermaceti or wax. Small amount of
lanoline, say 3% may also be added for easy
• Apparatus:
penetration in the skin. The base of the ointment
- Slab.
is just melted in a waterbath and the required
- Spatula. medicine is slowly added. The mixture is
- Ointment phial. properly stirred to make it homogeneous. Cool
- Balance with weight box. the mixture, and the ointment is now ready for
- Labeling paper. use.
- Pen, gum, scissors, etc. Now-a-days, ointments are commercially
• Ingredients: prepared by the Fusion method, in a specially
- Required amount of mother tincture. made apparatus, i.e., an ointment mixing vessel
- Required amount of white vaseline. with an electrical heating and cooling device. The
resultant ointments are presented generally in
Procedure aluminium collapsible tubes; and it seems that
9 parts of vaseline is weighed and put on a these tubes do not affect the therapeutic values
clean slab. 1 part of mother tincture is poured of ointments. However, it is better to use only
over it. It is thoroughly mixed with the help of a glass jars.
spatula, till the color of the whole solution For dispensing purpose, a small amount of
becomes uniform. All ointments other than the ointment can be made by rubbing the base
Sulphur and Graphites are prepared as above. with a spatula, and due to friction when it gets
At present, ointments are made by two slightly thinner in consistency, the medicine is
general methods: gradually added drop by drop, which is
a. Mechanical incorporation. thoroughly mixed with a spatula.
b. Fusion. Storage
a. Mechanical Incorporation Method Ointments should be preserved in cool dark
When the medicament is in the powdered places in air-tight glass jars. Preferably
form, this method is applied. It is prepared on a refrigerated, all the ointments.
clean glass-slate or slab with a stainless steel Dispensing
spatula. Small portion of the base is used, to have
Scrape the ointment from the glass-slab or
the best results. The slab should be of ground
from the upper-most layer of the storing jar, and
serve in a glass ointment pot with a proper label 20. Sulphur iod. ointment.
(name of the ointment, ‘for external use only,’ if 21. Thuja ointment.
necessary, name of the patient should also be
For example:
written on the label). Preserve the rest in a air-
tight glass container in dark cold place, if possible 1. UNG. ARNICAE
in the refrigerator. Rx, Flor. Arnicae iii
Uses Fol. Arnical i
1. Used for bleeding and non-bleeding piles, Adipis praeparatae Ib it
fissures, ulcerations, itchings and another
Moisten the flowers and powdered leaves
bleeding from the rectum.
with half their weight of purified water; now heat
2. Ointments are also used for applying on them together in a waterbath with the lard for
bruises, contusions, blows, bed sores, boils, three or four hours and strain.
chilblains, corns, bunions, etc.
For bruises, contusions and blows where the
3. Used in dressings for torn and jagged
skin is not broken; blackened eyes; blisters on
wounds, indolent ulcers, fistula, psoriasis, the feet from chafing of shoes, chafing; bed sores;
lupus and carbuncles, cracked heels. boils which do not mature well; itchings;
4. They are very useful in burns. chilblains; corns and bunions; corns sore from
Examples of Ointments cutting; muscular rheumatism resulting from
exposure to cold and dampness.
1. Acetate of lead ointment.
2. UNG. BALS. PERU
2. Aesculus ointment.
Rx, Bals. peru, 3ii
3. Arnica ointment.
4. Belladonna ointment. cerat, cetaei, 3iv M
5. Boric acid ointment. For bed sores.
6. Calendula ointment. 3. UNG. BISMUTHI
7. Calomel ointment. Rx, Bismuth. nit. grs. xxx
8. Cantharis ointment. Adopis praeparatae iM
9. Graphites ointment. For obstinate and intense itching and
10. Hamamelis ointment. irritation such as eczema and other skin
11 Hydrastis ointment. diseases.
12. Ichthymol ointment. 4. UNG. HEPAR SULPH
13. Iodine ointment. Rx, Hep. sulph. pur. grs. iii
14. Iodoform ointment. Adopis praeparatae iM
15. Menthol ointment.
For ganglion.
16. Mercurial ointment.
5. UNG. MERC. BINIOD.
17. Napthalin ointment.
Rx, Biniod. Merc. Irs. ii
18. Qucabator ointment.
Adipis praeperatae 3iii M
19. Ratanhia ointment.
For stye; acne of the beard; ganglion.
Precautions Procedure
• Test the purity of the ointments before 9 parts or 4 parts of olive oil or tincture of
putting them in use. soap is taken in a clean glass phial and 1 part of
• The cleansing and mixing should be done mother tincture is poured over it. It is corked
very carefully. tightly and a homogenous mixture is prepared
• Add the note, ‘For External Use Only’ on by vigorous shaking, or by vigorously stirring
the labels under the name of the drug. with a clean hard glass rod (or by power driven
mechanical stirrer in a suitable vessel), so that
LINIMENTS (EMBROCATIONS) the solution becomes uniform.
They are spoken of as embrocations, and are The label on the phial should have the name
generally of oily, soapy, or spiritous consistency. of the mother tincture, with the word ‘liniment’
They are mixtures or solutions of different after it and a note—‘Shake Well Before Use’ and
medicines (generally mother tincture) in oil, or ‘For External Use Only’ in capital letters with
are alcoholic solutions of soap or emulsions, and direction for use.
are suitable for external application, rubbing and For Making Tincture of Soap
painting. They often act as protective coatings. Soft soap: 10 gms.
Camphor is used in their composition for its local
Alcohol fortis: 25 ml.
stimulating action.
Purified water: 15 ml.
Preparation
Dissolve with gentle heat and strain (H.P.I., Vol.
Principles I).
Mix 1 part by weight or volume of mother Soft Soap: It is a soap, soft, yellowish-white
tincture with 9 parts by weight or volume of olive or greenish or brownish with the characteristic
oil or 1 part of by weight or volume of mother odors of soapy material. It is made by the
tincture is mixed with 4 parts of olive oil or interaction of potassium hydroxide or sodium
tincture of soap (H.P.I.). hydroxide with a suitable vegetable oil or any
oils; or with fatty acids derived therefrom. The
Requirement
soap prepared from oil contains glycerine during
• Apparatus: ‘saponification’. It yields not less than 44 per
- A clean round phial with a new non-po- cent of fatty acids.
rous well fitting velvet cork. Assay: A weighed quantity of the soap is
- Balance with weight box or measure dissolved in water and the solution is acidified
glass. with dilute sulphuric acid. The liberated fatty
- Weighing bottles. acids are extracted with ether, and the extract is
then washed till the washings are neutral to
- Labelling paper.
litmus, and then it is transferred to a weighed
- Pen, gum, scissors, etc. flask. The solvent is distilled on a water-bath and
• Ingredients: the residue of fatty acids is dried to constant
- Required amount of mother tincture. weight at 80° C.
- Required amount of olive oil or tincture
of soap.
Uses 6. LIN. URTICAE UR.

• Liniments are painted over painful parts of Rx, Tr. urt. ur. i
the body as from falling, blows, etc.
Ol. oliv. opt. ad iii M
• To reduce the rheumatic pain.
For ulcerated burns.
• To loosen the phlegm accumulated in
respiratory tract. 7. GLYCER. AC. SULPHUROSI
Rx, Ac. sulphurosi 3ii
Examples of Liniments
Glycer. iss M
• Arnica liniment.
• Bellis perennis liniment. For chapped hands; chilblains; ringworm; etc.
• Bryonia liniment. 8. GLYCER. VER. VIR.
• Phytolacca liniment. Rx, Tr. Ver. vir. 3i
Glycer 3ix M
• Rhus tox. liniment.
For sore nipples.
• Ruta liniment.
1. LIN. AC. CARBOL. FORT. OPODELDOCS
Rx Aco. carbol. pur. 3ii
They are semi-solid ointments prepared with
Ol. olive opt. iss M the following recepi:
For burns and scalds; to prevent excoriations; White curd soap: 140 gms. (or 4½ ounces).
etc. Purified water: 266 ml. (or 9 ounces).
2. LIN. ACON.
Strong alcohol: 444 ml. (or 15 ounces).
Rx, Tr. Acon. radix 3i
Mother tincture: 100 ml. (or 3 1/6 ounces).
Lin. Saponis. P.H.B. ad. i M
Preparation
For neuralgia; local forms of rheumatism.
3. LIN. BELL. Procedure
Rx, Chlorof. 3i White curd, soap is mixed with purified
Tr. Bell. 3vi M water and heated gently till the solution becomes
For neuralgia; rheumatism. transparent. Then, strong alcohol is added
gradually to it. This is the base of opodeldocs.
4. LIN. CALCIS
To this mixture, the mother tincture of the drug
Rx, Gl. Lini ii is added and stirred well. When a homogeneous
Liq. Calcis ii mixture is formed, it is strained when still in the
liquid state. When cooled it is poured into an
Tr. Calend. ii M
airtight glass phial.
For burns; chilblains; etc.
Curd Soap: A soap separated by salt solution,
5. LIN. RHUS TOX. reheated and mixed with sufficient purified water
Rx, Tr. Rhus tox. 3iss to make a smooth emulsion; run into flames,
Lin. Saponis P.H.B. ad. ISSM cooled; next cut into bars or cakes. Frequently
they bear high alkali content and contain mostly
For lumbago and other forms of local
rheumatism, straining.
‘filters’, e.g. sodium silicate. Used mainly as bar The phial should be labelled with the name
laundry soap. of the mother tincture along with the word
‘lotion’ in capital letter with it (either on top or
Uses
on the bottom after it e.g., Calendula lotion, Ruta
Used for sprains, bruises and rheumatic lotion. Name of the patient, if possible, directions
pains. of use and date of manufacturing or preparing
should be written on the label. Also the lines
LOTIONS ‘Shake Well Before Use’ and ‘For External Use
These are liquid suspensions or dispersions Only’ must be exhibited with the direction of use.
in an aqueous media, used as external For evaporating lotions, add the medicine in
applications. dilute alcohol in the required proportion.
Preparation Uses
Principle Used in bruised pain arising from falls,
1 part of the requisite mother tincture say, injuries, blows, etc. where the integrity of skin
Calendula, Arnica, etc. and 9 parts (or 99 parts) is not lost.
of purified water are mixed thoroughly. Examples of Lotions
Requirement 1. Apis mel. lotion.
• Apparatus: 2. Arnica lotion.
- One clean lotion phial with a new non- 3. Calendula lotion.
porous velvet cork. 4. Cantharis lotion.
- Balance with weight box or measuring 5. Carboneum sulph. 1x lotion.
glass or a dropper. 6. Ceanothus lotion.
- Labelling paper. 7. Clematis lotion.
- Pen, pasting gum, scissors, etc. 8. Euphrasia lotion.
• Ingredients: 9. Ilex aquilifolium lotion.
- Required amount of mother tincture 10. Metanol lotion (1%).
- Required quantity of purified water. 11. Rhus tox. lotion.
Procedure 12. Ruta lotion.
13. Sabadilla lotion.
The proper amount of purified water is taken
in a phial and the requisite mother tincture is 14. Staphysagria lotion.
poured over it. The phial is corked tightly and 15. Symphytum lotion.
shaken well. For example:
The mixture is shaken vigorously till its color 1. LOTIONES MEDICAT
becomes uniform. The mixture may be mixed Rx, Tr. 3i
thoroughly with a fine clean hard glass rod or a
Aq. dest. ad. vi M
hard wooden stick or by means of power driven
mechanical stirrer in a suitable vessel, and then 2. LOTIO. AC. BENZ.
stored in phials. Rx, Ac. Benz. pur. grs. xv
Aq. dest. 3 viii Preparation

sp. v. Rect. 3iii They are generally made by the Fusion
method from the base of oil, lard, petroleum jelly
‘Dissolve the Benzoic acid in the rectified
with sufficient bees wax and spermaceti to get
spirit. Add the purified water and shake
the desired consistency. The base is prepared
thoroughly till the precipitate which forms, is
either with spermaceti, white wax and almond
entirely redissolved.
oil or with vaseline and paraffin in definite
For sore nipples, itching of the skin, etc., its proportions. for e.g.:
usefulness has been largely tested. a. Spermaceti: 5 parts.
3. LOTIO AC. CARBOL. FORT. White wax: 2 parts.
Rx, Ac. carbol. pur. 3i ss Almond oil: 16 parts.
Glycer. ss. b. Vaseline: 16 parts.
Aq. dest ad. vi Paraffin: 3 parts.
For burns and scalds; to prevent excoriation, Procedure

etc. The constituents of base are taken in a
4. LOTIO BORACIS thoroughly clean porcelain basin and heated
Rx, Pulv. Boracis gr. xx gently. The mixture is constantly stirred till it is
Aq. dest. ii solve. completely melted. The liquid is poured into
another porcelain basin and cooled.
For excoriations; pruritus valvae.
5. LOTIO BORACIS C. CAMPH. Uses
Rx, pulv. Boracis 3i Used as poultices over burns, scalds, boils,
Sp. Camph. i carbuncles, etc.
Lin. sapon’s ii Examples of Cerates

Glycer. ss 1. Aesculus cerate.
2. Arnica cerate.
Aq. dest. xii M
3. Calendula cerate.
For ringworm; dandruff; etc.
4. Cantharis cerate.
6. LOTIO HAMAM. FORT.
5. Chrysarobinum cerate.
Rx, Tr. hamam. Q 3ii
6. Graphites cerate.
An. dest. i M 7. Hamamelis cerate.
For chilblains; fistula; phimosis. 8. Lycopersicum cerate.
9. Urtica urens cerete.
CERATES
Cerates of Cantharis and Urtica urens are
These are unctuous or oily preparations;
most commonly used.
deriving their name from wax (cera). Wax forms
the base of cerates. Their consistency is such For example:
that at ordinary temperature they may be easily 1. ARNICA CERATE
spread upon a surface, and does not run away as Tr. Arn. 3i
a liquid when applied. Simple Cerate Ib
Melts in a sand-bath and stir till cold. a. Linseed - meal Poultices

2. AESCULUS CERATE Boiling water is poured into a heated bowl
Tr. Aesc. hip. i and into this the meal is quickly sprinkled with
Simple cerate Ib. one hand, while the mixture is being constantly
stirred with a stainless steel spatula or knife till
Glycerine i
a smooth paste is formed. Quickly spread some
White wax i paste on the muslin, linen or gauze. A few drops
Mix the tincture with glycerine, but all in the of mother tincture of the required drug are added
melted cerate, stir till cold. to the remaining paste and spread over the cloth.
As Linseed-meal retains heat and moisture
POULTICES OR CATAPLASMS for a long time, it is liable to irritate and inflame
It is a soft, moist, mass spread between delicate skin. Intolerance to Linseed-meal
layers of muslin, linen, gauze or towels and applied poultice have been reported where mere
hot to a given area in order to create moist local application of this poultice has brought on almost
heat or counter-irritation. They are medicinal fatal attacks of asthma.
preparations which stimulate the body surface b. Bread Poultices
or relieve an inflamed area with the air of the
Slices of bread are taken in a basin and
medicated material in the presence of heat and
boiling water is poured over them. Heat by
moisture.
placing them next to a fire for a few minutes.
From the very ancient period they have been Then the water should be poured off to be
prepared from hot water and ‘Linseed meal’ or replaced by fresh boiling water, which is also
other cohesive substances, for maintaining strained off. The bread is pressed and beaten,
closest contact with the skin, and thus also remain and made into a poultice.
hot and moist for a considerably long period.
Bread poultices are very useful because of
They are said to attract disease infection, due to
for their bland and non-irritating properties.
the ‘hygroscopic’ and absorptive characters of
their ingredients, like glycerine, starch, etc. On c. Charcoal Poultices
account of the warmth and moisture, they convey, Mix charcoal with bread poultice thoroughly
the medicinal properties. ‘Poultices’ are applied and uniformly. Just before the application of the
to promote maturation of boils and abscesses, to poultice, sprinkle the surface with a layer of
relieve pain from various parts of the body and charcoal and a simple bread poultice is applied
to alleviate the acute inflammatory diseases of over it. Charcoal poultices remove offensive
the chest. They mitigate pain by relaxing the smells from foul sores and ulcers and favor
tension and promoting perspiration. They act in healthy granulation.
2 ways, give support and protection to the
affected part and bring it with direct contact of d. Carrot Poultices
the medication. Carrots are boiled and mashed. It is then
applied as a poultice. They are said to remove
Types of Poultices slough and promote granulation making the
Depending upon the base used, different wounds cleaner and healthier.
types of poultices are prepared.
e . Spongio-pilene Types
It is a substitute for Linseed poultice and is 1. Hot fomentation.
composed of wool and sponge, with an outside 2. Dry fomentation.
waterproof covering. Steep the sponge surface 3. Cold fomentation.
in hot purified water, wring out and then apply
Hot Fomentation
to the painful part.
Wring a sterilised clean folded cloth out of
Uses hot purified water. If necessary impregnate the
They mitigate pain by relaxing tension and water with a sterilised clean piece of oiled silk
promoting perspiration. Poultices are chiefly and dry flannel to prevent evaporation, and apply
useful in inflammatory conditions like to the painful part.
pneumonia, pleurisy, bronchitis pericarditis, The exact proce-dure to apply hot
peritonitis, acute rheumatism, lumbago, etc. and fomentations is:
to mature and facilitate the discharge of pus in
1. Take a two-fold piece of flannel which is
abscesses and boils.
large enough to cover the affected part.
In order to mature abscesses or disperse 2. Immerse this folded place of flannel in a
inflammations the swize of the poultices should kettle of boiling water or you can pour the
be such that they extend beyond the limits of boiling water over it in a basin.
inflamed margine. However, after discharge has
3. Lift the flannel with the help of a pair of
taken place the size of the poultices should be
tongs or a stick, and put it in a wringer.
just a little larger than the vent through which
Squeeze out as much water as possible. Now
the pus has escaped. They should not be applied
the flannel is ready to be applied over the
for a long time.
affected part.
For pneumonia and all deep-seated
4. Cover it with a large piece of India-rubber
inflammations, poultices must be replaced as
sheeting or oiled-silk, extending about an
soon as they become cool. Do not disturb the
inch beyond the flannel. Place over this a
old poultice till the fresh one is ready to replace
thick layer of cotton-wool and bandage.
it, or else, after the removal of poultice, the part
5. The flannel should be changed every 20 or
should be rapidly dried with a hot towel and then
30 minutes.
covered with a sheet of hot cotton wool.
A strong glass bottle filled with hot water
Poultices must be applied thick and hot, in
can also be applied over the affected parts.
cases of lumbago which are large enough to cover
the affected part. Replace when cool. Continue In some hot fomentations the salt,
the treatment for one to three hours, after which magnesium sulph. is added, whose astringent
the skin should be wiped dry and covered with action helps to draw out the ‘metabolites’ from
flannel, and this again with oiled-silk. the openings of the boils. In general, hot
fomentation helps to increase in circulation and
FOMENTATIONS (FOMENTA) draw away the metabolites from the inflamed
area, thus relieving pain and inflammation.
Fomentations are one of the method of
external applications which does not contain any Uses:
medicine. They are applied for thermal effects. 1. They help in soothing pain, arresting
inflammation and checking the formation of evaporation, and apply it to the affected part.
pus. Cold fomentation is applied for alleviating the
2. Hot fomentations are often valuable adjuncts temperature temporarily ; an ice bag may also
to poultices. be used. The principle of evaporation works in
cold fomentation. Bleeding is stopped sometimes
3. When applied over boils, acne, etc. they
by applying cold by ice, which brings
reduce in size.
contractions of the capillaries at the area of
4. Poultices also help in expulsion of pus. bleeding.
Dry Fomentations Ice-bag
Dry fomentations are used when heat alone It is made of rubber . Break ice into small
is required and relaxation of tissues needs to be pieces and fill up three-fourth part of the rubber
avoided which moisture would cause. Dry heated bag. The mouth of the bag is pressed to expel
substances like, flannel, bran, chamomile the air remaining in the bag. Now tightly close
flowers, salt, sand, etc. are used. The substances the mouth of the bag. Do not keep the ice-bag on
are thoroughly heated and placed in a bag made the affected area for a long time.
for the purpose of
dry fomentation Ice-bags can be put on the head in meningitis,
which had been or in concussion, and on the knee joint for
previously heated. inflammatory conditions.
A hot water bag

made up of rubber
can also be used for
dry fomentations.
The bag is filled
three-fourth part
with hot water. By
pressing the mouth
of the bag vapor is Ice-bag
expelled and then Hot Water Bag
the mouth of the bag is tightly closed.
According to some authorities, cold contracts
Hot-salt Pad not only the capillaries of the skin to which it is
Fill a sterilised clean flannel-bag half with applied, but by reflex action also contracts
hot salt (or sand) and apply over the affected, capillaries of the organs lying underneath it.
painful part. Hence one can apply an ice-bag to the chest to
arrest pulmonary hemorrhage.
Cold Fomentations
It is applied to lessen the heat of the body PLASTERS
surface either by cold water or ice-bag. It works They are sticky, solid compounds made of
on the principle of evaporation. such substances and of such consistency such
Wet a sterilised clean folded cloth in cold that they adhere to the skin, and produce a general
purified water, leave it uncovered to permit or local effect. Or it is a paste like mixture which
can be spread over the skin and which is adhesive Leguiminosae and subfamily, Papilionaceae).
at body temperature. It is also known as Babchi in Hindi.
Preparation Preparation
Base used in preparation of plasters is • Crush seeds to a fineness of 20 meshes.
isinglass. One ounce (30 gms.) of isinglass in • Soak the ground seeds in sesame or til oil, (1
shreds is taken and dissolved in a sufficient part of seeds soaked in 2 parts of oil.
quantity of purified water by boiling the mixture. • Keep like this for 10 days, occasionally
Then the solution is filtered through a clean cloth stirring it.
or towel moistened with distilled or purified • At the end of 10 days strain the solution and
water. The filtrate is evaporated over a waterbath adjust the strength accordingly.
until it gets reduced to 10 ounces (or 300 gms.).
Half of this is spread on a peace of silk, linen, Uses
muslin or leather. The remaining half is mixed 1. Shows marked changes in cases of
with the mother tincture of the required drug and depigmentation of the skin.
spreading is completed. Generally Arnica and 2. Also used in cases of psoriasis, boils,
Calendula plasters are prepared according to the tubercles, liver spots and all other cases of
above procedure, but are in rare use. dirty, looking skin.
Uses 3. In leucoderma.
It’s uses are generally restricted in Mullein Oil
homoeopathy.
Though the preparation is known as ‘Mullen
• Support and protect the affected part. oil’, it does not contain any oil except the
• Brings the medication in direct contact with essential oils present in the flower.
the affected part.
Source
Examples of Plasters:
It is prepared from the flower extract of
• Aconite plaster.
Verbascum thapsus, belonging to the family
• Arnica plaster.
Scrophulariaceae.
• Belladonna plaster.
• Calendula plaster. Uses
• Rhus tox. plaster. 1. Used mainly in otic conditions, like otalgia,
otitis, otorrhea, etc.
OILS
2. It is recommended in formation of scales in
Medicated oils are made by steeping for ear as it is a bactericide.
sometime the requisite medicinal substances in 3. It softens and thereby facilitates removal of
different oils, e.g., olive’, ‘almond’, ‘til’, hardened wax from ear.
‘rosemary’, etc.
4 It also relieves pain in the ear.
Bouchi Oil
Oil of Wintergreen
Source
It is a colorless oil having an aromatic odor
It is prepared from the seeds of a common and a characteristic pungent taste.
herbaceous weed Psoralea corylifolia L., family,
Source Uses
It is obtained from the plant Gaultheria 1. Used in perfumes and cosmetics. It is
fragrentissima. The oil is distilled from the fresh medicinally inert.
plants.
INJECTIONS
Uses
These are liquids which are introduced into
1. Relieves the pain in gout, rheumatism and
any part of the body through a syringe.
sciatica.
2. It is applied over the scrotum in epididymitis. Types
3. It is known to reduce pruritus.
A. Vaginal Injections
Olive Oil These are prepared according to Dr.
Source Ludlam’s formula. 15 ml. (or ½ oz.) of required
It is a fixed oil obtained from ripe fruit of mother tincture is mixed with 45 ml. (or 1½ oz.)
Olea europaea. of glycerine and 60 ml. (2 ounce) of distilled
water and for each injection 4 to 5 ml. of this
Uses mixture is used in sufficient quantity of tepid
1. It is used topically as emollient, in dentistry water.
as a setting retardant for dental cements.
Urethral injections of various drugs are also
2. It is also a purgative when given internally.
prepared in a similar way or as prescribed by the
Arnica Oil physician.
Source B. Rectal Injections
The dry roots of Arnica are coarsely The prescribed amount of drug is mixed with
pulverised. around 60 ml. arrowroot water or thin starch
Preparation solution. It is and injected slowly, so that it may
be retained.
One part of the powder is mixed with nine
parts of olive oil and kept in a well-stoppered For example:
bottle for two weeks in a warm room. The content 1. INJECTIO. GLYCER. HYDRAST.
is then expressed and filtered. Rx, Hydrast. can. Q 3i
Uses Glycer. 3iii M
1. It is used as a hair oil. Aq. dest. ss.
2. Is also used over bruises.
2. INJECTIO POT. PERMANG.
Rosemary Oil Rx, Pot. permang. cyst. grs.
Source v. ver x
It is a small fragrant evergreen shrub, Aq. dest. i Solve.
Rosmarinus officinalis L., belonging to the
Labiatae family. Oil is prepared by steam SURGICAL DRESSINGS
distillation of the fresh flowering tops.
1. Cotton
A. Absorbent Cotton
Raw cotton fibres are subjected to a series Absorbent Lint

of mechanical and chemical cleansing to remove It has a cotton-fibre jetting out and woven
the natural wax and other impurities to make the cotton over one another.
cotton more absorbent. It can be made into rolls
or cotton balls. Three sizes are generally Uses
available, large, medium and small balls. 1. Used for applying ointment plasters.
2. Give support and protection to wounds.
Uses:
1. For application of local medications. Bandages
2. Application of antiseptics and cleaning the Types
skin before parenteral introduction. • Common Gauze Roller Bandages: They are
the most commonly used bandages. They are
B. Non-absorbent Bleached Cotton
made of absorbent cotton threads, woven in
The natural wax of the cotton is retained a mesh and prepared in a continuous roll of
while cleansing off fibres. Thereby it becomes length. They are also known as ‘roller
water repellant. bandages’ as the bandaging material is kept
Uses: rolled up. The open end of the bandage is
called its tail, while the rolled part is called
1. Used for packing, gives cushioning effect to
the head. They can be sterilised and are
the bandages over the wound.
useful in drainage and bandaging.
2. Surgical Gauzes • Electrocrede (Cotton-crape) Bandages:
Gauze gives tensile-strength while They provide greater compression and
maintaining the absorbent quality of the material. support because of their elasticity. They are
The cotton is woven in open mesh cloth. elastic but have no rubber. The elasticity is
due to the special way in which they are
• Gauze-pads woven. The weave which allows it to stretch
These are made by folding one over another practically twice its length. It helps therefore
and cutting it into various sizes, taking care that to bandage varicose veins, sprains, etc. It
no loose threads are left behind. While unfolding allows limited mobility and does not impair
these gauges, no cut ends are visible. circulation.
The popular sizes are: • Adhesive Bandages: These are made of
2x2-12 ply; 3x2-12 ply and 4x4-8 and 16 ply. cotton and may be inelastic (e.g., leucoplast)
or elastic (e.g., elastoplast). They are gaining
• Cotton Filmated Gauzes
fast popularity and are replacing ordinary
These are more economical. Thin absorbent bandages.
cotton is spread evenly in the folds of these Adhesive bandages are commonly used
gauzes, and then folded. where more support is required as in fracture
Sanitary Napkins of a rib or where muscles and ligaments are
They are used in gynecological and maternity involved.
cases. The presence of foiler of absorbent cotton • Plaster of Paris Bandages: These are used
cellulose, makes then better for absorption and in fractures and dislocations where
drainage. immobility is required.
They are always kept in water-proof packings by weight of mother tincture and 1 part by weight
as moisture tends to harden the plaster of ethyl alcohol which was used for preparation
making it useless. of the tinctures are to be mixed.
• Bandages Impregnated with Medicament: Tinctures Prepared According to
Bandages impregnated with Calendula ø, Formula for Class Four
Bellis perennis ø, etc. are used to protect and
If no special direction for the preparation of
soothe the skin, besides promoting healing
any drug substance is given, 1 part by weight of
in chronic conditions, like varicose veins.
mother tincture and 1 part by weight of ethyl
MOTHER TINCTURES FOR EXTERNAL
alcohol which was used for preparation of, the
USE tinctures are to be mixed.
All mother tinctures otherwise specified are
When the mother tincture is prepared
to be diluted with equal parts of alcohol of the
according to original Hahnemannian method, the
same strength used for the preparation of the
mother tincture of the drug to be used in the
mother tinctures.
preparation of external application shall satisfy
(For any other details the H.P.I., Vol. 1 may
the following specification. Tincture prepared
be consulted).
according to:
All the container phials or bottles containing
Formula for Class One and Two the external preparations, must bear the line ‘For
If no special direction for the preparation of External Use Only’, on the respective labels
a particular drug substance is given, 1 part by mentioning the name of drug substance in capital
weight of mother tincture and 1.5 parts by weight letter and the amount of all ingredients.
of ethyl alcohol (45%) are to be mixed. ■
Tinctures Prepared According to
Formula for Class Three
If no special direction for the preparation for
any particular drug substance is given, 1.5 parts
7-6
Principles of Drug Proving
Dear Master presented themselves in the records of poisonings

“How green are you, and fresh in this old by medicines and attempted from these records
world”. - R.E. Dudgeon. to determine what morbid states they would be
useful in. He soon realised the futility of relying
Many novelties were introduced by Dr. on these vague manuscripts. It became
Samuel Hahnemann in the field of medicine. One sufficiently obvious to this diligent personality
of them is drug proving on healthy human beings. that there was no other way, but to test each
This finding was a result of years of patient and medicine individually on the healthy body and
methodical research. carefully notice the exact morbid picture it
Drug proving has been defined in § 105 as developed, so that parallels could be obtained
the process of acquiring knowledge of the for every variety of disease that presented itself
instruments intended for the cure of natural in actual practice.
diseases. It is a systematic and orderly method Accordingly, he set himself on his work and
of investigating the pathogenetic power of a drug. within a few years he presented before the world
Through drug proving we get the knowledge of an array of medicinal substances whose pure
the positive effects of drugs over living organisms pathogenetic action he had ascertained by
i.e. we caused the pathogenetic effects of the experiments conducted on his friends, his family
drug. and himself. The work was published in 1805.
It was called ‘Fragmenta de Viribus
EVOLUTION OF HOMOEO- Medicamentorum Positivus, Sive in Sano
PATHIC DRUG-PROVING Corpore Humano Observatis’; which meant
While searching through the records of fragmentary observations relative to the positive
medicine, Dr. Hahnemann found very little powers of medicines on the human body. Later
literature on the knowledge concerning the pure in the same year he published his much acclaimed
action of drugs. For some time he went on essay, “The Medicine of Experience’. In this
attempting to find parallels for the diseases that essay he details on how experiments with
medicinal substances are to be conducted in order a moist fine mass and then stirred with
to ascertain their pathogenetic effective. double the quantity of alcohol.
For drug proving there are 2 essential 5. Exotic vegetable substances must be
requirements: rendered in the form of powder, for preparing
1. The drug to be proved. tinctures with alcohol when they are in the
fresh state and afterwards be mixed with a
2. The prover.
certain proportion of water.
6. Salts and gums should be dissolved in water
DRUGS OR MEDICINES FOR
just before being taken.
PROVING
7. If the plant can only be procured in its dry
PRE-REQUISITE state, and if its powers are naturally weak,
in that case an infusion of it may be made by
The drugs which will be taken for the cutting the herb into small pieces and pouring
purposes of proving must be: boiling purified water on it, so as to extract
• Perfectly well known. its medicinal parts. Immediately after its
• Their purity and genuineness must be preparation, it must be swallowed while
thoroughly assured. warm, as all expressed vegetable juices and
• It should possess all its active properties and all aqueous infusions of herbs or plants
should be free from all mixtures with other without the addition of alcohol may ferment
drugs. and decompose, and thereby lose all
medicinal properties.
METHOD OF PREPARATION OF
DRUGS FOR PROVING DOSES OF MEDICINES (DRUGS) FOR
PROVING
1. Substances belonging to the animal and
vegetable kingdoms possess their medicinal In proving medicines to ascertain their
qualities most perfectly in raw state. effects on the healthy body (i.e., on a prover), it
2. Indigenous plants—in the fresh state and must be borne in mind that:
freshly expressed juice mixed with equal • Strong heroic drug substance are liable, even
parts of alcohol (strength of the alcohol has in small doses to produce changes in the
not been well defined by Hahnemann. health even of robust persons.
Strength should be sufficient to burn a lamp). • Those of less heroic powers must be given
The mixture should be allowed to stand for for these experiments in more considerable
48 hours, so that the fibrinous and quantities.
albuminous matter settles down and the clear • The weakest medicines should be preferably
fluid is decanted. given to healthy, delicate, irritable, sensitive
3. Plants that contain much thick mucus like persons to prove.
Symphytum, Viola tricolor, etc., or an excess
of albumen like Aethusa, a double proportion MODE OF ADMINISTRATION
of alcohol is generally required. • The medicine should be taken on an empty
4. Plants that are deficient in juice as Oleander, stomach, daily for several days.
Ledum, etc. must be pounded up alone into
Principles of Drug Proving 399
• The dose should be of 4-6 small globules of • Mental symptoms and subjective symptoms
the 30th potency moistened with a little cannot be expressed by animals. Hence these
water. symptoms are lost in animal drug proving.
• If the drug produces only a slight effect, a • We can’t obtain modalities and sensations
few more globules may be taken daily till from animals. Hence we cannot get a
the effect becomes more prominent. complete symptom.
• Start the proving with a small dose of the • The effect of drugs on animals and humans
drug, and increase the dose day by day if may be different.
required. While proving medicines on humans, we
select healthy human beings and not sick
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
individuals as:
DURING PROVING
• The correct/true effect of drugs cannot be
As regards the medicine to be proved: clearly observed on an already deranged vital
• Every medicinal substance must be pure, force. The disease symptoms can get mixed
without admixture of any foreign substance. up with the drug symptoms.
• A prover must not take anything else of a • In the diseased state, the sick individual may
medicinal nature on the same day, nor on be hypersensitive or hyposensitive. Hence
subsequent days, not during the time we want the intensity of symptoms may be altered.
to observe the effect of the medicine. • In case the symptoms of the drug being
• Do not administer large doses of a medicine proved are similar to those of the sick prover,
as they may produce a secondary reaction. the symptoms may be cured or partially
• Don’t give medicine for several successive relieved, and so all the drug symptoms will
days in over increasing doses as too frequent not be clearly visible.
repetition can confuse the symptoms. • In case the drug used for proving is of an
opposite nature, it will bring temporary
THE PROVER palliation.
PRE-REQUISITE • If the drug is of dissimilar nature to the
disease, a complex disease may result.
• Must be normal, in a healthy state. All
functions of the body should be in proper QUALITIES AND TYPES OF A PROVER
balance so we can estimate and weigh the
There are 3 types of provers:
degree of disturbance caused during drug
proving. 1. An ideal prover.
• The circumstances around the prover should 2. The best prover.
be those of his normal surroundings. 3. An idiosyncratic prover.
SELECTION OF A PROVER 1. An Ideal Prover

He should be:
In homoeopathy, drugs are proved on healthy
• Healthy, free from all diseases.
human beings. Animals are not preferred due to
• Intelligent.
the following reasons:
• Of delicate and irritable temperament.
• Sensitive in nature. occurances. The prover will have to mention

• Trust worthy. the time after the ingestion of drug, when
each of the symptoms arose; and if a
2. The Best Prover symptom lasts longer, then the period of its
He is the physician himself with the duration, a ‘day-book’ is provided for this
following qualities: purpose.
• Healthy. ii. The physician must look over the report
• Unprejudiced. scrutinizingly in the presence of the prover,
• Sensitive. immediately after the experiment is finished.
iii. But, if the experiment continues for a long
A physician is the best prover as:
period, the physician should inspect the day
• His recording will be accurate. - book of the prover daily, while everything
• He is an unprejudiced observer and is still fresh in his memory. Through
honest. questioning and cross-questioning of the
• Any alteration in the state of health prover, each symptom becomes more precise
experienced by the physician himself and complete with regards to its sensations,
becomes an incontrovertible fact. localities, modalities and other concomitant
• He is a better judge of the mental, moral factors.
and physical equilibrium.
2. Illiterate Prover
• During repeated provings, he can record If the prover cannot write, it is a disadvantage
the alterations very minutely. as:
• Through drug proving, the physician gets • The physician has to interrogate him
trained to be a good observer. daily about his symptoms (for a literate
• Drug proving increases the physician’s prover he does not have to do this).
resistance to artificial and natural • The physician should not ask any leading
diseases. questions while the prover narrates his
3. An Idiosyncratic Prover symptoms.
An idiosyncratic prover is the best prover of ABOUT THE PROVER

the substance to which he is idiosyncratic.
In General
Depending upon the literacy of the prover,
provers are divided into two types: • Must be trustworthy, upright and intelligent
enough to describe his sensation in accurate
1. Literate prover.
terms.
2. Illiterate prover.
• His body must be in a good state of health,
1. Literate Prover mentally and physically.
He is a better choice for drug proving as: • Drugs should be tested on both males and
i. The physician can ask the prover to note females in order to reveal the alterations of
down clearly and distinctly all his sensations, health they produce in the sexual sphere.
sufferings, accidents and his changes in • Drugs must be tested on provers of varying
health, as he feels at the time of their ages in order to reveal the alterations of
health they produce in different age spheres. HOW TO CONDUCT DRUG

• The prover must take medicine on an empty PROVING
stomach.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
• Physicians are the best provers.
The drug proving experiments are most
Diet complicated and delicate due to the following
• Substances having medicinal properties reasons:
should not be ingested on the same day or
1. The doses employed for producing the
on subsequent days or on all days that we
corresponding varieties of symptoms vary
wish to observe the effects of the drug.
considerably in different drugs, as well as in
• The diet of the prover during drug proving
the same drug in respect of the varying
has to be strictly regulated:
degrees of its attenuations.
- As far as possible, the diet should be free
2. The susceptibility of different provers to the
of spice.
same drug varies to a great extent. The degree
- It should be of a purely nutritious and
of individual susceptibility is only
simple character.
ascertained by experiments. Say, after taking
- Green vegetables, roots, salads and herbs 400 drops of Stillingia one prover gets no
should be avoided because even when effect; while another taking only 20 drops
these are most carefully prepared, some may experience violent ‘specific symptoms’.
possess some disturbing medicinal
3. The susceptibility of provers to the different
qualities. Only young green peas, green
trituration and succussion of the same drug
French beans and in all cases carrots are
is various.
allowed as they have the least medicinal
4. One prover experiences characteristic,
properties.
uncommon and peculiar symptoms from
- The prover must not be in the habit of
massive or large doses of crude drugs, and
taking pure wine, brandy, tea or coffee.
is not affected by smaller doses; while
Before starting the proving, he must not
another is acted on by dilutions but not by
consume these injurious beverages for
quantity of the crude substance.
a considerable time as some of these are
stimulating and the others medicinal. RULES FOR DRUG PROVING
Mentally 1. We must prove the drug both in ‘dilutions’
• During the period of experiment, he must and in massive doses, from very minute
avoid all sorts of over-exertion of mind and infinitesimal potencies to crude drugs.
body, as well as dissolute living and 2. As all persons are not affected by a medicine
disturbing passions. in an equally great degree, and as this cannot
• He should have no urgent business to distract be known beforehand, it is advisable to
his attention. commence in every instance with a small
• He must devote himself to careful self- dose of the drug and, when suitable and
observation, and he must not be disturbed necessary, one should increase the dose from
while so engaged. day to day. The duration of the action of a
• He must avoid all sorts of dissipations and drug can only be ascertained by a comparison
disturbing passions. of several experiments.
3. The provings should be commenced with the physician the latter must note down
dilutions and next high dilutions are distinctly the sensations, sufferings,
employed till satisfactory evidence is accidents and changes of health.
obtained and the prover is not susceptible to
their action. Thus we overcome one OBJECTS OF DRUG PROVING
unknown problem, i.e., the measure of the 1. We determine the pathogenetic effect of
susceptibility of the prover. drugs.
4. Where a keen susceptibility is observed to 2. To observe and record the alterations
exist, the greatest care must be exercised not produced by the drug in the normal healthy
to disturb the susceptibility and with this state.
view repeated experiments must be
3. To determine the characteristics of the drug
undertaken at long intervals, using ‘high
and its disease picture.
potencies’ until no new variety of symptoms
are exhibited. Next, after a long period of WHEN IS A MEDICINE THOROUGHLY
non-medication, the prover should be PROVED
administered first with ‘lower potencies’ and
then ‘small doses of the crude drug’ We can only be assured that a medicine has
repeatedly at intervals, and finally after been thoroughly proved when:
another long period of repose, ‘large doses a. Subsequent experiments can reflect little of
of crude drug’ should be administered. the character from its action.
A thorough drug proving after this procedure b. During all re-provings almost always only
may consume a long time for its completion; the same symptoms are exhibited, as had
but still it has an advantage over most of the been already observed by others.
recent provings, as it is thorough as well as c. The symptoms are most carefully recorded
permanent, and of certain use to the complete with regard to their specific
practitioner. sensations, localities, modalities with their
5. In drug proving experiments with dilutions, concomitant factors, so that a complete
or massive doses a considerable long period individual picture of the drug disease has
should be given for ascertaining the action been established.
of each medicine or drug, so that the full d. Clinically verified and has not exhibited any
effect may be properly observed in the clinical symptoms even after repeating.
production of dyscrasias, etc. e. The drug should be proved on suitable
6. Greatest care must be exercised in verifying persons of both sexes, all ages and various
different varieties and series of symptoms constitutions.
by repeated experiments, so that the
‘imaginary’ as well as the chemical and RECORDING OF SYMPTOMS DURING
mechanical symptoms may be excluded. DRUG PROVING
7. The duration of the action of a drug can only • In case of narcotic drug substance proving,
be ascertained by a comparison of several symptoms of secondary action are to be
experiments on different sexes and ages. recorded.
8. If the prover is another person apart from • In all other drugs (except narcotics), the
symptoms of primary action are to be • The heroic medicines exhibit their action
recorded. even when given in small doses, to healthy
• Some drugs produce alternating actions and even strong individuals.
which should be recorded. • Those that have a weaker action must be
• Record modalities with great precision. given for these experiments in very
• Any alterations from the normal state of considerable doses.
health (however minor) should be recorded. • The weakest medicines however only show
their absolute action in such subjects as are
RELATIVE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF
free from disease, who are delicate, irritable
EMPLOYING LARGE AND MODERATE
and sensitive.
DOSES
• In order to ascertain the effects of less
Merits powerful medicines, we must give only one
Merits of employing the more moderate pretty string dose to the temperate healthy
doses of medicines within certain limit, in drug person who is the subject of the experiment,
proving experiment are that: and it is best to give it in solution. If we wish
to ascertain the remaining symptoms, which
i. The primary effects are more distinctly
were not revealed by the first trial, we may
developed.
give to another person, or to the same
ii. Only these primary effects, which are more individual, but only after a lapse of several
worth knowing, occur without any admixture days, when the action of the first dose is fully
of secondary effects or reactions of the vital over, a similar or even stronger portion, and
force. note the symptoms of irritation thence
Demerits resulting in the same careful and sceptical
manner.
Demerits of employing excessive large doses
of medicine in proving are : • For medicines that are still weaker we
require, in addition to a considerable dose,
i. The primary effects appear in such hurried
individuals that are, it is true, healthy, but of
confusions and with such violence that
very irritable, delicate constitutions.
nothing can be accurately observed.
ii. The secondary effects also appear being • The more obvious and striking symptoms
mixed up with primary effects. must be recorded in the list; those that are of
a dubious character should be marked with
iii. The danger of poisoning and threatening the
the sign of dubiety, until they have been
life of the prover exists.
frequently confirmed.
• In the investigation of these medicinal
GLIMPSES OF “THE MEDICINE
symptoms, all suggestions must be carefully
OF EXPERIENCE”
avoided.
• A medicine which given to a healthy
• It must be chiefly the mere voluntary
individual alone and uncombined, in
narration of the person who is the subject of
sufficient quantity, causes a determinate
the experiment, nothing like glasswork,
action, a certain array of symptoms, retains
nothing obtained by dint of cross
the tendency to excite the same, even in the
questioning, that should be noted down as
very smallest dose.
truth, and still less expressions of sensations • It was Dr. Samuel Hahnemann who
that have previously been put in the introduced drug proving on healthy human
experimenter’s mouth. beings (§ 109). However, he acknowledges
• In diseases (the weakest as well as the that Albrecht Von Haller, in his ‘Swiss
strongest medicines) show their absolute Pharmacopoeic’ had explicity recommended
actions, but so intermingled with the to test medicines on healthy beings but did
symptoms of the disease, that only a very not practically carry out such experiments
experienced experimenter and fine observer (footnote, § 108).
can distinguish them. In the ‘Lectures on the Theory and Practice
• Even in diseases, amid the symptoms of the of Homoeopathy’, R.E. Dudgeon mentions
original disease, the medicinal symptoms a few allopathic physicians who made such
may be discovered, is the subject for the experiments. Dr. William Alexander of
exercise of a higher order of inductive minds, Edinburge made experiments on healthy
and must be left to masters only in the art of human beings with Camphor, which nearly
observation. resulted in his own death. Though he pushed
an essay on the subject, it excited very little
As years advanced, his mode of proceeding
attention. Professor Jorg of Leipzig, founded
altered to a certain degree. His most matured
a society for proving medicines on healthy
ideas on the subject are elaborated in the
beings to show that the experiments
Organon of Medicine, from § 105 - § 145.
conducted by Hahnemann were false and so
were his therapeutics. He sought to obtain
GLIMPSES OF “ORGANON OF
indications for the employment of medicines
MEDICINE” (5TH EDITION)
on the principles of contraria contrariis. He
• A true physician should acquire a knowledge failed miserably in his attempt and
of instruments for the cure of disease. This Hahnemann’s conclusions were justified. As
instrument is the pathogenetic power of professor Jorg had conducted his
medicines. experiments carefully, the results were
• Pathogenetic effects of several medicines immediately incorporated by Hahnemann in
should be ascertained by studying the his pathogenesis and however, Jorg may seek
alterations and symptoms it produces in to repudiate the distinction, he became one
healthy individuals and thereby select of the most useful and extensive contributor
suitable homoeopathic remedies for most of to the homoeopathic materia medica.
the natural diseases (§ 106). • Every medicine exhibits peculiar actions on
• If proving is conducted on sick even though the human frame different from every other
the medicine be administered singly, the and therefore medicine must be thoroughly
peculiar alteration of health produced by the distinguished from one another by careful
medicine will be mixed up with the pure experiments on the healthy body (§ 118
symptoms of disease (§ 107). - § 120).
• There is no other possible way to study the • Stronger medicines develop their action even
peculiar effects of medicines, than to conduct in small doses on robust individuals. Weaker
provings on healthy individuals, in moderate medicines must be given in larger doses in
doses (§ 108). order that we may get to know their powers
and the weakest will only show their action to produce more distinct alterations in health.
on very irritable delicate to sensitive subjects Moreover, as the degree of action on
(§ 121). different individuals cannot be predicated in
• We should take care that the medicines we a priori, it is best to commence with the
employ for our proving are genuine and smallest dose and increase the successive
unadulterated (§ 122). doses when required (§ 129).
• Indigenous plants should be taken in the form • It is a great advantage when the first dose
of freshly expressed juice mixed with itself takes effect, for then we can learn
alcohol; exotic substances made available in better, the sequence of symptoms the drug
powder or tincture form should be prepared produces. This is not possible if it is required
when freshly gathered, is taken with water, to give several successive doses of the drug
salts and gums should be dissolved in water substance to produce an action. If, however,
just before being taken; plants obtained in we do not care about the sequential order of
dry form and of very weak power, should be the symptom phenomena, but merely wish
taken in the form of infusion, swallowing it to know the symptoms produced by the drug,
while warm (§ 123). the best method is to give it everyday in
increasing doses (§ 130-§132).
• No other substance of medicinal nature
should be taken during the period of drug • Duration of the action of a drug can only be
proving (§ 124). The diet should be regulated ascertained by a comparison of several
so as to avoid all medicinal and stimulating experiments (§ 130).
food and beverages (fruit, salads, herb • When the prover experiences any sensation,
soups). Wine, brandy, coffee or tea should he or she should try to elicit what effects
be avoided for a considerable, time before change of position, walking, the open air, the
the experiment begins. An ideal diet must close room, eating, drinking, coughing,
be simple yet nourishing. Green vegetables, sneezing, etc have on the sensation or
young green peas, green Fresh beans and complaint and note the time of the day when
carrots are, allowable (§ 125 and its foot- it occurs (§ 133).
note). • All the symptoms a medicine can produce
• Over-exertion of mind and body and are not observable on one person, so we
disturbing passions should be avoided. The require to test it on many in order to ascertain
prover must portray in speech and writing them (§134).
his sensations and complaints (§ 126). • A drug can be said to have been thoroughly
• Both males and females are required for proved or fully proved only when numerous
experiments (§127). experiments have been conducted on both
• Best method of proving medicines, even such sexes and various constitutions and
as are deemed weak, is to give the subsequent experiments show very little
experimenter, on empty stomach, daily from novelty in symptoms (§ 135).
four to six very small globules of the 30th • It must be remembered that, though a
potency moistened with a little water for medicine may not produce all its effects on
several days, until an effect of such a dose is a healthy individual, it is capable of
slight, few more globules may be taken daily producing such an effect in a morbid person
presenting with similar symptoms, even will be free from doubts about the
when given in smallest dose. This fact aids genuineness of symptoms as reported by
in curing the sick (§ 136). others; and his health, far from suffering, in
• More moderate the dose used for the long run will be much benefited by these
experiments, more distinct are the primary trials (§ 141 and its footnote).
actions observed of the medicine. Too large • If the symptoms produced by a medicine
doses give rise to disturbing secondary employed to cure a disease, especially of
actions (§ 137). chronic character, is included in the materia
• All the phenomena (sufferings, accidents and medica, the differentiation of it from original
changes of health) that arise in the symptoms of the malady should be left to
experimenter during the action of a medicine masters in observation (§ 142). Usually in
are solely derived from this medicine and such cases, the symptoms which, during the
must be regarded and registered as its whole course of the disease, might have been
symptoms, even though the experimenter has observed only a long time previously, or
observed the occurrence of similar symptoms never before, (consequently new ones,
a considerable time previously (§ 138). belong entirely to the medicine (§ 142
footnote).
• If the physician does not perform the trials
on himself, he should closely superintend • A true materia medica is a collection of real,
and scrutinize the experiments of the person pure, reliable action of medicinal substances
he employs for this purpose in minutest obtained by adopting the above mentioned
details. procedures. This is the true homoeopathic
materia medica, an instrument for effecting
• The experimenter must record distinctly all
certain and permanent cure (§ 143).
the sensations and complaints he
experienced with respect to time, duration, • When a considerable store of medicines are
modalities, etc. (§ 139). observers, thus accurately proved on we will
be able to cure every malady in the world (§
• The physician should verify and clarify the
145). The healing art will then come near
symptoms scrupulously while everything is
the mathematical sciences in certainty (§ 145
still fresh in the memory of the experimenter
footnote).
(§ 139).
• If the patient is not able to write, the GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
physician must be informed everyday of the
details of his sensations and complaints. All • Before the commencement of an experiment,
the narrations must be voluntary (§ 140). few precautions have to be observed to keep
at bay the admission into materia medica of
• But the best method is for the physician to
many symptoms that are irrelevant. The
make his experiments on himself, provided
psychic and physical make up of the prover
he is healthy, unprejudiced and sensitive. If
must be ascertained. The prover must be
he does so, he gains a great advantage in
subjected to a complete medical
tracing the accurate picture of the symptoms;
examination.
himself experiences the incontrovertible fact;
he understands his dispositions, he acquires • The mental dispositions should be accurately
and sharpens his power of observations; he sketched by the physician in few sessions.
These observation should be properly PROFORMA FOR DRUG

recorded so as to cross-check with the PROVING
symptoms which are obtained during • Prologue.
proving. The prover should be under such • Acknowledgement.
observation for about two months before
• Introduction.
proving actually begins.
• Pharmacognosy study.
• Drug proving is a serious business. If any
• Chemical studies.
aspect mentioned above is compromised
• Method and material.
with, the utility of such an experiment will
be nullified and will result in loss of man, • Name of drug proved.
money, material and time. • Statistical study.
• Drug proving must confer to the protocol • Discussion.
issued by the authority in the respective • Conclusion.
countries and while re-proving, an official • Appendix:
pharmacopoeia must be consulted. 1. Names of the provers.
2. Medical case sheet (Proforma).
• References.
APPENDIX-1
Name of the Unit:
Name of the Project Officer:
Name of Provers:
S. No. Name Age Sex
APPENDIX-2
MEDICAL CASE SHEET
Name of the Prover Place of Birth Sex

Date of Birth Occupation Weight
Age Address Height
Married/Single
Code No.
Preliminary Examination Present State of Health

Date of Examination Signs and symptoms with their causation,
General Examination duration, location, extension, sensation,
modalities and concomitants.
Appearance
Tall Past History
Stoop shoulder Any major sickness, like typhoid, malaria,
Erect dysentery, tuberculosis, rheumatism, cardiac
Medium height disease, skin eruption, headache, neuralgia.
Short Family History
Built Hereditary predisposition
Thin Epilepsy
Medium Metabolic disease
Obese (stout) Cardiac disease
Color/texture of the skin Cancer
Skin Rheumatism
Greasy Gout
Shining Personal History
Dry Habit/Addiction
Eyes Susceptibility/Idiosyncrasy
Hair Allergies
Distribution Desires/Aversions
Quality Mode of life
Temperament Marital history (if married).
Mild/Yielding Particular Examination
Hot (short)
Mind
Irritable/Cheerful
Emotional
Peevish
Rage, fury, etc.
Calm and quiet Moods
Amiable
Melancholic /Hypochondriac Active/Sluggish

Cheerful Right
Changeable Left
Indifference Lashes
Fretful Upper
Intellectual Lower
Thoughts Lachrymal apparatus
Memory Right
Cognition Left
Dreams Conjunctiva
Describe in full, if present Right
*Personality Trait Left
Name of the Examiner Cornea
Date and Signature Right
Left
*Should be assessed by a trained Psychiatrist
Pupil
through simple test known in the science of
Right
psychology.
Left
Code No. Size
Nervous System Right
Physical Examination Left
General survey Shape
Examine for physical functions Right
Cranial Function Left
All the cranial nerves should be Reactivity to light
examined Right
Sensory Functions Left
Muscular efficiency Accommodation
Co-ordination of muscles Right
Gait Left
Reflexes Anterior chamber
X-ray of the skull, if necessary Right
Name of the Examiner Left
Date and Signature Tension
Right
Code No. Left
Eye Vision
External Examination
Without glasses
Lids/Margin
Right
Right
Left Left
Corrected with glasses Indrawn

Pushed forward
Right Perforation
Left
Pain (otalgia)
Lens
Discharge (otorrhea)
Right
Odor
Left
Optic Disc Consistency
Shape With blood/Without blood
Retinoscopy Foreign Body
Color Fungus Growth
Periphery of disc. Any sign and symptoms associated, viz,
Macular region pain, etc.
Blood Vessels Hearing Test (Both Ears)
Periphery Tuning fork test
See for Papilloedema Bony conduction
Papillitis
Air conduction
Retinal hemorrhage
Also
Embolism, etc.
Color Test Audiometry (if found necessary).
Also any eye disease in the past. Any other subjective symptoms that may
arise due to proving.
Familial predisposition to any disease
reflecting changes in the eye viz., hypertension, Any history of ear disease in the past or in
diabetes, nephritis, etc. the family.
Symptoms with relation to eyes or any History of eruptive fever/vaccination, etc.
special idiosyncrasy, etc. after which any ear complaints have started.
Any other symptoms associated with the
Name of the Examiner complaint of the ear.
Date and Signature
Code No. Name of the Examiner
Date and Signature
Ear
External Pinna Code No.
Development Nose and Throat
Any skin infection External Morphology
External Auditory Meatus Condition of nasal bridge
Any growth Elevated depressed
Discharge Nasal Mucosa
Dry
Accumulation of wax
Ulceration
Tympanic Membrane Catarrh
Excoriative Heart
Bland Action—Force
Obstruction to Respiration Frequency
Right Regularity
Left Rhythm
Any Septal Defects Sounds
Any Condition Arising Out of This Defect. First
Sinuses and Their Conditions Duration
Nasopharynx Character
Tonsils Rhythm
Normal Strength
Hypertrophied Regularity
Excised (cause) Second
Susceptible tonsils Duration
Eustachian Opening (Examination) Character
Sense of Smell Rhythm
Hypo Strength
Hyper Regularity
Normal Reduplicated or not
Any allergic idiosyncrasy Adventitious
Husky, thick Organic murmur
Voice Functional murmur
Nasal tone (Peculiar changes in sound)
Weak Pulse
Catarrh of Nose and Throat Rate
Color Strength
Serous Regularity
Mucopurulent Tension
Acrid Rhythm
Bland Condition of vessel wall
Any Other Finding That is Relevant to the Electro-cardiogram, if found
Points necessary
Name of the Examiner Respiratory System
Date and Signature General Examination
Code No. See for any Respiratory Distress (Alaenasi
General Examination of Cardiac, Movement)
Respiratory, Gastro-intestinal Systems Modalities
Cardiovascular System Cough
General Examination Concomitant
Any Signs or Symptoms Inspiration (per minute)
Suggestive of cardiac disorder viz. Expiration (per minute)
cyanosis, breathlessness, oedema of legs or pain Respiration (per minute)
in chest on exertion etc.
Pulse Respiration Ratio Urethra

X-Ray Picture if Required Any structure/Polyp, etc. (pass sound
(Note the size of the lungs and heart and their relation) only if deemed necessary)
Gastro-intestinal System Prostate
General Examination Do per rectum examination if suspected
Digestion in general to be enquired Scrotum
Any particular item of food that does not Look for any herniation and filariasis
agree or produces any digestive Spermatic cord
disturbances. Testicles
Food Habit Left
Type (details) Right
Time Relative size
Regular
Left
Irregular
Right
Bowel Habit
Type Epididymis
Formed Left
Loose Right
Time Hydrocele
Regular Left
Irregular Right
Liver
Varicocele
Gall-bladder
Colon—Including Caecum, Sigmoid. Left
Any Symptom of Hyperacidity with Relation Right
to Any Item of Food, etc. Undescended
Left
Name of the Examiner Right
Date and Signature
Inguinal glands
Code No. Left
Genito-urinary System Right
General Examination Frequency of Urination
Kidney Quantity
Right Odor
Left Color
Bladder Any Pain Associated with Micturition
Radiating
Cystoscopy should be done only if
essentially required Localised
Temperature with rigor (if present) Tenderness

Any such history in the past Speculum Examination
Cervix
Position
Name of the Examiner
Erosion
Date and Signature Discharge
Code No. Condition (spatulous)
Female Sexual Organs Any growth
Married/Single Walls of vagina
If Married, How Long Discharge
No. of Children Ulceration
Any Abortion, etc. Cystocele
Probable Cause of Miscarriage Rectocele
External Examination Menstruation
Genitalia History
Development
Date of an period
Normal
Age of monarche
Abnormal (in what way)
Ulcers Duration
Color of the Skin Cycle
Hair and Their Distribution *Quantity
Per Vagina Examination Scanty
Uterus Less
Position Medium
Retroverted Heavy
Mobile Regular/Irregular
Non-mobile Pain associated with menstruation
Retroflexed Any other signs or symptoms associated
Anteverted with menstruation (such as nausea,
Anteflexed vomiting, diarrhea, colicky pain, loss of
Size of the uterus appetite or peculiar craving for food,
etc.)
Infantile
Normal Present condition of menstruation
Bulky Whether
Regular/Irregular/Abnormal
Fornices Duration
Left Cycle
Right Quantity
Tubes Odor
Size of tubes Reaction
Any mass
* This can be ascertained by the number of pads used.
Any other signs/symptoms associated Any Eruptions

with menstruation, in the other organs (Past in details)
of the body or mind. (Present in details)
Leucorrhea Location
Constant (since when) Sensation (if any)
Character of discharge, margins, etc.
Any apparent cause to have started, viz.
(Macular/Papular, etc.)
since the starting of active sexual life
Modalities
child birth abortion, menopause, etc.
Concomitants
Irregular Discharge
Either prior to menstruation or after Kindly investigate deep into the cause of skin
menstruation eruption with relation to any suppression of
Quantity disease condition, vaccination, medication
Color allergy, susceptibility, venereal disease, gout,
Consistency etc.
Odor Family history of any miasmatic disorders.
Any symptoms viz., itching, burning
associated or appreciable signs anywhere in Name of the Examiner
the organs of the body viz., low backache, Date and Signature
vertigo, weakness, etc. Code No.
If Menstruation is Abnormal
Pathological Examination
Menorrhagic
Oligomenorrhagic Routine
Metrorrhagic Blood
Polymenorrhagic Total RBC
Any symptoms viz. itching, burning\ Hemoglobin—color index
associated as tenderness in breast, cold or Total WBC
hot feeling in the body. Differential count
(Look for any abnormal cells)
Constipation, diarrhea, etc.
ESR (if found necessary)
(Write in detail by interrogating the prover) Blood chemistry (if necessary)
For sugar
Name of the Examiner
For cholesterol
Date and Signature
For urea NPN
Code No. For serum phosphate, uric acid, etc.
Skin Urine
General Examination Stool
Color Serum
Texture ■
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Section - 8
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ANALYSIS OF DRUGS
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8.1 Sampling and Methods of Analysis.
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8.2 Limit Tests.
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8.3 Identification of Some Chemicals and Their Drugs.
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8.4 Chromatography.
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Who could trust to avaricious apothecaries paying
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attention to all these particulars.
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417
8-1
Sampling and Methods of Analysis
Sampling is the process of learning about diversity is a universal quality of mass data,
the population aggregate on the basis of a sample every aggregate has character and properties with
drawn from it. Thus, in the sampling technique limited variation. This makes possible to select
instead of every unit of the universe* only a part a relatively small unbiased traits of the aggregate
of the universe is studied and the conclusions under study.
are drawn on that basis for the entire universe.
The process of sampling involves three elements: CRITERIA OF A SAMPLE
• Selecting the sample.
For the sample results to have any
• Collecting the information.
worthwhile meaning, it is necessary that a sample
• Making an inference about the aggregate (i.e. possesses the following criteria:
drug substance).
• Representativeness: A sample should be so
selected that it truly represents the universe.
THEORETICAL BASIS OF
• Adequacy: The size of the sample should be
SAMPLING
adequate, otherwise, it may not represent the
Sample is that part of the universe which we characteristics of the universe.
select for the purpose of investigation. Care must • Independence: All the items of the universe
be taken in ensuring that a sample exhibits the should have equal chance of being selected
characteristic of the universe. in the sample.
Sampling is based on the assumption that no • Homogeneity: There should be no basic
aggregate will have elements which vary from difference in the nature of units of the
each other without limit. We find that although universe and that of the sample.
* The word ‘universe’ as used in statistics denotes the aggregate(here bulk of drug substance) from which the sample is
taken.
METHOD OF SAMPLING OF • Several random samples are

DRUG SUBSTANCES collected by hand from different
portions of the bulk.
1. When the component parts of the substance
• The collected samples are
are less than 1 cm. in any dimension, and all
thoroughly mixed together, divided
ground or powdered drugs. With the aid of a
into four equal parts and placed in
sample, collect a core from the top to the
four quadrants. Either two of the
bottom of the drug substance. Not less than
diagonally placed portions are taken
two cores should be taken in opposite
while the other two are rejected. The
directions.
portions thus selected are again
a. When total weight is less than 100 kgs: mixed together and subjected to the
• The official sample size should be same procedure mentioned before.
atleast 250 gms. This process is repeated till the two
• The bulk of drug substance is selected portions weigh approxi-
powdered. mately 500 gms. This sample
becomes the official sample.
b. When total weight is more than 100 kgs:
3. When the total weight of the drug substance
• Several samples are collected and
is very less (that is less than 10 kgs.).
thoroughly mixed together. Then
divide them into four equal parts and The above described method is followed but
placed in four quadrants. Either of the quantity selected in each step will be
the diagonally placed portions are decreased and the official sample will weigh
taken while the other two portions about 125 gms.
are rejected. The portions thus
selected in thoroughly mixed and PREPARING A SAMPLE FOR
again divided into four equal parts TESTING
and subjected to the same procedure
mentioned before. This is done till It may be done as specified in the individual
the two selected portion weigh about monographs published in the official
250 gms. The sample thus selected pharmacopoeia. It not specified, follow the
becomes the official sample. following method:
2. When the component parts of the samples Generally, the official sample collected by
of drug substance are more than 1 cm. in any the above described quartering process is
dimension. Collect the sample by hand. powdered (if previously not done), so as to pass
a. When the total weight is less than 100 through number 20 standard mesh of a sieve. It
kgs. Atleast 500 gms. shall be taken as the drug is not groundable, reduce the same to
an official sample and it should be as fine a state as is possible. Next, the powdered
collected from different parts of the gross sample is thoroughly mixed by rolling it out
sample. evenly into a thin layer on a clean surface like
that of a paper or sampling cloth. Then a battery
b. When the total weight of the drug
of tests are run on it as follows:
substance is more than 100 kgs.
Sampling and Methods of Analysis 419
DETERMINATION OF VARIOUS DETERMINATION OF RESIDUE ON

FACTORS IN A SAMPLE IGNITION
Take a quantity of the powdered substance
DETERMINATION OF FOREIGN which may be expected to yield a residue of about
ORGANIC MATTER 0.001 g. Weigh accurately and proceed as
Weigh 25 gms. to 500 gms. of the sample directed for the ‘Determination of Ash’, as
substance and spread it out into a thin layer. The mentioned above.
macroscopic organic impurities are hand-picked
as thoroughly as possible and weighed. The DETERMINATION OF WATER-
percentage of foreign organic matter present is SOLUBLE ASH
estimated. For coarse and bulky drugs, the
Boil the ash for five minutes with 25 ml. of
maximum quantity of sample is taken.
water. Collect the insoluble matter in a tarred
Gooch crucible, or on an ashless filter paper.
DETERMINATION OF TOTAL ASH Wash with hot water and ignite to constant weight
Take 2 or 3 gms. accurately weighed, air- at a low temperature. Subtract the weight of
dried ground drug (official sample) in a tarred insoluble matter from the weight of the ash. The
platinum or silica dish previously ignited and difference in weight represents the water-soluble
weighed. Scatter the ground drug in a fine even ash. Calculate the percentage of water-soluble
layer on the bottom of the dish. Incinerate by ash with reference to the air dried drug.
gradually increasing the heat, not exceeding dull
red heat until free from carbon; cool and weigh DETERMINATION OF ACID-IN-
to a constant weight. If a carbon-free ash cannot SOLUBLE ASH
be obtained in this way, exhaust the charred mass
Boil the ash, as obtained in the above method
with boiling water and collect the insoluble
with 25 ml. of dilute hydrochloric acid for 5
residue on an ashless filter paper. Incinerate the
minutes. Collect the insoluble matter on an
residue and filter paper until the ash is nearly
ashless filter paper or a tarred Gooch crucible.
white or so. Next add the filtrate and evaporate
Wash with hot water, ignite and weigh at constant
to dryness and heat the whole to a dull redness.
weight. Calculate the percentage of acid-
Calculate the percentage of ash with reference
insoluble ash from the weight of the air-dried
to the air-dried drug.
drug taken.
DETERMINATION OF SULPHATED
DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CON-
ASH
TENT FOR CHEMICALS
Take 2 or 3 gms. of the air-dried drug,
accurately weighed in a silica disk. It is moistened Gravimetric Method
with concentrated sulphuric acid and ignited The following method is employed for
gently. Again moisten with sulphuric acid, re- determining the moisture content:
ignite, cool and weigh. Calculate the percentage Loss in Drying: Unless otherwise directed
of sulphated ash with reference to the air-dried in the monograph, conduct the determination on
drug. 1 to 2 gms. of the sample, accurately weighed. If
the sample is in the form of large crystals, reduce 3. Seeds and fruits bigger than 3 mm. should
the particle size to about 2 mm. by quickly be cracked to render them about 3 mm. in
crushing them. Take a glass stoppered, shallow thickness. In preparing the sample avoid the
weighing bottle that has been dried for 30 use of high speed mills.
minutes under the same conditions for the test For all the above three classes, exercise most
and add the contents. By gentle, sidewise shaking possible care, so that no appreciable amount of
distribute the sample as evenly as practicable to moisture is lost during preparation, and that the
a depth of about 5 mm. generally, and not over portion of the drug material is representative of
10 mm. in the case of bulky materials. Place the the official sample.
loaded bottle in the drying chamber, removing
the stopper and leaving it also in the chamber, Following three methods are used for
and dry the sample at the temperature and for determining the moisture content.
the time specified in the monograph. Upon a. Gravimetric Method (as per U.S.P.):
opening the chamber, close the bottle promptly Procedure set forth here determines the
and allow it to come to room temperature before amount of volatile matter (i.e., water drying
weighing. off from the drug). For substances appearing
If the substance melts at a lower temperature to contain water as the only volatile
than that specified for the determination of loss constituent the procedure given below, is
of drying, expose the bottle with its contents for appropriately used.
1 to 2 hours to a temperature 5o to 10o below the Place about 10 gms. of the drug (without
melting temperature. Then dry at the specified preliminary drying) after accurately weighing
temperature. (accurately weighed to within 0.01 gm.) in a tared
evaporating dish. For example, for underground
DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CON- or unpowdered drugs, prepare about 10 gms. of
TENT FOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS the “official sample” by cutting, shredding, so
that the parts are about 3 mm. in thickness.
In cases of determining the amount of
volatile matter (i.e. moisture or water drying off Seeds and fruits smaller than 3 mm. should
from the drug), present in the vegetable drug be cracked. Avoid the use of high speed mills in
substances, we can consider them in the preparing the samples, and exercise care that no
following three classes, and proceed accordingly: appreciable amount of moisture is lost during
preparation and that the portion taken is
1. For substances appearing to contain water representative of the ‘official sample.’ After
as the only volatile constituent, take about placing the above said amount of the drug in the
10 gms. of fresh drug material (without tarred evaporating dish, dry at 105o for 5 hours
preliminary drying) after accurate weighing and weigh. Continue the drying and weighing at
(weighed to within 0.01 gm.), having one hour intervals until difference between two
previously cut into smallest possible pieces. successive weights is not more than 0.25 per cent.
2. For unground or unpowdered drugs, prepare Constant weight is reached when two
about 10 gms. of official sample by cutting consecutive weights after drying for 30 minutes
and spreading, so that the parts are about 3 and cooling for 30 minutes in a desiccator, show
mm. in thickness. Place them in a tarred not more than 0.01 gm. difference.
evaporating dish.
Method of Official Sampling: It is

recommended that the gross sample of vegetable
drugs in which the component parts are over 1
cm. in any dimension be taken by hand. When
Condenser
the total weight of the drug to be sampled is less
than 100 kg., several samples should be taken
by means of a sample that removes a core from
the top to the bottom of the container, mixed and
quartered, two of the diagonal quarters being
discarded and the remaining two quarters being
combined and carefully mixed, and again
subjected to a quartering process in the same
manner until two of the quarters weigh not less
than 500 gm. It constitutes an official sample.
When the total weight of the drug to be Receiver
sampled is less than 10 kg., it is recommended
that the above described method be followed, but
that somewhat smaller quantities be withdrawn
and in no case shall be the final official sample
should weigh less than 125 gms.
The word “official sample” is used
synonymously with the “pharmacopoeial.” The Flask with
correct sampling is an essential part or a link of mixture of
a procedure towards correct standardization. toluene and
water
b. Volumetric Method or Toluene Distillation
Method: Here the moisture content is Toluene Distillation Method
determined by volume measurement.
c. Titrimetric Method or Karl Fischer
Take the official sample and toluene
Method: This method is based on the
(C6H5CH3) in a flask and distil the mixture. The
principle that a solution of SO2 and iodine
mixture of water and toluene (C6H5CH3) is an
in pyridine and methanol reacts with water
azeotropic mixture, i.e. a mixture of organic
quantitatively. This procedure can only be
liquids with different boiling temperatures, but
carried out with rigid exclusion of
distilling at a constant temperature. Hence, they
atmospheric moisture.
distil together into the condenser and the cooled
vapors, on condensation fall into the receiver. In colored solutions, the end-print is
As the density of water is more than that of generally obscure and is best determined
toluene, it falls into the graduated portion electrometically.
(marked A in the figure), and the volume can be In colorless solutions, however the end-point
read directly. Take care to ensure that any
of titration can be observed visually by a change
droplets of water adhering to the receiver or
in color from canary yellow to amber color. It
condensor should be washedinto the graduated
can also be determined electrometrically.
portion (A).
This process involves a simple electrical Dissolve 35 to 40 gms. of potassium

circuit capable of passing 5-10 microamperes hydroxide in 20 ml. water, and add sufficient
(lamp = 100 microamps) or a direct current at alcohol to make 1,000 ml. Allow it to stand over-
1.5 volts between two platinum electrodes night, and pour off the clear liquor.
immersed in the solution to the titrated. At the Weigh accurately about 2 gms. of the
end-point of titration, the flow of current substance in a tarred 250 ml. flask and add 25
increases between 50-150 microamps for 30 ml. of the alcoholic solution of potassium
seconds on adding a slight excess of the reagent. hydroxide. Attach a reflux condenser and boil
The time is least for substances which react with on a water bath for one hour, frequently rotating
the reagent. the contents of the flask; cool and add 1 ml. of
The apparatus available commercially is a phenolphthalein solution and titrate the excess
closed system consisting of 1 or 2 automatic of alkali with 0.5 N hydrochloric acid. Note the
burettes and a tightly covered titration vessel number of ml. required. (a) Repeat the
which is fitted with the necessay electrodes and experiment with the same quantities of the same
a magnetic stirrer. The air in the system must be reagents in the manner omitting the substance.
kept dry with drying agents like P2O5, silica gel Note the number of ml. required. (b) Calculate
or anhydrous granular CaCl2. the saponification value from the following
Take 25 ml. of CH3OH in the titration flask formula:
and titrate to the end-point with Karl Fischer Saponification value =
Reagent. An adequate quantity of official sample
(b—a) x 0.02805 x 1.000
is weighed or measured which contains around
w
10 to 50 mg. water. It is quickly transferred to
the titration flask. Stir vigorously and titrate again Where ‘w’ is the weight in gms of the
with Karl Fischer reagent. substance taken.
For e.g.:
The water content in the sample is calculated
• Coconut oil: 250.
in mg. by the formula.
• Lanolin: 96-106.
SxF
• Olive oil: 200.
Where,
• Almond oil: 188-196.
S — Volume of reagent used to titrate the
sample. Determination of Iodine Value
F — Water canivalence factor. The iodine value of a substance is the weight
of a iodine in grams absorbed by 100 parts by
DETERMINATION OF SAPONIFICA- weight of the substance (oil or fat), when
TION, IODINE AND ACID VALUES determined by one of the following methods:
Take a pre-determined weight of fat or oil
Determination of Saponification Value (0.1 gm.) in a flask and dissolve in CCl4. Add a
The saponification value is the number of known volume of I2 solution for 24 hours (Hubl’s
‘mg.’ of potassium hydroxide required to method). Titrate the unused I2 with Na2S2O3
neutralise the fatty acids, resulting from the solution. From the amount of I2 absorbed by 100
complete hydrolysis of 1 gm. of the oil or fat. It gms. of fat or oil, the iodine value can be
is determined by the following method: calculated.
Other methods that can be used for 300 ml. of carbon tetrachloride and 700 ml.
determining the iodine value are presented of glacial acetic acid. To 20 ml. of this
below: solution, add 15 ml. of potassium iodide
solution and 10 ml. of water, and titrate the
Apparatus: solution with 0.1 N sodium thiosulphate. The
Iodine flasks: The iodine flasks have a amount of 0.1 N sodium thiosulphate
nominal capacity of 250 ml. required for the titration is approximately,
but not more than, doubled.
Method:
• Iodide trichloride 8 gms.
i. Iodine Monochloride Method:
Iodine 9 gms.
Place the substance accurately weighed, in
Carbon tetrachloride 300 ml.
a dry iodine flask; add 10 ml. of carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4) and dissolve. Add 20 ml. of Glacial acetic acids
iodine monochloride solution, insert the stopper, sufficient to produce 1000 ml.
previously moistened with a solution of Dissolve the iodine trichloride in about 200
potassium iodide and allow to stand in a dark ml. of glacial acetic acid, dissolve the iodine in
place at a temperature of about 17o for thirty the carbon tetrachloride, mix the two solutions
minutes. Add 15 ml. of solution of potassium and add sufficient glacial acetic acid to produce
iodide and 100 ml. water; shake and titrate with 1000 ml.
0.1 N sodium thiosulphate, using a solution of
Iodine monochloride solution should be kept
starch as indicator. Note the number of ml.
in a stoppered bottle, protected from light and
required. (a) At the same time carry out the
stored in a cool place.
operation in exactly the same manner, but without
the substance being tested, and note the number ii. Pyridine Bromide Method:
of ml. of 0.1 N sodium thiosulphate required. Place the substance, accurately weighed, in
(b) Calculate the iodine value from the formula: a dry iodine flask, add 10 ml. of carbon
Iodine value = (b-a) x 0.01269 x 100 tetrachloride and dissolve. Add 25 ml. of pyridine
w bromide solution, allow to stand for ten minutes
Where ‘w’ is the weight in gms. of the in a dark place and complete the determination
substance taken. described under iodine monochloride method,
beginning with the words ‘Add 15 ml.’
The approximate weight in gms. of the
substance to be taken may be calculated by The approximate weight in grams of the
dividing 20 by the highest expected iodine value. substance to be taken may be calculated by
If more than half the available halogen is dividing 12.5 by the highest expected iodine
absorbed, the test must be repeated, a smaller value. If more than half the available halogen is
quantity of the substance being used. absorbed the test must be repeated, a small
quantity of the substance being used.
Reagent: Iodine Monochloride Solution: The
solution may be prepared by either of the two Reagent: Pyridine Bromide Solution:
following methods: Dissolve 8 gms. pyridine and 10 gms. of
sulphuric acid in 20 ml. of glacial acetic acid,
• Dissolve 13 gms. of iodine in a mixture of keeping the mixture cool. Add 8 gms. of bromine
dissolved in 20 ml. of glacial acetic acid and For e.g.:

dilute to 100 ml. with glacial acetic acid. • Lanolin: Not more than 1.
Pyridine bromide solution should be freshly • Olive oil: Not more than 2.
prepared. • Almond oil: Not more than 4.
Depending on the iodine value, fixed oils are
classified into: DETERMINATION OF ALCOHOL-
SOLUBLE EXTRACTIVE
a. Non-drying Oil:
Here the iodine valve is below 90. For e.g.: Macerate 5 gms. air-dried, coarsely
powdered drug substance (official sample), with
• Coconut Oil: 10.
100 ml. of alcohol of the specified strength in a
• Olive oil: 88. closed flask for twenty-four hours shaking
b. Semi-drying Oil: frequently during six hours and allowing to stand
Here the iodine value is between 90 & 120. for eighteen hours. Filter, rapidly taking
For e.g.: precautions against loss of alcohol. Evaporate
• Sesame Oil: 103-116. 25 ml. of the filtrate to dryness in a tarred flat
bottomed, shallow dish. Dry at 105°, and weigh.
c. Drying Oil:
Calculate the percentage of alcohol-soluble
The iodine value here is over 120. For e.g.: extractive with reference to the air-dried drug.
• Linseed Oil: 170-200.
DETERMINATION OF WATER-
Determination of Acid Value SOLUBLE EXTRACTIVE
The acid value is the number of mg. of Method I: Proceed as directed for the
potassium hydroxide required to neutralise determination of alcohol-soluble extractive using
the free acid in 1 gm. of fat or oil, when chloroform water instead of alcohol.
determined by the following method:
Method II: Add 5 gms. of the sample drug
Weigh accurately about 10 gms. of the
to 50 ml. of water at 88° in a stoppered flask.
substance (1 to 5 in the case of a resin) into Shake well and allow to stand for ten minutes;
a 250 ml. flask and add 50 ml. of a mixture cool to 15° and add 2 gms. of Kieselguhr filter.
of equal volumes of alcohol and solvent ether Transfer 5 ml. of the filtrate to a tarred
which has been neutralised after the addition evaporating basin 7.5 cm. in diameter. Evaporate
of 1 ml. of solution of phenolphthalein. Heat the solvent on a water-bath. Continue drying for
0.1 N potassium hydroxide, shaking half an hour, finally dry in a steam oven for two
constantly until a pink color which persists hours and weigh the residue. Calculate the
for fifteen seconds is obtained. Note the percentage of water-soluble extractive with
number of ml. required. Calculate the acid reference to the air-dried drug.
value from the following formula:
Acid value = a x 0.00561 x 1000 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS
w The term ‘total solids’ is applied to the
Where ‘a’ is the number of ml. of 0.1 N residue obtained when the prescribed amount of
potassium hydroxide required and ‘w’ is the the preparation is dried to constant weight under
weight in grams of the substance taken. the conditions specified below:
Apparatus: Shallow, flat bottomed flanged treated before distillation in the following way:
dishes about 75 mm. in diameter and about 25 Acidify liquids containing camphor with 20 to
mm. deep, made of nickel or other suitable metal 25 ml. of sulphuric acid solution.
of high heat conductivity and which is not In a separating funnel add to the treated
affected by boiling water. sample equal volumes of 50 to 80 ml. of a
Method: Weigh accurately or measure an saturated sodium chloride solution and of
accurate quantity of the preparation and place in petroleum ether (B.P. 40º to 50º). Shake the
a tarred dish, evaporate at as low a temperature mixture for about 3-5 minutes; and wait until the
as possible until the alcohol is removed, and heat two layers separate out which takes about 15 to
on a water-bath until the residue is apparently 20 minutes. Next, run the aqueous alcohol layer
dry. Transfer to an oven and dry to constant into another separaing funnel and treat the same
weight at 105°. Owing to the hygroscopic nature test liquid twice more with half the quantity of
of certain residues, it may be necessary to use petroleum ether. Run the aqueous alcohol layers
dishes provided with well fitting covers and to into a distillation flask. Draw in air through the
cool in an efficient desiccator. combined liquid for a minute to remove the last
traces of petroleum ether.
QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF If the liquid contains less than 30 per cent of
ALCOHOL IN HOMOEOPATHIC alcohol, salting out should be done with dry
PREPARATIONS sodium chloride using 10 gms. instead of its
solution.
Measure a definite quantity of the test
alcohol liquid and pour it into a round bottomed Before distillation, dilute the test liquid with
flask of 200 or 250 ml. capacity. If the liquid water to a total volume of 75 ml.
contains upto 20 per cent of alcohol take for The receiver, a 100 ml. volumetric flask
determination 75 ml.; from 20 to 50 per cent, 50 should be immersed in a vessel with cold water.
ml., and from 50 per cent and more, 25 ml. Use tightly fitting rubber stoppers for the
In case the test liquid contains volatile matter distillation flask and condenser. The receiver
it should undergo a preliminary treatment, viz., should be immersed in a vessel with cold water.
if the liquid contains volatile acids, neutralize To ensure uniform boiling, place in the flask
them with an alkali solution; if it contains volatile containing the liquid some capillaries, pumice
bases neutralize them with aqueous phosphoric stone or small pieces of porcelain.
or sulphuric acid solution.
If the liquid foams vigorously when distilled,
Liquids containing free iodine are treated, add phosphoric or sulphuric acid (2-3 ml.) or
before distillation with zinc in the form of powder calcium chloride, paraffin or wax (2-3 gms.).
or with a small quantity of dry sodium
Collect 96 ml. of the distillate in the receiver
thiosulphate until decolorization of the liquid.
(100 ml. volumetric flask). Bring its temperature
To bind the volatile sulphurous compounds add
to 25° and make up with water to the mark. The
some drops of aqueous sodium hydroxide
distillate must be clear or slightly turbid.
solution.
Note the room temperature while determin-
Test liquids containing camphor, essential
ing the weight of the distilled liquid in an accu-
oils, or other volatile oily matter, ether, etc., are
rately weighed (and corrected as per specifica-
tion) Pyknometer or Specific gravity bottle. Add between the titration figures is equivalent to the
the corrections for this respective temperature alkali required to saponify the esters.
and find out the relevant weight of the liquid. Each ml. of 0.5 N alcoholic KOH is
Calculate the corresponding alcohol contents equivalent to:
in per cent by volume read off in the standard 0.1061 gm. if benzyl benzoate.
alcoholometric table, specially compiled for this
purpose. 0.09815 gm. of bornyl acetate.
0.09915 gm. of methyl acetate.
DETERMINATION OF ESTERS 0.07608 gm. of methyl salicylate.
Boil a fixed quantity of 90% alcohol

thoroughly to expel CO2. Then neutralise it to a DETERMINATION OF ESTER VALUE
solution of phenolphthalin. Ester value of a substance is the number of
Dissolve accurately weighed 2 gms. of the mg. of KOH required to neutralise the acids
oil or ester in 5 ml. neutralised alcohol in a hard resulting from the complete hydrolysis of 1 gm.
glass flask. Neutralise the free acid in the solution of substance.
with 0.1 N alcoholic KOH using 0.2 ml. of The method described for ‘Determination of
phenolphthalin solution as indicator. Add 20 ml. Ester’ is also used for ester valve, and it is
of 0.1 N alcoholic KOH. Atach the flask to a calculated from the following formula:
reflux condensor and boil on a water-bath for an
Ester Value: m x 28.05
hour. Now add 20 ml. water and titrate the excess
W
of alkali with 0.5 N H2SO4 using a further 0.2
ml. of phenolphthalin solution as indicator. Where,
Repeat the experiment with the same m: Value in ml. of 0.5 N alcoholic KOH
quantities of the same reagents on the same required to saponify the esters.
manner, removing the oil or ester. The difference w: Weight in gms. of the substance taken.
■
427
8-2
Limit Tests
LIMIT TEST FOR CHLORIDES minutes. Compare the color in a Nessler’s glass
with the standard color, by viewing transversely,
Dissolve the specified quantity of the
the color is not deeper than the standard color.
substance in water and transfer to a Nessler glass.
Add 1 ml. of nitric acid, except when nitric acid Standard Color: Dilute 2 ml. of standard
is used in the preparation of the solution; dilute solution of iron with 40 ml. of water. Add 2 ml.
to 50 ml. with water and add 1 ml. of solution of of a 20 per cent w/v solution of iron-free citric
silver nitrate. Stir immediately with a glass rod acid in water and 2 drops of thioglycolic acid,
and set aside for five minutes. The opalescence mix. Render alkaline with iron-free solution of
produced is not greater than the standard ammonia, dilute to 50 ml. with water and allow
opalescence. to stand for five minutes.
Standard opalescence: Measure 1 ml. or the Reagents and Solutions
quantity specified in the monograph, 0.01 N
Standard Solution of Iron: Add 0.173 g. of
hydrochloric acid and 1 ml. of nitric acid into a
ferric ammonium sulphate to 1.5 ml. of
Nessler glass. Dilute to 50 ml. with water and
hydrochloric acid and add sufficient water to
add 1 ml. of solution of silver nitrate. Stir
produce 1000 ml. 1 ml. contains 0.02 mg. of iron.
immediately with a glass rod and set aside for
five minutes. Iron-free Citric Acid: Citric acid which
complies with the following additional test:
LIMIT TEST FOR IRON
Dissolve 0.5 g. in 40 ml. of water, add 2 drops of
thioglycolic acid, mix, make alkaline with iron-
Dissolve the specified quantity of the free solution of ammonia and dilute to 50 ml.
substance in 40 ml. of water or prepare a solution with water, no pink color is produced.
as directed in the text, add 2 ml. of a 20 per cent
Iron-free Hydrochloric Acid: Hydrochloric
w/v solution of iron-free citric acid in water and
acid which complies with the following
2 drops of thioglycolic acid. Mix, make alkaline
additional test: Evaporate 5 ml. on a water-bath,
with iron free solution of ammonia, dilute to 50
add 40 ml. of water, 2 ml. of a 20 per cent w/v
ml. with water, and allow to stand for five
solution of iron-free citric acid in water and 2
drops of thioglycolic acid, mix, make alkaline washed sand or a pledget of purified cotton in
with iron-free solution of ammonia and dilute to the upper portion, about 3 cm. from the top of
50 ml. with water, no pink color is produced. the tube. Moisten the sand or cotton uniformly
Iron-free Solution of Ammonia: Dilute with a mixture of an equal volume of lead acetate
ammonia solution which complies with the solution and water.
following additional test: Evaporate 5 ml. nearly Remove any excess or
to dryness on a waterbath, add 40 ml. of water, 2 adhering droplets of lead
ml. of a 20 per cent w/v solution of iron-free acetate solution from the
citric acid in water and 2 drops of thioglycolic walls of the tube by
acid, mix, make alkaline with iron-free solution applying gentle suction to
of ammonia and dilute to 50 ml. with water, no the constricted end of the
pink color is produced. tube, into the upper end of
the tube. Fit a second glass
tube 12 cm. in length
LIMIT TEST FOR SULPHATES having an internal
Dissolve the specified quantity of the diameter of 2.5 to 3 mm.,
substance in water or prepare a solution as by means of a rubber
directed in the text, and transfer to a Nessler stopper. Just before
glass. Add 1 ml. of hydrochloric acid, except running the test, place a
when hydrochloric acid is used in the preparation strip of mercuric bromide
of the solution, dilute to 50 ml. with water, and test paper in this tube
add 1 ml. solution of barium chloride. Stir crimping the upper end of
immediately with a glass rod and set aside for the strip so that it will
five minutes. The turbidity produced is not remain in position, about 2
greater than the standard turbidity. cm. above the rubber
stopper. Clean and dry the
tube thoroughly each time
LIMIT TEST FOR ARSENIC Arsenic Test Apparatus
it is used.
Select all the reagents used in this test to have
Standard Arsenic Solution: Dissolve 100 mg.
as low a content of arsenic as possible so that a
of arsenic trioxide that has been finely
blank test results in either no strain or one that is
pulverized, dried over sulphuric acid and
barely discernible.
accurately weighed, in about 5 ml. of sodium
Apparatus: Prepare a generator (see the hydroxide solution (1 in 5) in a 1000 ml.
illustration) by filling a perforated rubber into a volumetric flask. Neutralise the solution with
wide mouth bottle of about 50 ml. capacity. dilute sulphuric acid, add 10 ml. more of dilute
Through the perforation insert a vertical exit tube sulphuric acid, then add recently boiled water to
about 12 cm. in total length and 1 cm. in diameter volume. Pipette 10 ml. of this solution into a 1000
along the entire upper portion (for about 8 cm.) ml. volumetric flask, add 10 ml. of dilute
and constricted at its lower extremity to a tube sulphuric acid, and then add recently boiled water
about 4 cm. in length and about 5 mm. in to volume. Use this solution, which contains 1
diameter. The smaller portion of the tube should mg. of arsenic trioxide in each ml. in preparing
extend just slightly below the stopper. Place the standard stain. Keep this solution in a glass
Limit Tests 429
stoppered bottle. Make a fresh solution when new test paper and compare the stain upon it with the
standard stains are to be prepared. standard stain. The stain produced by the
Test Preparation: Add 1 ml. of sulphuric acid chemical test does not exceed the standard stain
to 5 ml. of a solution of the chemical substance in length or intensity of color indicating not more
(1 in 25), unless otherwise quantity is directed than 10 parts of arsenic trioxide per million parts
in the monograph. Omit its addition entirely in of the substance being tested.
the case of inorganic acids. Unless especially Interfering Chemicals: Antimony, if present
directed otherwise, add 10 ml. of sulphurous acid. in the substance being tested produces a grey
Evaporate the liquid in a small beaker, on a stain.
steam-bath, until it is free from sulphurous acid Sulphites, sulphides, thiosulphates and other
and has been reduced to about 2 ml. in volume. compounds that liberate hydrogen sulphide or
Dilute with water to 5 ml. to obtain the test sulphur dioxide when treated with sulphuric acid
preparation. must be oxidized by means of nitric acid and then
The Standard Stain: Place in the generator reduced by means of sulphur dioxide as directed
bottle: 5 ml. of potassium iodide solution, 2 ml. under ‘test preparation’ before they are placed
of standard arsenic solution, 5 ml. of acid in the apparatus.
stannous chloride solution and 28 ml. of water.
Add 1.5 g. of granulated zinc (in No. 20 powder) LIMIT TEST FOR LEAD
and immediately insert the stopper containing the
exit-tube. Keep the generator bottle immersed Select all the reagents for this test to have as
in water at 25o during the period of the test to low a content as practicable and store all reagent
moderate the reaction so that the stain will take solutions in containers of boro-silicate glass.
the form of a distinctive band to facilitate the Rinse all glassware thoroughly with dilute nitric
comparison of color intensity. When evolution acid (1 in 2), followed by water.
of hydrogen has continued for 1 hour, remove
Special Reagents
the mercuric bromide test paper and place it in a
clean, dry tube for comparison. This stain Ammonium Cyanide Solution: Dissolve 2
represents 2 mcg. of arsenic trioxide. Since light, gms. of potassium cyanide in 15 ml. of strong
heat and moisture cause the stain to fade rapidly, ammonia solution and dilute with water to 100
make comparisons promptly. Stained test papers ml.
may be preserved by dipping in milled paraffin Ammonia Citrate Solution: Dissolve 40 gms.
or by keeping them over phosphorus pentoxide, of citric acid in 90 ml. of water. Add 2 or 3 drops
protected from light. of phenol red solution, then cautiously add
Procedure: Place in the generator bottle 5 stronger ammonia solution until the solution
ml. of potassium iodide solution and 5 ml. of acquires a reddish color. Remove any lead that
test preparation, and add 5 ml. of acid stannous may be present by extracting the solution with
chloride solution. Set the apparatus aside at room 20 ml. portions of dithizone extraction solution
temperature for a period of 10 minutes, then add (see below), until the dithizone solution retains
25 ml. of water and 1.5 g. of granulated zinc (in an orange-green color.
No. 20 powder), and proceed as directed under Dilute Standard Lead Solution: Dilute
the standard stain. Remove the mercuric bromide exactly 10 ml. of standard lead solution with
sufficient dilute nitric acid (1 in 100) to make the solution in a glass stoppered, lead-free bottle,
100 ml. This solution contains 1 mcg of lead per suitably wrapped to protect it from light, and
ml. store in a refrigerator.
Dithizone Extraction Solution: Dissolve 30 Procedure: Transfer the volume of the
mgs. of dithizone in 1000 ml. in chloroform and prepared sample directed in the monograph to a
add 5 ml. of alcohol. Store the solution in a separator, and unless otherwise directed in the
refrigerator. Before use, shake a suitable volume monograph add 6 ml. of ammonium citrate
of the dithizone extraction solution with about solution, 2 ml. of potassium cyanide solution and
half its volume of dilute nitric acid (1 in 100), 2 ml. of hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution
discarding the nitric acid. (for the determination of lead in iron salts use
Hydroxylamine Hydrochloride Solution: 10 ml. of ammonium citrate solution). Add 2
Dissolve 20 gms. of hydroxylamine drops of phenol red solution and make the
hydrochloride in sufficient water to make solution just alkaline (red in color) by the
approximately 65 ml. Transfer to a separator, add addition of stronger ammonia solution.
a few drops of thymol blue indicator, then add Immediately extract the solution with 5 ml.
stronger ammonia solution until the color portions of dithizone extraction solution draining
assumes a yellow color. Add 10 ml. of sodium off each extract into another separator, until the
hydrodithiocarbamale solution (1 in 25), mix and dithizone solution retains its green color. Shake
add, allow to stand for five minutes. Extract this the combined dithichloroform layer. Add to the
solution with successive 10 to 15 ml. portion of acid solution 50 ml. of standard dithizone
chloroform until a 5 ml. portion of the chloroform solution and the layer formed is of no deeper
extract does not assume a yellow color when shade of violet than that of a control made with
shaken with a dilute copper sulphate solution. a volume of diluted standard lead solution
Add diluted hydrochloric acid until the solution equivalent to the amount of lead permitted in the
is pink (if necessary, add 1 or 2 drops more of sample under examination, and the same
thymol blue indicator) and then dilute with quantities of the same reagents and in the same
purified water to 100 ml. manner as the test with the sample.
Potassium Cyanide Solution: Dissolve 50

LIMIT TEST FOR HEAVY METALS
gms. of potassium cyanide in sufficient purified
water to make 100 ml. Remove the lead from The heavy metals test is designed to
this solution by extraction with successive determine the content of those metallic impurities
portions of dithizone extraction solution, as in official substances that are colored by
described under ammonium citrate solution hydrogen sulphide under the conditions of the
above, then extract any dithizone remaining in test. In substances the proportion of any such
the cyanide solution by shaking with chloroform. impurity is expressed as the quantity of lead
Finally dilute the cyanide solution with sufficient required to produce a color of equal depth as in
water so that each 100 ml. contains 10 gms. of a standard comparison solution, this quantity
potassium cyanide. being stated as the ‘Heavy Metals Limit’
Standard Dithizone Solution: Dissolve 10 expressed as parts of lead per million parts of
mg. of dithizone in 1000 ml. of chloroform. Keep the substance (by weight). Reagents and
solutions used in this test are designated as `Sp.’
Limit Tests 431
Reagents measured to 100 ml. with water. This solution

Dilute Acetic Acid Sp.: Dilute acetic acid must be freshly prepared. Each ml. of this
which complies with the following additional standard lead solution contains the equivalent of
test: Evaporate 20 ml. in a porcelain dish nearly 0.01 mg. of lead. When 0.1 ml. of standard lead
to dryness on a water-bath. Add to the residue 2 solution is employed to prepare the solution to
ml. of the acid and dilute with water to 2 ml.; be compared with a solution of 1 gm. of the
then add to 10 ml. of solution of hydrogen substance being tested, the comparison solution
sulphide. Any dark color produced is not darker thus prepared contains the equivalent of 1 part
than a control made with 0.04 mg. of Pb and 2 of lead per million parts of the substance being
ml. of the dilute acetic acid (2 parts per million). tested.
Hydrochloric Acid Sp.: Hydrochloric acid Bromide solution Sp.:
which complies with the following additional Bromine 30 gms.
test: Evaporate 17 ml. of the acid in a breaker to Potassium bromide 30 gms.
dryness on a water-bath. Add to the residue 2 Water, sufficient
ml. of the acid and dilute with water to 40 ml. quantity of produce 100 ml.
with water and add 10 ml. of solution of hydrogen
Dissolve and mix. Evaporate 10 gms. in a
sulphide, any darkening produced is not greater
porcelain dish to dryness on a waterbath. Add
than in a blank to which 0.02 mg. of Pb has been
10 ml. of water and again evaporate to dryness.
added (1 part per million).
Repeat the process till all the bromine is driven
Acetic Acid Sp.: Acetic acid which complies off. Add 10 ml. of water and 2 ml. of dilute acetic
with the following additional test: Make 25 ml. acid Sp. and make up to 25 ml. with water. Add
alkaline with dilute ammonia solution Sp., add 10 ml. of solution of hydrogen sulphide; the
1 ml. of solution of potassium cyanide Sp., dilute resulting solution is not darker than a blank to
to 50 ml. with water, and add two drops of sodium which 0.01 mg. of Pb has been added.
sulphide solution, no darkening is produced.
Dilute Ammonia Solution Sp.: Dilute Procedure for Testing Chemicals
ammonia solution which complies with the Solution A: Introduce into a 50 ml. Nessler
following additional test: To 20 ml. add 1 ml. of tube 2 ml. of dilute acetic acid Sp. and exactly
solution of potassium cyanide Sp., dilute to 50 the quantity of the standard lead solution
ml. with water, and add two drops of sodium containing the lead equivalent of the heavy
sulphide solution, no darkening is produced. metals limit specified for the substance to be
Solution of Hydrogen Sulphide: See tested and make up to 20 ml. with water.
Appendix 1. Solution B: This consists of 25 ml. of
Stock Solution of Lead Nitrate: Dissolve solution prepared for this test according to the
159.8 mg. of lead nitrate in 100 ml. of water to specific directions in each monograph.
which has been added 1 ml. of nitric acid, then Transfer solution A and B to matching 50
dilute to 1000 ml. with water. This solution must ml. Nesslers tubes and add 10 ml. of hydrogen
be prepared and stored in glass containers free sulphide solution to each tube, mix, allow to
from soluble lead salts. stand for ten minutes then view downwards over
Standard Lead Solution: Dilute to 10 ml. of a white surface, the column of Solution B is no
the stock solution of lead nitrate accurately darker than that of Solution A. ■
433
8-3
Identification of Some Chemicals and
Their Tests
CHEMICAL TESTS 0.25 ml. of lanthanum nitrate solution, 0.1

ml. of 0.1 M iodine and 0.05 ml. of dilute
ammonia solution. Heat carefully to boiling;
GENERAL IDENTIFICATION REAC- within a few minutes a blue precipitate or a
TIONS dark blue color is produced.
The following tests may be used for the
identification of chemicals referred to in the Acetyl Groups
pharmacopoeia. They are not intended to be In a test tube (about 180 mm x 18 mm.) place
applicable to mixtures of substances unless so 10 to 20 mg. or the prescribed quantity of the
specified. substance being examined and add 0.15 ml. of
phosphoric acid. Close the tube with a stopper
Acetates through which passes a small test tube (about
• Heat the substance being examined with an 100 mm. x 10 mm.) containing water to act as a
equal quantity of oxalic acid; acidic vapors condenser. On the outside of the smaller tube,
with the characteristic odor of acetic acid are hang a drop of lanthanum nitrate solution. Except
liberated. for substances hydrolysable only with difficulty,
• Warm 1 gm. of the substance being examined place the apparatus in a waterbath for 5 minutes
with 1 ml. of sulphuric acid and 3 ml. of and remove the smaller tube. Mix the drop with
ethanol (95%); ethyl acetate, recognisable 0.05 ml. of 0.01 M iodine on a porcelain tile or
by its odor, is evolved. glass slide and then add one drop of 2 M
ammonia at the edge of the mixed drop; after 1
• Dissolve about 30 mg. of the substance being
or 2 minutes a blue color is produced at the
examined in 3 ml. of water or use 3 ml. of
junction of the two drops and the color intensifies
the prescribed solution, add successively
and persists for a short time.
For substances hydrolysable only with Amines, Primary Aromatic

difficulty, heat the mixture slowly to boiling point Acidify the prescribed solution with 2 M
over an open flame instead of using a water bath. hydrochloric acid or dissolve 0.1 gm. of the
substance being examined in 2 ml. of 2 M
Alkaloids
hydrochloric acid and add 0.2 ml. of sodium
Dissolve a few mgs. or the prescribed nitrite solution. After 1 or 2 minutes add the
quantity of the substance being examined in 5 solution to 1 ml. of 2-naphthol solution; an
ml. of water, add dilute hydrochloric acid until intense orange or red color and, usually, a
the solution has an acid reaction and then add 1 precipitate of the same color is produced.
ml. of potassium iodobismuthate solution; an
orange or orange-red precipitate is formed Ammonium Salts
immediately. • Heat a few mgs. of the substance being
examined with sodium hydroxide solution;
Aluminium Salts ammonia is evolved, which is recognisable
• Dissolve about 20 mg. of the substance being by its odor and by its action on moist red
examined in 2 ml. of water or use 2 ml. of litmus paper, which turns blue.
the prescribed solution, add about 0.5 ml. of • To the prescribed solution add 0.2 gm. of
2 M hydrochloric acid and about 0.5 ml. of light magnesium oxide. Pass a current of air
thioacetamide reagent; no precipitate is through the mixture and direct the gas that
produced. Add drop wise 2 M sodium is evolved to just beneath the surface of a
hydroxide; a gelatinous white precipitate is mixture of 1 ml. of 0.1M hydrochloric acid
produced which redissolves on addition of and 0.05 ml. of methyl red solution, the color
further 2 M sodium hydroxide. Gradually add of the solution changes to yellow. On
ammonium chloride solution; the gelatinous addition of 1 ml. of a freshly prepared 10%
white precipitate reappears. w/v solution of sodium cobaltinitrite, a
• Dissolve about 20 mg. of the substance being yellow precipitate is produced.
Antimony Compounds
the prescribed solution, add 5 drops of
ammonium acetate solution and 5 drops of a Dissolve with gentle heating about 10 mg.
0.1% w/v solution of mordant blue 3; an of the substance being examined in a solution of
intense purple color is produced. 0.5 gm. of sodium potassium tartrate in 10 ml.
• To a solution of the substance being of water and allow to cool. To 2 ml. of this
examined in water add dilute ammnonia solution or to 2 ml. of the prescribed solution
solution until a faint precipitate is produced add sodium sulphide solution drop wise; a
and then add 0.25 ml. of a freshly prepared reddish-orange precipitate which dissolves on
0.05% w/v solution of quinalizarin in a 1 % adding dilute sodium hydroxide solution is
w/v solution of sodium hydroxide. Heat to produced.
boiling, cool and acidify with an excess of Arsenic Compounds
acetic acid; a reddish-violet color is
produced. Heat 5 ml. of the prescribed solution on a
water-bath with an equal volume of hypophos-
phorus reagent; a brown precipitate is formed.
Identification of Some Chemicals and Their Tests 435
Barbiturates Bicarbonates
Dissolve 5 mg. of the substance being • Solutions, when boiled, liberate carbon
examined in 3 ml. of a hot 0.2% w/v solution of dioxide.
cobaltous acetate in methanol, add 5 mg. of • Treat a solution of the substance being
finely powdered sodium tetraborate and boil; a examined with a solution of magnesium
blue-violet color is produced. sulphate; no precipitate is formed
(distinction from carbonates). Boil; a white
Barbiturates, Non-nitrogen Substituted precipitate is formed.
Dissolve 5 mg. of the substance being • Introduce into a test tube 0.1 gm. of the
examined in 3 ml. of methanol, add 0.1 ml. of a substance being examined suspended in 2 ml.
solution containing 10% w/v of cobaltous nitrate of water or in 2 ml. of the prescribed solution.
and 10% w/v of calcium chloride, mix and add, Add 2 ml. of 2 M acetic acid, close the tube
with shaking, 0.1 ml. of dilute sodium hydroxide immediately using a stopper fitted with a
solution; a violet-blue color and a precipitate are glass tube bent at two right angles, heat
produced. gently and collect the gas in 5 ml. of barium
hydroxide solution, a white precipitate forms
Barium Salts
that dissolves on addition of an excess of
• Barium salts impart a yellowish-green color dilute hydrochloric acid.
to a non-luminous flame which appears blue
when viewed through a green glass. Bismuth Compounds
• Dissolve 20 mg. of the substance being • To 0.5 gm. of the substance being examined
examined in 5 ml. of dilute hydrochloric acid add 10 ml. of 2 M hydrochloric acid or use
and add 2 ml. of dilute sulphuric acid, a white 10 ml. of the prescribed solution. Heat to
precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, is boiling for 1 minute, cool and filter, if
formed. necessary. To 1 ml. of the filtrate add 20 ml.
of water; a white or slightly yellow
Benzoates
precipitate is formed which on addition of
• To 1 ml. of a 10% w/v neutral solution of 0.05 to 0.1 ml. of sodium sulphide solution
the substance being examined add 0.5 ml. turns brown.
of ferric chloride test solution; a dull yellow
• To about 50 mg. of the substance being
precipitate, soluble in ether is formed.
examined add 10 ml. of 2 M nitric acid or
• Moisten 0.2 gm. of the substance being use 10 ml. of the prescribed solution. Heat
examined with 0.2 to 0.3 ml. of sulphuric to boiling for 1 minute, allow to cool and
acid and gently warm the bottom of the tube; filter, if necessary. To 5 ml. of the filtrate
a white sublimate is deposited on the inner add 2 ml. of a 10% w/v solution of thiourea,
walls of the tube and no charring occurs. an orange-yellow color or an orange
• Dissolve 0.5 gms. of the substance being precipitate is produced. Add 4 ml. of a 2.5%
examined in 10 ml. of water or use 10 ml. of w/v solution of sodium fluoride; the solution
the prescribed solution and add 0.5 ml. of is not decolorised within 30 minutes.
hydrochloric acid. The precipitate obtained,
after crystallisation from water and drying Bromides
at a pressure of 2kPa, melts at about 122o. • Dissolve a quantity of the substance being
examined equivalent to about 3 mg. of the prescribed solution. Add 5 ml. of

bromine ion in 2 ml. of water or use 2 ml. of ammonium carbonate solution; a white
the prescribed solution. Acidify with 2 M precipitate is formed which, after boiling and
nitric acid, add 1 ml. of 0.1 M silver nitrate, cooling the mixture, is only sparingly soluble
shake and allow to stand; a curdy, pale yellow in ammonium chloride solution.
precipitate forms. Centrifuge and wash the
precipitate rapidly with three quantities, each Carbonates
of 1 ml. of water in subdued light. Suspend • Suspend 0.1 gm. of the substance being
the precipitate in 2 ml. of water and add 1.5 examined in a test tube in 2 ml. of water or
ml. of 10 M ammonia, the precipitate use 2 ml. of the prescribed solution. Add 2
dissolves with difficulty. ml. of 2 M acetic acid, close the tube
• Dissolve about 10 mg. of the substance being immediately using a stopper fitted with a
examined in 2 ml. of water and add 1 ml. of glass tube bent at two right angles, beat
chlorine solution; bromine is evolved, which gently and collect the gas in 5 ml. of 0.1 M
is soluble in 2 or 3 drops of chloroform, barium hydroxide; a white precipitate is
forming a reddish solution. To the aqueous formed that dissolves on addition of an
solution containing the liberated bromine excess of dilute hydrochloric acid.
add phenol solution; a white precipitate is • Treat a solution of the substance being
produced. examined with a solution of magnesium
Note: In testing for bromides in the presence of sulphate; a white precipitate is formed
iodides, all iodine must first be removed by boiling (distinction from bicarbonates).
the aqueous solution with an excess of lead dioxide.
Chlorides
Calcium Salts
• Dissolve a quantity of the substance being
• Dissolve 20 mg. of the substance being examined equivalent to about 2 mg. of
examined in 5 ml. of 5 M acetic acid or add chloride ion in 2 ml. of water or use 2 ml. of
1 ml. of glacial acetic acid to 5 ml. of the the prescribed solution. Acidify with dilute
prescribed solution. Add 0.5 ml. of potassium nitric acid, add 0.5 ml. of silver nitrate
ferrocyanide solution, the solution remains solution, shake and allow to stand; a curdy,
clear. Add about 50 mg. of ammonium white precipitate is formed, which is
chloride; a white, crystalline precipitate is insoluble in nitric acid but soluble, after
formed. being well washed with water, in dilute
• To 5 ml. of a 0.4% w/v solution of the ammonia solution, from which it is
substance being examined add 0.2 ml. of a reprecipitated by the addition of dilute nitric
2% w/v solution of ammonium oxalate; a acid.
white precipitate is obtained that is only
• Introduce into a test tube a quantity of the
sparingly soluble in dilute acetic acid but is
substance being examined equivalent to
soluble in hydrochloric acid.
about 10 mg. of chloride ion, add 0.2 gm. of
• Dissolve 20 mg. of the substance being potassium dichromate and 1 ml. of sulphuric
examined in the minimum quantity of dilute acid. Place a filter paper strip moistened with
hydrochloric acid and neutralise with dilute 0.1 ml. of diphenylcarbazide solution over
sodium hydroxide solution or use 5 ml. of the mouth of the test tube; the paper turns
violet-red (do not bring the moistened paper precipitate, insoluble in dilute hydrochloric
into contact with the potassium dichromate acid is produced.
solution). • To 3 ml. of a solution containing about 0.1
mg. of iron or to 3 ml. of the prescribed
Citrates
solution add 1 ml. of 2 M hydrochloric acid
• To a neutral solution of the substance being and 1 ml. of ammonium thiocyanate
examined add a solution of calcium chloride,
solution; the solution becomes blood red in
no precipitate is produced. Boil the solution;
color. Take two portions, each of 1 ml., of
a white precipitate soluble in 6 M acetic acid
the mixture. To one portion add 5 ml. of
is produced.
ether, shake and allow to stand; the ether
• Dissolve a quantity of the substance being layer is pink. To the other portion add 3 ml.
examined equivalent to about 50 mg. of citric of 0.2 M mercuric chloride; the red color
acid in 5 ml. of water or use 5 ml. of the disappears.
prescribed solution. Add 0.5 ml. of sulphuric
• To 2 ml. of a solution containing about 0.1
acid and 3 ml. of potassium permanganate
mg. of iron or to 3 ml. of the prescribed
solution. Warm until the color of the
solution add acetic acid until the solution is
permanganate is discharged and add 0.5 ml.
of a 10% w/v solution of sodium strongly acidic. Add 2 ml. of a 0.2% w/v
nitroprusside in 1 M sulphuric acid and 4 solution of 8-hydroxy-7-iodoquinoline-5-
gm. of sulphamic acid. Make alkaline with sulphonic acid, a stable green color is
strong ammonia solution, added drop wise produced.
until all the sulphamic acid has dissolved.
Ferrous Salts
On addition of an excess of strong ammonia
solution a violet color, which turns violet- • Dissolve a quantity of the substance being
blue, is produced. examined equivalent to about 10 mg. of iron
in 2 ml. of water or use 2 ml. of the
Esters prescribed solution. Add 2 ml. of dilute
sulphuric acid and 1 ml. of a 0.1 % w/v
To about 30 mg. of the substance being
solution of 110-phenanthroline; an intense
examined or to the prescribed quantity add 0.5
red color is produced which is discharged
ml. of a 7% w/v solution of hydroxylamine
by addition of a slight excess of 0.1 M ceric
hydrochloride in methanol and 0.5 ml. of a 10%
ammonium sulphate.
w/v solution of potassium hydroxide in ethanol
(95%). Heat to boiling, cool, acidify with 2 M • To 1 ml. of a solution containing not less
hydrochloric acid and add 0.2 ml. of a 1% w/v than 1 mg. of iron or to 1 ml. of the prescribed
solution of ferric chloride; a bluish-red or red solution add 1 ml. of potassium ferricyanide
color is produced. solution; a dark blue precipitate is formed
that is insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid
Ferric Salts and is decomposed by sodium hydroxide
• Dissolve a quantity of the substance being solution.
examined equivalent to about 10 mg. of iron • To 1 ml. of a solution containing not less
in 1 ml. of water or use 1 ml. of the than 1 mg. of iron or to 1 ml. of the prescribed
prescribed solution. Add 1 ml. of potassium solution add 1 ml. of potassium ferrocyanide
ferrocyanide solution; an intense blue solution; a white precipitate is formed which
rapidly becomes blue and is insoluble in 0.2 ml. of a 10% w/v solution of sodium
dilute hydrochloric acid. nitroprusside in 1 M sulphuric acid. Without
mixing, add 1 ml. of strong ammonia solution
Iodides and allow to stand for 30 minutes; a dark green
• Dissolve a quantity of the substance being ring appears at the interface of the two liquids.
examined equivalent to about 4 mg. of iodide
ion in 2 ml. of water or use 2 ml. of the Lead Compounds
prescribed solution. Acidify with dilute nitric • Dissolve 0.1 gm. of the substance being
acid and add 0.5 ml. of silver nitrate solution. examined in 1 ml. of dilute acetic acid or
Shake and allow to stand; a curdy, pale use 1 ml. of the prescribed solution. Add 2
yellow precipitate is formed. Centrifuge and ml. of potassium chromate solution; a yellow
wash the precipitate rapidly with three precipitate insoluble in 2 ml. of 10 M sodium
quantities, each of 1 ml. of water, in subdued hydroxide is produced.
light. Suspend the precipitate in 2 ml. of • Dissolve 50 mg. of the substance being
water and add 1.5 ml. of 10 M ammonia; examined in 1 ml. of dilute acetic acid or
the precipitate does not dissolve. use 1 ml. of the prescribed solution. Add 10
• To 0.2 ml. of a solution of the substance ml. of water and 0.2 ml. of 1 M potassium
being examined containing the equivalent of iodide; a yellow precipitate is formed. Heat
about 5 mg. of iodide ion per ml. or to 0.2 to boiling for 1 or 2 minutes and allow to
ml. of the prescribed solution add 0.5 ml. of cool; the precipitate is reformed as glistening
1 M sulphuric acid, 0.15 ml. of potassium yellow plates.
dichromate solution, 2 ml. of water and 2
ml. of chloroform. Shake for a few seconds Magnesium Salts
and allow to stand; the chloroform layer is • Dissolve about 15 mg. of the substance being
violet or violet-red. examined in 2 ml. of water or use 2 ml. of
• To 1 ml. of a solution of the substance being the prescribed solution. Add 1 ml. of dilute
examined containing the equivalent of about ammonia solution; a white precipitate forms
5 mg. of iodide ion add 0.5 ml. of mercuric that is redissolved by adding 1 ml. of 2 M
chloride solution; a dark red precipitate is ammonium chloride. Add 1 ml. of 0.25 M
formed which is slightly soluble in an excess disodium hydrogen phosphate; a white,
of this reagent and very soluble in an excess crystalline precipitate is produced.
of potassium iodide solution. • To 0.5 ml. of a neutral or slightly acid
solution of the substance being examined add
Lactates 0.2 ml. of a 0.1 % w/v solution of titan yellow
To 5 ml. of a solution of the substance being and 0.5 ml. of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide; a
examined containing the equivalent of about 5 bright red turbidity develops which gradually
mg. of lactic acid or to 5 ml. of the prescribed settles to give a bright red precipitate.
solution add 1 ml. of bromine water and 0.5 ml.
of 1 M sulphuric acid. Heat on a waterbath, Mercury Compounds
stirring occasionally with a glass rod until the • Place 0.05 to 0.1 ml. of a solution of the
color is discharged. Add 4 gms. of ammonium substance being examined on a well scraped
sulphate, mix and add drop wise, without mixing, copper foil; a dark grey stain which becomes
shiny on rubbing is produced. Heat the dried forms, the color of which is not changed by
copper foil in a test-tube; the spot disappears. boiling and which is readily soluble in 10 M
• To a solution of the substance being exam- ammonia and in dilute nitric acid.
ined add carefully potassium iodide solution; • Mix 1 ml. of the prescribed solution with 1
a red precipitate is produced which is soluble ml. of ammoniacal magnesium sulphate
in an excess of the reagent (mercuric com- solution; a white crystalline precipitate is
pounds) or a yellow precipitate is produced formed.
which may become green on standing (mer-
• To 2 ml. of the prescribed solution add 2 ml.
curous compounds).
of dilute nitric acid and 4 ml. of ammonium
• To the prescribed solution add 2 M sodium molybdate solution and warm the solution;
hydroxide until strongly alkaline; a dense,
a bright yellow precipitate is formed.
yellow precipitate is produced (mercuric
compounds). Potassium Salts
• To a solution of the substance being exam-
ined add 6 M hydrochloric acid, a white pre-
cipitate is produced which is blackened by
the prescribed solution. Add 1 ml. of dilute
adding dilute ammonia solution (mercurous
acetic acid and 1 ml. of a freshly prepared
compounds).
10% w/v solution of sodium cobaltinitrite;
Nitrates a yellow or orange-yellow precipitate is
produced immediately.
• Dissolve 15 mg. of the substance being
examined in 0.5 ml. of water, add cautiously • Dissolve 0.1 gm. of the substance being
1 ml. of sulphuric acid, mix and cool. Incline examined in 2 ml. of water or use 2 ml. of
the tube and carefully add, without mixing, the prescribed solution. Heat the solution
0.5 ml. of ferrous sulphate solution; a brown with 1 ml. of sodium carbonate solution; no
color is produced at the interface of the two precipitate is formed. Add 0.05 ml. of sodium
liquids. sulphide solution; no precipitate is formed.
Cool in ice, add 2 ml. of a 15% w/v solution
• To a mixture of 0.1 ml. of nitrobenzene and
of tartaric acid and allow to stand; a white,
0.2 ml. of sulphuric acid add a quantity of
crystalline precipitate is produced.
the powdered substance being examined
equivalent to about 1 mg. of nitrate ion or • Ignite a few mgs. of the substance being
the prescribed quantity. Allow to stand for 5 examined, cool and dissolve in the minimum
minutes and cool in ice whilst adding slowly quantity of water. To this solution add 1 ml.
with stirring 5 ml. of water and then 5 ml. of of platinic chloride solution in the presence
sodium hydroxide solution. Add 5 ml. of of 1 ml. of hydrochloric acid; a yellow,
acetone, shake and allow to stand, the upper crystalline precipitate is produced which on
layer shows an intense violet color. ignition leaves a residue of potassium
chloride and platinum.
Phosphates (Orthophosphates)
Salicylates
• To 5 ml. of the prescribed solution,
neutralised to pH 7.0, add 5 ml. of silver • To 1 ml. of a 10% w/v neutral solution add
nitrate solution; a light yellow precipitate 0.5 ml. of ferric chloride test solution, a
violet color is produced which persists after antimonate solution and heat to boiling
the addition of 0.1 ml. dilute acetic acid. Allow to cool in ice and if necessary scratch
• Dissolve 0.5 gm. of the substance being the inside of the test tube with a glass rod; a
examined in 10 ml. of water or use 10 ml. of dense, white precipitate is formed.
the prescribed solution. Add 0.5 ml. of • Acidify a solution of the substance being
hydrochloric acid, the precipitate obtained examined with 1 M acetic acid and add a
after recrystallisation from hot water and large excess of magnesium uranyl acetate
drying at a pressure of 2kPa melts at about solution; a yellow crystalline precipitate is
159o. formed.
• Dissolve 0.5 gm. of the substance being
examined in 10 ml. of water or use 10 ml. of Sulphates
the prescribed solution. Add 2 ml. of bromine • Dissolve about 50 mg. of the substance being
solution; a cream colored precipitate is examined in 5 ml. of water or use 5 ml. of
formed. the prescribed solution. Add 1 ml. of dilute
hydrochloric acid and 1 ml. of barium
Silicates chloride solution; a white precipitate is
In a lead or platinum crucible mix by means formed.
of a copper wire to obtain a thin slurry the • Add 0.1 ml. of iodine solution to the
prescribed quantity of the substance being suspension obtained in test A; the suspension
examined with 10 mg. of sodium fluoride and a remains yellow (distinction from sulphites
few drops of sulphuric acid. Cover the crucible and dithionites) but is decolorised by adding,
with a thin transparent plate of plastic under drop wise, stannous chloride solution
which a drop of water is suspended and warm (distinction from iodates). Boil the mixture;
gently; within a short time a white ring is formed no colored precipitate is formed (distinction
around the drop of water. from selenates and /tungstates).
Silver Compounds examined in 5 ml. of water or use 5 ml. of
Dissolve 10 mg. of the substance being the prescribed solution. Add 2 ml. of lead
examined in 10 ml. of water or use 10 ml. of the acetate solution; a white precipitate, soluble
prescribed solution. Add 0.3 ml. of dilute in ammonium acetate solution and in sodium
hydrochloric acid; a curdy white precipitate, hydroxide solution is produced.
soluble in dilute ammonia solution is produced.
Sulphur in Organic Compounds
Add potassium iodide solution; a yellow
precipitate, soluble in nitric acid is produced. • Burn about 20 mg. of the substance being
examined by the oxygen flask method, using
Sodium Salts 15 ml. of water and 2 ml. of hydrogen
• Dissolve 0.1 gm. of the substance being peroxide solution as the absorbing liquid.
examined in 2 ml. of water or use 2 ml. of When combustion is complete, boil the
the prescribed solution. Add 2 ml. of a 15% solution gently for 10 minutes, adding water,
w/v solution of potassium carbonate and if necessary, and cool. The resulting solution
heat to boiling; no precipitate is produced. gives the reactions of sulphates.
Add 4 ml. of a freshly prepared potassium • To about 50 mg. of the substance being
examined add 0.25 gm. of zinc and sodium ferric chloride test solution; a dark violet
carbonate reagent; mix and transfer to a color which quickly disappears is produced.
small, thin walled test-tube of hard glass and • Solutions of thiosulphates decolorise iodine
cover with a layer of the reagent. Carefully solution; the decolorised solutions do not
heat the tube to red heat, starting at the upper give the reactions of sulphates.
end and heating towards the bottom, then
• Solutions of thiosulphates decolorise
drop the tube immediately into about 20 ml.
bromine solution; the decolorised solutions
of water. Filter and acidify the filtrate with
give the reactions of sulphates.
hydrochloric acid; fumes which stain lead
acetate paper brown or black fumes are Xanthines
evolved.
Mix a few mg. of the substance being
Tartrates examined or the prescribed quantity with 0.1 ml.
• Warm the substance being examined with of hydrogen peroxide solution and 0.3 ml. of 2
sulphuric acid; charring occurs and carbon M hydrochloric acid, heat to dryness on a water
monoxide, which burns with a blue flame bath until a yellowish-red residue is produced
when ignited, is evolved. and add 0.1 ml. of 2 M ammonia; the color of
• Dissolve about 20 mg. of the substance being the residue changes to reddish-violet.
the prescribed solution. Add 0.05 ml. of a
Zinc Salts
1% w/v solution of ferrous sulphate and 0.05 • Dissolve 0.1 gm. of the substance being
ml. of hydrogen peroxide solution; a transient examined in 5 ml. of water or use 5 ml. of
yellow color is produced. After the color has the prescribed solution. Add 0.2 ml. of
disappeared add 2 M sodium hydroxide drop sodium hydroxide solution; a white
wise; an intense blue color is produced. precipitate is produced, Add a further 2 ml.
• Heat 0.1 ml. of a solution containing the of sodium hydroxide solution; the precipitate
equivalent of about 2 mg. of tartaric acid or dissolves. Add 10 ml. of ammonium chloride
0.1 ml. of the prescribed solution on a solution; the solution remains clear. Add 0.1
waterbath for 5 to 10 minutes with 0.1 ml. ml. of sodium sulphide solution; a flocculent,
of a 10% w/v solution of potassium bromide, white precipitate is produced.
0.1 ml. of a 2% w/v solution of resorcinol • Dissolve 0.1 gm. of the substance being
and 3 ml. of sulphuric acid; a dark blue color examined in 5 ml. of water or use 5 ml. of
that changes to red when the solution is the prescribed solution. Acidify with dilute
cooled and poured into water is produced. sulphuric acid and add one drop of a 0.1 %
w/v solution of cupric sulphate and 2 ml. of
Thiosulphates ammonium mercurithiocyanate solution; a
• Dissolve 0.1 gm. of the substance being violet precipitate is formed.
examined in 5 ml. of water and add 2 ml. of • Dissolve 0.1 gm. of the substance being
hydrochloric acid; a white precipitate is examined in 5 ml. of water or use 5 ml. of
formed which soon turns yellow and sulphur the prescribed solution. Add 2 ml. of
dioxide, recognisable by its odor, is evolved. potassium ferrocyanide solution; a white
• Dissolve 0.1 g. of the substance being precipitate, insoluble in dilute hydrochloric
examined in 5 ml. of water and add 2 ml. of acid is produced. ■
443
8-4
Chromatography
The word ‘chromatography’ is of Greek The following rules should be observed in

origin meaning ‘to write in colors’. It was coined chromatography:
by a Russian botanist Michael Tswett. According • Throughout chromatography, the
to him, “The pigments according to the composition of the flowing solvent must be
absorption sequence are resolved into various kept constant. For this, the chromatogram is
colored zones”. He termed this preparation a kept in an enclosed chamber, the space of
‘chromatogram’ and the method, ‘chromato- which is saturated with the solvent at
graphic methods”. constant temperature.
Chromatography is an analytical technique • The rate of flow of the developing solvent
employed for the purification and separation of should be slow i.e. 2-3 cms. per hour. The
both organic and inorganic substances. It is also rate of flow depends upon:
very useful for the fractionation of complex - Type of paper used.
mixtures, separation of closely related
- Ratio of width of the wick to that of
compounds such as isomers, homologues, etc.,
paper chromatogram.
and in the isolation of unstable substances.
- Composition of the solvent.
The technique of chromatography is based
upon the principle that a mixture of different - Temperature in the chromatogram
constituents is absorbed on a phase called the chamber.
stationary phase and then another phase called • The solvent chosen should be one in which
the moving phase is allowed to flow over it. As a the components to be separated have a small
result, the different components of the mixture but definite solubility. Substances which are
move with different speeds and hence are too soluble appear, at or near the solvent front
separated. The moving phase is called the of the chromatogram. If the substances are
developing solvent, irrigant or eluent. insoluble they remain at the point of
application.
TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY different parts along the length of the column

depending on their adsorption behaviors. In turn,
It is of two types: the absorbed components are eluted (washed
1. Liquid chromatography. down) by passing a suitable solvent (called
fluent), through the column. Solid supports used
2. Gas chromatography.
in adsorption chromatography include charcoal,
Chromatographic separations can be carried alumina, silica gel, etc. Usually the particle of
out in the liquid and gas phases. In both liquid support material should be small so as to allow
chromatography (LC) and gas chromatography faster equilibrium and minimum diffusion
(GC), the sample is injected into a moving liquid effects. However, it should not be so small that
phase, a liquid or a gas respectively. A more it impedes the flow of solvent.
general term for the moving liquid or gas is the
mobile phase. In general use, the term fluent Partition Column Chromatography
applies to liquids. In partition chromatography, the solid
The components of the sample are carried support is coated with an organic solvent such
by the mobile phase through a volume or layer as n-butanol, benzene or chloroform. The mobile
of particles of solid material. The solid material phase is water and/or a polar solvent. This is,
has a number of different generic names. Among thus, a liquid-liquid extraction chromatography.
these are solid, support, sorbent, static phase, The extent of separation depends upon the
packing material, as well as an adsorbent. distribution or partition of the components of any
Probably the most widely used term is stationary mixture between the fixed solvent and the
phase. flowing solvent. This technique is particularly
suitable for water- soluble compounds.
LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY Paper Chromatography
Types Paper chromatography is a special case of
partition chromatography in which the
It includes column chromatography, thin
constituents of a mixture are distributed between
layer chromatography (TLC, with the solid
two liquids. This technique was developed by
support forming a layer on a plate) and paper
Martin and Synge in 1941 and they were
chromatography (solid phase is the main
awarded. The Nobel Prize for their technique in
component of paper-cellulose). Basic types of
1962. A wide range of materials have been
chromatography support used in LC depend upon
separated by elution along the length of paper
the chemical interaction that occurs between the
sheet. The mobile phase is usually a water-
solid support and the solutes. The classifications
organic mixture. The solid phase is the main
are denoted normal phase (or adsorption),
component of paper-cellulose (or a chemically
partition, ion exchange and gel filtration (or
modified form of it). It is generally accepted that
exclusion or gel permeation) chromatographies.
cellulose adsorbs water onto it’s surface. The
Adsorption Column Chromatography interaction of the stationary phase with the
solutes is then a combination of two types: A
In this type of chromatography, the fixed
liquid-liquid extraction between the mobile phase
phase is a solid packed in a column. The
and the water adsorbed on the cellulose surface
constituents of the mixture get absorbed in
Chromatography 445
as well as some contribution from direct in paper chromatography. A drop of the solution
adsorption on the underlying cellulose. It is a containing the sample is introduced at some point
relatively slow process and has been replaced on the paper which acts in lieu of a packed
by TLC. column. Migration then occurs as a result of flow
by a mobile phase called the developer.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY Movement of the developer is caused by capillary
forces. When the movement of the mobile phase
In this, the mobile is a carrier gas. A small is in the upward direction, the development is
amount of the sample to be analysed (analytes) called ascending development; if the flow is in
in the form of gases or vaporized solids is injected the downward direction, it is called descending
into a stream of the carrier gas (inert gas such development. When it is outward from a central
as, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, etc.). It spot, it is called radial development. It should be
carries it into a column containing a suitable noted that the process of allowing the solvent to
medium upon the surface of which the move along the filter paper is called development.
constituents of sample interact and are separated The ratio of the distance the substance moves,
into different bands according to their compared with the distance reached by the
sensitivities. The separated components then solvent front, both measured from the point of
emerge out of the column at intervals and are application of the sample, is termed the Rf. The
sensed by the detector. Typical examples of the symbol Rf stands for Ratio of fronts or Retention
use of gas chromatography are the analysis of factor. The R y value is characteristic of a
petrol and petroleum gases, analysis of food oils particular species, in any given type of separation
and flavorings, etc. and is sometimes used for the qualitative
identification of the unknown species.
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY A solution of the mixture (called test
solution) to be separated is applied as a small
The principle of paper chromatography is
spot to a strip of filter paper (Whatman No. 1
based on the fact that solutes have the capacity
filter paper) and dried. Size of the strip depends
to migrate through filter paper at different rates
upon the size of glass jar and number of spots to
as a solution is drawn into strips of paper by
be applied. This is hung in a glass jar such that
capillary action.
it’s end dip’s into the developing solvent at the
Paper chromatography may be regarded as bottom of the tank. At times, a paper clamp is
a type of partition chromatography in which the affixed at the bottom of the paper so as to give
stationary phase is water adsorbed on the weight at the base. As the solvent moves up by
hydrophilic surface of the paper. The organic capillary action across the paper, it meets the test
solvent acts as a mobile phase. Water can be sample. As it rises across the paper, it carries the
replaced by a non-polar stationary liquid phase constituents alongwith it with varying speeds
by suitable treatment of the paper. Aqueous according to their partition coefficient. The glass
solution can then be used as a developer. In paper jar is covered so that the atmosphere is saturated
chromatography, silica gel as the solid support with the solvent. If, it is not covered, the solvent
for the polar phase is replaced by a filter paper also evaporates from the paper. After the solvent
and an organic solvent partially miscible with has traversed ~ 75% of the length of the paper,
water e.g., butanol or collidine is most suitable the paper is removed from the container and
dried. The solvent front is marked. The strip is Distance travelled by the solute from the origin line.
dried in air and sprayed with a solution of a Rf =
suitable developer. A number of spots appear and Distance travelled by the solvent from the origin line.
they should be encircled with a pencil for Pictorial representation of Rf has been made
permanent record. in which the solute has moved through a distance
Now at this stage, if the substances being A from its point of application, i.e., the origin,
separated are colored, then detection of the spots whereas the solvent has moved through a
of the components on the chromatogram are distance B from the origin. Hence, in this case
visible to the naked eye. In case of colorless Rf = A/B.
substances, they have to be spotted by spraying The Rf value is dependent on the substance,
a developer which can color the spots from their solvent, paper and temperature. The different
colored derivatives or some kind of complex, etc. components are most reliably identified by
The developer is sprayed with the help of a running reference samples under the same
sprayer. conditions. The reference samples contain the
possible components of the mixture. So a
chromatogram is developed using a sample of
Slit Support for paper the mixture, and the samples of the possible
Lid with a line hole for components of the mixture. The positions of the
supporting the paper spots from the spots of reference samples are
compared. Thus, Rf value can be used to assist
Solvent front in identifying the components of a mixture.
Separated components
In descending paper chromatography, a
Container chromatography tank with a trough near the top
of the tank to hold the solvent is used. The paper
Chromatography paper hangs down from this trough and the solvent
descends across the paper.
In radial paper chromatography (or
Point of application (sample)
circular paper chromatography), a circular
Solvent level filter paper is taken. A hole is made in the centre
Solvent of paper and a cotton wick in inserted into the
hole. Spots of the materials to be analyzed are
Ascending Paper Chromatography
placed at the centre of the circular filter paper
away from the fine end of the wick. The paper is
Now dry the chromatograms at room positioned horizontally on the petri-dish
temperature. Once the chromatogram is ready, containing the solvent so that the wick of cotton
the distance travelled by the solvent front is dips into the solvent. The paper is covered by
measured. Each component of the test solution means of another petri-dish. The solvent rises
moves a characteristic distance relative to the through the wick and spreads evenly across the
solvent front. This distances is also measured. horizontally positioned filter paper. The
Now calculate the Rf value. components are separated in the form of
concentric circular zones which can be identified
Chromatography 447
Separated components
Spots of reference
samples
Reference samples
Mixture
Points of application
Comparison of the Spots of Separated
Components with the Spots of Reference
Samples
In another method, a small strip of the paper

Spraying of the Chromatogram is cut along the radius of the circular filter paper
as shown in. This strip is called tail and is bent
at an angle of 90°. Spotting is done at the centre
of paper near the end of tail. Then it is dipped in
the solvent as illustrated. By capillary action, the
Solvent front solvent ascends and spreads across the paper in
a circular fashion. The chromatogram is
Centre of spot
developed and dried.
In the circular chromatogram, various
components appear in concentric rings. The Rf
value of different bands are then calculated by
Initial line where spot
is applied
Petri-dish cover
Spot of sample
Pictorial representation of Circular filter

Rf: Rf = A/B paper
Wick of cotton
on the basis of their colors or by developing them Petri dish
with a developer. This type of paper Solvent
chromatography is particularly useful for
substances with low Rf values. Circular Paper Chromatography
Using Cotton Wick
measuring the distance traversed by the

components and the solvent from the central spot.
At times the distance travelled both by the
Lid
solvent and the components is different at
different points along the bands. In such cases,
Support for trough
the Rf is calculated at different points and average
is taken
Glass enclosure OA OB OC OD
Chromatography —— + —— + —— + ——
paper Mean Rf = OA1 OB1 OC1 OD1
Pictorial View of Descending

Paper Chromatography
Solvent front
Original spot of Circular filter

sample solution paper petri-dish
Circular filter Concentric
paper Petri dish cover bands
Tale of paper Chromatogram
Circular Chromatography
Solvent Tail paper
Circular Paper Chromatography

Using Tail Method
Suspension
Capillary tube
Chromatography Capillary tube
paper strip
Test tube
Spot Paper strip
Solution
Reference line
A B C Reference line
Application of samples to the paper
(A) Taking sample from a test tube; (B) Applying the sample to paper; (C) Drying the spot
Chromatography 449
THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY essentially two-dimensional surface.” The

(T.L.C.) technique of paper chromatography has been
almost entirely superseded by TLC in
Developments that have taken place in the field analytical laboratories, although it is still
of thin-layer chromatography (TLC) have elevated useful for demonstrating the general
it from the level of a semiquantitative analytical principles behind chromatographic separa-
procedure to one in which highly reliable tions with simple mixtures of dyes.
quantitative results can be obtained.
Laboratories seeking to minimise analytical TECHNIQUE
costs, and laboratories which are less well equipped
Preparation of the Plate
with advanced instrumentation, find that TLC has
much to commend it for pharmaceutical and In TLC, a variety of coating materials are
environmental analyses. TLC has several available, but silica gel is the most frequently
advantages over other forms of chromatography: used. A slurry of the adsorbent (silica gel,
cellulose powder, etc.) is spread uniformly
• Sample preparation is usually relatively simple.
over the plate by means of one of the
• Samples may be directly compared, often as commercial forms of spreader, the
they are running recommended thickness of adsorbent layer
• Parallel development of related and unrelated being 150-250 μm After air drying overnight,
samples can be carried out simultaneously. or oven drying at 80-90 °C for about 30 min.
• A range of detection procedures can be applied, it is ready for use. Ready-to-use thin layers
often to the same plate. (i.e. precoated plates or plastic sheets) are
commercially available; the chief advantage
• The separation can be followed throughout the
of plastic sheets is that they can be cut to any
whole process and stopped when desired or
size or shape required, but unless they are
when the solvent systems are changed.
supported, they do bend in the chromato-
• Solvents and other reagents are required in very graphic tank. Two points of practical
small volumes. importance:
Although the basic approach to TLC remains 1. TLC plates should never be handled or
the same, the introduction of instrumentation for touched on the surface, but carefully held
sample application, development, densitometry and only by the edges. This will avoid possible
recording have greatly extended the scope of the contamination due to perspiration.
procedure.
2. Precleansing of the plate is advisable in
The important difference between TLC and order to remove extraneous material that
other forms of chromatography is one of practical might be contained in the layer. This may
technique rather than physical phenomenon be carried out by running the development
(adsorption, partition, etc.). Thus in TLC the solvent to the top of the plate, and then
stationary phase consists of a thin layer of sorbent redrying it before use.
(e.g silica gel, cellulose powder or alumina) coated
on an inert, rigid backing material such as a glass Sample Application
plate, aluminium foil or plastic foil. As a result, the The origin line, to which the sample
separation process takes place on a “flat and solution is applied, is usually located 2.0-2.5
cms. from the bottom of the plate. The accuracy

and precision with which the sample ‘spots’ are
applied is very important when quantitative
analysis is required. Volumes of 1, 2 or 5 μL, are
applied using an appropriate measuring
instrument, e.g., a syringe or micropipette (the
micropipette is a calibrated capillary tube fitted
with a small rubber teat). Care must be taken to
avoid disturbing the surface of the adsorbent as
this causes distorted shapes of the spots on the
subsequently developed chromatogram and so
hinders quantitative measurement. To assist in
the positioning of the sample spots, plastic raised
cover sheets are available with regularly cut holes
for appropriate location of sites.
A Thin-layer Plate: Standards are
In arrying out semiquantitative and Run alongside the Mixture
quantitative analyses, remember that losses of
sample may occur if the applied spots are dried
using a current of air. The use of mixtures in low account the heat and light sensitivity of the
boiling solvents aids natural atmospheric drying separated compounds.
and helps to ensure that the spots remain compact The positions of the separated solutes can
(less than 2-3 mm. in diameter). Figure illustrates be located by various methods. Colored
the type of arrangement that might be expected substances can be seen directly when viewed
with a TLC plate being used to compare a number against the stationary phase, whereas colorless
of samples and standards. species may usually be detected by spraying the
plate with an appropriate reagent that produces
Development of Plates colored areas in the regions which they occupy.
The chromatogram is usually developed by
the ascending technique in which the plate is
immersed in the developing solvent to a depth
of 0.5 cm. (redistilled or chromatographic grade
solvent should be used). The tank or chamber is
preferably lined with sheets of filter paper which
dip into the solvent in the base of the chamber;
this ensures the chamber is saturated with solvent
vapor. Development is allowed to proceed until
the solvent front has travelled the required
distance (usually 10-15 cm.), the plate is then Paper round sides of tank
removed from the chamber and the solvent front Developing the Plate (Reprinted, with
Permission, From D. Abbott and R.S.
immediately marked with a pointed object. The
Andrews, 1965. An Introduction to
plate is allowed to dry in a fume cupboard or in
Chromatography, Longman, London)
an oven; the drying conditions should take into
How to measure Rf values
Chromatography 451
Spray reagents for locating solutes should only

be used in a fume cupboard. Some compounds
may be located without spraying if they fluoresce
under ultraviolet light. Alternatively, if the
adsorbent used for the TLC plate contains a Solvent front
fluorescing material, the solutes can be observed

as dark spots on a fluorescent background when
viewed under ultraviolet light. When locating Rf = X
zones by this method, protect the eyes by wearing Y
special goggles or spectacles. The spots located
by this method can be delineated by marking with
a needle.
Origin
Measurement and Identification of Solutes
How to Measure Rf Values
The success of TLC depends upon the
different affinities of the solutes for the TLC plate
and the developing solvent(s), and the order in Quantitative Evaluation
which substances separate from each other varies Methods for the quantitative measurement
depending upon the various combinations that of separated solutes on a thin-layer
are applied. Under conditions of temperature, chromatogram can be divided into two
solvent system and adsorbent, any individual categories. In the more generally used in-situ
solute (drug, i steroid, etc.) will move by a methods, quantitation is based on measurement
constant ratio with respect to the solvent front. of the photodensity of the spots directly on the
This is known as the Rf value (relative front or thin-layer plate, preferably using a densitometer.
retardation factor) where: The densitometer scans the individual spots by
Rf = Distance compound has moved from origin. reflectance or absorption of a light beam; the scan
Distance of solvent front from origin. is usually along the line of development of the
plate. The difference in intensity of the reflected
The calculation produces results which are (or transmitted) light between the adsorbent and
always decimal values less than unity. Because the solute spots is observed as a series of peaks
of this, and to avoid decimal points, it is very plotted by a chart recorder. The areas of the peaks
common to use what have become known as hRf correspond to the quantities of the substances in
values, in which a whole number value is the various spots. This type of procedure requires
obtained by simply multiplying the Rf value by comparison with spots obtained using known
100. Thus an Rf value of 0.57 becomes an hRf amounts of standard mixtures, which must be
value of 57. chromatographed on the same plate as the
To assist in the comparison of results and sample. Improvements in the design of
identification of solutes by TLC, libraries of Rf densitometers have considerably increased the
and hRf values have been compiled. They have reliability of quantitative TLC determinations.
been of particular value for toxicological studies, A cheaper procedure is to remove the
where very detailed standardised TLC systems separated components by scraping off the
have been specified. relevant portion of the adsorbent after
visualisation by a non-destructive technique. The MOBILE PHASES

component is conveniently extracted by placing
In selecting a mobile phase for development
the adsorbent in a centrifuge tube and adding a
of TLC plates, it is important to ensure the solvent
suitable solvent to dissolve the solute. When the
system does not react chemically with the
solute has dissolved, the tube is spun in a
substances in the mixture under examination. In
centrifuge; then the supernatant liquid is removed
many instances this will preclude the use of
and analysed by an appropriate quantitative
mixtures containing substances such as ethanoic
technique, e.g ultraviolet, visible or fluorescence
acid (acetic acid). Similar considerations need
spectrometry or gas-liquid chromatography.
to be given to mixtures containing ammonia.
Alternatively the solute may be extracted by
Carcinogenic solvents, e.g., benzene, or
transferring the adsorbent on to a short column
environmentally dangerous solvents, e.g.,
of silica gel, supported by a sinter filter, and
dichloromethane, should always be avoided.
eluting with the solvent. Again the extract is
Solvent systems range from non-polar single
analysed by a suitable quantitative technique. In
solvents, e.g., hexane, through to polar solvent
each case it is necessary to obtain a calibration
mixtures of ethanol and organic acids. With polar
curve for known quantities of the solute in the
stationary phases it is normal to use solvents of
chosen solvent.
medium to low polarity, whereas reversed-phase
To obtain the best results in any of these systems tend to require more polar solvents, e.g.,
quantitative TLC methods, the spots being used acetonitrile or butanol.
should have Rf = 0.3—0.7; spots with Rf < 0.3
tend to be too concentrated whereas those with TWO-DIMENSIONAL TLC
Rt > 0.7 are too diffuse.
In many TLC processes, and even with
STATIONARY PHASES several solvent steps, the separation of mixtures
The range of substances now available for along a single line does not always give a clear
use as stationary phases in TLC extends far resolution of the individual components.
beyond the traditional silica gel and alumina. The However, this problem can often be overcome
introduction of microcrystalline cellulose has by using two dimensional TLC, even for closely
meant that TLC has almost totally replaced paper related compounds. In this procedure, the
chromatography. Silica gel is now available in separation is carried out using a square TLC
numerous particle sizes and mixed with a variety plate; the spot of the mixture of solutes is placed
of binders, such as calcium sulphate, which may near to one corner of the plate before being
also incorporate fluorescent indicators. Similar developed using the first solvent system (figure
combinations occur with alumina, which can be (a)). When complete (figure (b)) the
dried to give various levels of activation. So- chromatogram is removed from the development
called reversed-phase materials are also available tank, dried and rotated through 90° in order that
for use with aqueous eluents. These consist of the separated row of spots becomes the starting
long-chain hydrocarbons (e.g., C10 to C18) which line (figure (c)). The chromatogram is then rerun
have been bonded to the silica gel via the using the second solvent system. The end result
hydroxyl groups. Their use has extended the (figure (d)) should be an effective separation
range of solvent systems that can now be applied covering the broad area of the square
for development of TLC. chromatographic plate. One great advantage of
Chromatography 453
Two-dimensional Thin-layer Chromatography: (a) First Development, (b) Results

of First Separation, (c) Plate Rotated 90º for Second Development, (d) Final
Chromatography (Reprinted, With Permission, From R.C. Denney, 1982, A
Dictionary of Chromatography, 2nd edition, Macmillan, London).
two-dimensional TLC is that it is possible to the adsorbents also leads to slower development
obtain good separations of closely related rates, hence the elution distances are made
materials even on cut squares of chromatographic shorter and smaller solute quantities are used.
plates measuring only 10 cm. x 10 cm.
Quality of the Adsorbent Layer
HIGH-PERFORMANCE THIN-LAYER Layers for HPTLC are prepared using
CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPTLC) specially purified silica gel with average particle
diameter of 3-5 μm. and a narrow particle size
Developments which have taken place in the distribution. The silica gel may be modified if
quality of TLC adsorbents and in the procedures necessary, e.g., chemically bonded layers are
for sample application have led to such available commercially as reverse-phase plates.
improvements in performance of TLC Layers prepared using these improved adsorbents
separations that the expression ‘high- give up to about 5000 theoretical plates and so
performance thin-layer chromatography provide a much improved performance over
(HPTLC)’ has been used for separations in which conventional TLC; this enables more difficult
high resolution are achieved. The main features separations to be effected using HPTLC, and also
which have led to HPTLC are summarised below, enables separations to be achieved in much
but remember that the smaller particle size of shorter times.
Methods of Sample Application been achieved by using solid phase extraction

Due to the lower sample capacity of the columns to concentrate samples, followed by
HPTLC layer, the amount of sample applied to automatic spotting devices to deal with multiple
the layer is reduced. Typical sample volumes are samples in a short period of time and provide
100-200 nL, which give starting spots of only highly reproducible and quantitative spot
1.0-1.5 mm. diameter; after developing the plate application. These systems are particularly
for a distance of 3-6 cm., compact separated spots valuable for analyses where there is a constant
are obtained giving detection limits about 10 flow of fairly repetitive samples.
times better than in conventional TLC. A further Scanning Densitometers
advantage is that the compact starting spots allow
an increase in the number of samples which may Commercial instruments for in-situ
be applied to the HPTLC plate. quantitative analysis based on direct photometric
measurements have played an important role in
The introduction of the sample into the modern TLC. Both double and single-beam
adsorbent layer is a critical process in HPTLC. instruments are available. They are of particular
For most quantitative work, a convenient spotting value in HPTLC where the quality and surface
device is a platinum-iridium capillary of fixed homogeneity of the plates are generally very
volume (100 or 200 nL), sealed into a glass good. The densitometers scan the individual
support capillary of larger bore. The capillary spots by reflectance or absorption of a light beam.
tip is polished to provide a smooth, planar surface In reflectance densitometry the chromatogram
of small area (~0.05mm.2), which when used with is scanned by the moving beam of light and the
a mechanical applicator minimises damage to the intensity of the reflected light from the surface
surface of the plate; spotting by manual is measured. The differences in the light intensity
procedures invariably damages the surface. between the adsorbent and any spots are observed
TLC can be a highly labor-intensive system as a series of peaks in the scan display. The areas
of analysis as it has several processing stages, of the peaks correspond to the quantities of the
including sample preparation, often followed by materials in the spots. Alternative procedures
solvent extraction and concentration, sample produce a similar record by measuring the light
spotting, development and spot exposure by transmitted through the plate. With photodensito-
either fluorescence or chemical sprays. And meters the transmitted or reflected radiation is
quantitative analysis requires further processing used to produce a photograph of the chromato-
by scraping and dissolving or scanning Because gram revealing dark and light zones for the areas
of this, there have been major efforts in recent of the separated compounds. The standard
years to shorten procedures and to speed up the deviation for quantitative TLC determinations by
average time required for each sample. This has densitometry is better than 5%.
■
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Section - 9
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PHARMACOGNOSY
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9.1 Identification of Some Drugs.
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9.2 Constituents in Plant Substances.
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9.3 Chemotaxonomy.
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9.4 Drug Action of Some Important Substance.
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No portrait painter was ever so careless as to pay no attention to the marked
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peculiarity in the features of the person he wished to make a likeness of.
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9-1
Identification of Some Drugs
VEGETABLE KINGDOM They appear from May to July. They are

stalked and racemose. Petaloid sepals are
five, the upper one helmet-shaped and
ACONITUM NAPELLUS
beaked, nearly hemispherical; the two lat-
Botanical Name: Aconitum napellus Linn. eral sepals are roundish and hairy internally.
Family: Ranunculaceae. The lower two sepals are oblong oval.
Synonyms: Monk’s-hood; Wolf’s-bane; Helmet • Root: It is perpendicular, tapering and tuber-
flower; Beng., Kathbish. ous.
Habitat: It grows on damp, shady fields, of high
altitude mountains. It is found in the Alpine
and sub-Alpine regions of Himalayas in In-
dia from Nepal to Kashmir in central Asia,
central and southern Europe and Siberia.
Parts Used: The whole plant including the root.
Description:
• A perennial herb.
• Leaves: The leaves are alternate, long
stalked and hairy on the under surface. They
are palmately lobed; the lower surface is
more deeply lobed than the upper. It is di-
vided into three or five segments which are
again divided.
• Stem: The stem is upright. It is 3 to 6 feet
high, round, green and slightly hairy above.
• Flower: The flowers are of dark violet color. Aconitum napellus
AEGLE FOLIA
Botanical Name: Aegle folia. Gills
Family: Rutaceae. Pileus
Synonyms: Bael or Bela.

Habitat: Distributed throughout the world. Annules Fructi-
Stipe fication
Parts Used: Fresh, full-grown leaves are used.
Agaricus muscarius
Parts Used: The entire young fungus except the

outer skin.
Description:
• Pileus: It is 7-13 cms. broad. At first it is
globose and then dumble in shape, convex,
then expanded nearly flat with age. The mar-
gin is slightly striate. White floccose scales
Aegle folia cover the surface of the cap.
• Gills: These are pure white and symmetri-
Description: cal. Their length is variable; the shorter ones
• It is a slowly growing tree. It attains a height terminate under the cap very abruptly.
of 30 feet to 40 feet after several years. • Stem: It is white, becoming yellow with age.
• It has a rough bark and hard wood. Initially it is pithy then rough and shaggy,
and finally scaly.
• Leaves: The leaves are peculiarly arranged,
they are arranged like a trident, i.e., three
leaves being fixed to a petiole. ALLIUM CEPA
The fresh leaf has an aromatic odor which Botanical Name: Allium cepa Linn.
evolves on being slightly crushed by the Family: Liliaceae.
hand. The juice of the leaf is bitter to taste.
Synonyms: Piyaz; Onion.
Habitat: Very commonly cultivated in India.
AGARICUS MUSCARIUS
Parts Used: The red, mature bulbs are used for
Botanical Name: Amanita muscarius Linn. preparation of the medicine.
Family: Agaricaceae. Description:
Synonyms: Amanita muscaria Linn; Bug or Fly • It is a bulbous plant, with a fistulous scape
agaric. and a swelling towards the base. The scape
Habitat: Northern Europe, Asia and America. appears in the second year and is around 1
Identification of Some Drugs 459
Allium cepa Arnica montana
meter high. It is surmounted by a large globu- • Rhizome: It is a creeping, slender, blackish

lar umbel of greenish- white flowers. rhizome 25.4 to 50.8 mm. long from which
• The fresh onion is a pear-shaped bulb, with numerous filiform roots are given off. It is
fibrous roots at its base. The bulb consists erect, pubescent, rough, and striated.
of a compressed stem which, at the base is • Stem: It is 2.54 -3.1 cms. high erect, rough,
covered by dry membranous scales on the pubescent and striated. It may be either
extreme outside and fleshy scaly leaves on simple or with one pair of opposite branches.
the upper side. • Leaves: They are few, 28.1 to 76.2 mm. long,
• Leaves: The leaves are terete, fistulous and entire, sessile, opposite, obovate; radical
pointed. ones crowded at the base and pubescent; the
upper ones are smaller than the rest.
ARNICA MONTANA • Flowers: They are large, orange-yellow, soli-
Botanical Name: Arnica montana Linn. tary, or at the summit of the stem. It has hairy
involucral scales in a double row. The
Family: Compositae. recepticle is chaffy, 6.35 cm. in diameter with
Synonyms: Crysanthemum latifolium; Leopard’s about 20 ligilate florets and a large number
bane; Mountain arnica; Mountain tobacco. of tuber ones. It has a faintly aromatic smell
Habitat:Central Europe; Russia and Siberia. and a herby taste. The flowers appear in July
Parts Used: The entire fresh plant, including and August.
root.
Description: AZADIRACHTA INDICA
• A perennial herb. Botanical Name: Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Family: Meliaceae. Habitat: Found in many parts of United States.

Synonyms: Neem; Indian lilac; Margosa; Melia Parts Used: Bark of the root is used.
azadirachta.
Habitat: Throughout India.
Parts Used: The fresh bark is used.
Description:
• It is a large evergreen tree, having a height
of up to 50 feet. The trunk is straight.
• Leaves: Simply pinnate, 20-38 cm. long
leaves. They are crowded near the end of the
branches. Leaflets are 9-12, sub-opposite,
obliquely lanciolate, sometimes felcate
accuminate, serrate, glovers on both surface.
Baptisia tinctoria
Description:
• It is an erect, perennial herb.
• Stem: It is 2 to 3 feet high, round, smooth
and branched.
• Leaves: Palmately compound, small, three
foliate and wedge obovate. The leaves are
bluish-green and almost sessile.
• Flowers: Bright yellow about 1.25 cms. long.
They are a few in numerous racemes. Each
flower has an erect petal not much larger than
the straight lateral petals and keel.
• Root: It is fleshy, up to 4 cms. in thickness,
Azadirachta indica and marked by stem sacs. The outer surface
is dark brown while the inner surface is yel-
low.
• Bark: The bark has a dark gray to greyish
black color, rough, feebly fissured and ex-
BELLADONNA
foliating.
Botanical Name: Atropa belladonna Linn.
BAPTISIA TINCTORIA
Family: Solanaceae.
Synonyms: A. lethalis; Belladonna baccifera;
Botanical Name: Baptisia tinctoria Vent.
Solanum fluriosum; Deadly nightshade.
Family: Leguminosae.
Habitat: Commonly in Europe. Also cultivated
Synonyms: Sophora tinctoria Linn; Wild indigo. in Kashmir and Simla.
Berberis vulgaris
Belladonna Description:
• A deciduous shrub.
Parts Used: Whole plant is used.
• Root: Of pale yellow color.
Description:
• Leaves: In tufts, somewhat obovate. They
• It is a herbaceous perennial plant with thick, are more or less pointed, serrated and fringed
fleshy branched stem, 3-5 feet high. having three cleft spreadings. Sharp thorns
• Leaves: Alternate, green or brownish-green, are present at the base of each leaf bud.
short stalked, mostly 3 to 9 inch long and • Flowers: Golden yellow flowers with red
ovate. glands; while drooping, many flowered
• Stems: Hollow, flattened, finely hairy when racemes.
young.
• Flowers: Axillary, stalked, solitary, droop- BRYONIA ALBA
ing.
Botanical Name: Bryonia alba Linn.
• Root: Thick; juicy; branched spreading.
Family: Cucurbitaceae.
Synonyms: Bryonia vera; Uva angina; Vitis alba;
BERBERIS VULGARIS
Wild hops.
Botanical Name: Berberis vulgaris Linn. Habitat: Middle and south Europe.
Family: Berberidaceae. Parts Used: The fresh root before flowering.
Synonyms: Berberis canadensis, B. sinensis; B. Description:
Serrulata, Pipperidge bush.
• A perennial, climbing herbaceous vine
Habitat: Found in Europe and India, especially growing in hedges.
north of Assam.
• Roots: The roots are from 68 to 91 cms in
Parts Used: Bark of root used. length and from 71 to 101.6 mm. thick. Fusi-
form, fleshy, branched, succulent, trans-
Bryonia alba Bryophyllum
versely wrinkled, yellowish-grey externally when pressed between fingers. Young shoots
and white internally. The root has a disagree- grow from ripe leaves.
able acrid, bitter taste. Odor is nauseating
which disappears on drying. CACTUS GRANDIFLORUS
• Leaves: Deep green colored leaves having Botanical Name: Cereus grandiflorus Mill.
an alternate arrangement. They are cordate, Family: Cactaceae.
five-lobed and rough.
Synonyms: Night blooming cereus.
• Flowers: Small greyish-yellow, monoecious, Habitat: In the hot and stony places of tropical
flowers in axillary racemes. America.
Parts Used: The flowering stems.
BRYOPHYLLUM
Description:
Botanical Name: Bryophyllum calycinum Salish. • An evergreen under-shrub with a creeping
Family: Labiatae. root.
Synonyms: Coleus aromaticus; Himsagar; • Stem: 1 feet high, green, branching stem. It
Patharkuchi; Amroda. is succulent and is armed with clusters of 5
or 6 short radiating spines and bristles.
Habitat: Found throughout India.
• Flowers: Large, white sweet scented flow-
Parts Used: The fresh leaves.
ers around 30 cms. in diameter. They open
Description: only once in the evening and then close again
• It grows to a height of 1-3 feet. before the morning.
• Stem: It has numerous soft stems.
• Leaves: They are sessile, smooth and some- CALENDULA OFFICINALIS
what serrate. Leaves yield an aromatic juice Botanical Name: Calendula officinalis Linn.
Family: Asteraceae. It has been observed that in sultry weather,

Synonyms: Marigold. Calendula flowers issue sparks like elecric
sparks.
Habitat: Cultivated in India.
• Root: Fibrous, hairy, pale-yellow.
Parts Used: The fresh flowering tops and leaves.
CALOTROPIS GIGENTIA
Botanical Name: Calotropis gigentia R. Br.
Family: Asclepiadaceae.
Synonyms: Asclepias gigantia, A. procera;
Akanda; Mandar.
Habitat: Distributed throughout India.
Parts Used: Roots.
Calendula officinalis
Description:
• An annual herb attaining a height of upto
30-60 cms.
• Leaves: Broad, irreversely oval or lanceolate,
spatula shaped, some what fleshy and downy.
The margines are generally hispid with short Calotropis gigentia
hair.
Description:
• Stem: The stem is erect, hairy, branchy an-
gular, 15.2 to 45.7 cms. high. The stem has • An evergreen plant.
several branches which are striated, green, • Stem: A large, erect stem growing to a height
succulent and pubescent. of 6-8 feet with several downy branches.
• Flowers: Flower heads are large, solitary • Leaves: Sub-sessile, thick, glaucous, green,
upon each branch, terminal, yellowish-red opposite and cordate leaves.
or orange. Flowers generally appear during • Roots: Long, woody branching root. It is
March to May and fall towards close of night. light greyish-white or greyish- yellow, cy-
Odor is slightly aromatic, disagreeable. Taste lindrical and often curved. The surface is
is bitter, slimy and sourish; mucilagenous. considerably fissured longitudinally.
CEPHALANDRA INDICA
Botanical Name: Cephalandra indica Naud.
Synonyms: Coccinia cordifolia; Telakucha;
Kanduri.
Habitat: Found throughout India.
Parts Used: The fresh green leaves are used.
Chamomilla
Habitat: Found in India, Asia and Europe.

Parts Used: Whole plant when flowering.
Description:
• An annual herb growing in sandy regions.
Cephalandra indica • Root: The root is large, woody and fibrous.

• Stem: 30 to 60 cms. high, erect, solid and
Description: smooth. The stem is shiny, strongly striate,
with long, slender branches.
• A perennial creeping herb.
• Leaves: Deep green colored leaves; alternate • Leaves: Numerous; alternate, sessile,
arrangement. amplexicaul. The upper surface is simple,
and the other bi or tripinnatified. The seg-
• Flowers: White in color appearing in July.
ments are star-shaped, narrow and minutely
• Fruit: It is a smooth cylindrical berry. pointed.
• Roots: Are long, tapering and tuberous.
• Flowers: Flowers are terminal, solitary and
numerous, on striated naked peduncles.
CHAMOMILLA
Flowers are yellow and white, blooming
Botanical Name: Anthemis nobilis Linn. from May to August.
Family: Compositae.
Synonyms: Chameanelum vulgare; Chamomile CHELIDONIUM MAJUS
nostras; C. officinalis; C. vulgaris; Bitter
Botanical Name: Chelidonium majus Linn.
chamomille.
CINCHONA OFFICINALIS
Botanical Name: Cinchona officinalis Linn.
Family: Rubiaceae.
Synonyms: C. calisaya; C. succirubra; C.
condaminea; Peruvian bark.
Habitat: In India, in the Nilgiris, Assam, Khasia
hills and Sikkim.
Parts Used: The bark. Cinchona bark is derived
from several species. As such, bark of different
species differs more or less in form, marking,
structure, taste and odor. The bark is obtained
from the banches, trunk and root of the tree.
Chelidonium majus
Family: Papaveraceae.
Synonyms: Calandine; Tetterwort.
Habitat: Found in Europe, Germany and France.
Parts Used: The whole plant.
Description:
• An erect perennial herb, with a height of
about 30 to 120 cms.
• Root: It is fusiform, several headed. Cinchona officinalis
• Stem: Erect, branching stem which is very
brittle. Description:
• Leaves: They are large, alternate, petiolate, • Bark: The bark of Cinchona calisaya is yel-
glaucous. low; generally in quills, 457-762 cms. long,
• Flowers: Small, yellow, pedunculated flow- diameter 5-8 mm., thickness 3.18 - 6.35 mm.;
ers, umbilated in axillary cluster. They bloom with ridges, if any, longitudinal; numerous
from May to October. transverse and longitudinal fissures; color
• Fruit: It is a two-valved linear capsule con- externally rusty orange-brown or grey with
taining numerous seeds. a dark stain on the outer side; internally light
cinnamon.
The bark of cinchona succirubra or cinchona Description:

rubra or Red bark is similar in appearance • An evergreen perennial shrub.
to the former, but has broader and thicker
• Stem: Many slender, erect flowering stems
quills; color is externally dingy brownish-
up to one metre high; much branched.
grey, internally more red, prominent longi-
tudinal ridges with warty protuberances; • Flower heads: They are greenish-yellow, 1.5
with or without transverse fissures. to 4 mm. long, elongated, ovoid in shape and
somewhat angular. Surface is shiny and only
The bark of Cinchona officinalis (Loxa or
slightly hairy. The flower heads are very
Crown bark) is in shorter and smaller quills;
dense at the top portion of the branches and
color externally dark or almost black; inter-
the flowers appear in September.
nally paler than others.
COCCULUS INDICUS
CINA
Botanical Name: Anamirta cocculus W & A.
Botanical Name: Artemisia maritima Linn.
Family: Menispermaceae.
Family: Compositae.
Synonyms: Anamirta paniculata; Indian cockle;
Synonyms: A. austriaca, A. contra; A. Cina, Berg.; Kakamari.
Worm seed.
Habitat: In India (Malabar, Assam), eastern
Habitat: In temperate region and western Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Burma (Mianmar).
Himalayas.
Parts Used: The seeds.
Parts Used: Flowering heads.
Cocculus indicus
Cina
Description:
• A large woody climber.
• Bark: Corky.
• Leaves: 10 to 20 cms. long, broadly ovate,
acute or obtuse and rounded or sub-cordiate
at the base. They are thinly coriaceous, gla-
brous above, paler and with small tufts of
hairs in the axils of the veins beneath.
• Flowers: Flowers are small, greenish-white,
pendulous and compound racemose.
• Fruits: The brownish-black dry fruit or drupe
is known as Cocculus indicus. It is finely
wrinkled, about 11-12 mm. long, 9-10 mm.
wide and 6 mm. thick. The drupe is kidney
shaped. The seeds have a white, thin, inter-
nal shell enclosing a single cup-shaped oily
seed which is whitish-yellow, odorless and
intensely bitter. The fruits are present in clus-
ters. The base is marked by a circular stem Colchicum autumnale
scar. The pericarp is tough enclosing a seed.
Seeds are yellowish-gray and urn shaped. • Flowers: They are 1 to 4 or 6, 7 to 10 cm.
across when expanded, generally appearing
COLCHICUM AUTUMNALE in autumn with a slender tube.
• Leaves: Lanceolate, leaves, 25 cm. or less
Botanical Name: Colchicum autumnale Linn.
long or 5 cm. or less wide.
Family: Liliaceae
Synonyms: Meadow saffron; Naked lady; Tuber COLOCYNTHIS
root; Wild saffron.
Botanical Name: Citrullus colocynthis Linn.
Habitat: Cultivated in India.
Parts Used: The fresh bulbs (corm) are used.
Synonyms: Colocynthis vulgaris; Cucumis
Description: colocynthis; Bitter gourd; Indra varuni; Makal
• A bulbous perennial herb. phal.
• The underground stem (corm) is tunicate. Habitat: Found in India; Ceylon; Arabia; north
Corm is present in slices up to 2-5 mm. thick. Africa; France; Spain.
It is sub-reiniform to ovate in outline, hav- Parts Used: The pulp of the fruit after rejecting
ing yellowish edges. A few pieces are sub- the outer yellow rind and seeds are used.
conical or plano-convex. The corm slices are Description:
hard and break readily with a short, mealy • An annual, deciduous climber.
fracture. The cut surfaces of the slices are • Roots: Large, long, woody and branched
white and starchy. roots are present.
Conium maculatum
Colocynthis
• Root: Biennial, whitish roots.
• Stems: They are several, slender, rough, an-
• Stem: It is round, hollow, erect, branching
gular and pale green stems above; ashy
and smooth, marked with reddish-brown
stems, deltoid 3-7 lobed and tough.
spots. The stems grow to a height of 4 to 8
• Leaves: Alternate, petiolate, multified and feet.
variable in size.
• Leaves: Leaves are large, alternate and pin-
• Fruits: Papo or gourd, the shape and size is nately decompound, having long furrowed
like that of an orange from 6 to 10 cms. in petiole. They are dark green above, pale be-
diameter. The fruit is yellow with a thin, neath and emit a fetid odor when bruised.
solid, smooth rind, containing a spongy but
very bitter pulp.
DIGITALIS PURPUREA
CONIUM MACULATUM Botanical Name: Digitalis purpurea Linn.

Family: Scrophulariacea.
Botanical Name: Conium maculatum Linn.
Family: Umbelliferae. Synonyms: Common fox-glove; Digitalis; Finger-
hut; Purple glove.
Synonyms: Poison hemlock; Cicuta vulgaris;
Conium major; Spotted hemlock. Habitat: It is cultivated in India, southern and
central Europe, England, Norway, etc.
Habitat: Found in Asia, Europe and north Africa.
Parts Used: Whole plant is used. Parts Used: Leaves of the second year’s growth
are used .
Description:
• A deciduous herb.
DROSERA ROTUNDIFOLIA
Botanical Name: Drosera rotundifolia Linn.
Family: Droseraceae.
Synonyms: Round leaved sundew; Red rot.
Habitat: Europe, North America and Asia.
Parts Used: The whole plant is used.
Digitalis purpurea
Description:
• A biennial or perennial deciduous plant,
growing up a height of to 2 metres.
• Leaves: Alternate, ovate or oblong and pu-
bescent. The leaves are greenish above and
whitish beneath. The radial leaves are long Drosera rotundifolia
stalked and often grow upto 1 feet long. The
Description:
stem leaves are shorter stalked becoming
smaller towards the top of the stem. The • An aquatic, carnivorous, perennial herb.
dried leaves are dusty green, about 10-30 • Root: It has thin, fibrous roots of a deep
cms. long, 2-4.5 cms. wide, brittle, ovate to brown color.
ovate-lanceolate and petiolate; the upper • Stem: It is almost stemless.
surface is hairy, underneath it is densely
• Leaves: The leaves spread on the ground.
pubscent in common and distinguished by a
They are radicle, clustered, circular with
reticulation of raised veinlets. Markedly bit-
hairy petioles. Leaves are covered with long,
ter taste.
reddish, viscid hairs on the upper surface.
• Flowers: Purple flowers, sometimes white Each of these hairs bears a small gland at
inside with sprinkled black spots. The flow- the tip which when exposed to the sun ex-
ers are numerous, bell-shaped and grow in udes a clear shining juice. The hair are irri-
terminal recemes. They appear from June to table.
August.
• Flowers: It has small, white flowers open- at the base. The leaves are pubescent be-
ing in the sun shine. They appear in July and neath.
August. • Berries: The berries are scarlet, oval and
poisonous.
DULCAMARA
FICUS INDICA
Synonyms: Amara dulcis; Dulcis amara; Bitter
sweet; Garden night shade; Scarlet berry. Botanical Name: Ficus indica Linn.
Habitat: Found in Europe, Asia, Africa and north Family: Urticaceae.
America. Synonyms: Banyan tree; Ficus benghalensis;
Bata.
Parts Used: Whole plant before flowering.
Habitat: Distributed throughout India along the
road-side and also in lower Himalayas.
Parts Used: The hanging aerial roots issuing
from the branches are used.
Dulcamara
Description: Ficus indica

• A deciduous, climbing shrub.
Description:
• Root: It is woody, irregularly branched,
• It attains a height of about 100 feet.
creeping and yellowish-green in color. It
smells like potato. • Trunk: The trunk is woody and grows to an
enormous size.
• Stem: The stem is woody at the base, pubes-
cent above, alternately branched. • Roots: It has aerial roots in raceme, scending
from branches and penetrating into the
• Leaves: Alternate, petiolate and entire leaves.
ground.
The lower ones are cordate while the upper
ones are hasitate or with two ear-like lobes • Bark: It is thick and glabrous.
FICUS RELIGIOSA Synonyms: Pomegranate; Dalim.

Botanical Name: Ficus religiosa Linn. Habitat: Found in many parts of India, Persia
Family: Moraceae. and other warmer places of the world.
Synonyms: Peepul tree; Ashwath. Parts Used: The dried bark of the root.
Habitat: Found in India. Description:
Parts Used: The tender leaves. • A large perennial

shrub or tree.
• Stem: It is slender,
growing to a height
of 18-20 feet and is
well branched.
• Leaves: Opposite, Granatum
lanciolate, pointed,
entire, oblong or
obovate leaves. They are glabrous and ap-
pear only for a short period.
• Flowers: Red sessile flowers appear soli-
tarily or in clusters of two or three.
• Fruit: It has a big, orange sized fruit, de-
pressed, with numerous seeds.
• Bark: The bark is light brownish-grey.
Ficus religiosa
HOLARRHENA ANTIDYSENTRICA
Description: Botanical Name: Holarrhena antidysentrica
• Leaves: The leaves are 10-18 cms long, de- Wall.
ciduous, cordate, petiolate, shining and Family: Apocynaceae.
drooping. They are narrow upwards produc-
ing an apex which continues as linear Synonyms: Kurchi.
lanciolate tails which are 1/3rd of the whole Habitat: Found commonly throughout India.
length of the blade. The base is broad, Parts Used: The dried bark is used.
rounded or turncate. Description:
• Bark: It is gray, exfoliate in roundish, irregu- • A small deciduous tree.
lar flakes.
• Bark: It has brown bark exfoliating in irregu-
• Fruits: They look like small sized figs. lar flakes.
• Leaves: They are sessile or nearly so; rather
GRANATUM
thin, glabrous or more or less tomentose.
Botanical Name: Punica granatum Linn. • Flowers: White flowers, arranged in termi-
Family: Granateae. nal cymes. The pedicles are slender.
Holarrhena antidysenterica Hydrocotyle asiatica

• Flower: Small, pink colored flowers appear-
• Wood: The wood is lustrous, straight and
ing between July and October.
close grained. It is fine and even textured;
moderately soft and light.
HYOSCYAMUS NIGER
HYDROCOTYLE ASIATICA Botanical Name: Hyoscyamus Linn.
Botanical Name: Centella asiatica (Linn) Urb. Family: Solanaceae.
Family: Umbelliferae.
Synonyms: Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn; Thick
leaved pennywort.
Habitat: Commonly found in moist places of
India.
Parts Used: Whole fresh plant.
Description:
• An evergreen, creeping herb.
• Leaves: Leaves are kidney shaped, having a
circular margin which is toothed (crenate
teeth), and often lobed. Glabrous or nearly
so and shining. The leaves have an inch broad
petiolate. The leaves have a peculiar odor
and taste.
• Bracts: These are small and ovate embrac-
ing the flowers. Hyoscyamus niger
Synonyms: Henbase; Poison tobacco. Habitat: Distributed in India, Asia, Europe, north
Habitat: Found in India and Europe. Africa and North America.
Parts Used: The fresh plant of second year’s Parts Used: The whole plant.
growth. Description:
Description: • A deciduous perennial herb having woody
• It is a biannual, deciduous plant. branches.
• Stem: The stem is tapering, thick and cylin- • Root: It is dark brown in color.
drical. It grows up to 2 feet in height and is • Stem: It is 30 cms. or more in height. The
covered with long, soft, pointed, glandular stem is much branched, producing runners
white hair. from the base, somewhat 2-edged and
• Leaves: Large, pale-green, hairy leaves are smooth.
present. They are alternate, sessile, oblong • Leaves: Opposite, entire and oblong punc-
and irregularly lobed. tate leaves are present. They have numer-
• Flowers: Dull-yellow flowers, appearing ous scattered pellucid dots.
from July to August. • Flowers: Deep-yellow flowers present in the
terminal. They are open, leafy cymes.
HYPERICUM PERFORATUM • The herb has a characteristic balsamic odor.
The taste is bitter, resinous and somewhat
Botanical Name: Hypericum perforatum Linn.
astringent.
Family: Hypericaceae.
Synonyms: Fuga doemonum; H. umbelicalis; H. IGNATIA AMARA
officinale; H. pseudo-perforatum; H. virginicum;
St. John’s wort. Botanical Name: Strychnos ignatia Berg.
Family: Loganiaceae.
Synonyms: St. Ignatius bean; Beng (Hindi);
Pipata (Bombay); Kayap-pan Kottai (Tamil).
Habitat: Distributed in the Philippine islands and
in China.
Parts Used: The bean.
Description:
• It is a small tree.
• Stem: It is erect. Branches are opposite, gla-
brous.
• Leaves: 12.5 - 18 cms long; petiolate, ovate,
opposite, acute.
• Flowers: Numerous, white, long, in small ax-
illary panicles; the flowers have the odor of
Hypericum perforatum jasmine.
Description:
• Root: They are tortuous, seldom more than
15 cms. long and 0.6 mm. thick. The color
varies from dark brick-red to very dark
brown. There are closely annulated external
ridges, rounded and completely enriching the
root. The rhizome is of short length attached
to roots, cylindrical, up to 1 mm. in diam-
eter, finely wrinkled longitudinally and with
pith approximately one-sixth of the whole
diameter.
JUSTICIA ADHATODA
Botanical Name: Adhatoda vesica Nees.
Family: Acanthaceae.
Ignatia amara
Synonyms: Justicia adhatoda; Vasaka.
• Fruit: It is a pear-shaped fruit having around
20-24 seeds, imbedded in a bitter pulp. The
seeds are about 25.4 mm. long, oblong or
ovate in shape, obscurely angular. One side
of the seed is flat, the other convex. It is
ovate- shaped, gray or clear-brown in color,
having a brownish, translucent hard shell
which is hard to split. The seed is odorous
with a lasting bitter taste. In commerce, the
seed is found without a pericarp, consisting
simply of the al-
bumen.
IPECACUANHA
Botanical Name: Caphaelis
ipecacuanha (Brot) A. Rich.
Family: Rubiaceae.
Synonyms: Ipecac; C. ametica.
Habitat: It is cultivated in India,
Brazil and South America.
Parts Used: The dried roots.
Root of
Ipecacuanha Justicia adhatoda
Habitat: Distributed throughout India. • Leaves: About 3 inches in length, lanceolate

Parts Used: The leaves are used. and acute. They taper at the base, are petioled
and glabrous. The leaves are pale beneath
Description:
with 4-6 pairs of main lateral nerves. There
• It is a dense evergreen shrub growing upto are no petioles or they may be up to 0.6 mm.
1-2.5 meters. long.
• Leaves: 12-20 cm long, elliptical, lanceolate, • Flowers: Small, solitary flowers which are
acuminate, acute at both the ends, petiolate arranged in lax spreading axillary and
and thin. Both the surfaces of the leaves are terminal racemes or panicles.
smooth with very fine hairs on the blade and
the petiole.
LYCOPODIUM CLAVATUM
KALMEGH
Botanical Name: Lycopodium clavatum Linn.
(ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA) Family: Lycopodiaceae.
Botanical Name: Andrographis paniculate Nees. Synonyms: Club moss; Witch meal; Stag’s horn;
Family: Acanthaceae. Vegetable sulphur.
Synonyms: Kalmegh; Kiryat; Kirata. Habitat: Found in India, in Bengal, Sikkim,
Habitat: Throughout India, in the plains. Assam, Khasi and Manipur.
Parts Used: The whole plant is used. Parts Used: The spores are used.
Description:
• An erect branched annual plant. It grows to
a height of 1-3 feet.
Lycopodium clavatum
Description:
• Roots: Roots are strong spreading fibres re-
sembling a wolf’s feet.
Andrographis paniculata
• Stem: Have trailing branches, which are sev- ers appearing in lateral clusters.
eral meters long. • Fruit: It is a berry.
• Leaves: It has linear-oval shaped leaves,
which are flat, ribless, smooth and are tiped NUX VOMICA
with fine bristles. The leaves are curved up-
ward and of a light green color. Botanical Name: Strychnos nax-vomica Linn.
• The fructification is in terminal spikes which Family: Loganiaceae.
are present singly or in pairs, with crowded, Synonyms: Poison-nut; Kuchila.
ovate entire pointed scales, bearing in the
axil a transversely oval sporangium which
splits nearly to the base and contains a spore.
The spores, in a mass is a pale yellow pow-
der, too much mobile. The destiny is about
1.06 - 1.09. It is free from grittiness and is
characteristically smooth. The spores float
upon water and do not get wet. They are
inodorous and tasteless. If blown into a
flame; the spores burns with a sparking flash.
They burn slowly in a porcelain crucible. The
shell of the spore breaks after long contin-
ued trituration, rendering it as a light brown
unctuous mass.
MEZEREUM
Botanical Name: Daphne mererum Linn. Nux vomica
Family: Thymeliaceae.
Synonyms: Chamaelia germanica; C. gridus;
Habitat: Found in the forests of Western Ghats
Mezerium germanicum; Mezereon.
and Himalayas.
Habitat: Europe, especially in central countries.
Parts Used: Seeds, coarsely powdered.
Parts Used: The bark.
Description:
Description:
• It is a deciduous shrub, attaining a height of • It is a deciduous tree .
1.3 metres. • Trunk: Short and thick with an ash-colored
• Bark: Smooth, grey bark which is easily de- bark.
tachable from the wood. • Leaves: 7-15 cm long, opposite, short peti-
• Leaves: 5 cm. long, alternate, petiolate, lan- oled and oval. Has 3-5 veins, and is smooth
ceolate, entire and smooth leaves are present. on both sides.
They are green and somewhat glaucous be- • Flowers: Many, greenish-white flowers ap-
neath. pearing in the cold season.
• Flowers: Fragrant, purple rose colored flow- • Berry: It is globose, 2.5-7.5 cm. in diameter,
rough and shining. The berry is clothed on Description:

both sides with fine silky hairs which radi- • An under shrub, having a height of 2-4 feet,
ate from the centre. Each berry contains 1-2 with much branched twigs.
seeds.
• Leaves: 2-5 cm. long, oblong or elliptic ob-
• Seeds: They are flat, disc-shaped, irregularly long, obtuse or acute, with entire or
circular, 10-30 mm. in diameter and 4-6 mm. subserrate leaves. Both the surfaces are,
thick. Flat or concavo-convex seeds. It has hairy and minutely dotted. Petioles are 1.25
broad, rounded and thickened margins, de- to 2.5 cm. long.
pressed at the center. It is light greyish or
greenish-grey in color; horny, glistning;
OPIUM
odorless and extremely bitter in taste. The
seeds are covered with short satiny hair. Botanical Name: Papaver somniferum Linn.
OCIMUM SANCTUM
Botanical Name: Ocimum sanctum Linn.
Family: Labiatae.
Synonyms: Tulsi.
Opium
Synonyms: Poppy; Afim; Meconium; Opium;

Crudum.
Habitat: In India.
Parts Used: The dried or partly dried. Gummy
juice obtained from unripe capsules.
Ocimum sanctum
Description:
Habitat: Cultivated and planted throughout • There are 3 or 4 capsules on each plant. They
India. are smooth, stalked, 2.5 cms. in diameter,
Parts Used: The whole plant excluding the roots. globose and glabrous. Each capsule contains
numerous seeds or poppy seeds (posta dana)
which are edible. A white milky juice is Parts Used: The whole fresh plant when in
present in all parts of the plant but is most flower.
abundant in the capsules. This can be ob- Description:
tained by incising the capsule and then after
• It is a deciduous, perennial herb.
some hours scraping the leaves when the
juice will have attained different degrees of • Root: Spindle-shaped, multiheaded dark
consistency. Indian Opium is derived in cu- brown thick root.
bical pieces on tissue paper. It is soft and • Stem: It is erect, round and simple; 76.2 to
tenacious inside but becomes brittle on ex- 127.0 mm high.
posure to air. It is brown, yellow when pow- • Leaves: Radical, petiolate, bipinnatified,
dered. The odor is strong, characteristic, having linear segments. At the base, it is
heavy, narcotic and disagreeable. The taste surrounded by several ovate, lanceolate
is warm and nauseous. It is readily inflam- sheaths.
mable and gives its virtues to alcohol and
• Flowers: Bell-shaped flowers, varying in
water.
color from dark blue to dark violet. The
whole plant is surrounded by soft, silky, long
PULSATILLA NIGRICANS hair. It is odorless, but on being rubbed ex-
Botanical Name: Pulsatilla nigricans Linn. hales an acrid vapor. The taste is acrid and
Family: Ranunculaceae. burning.
Synonyms: Anemone pratensis; Pulsatilla

pratensis; Wind flower. RHUS TOXICODENDRON
Habitat: Europe, Russia and Asia.
Pulsatilla Rhus toxicodendron

Botanical Name: Rhus toxicodendron Mitch.

Family: Anacardiaceae.
Synonyms: R. radicans; R. humile; R. pubescens;
Poison ivy; Oak; Poison ash.
Habitat: Found in U.S.A. in the thickets and low
grounds.
Parts Used: Fresh leaves.
Description:
• A deciduous shrub growing upto 1-3 feet in
height.
• Leaves: Alternate, rhombvic ovate, pointed
downy beneath, long petioled, thin veined
and yellowish-green in color. The folicles are
about 70 mm. long, egg-shaped, shining, in-
cised, deep green above, light green and pu-
bescent below. The lateral leaflets are un-
equal at the base and sessile, while the ter-
minal ones are larger and the end of prolon- Ruta graveolens
gation of the common petiole.
• Flowers: They are small and greenish-white oled and triangular; ovate in shape. They are
in color; polygamous and in loose and slen- bluish-green in color.
der axillary panicles. • Flowers: They are yellow in divertically
• Fruits: A drupe, globular glabrous and gray- spreading corymbs. The pedicles are longer
ish in color. than the capsule.
RUTA GRAVEOLENS SAMBUCUS NIGRA
Botanical Name: Ruta graveolens Linn. Botanical Name: Sambucus nigra Linn.
Family: Rutaceae. Family: Caprifoliaceae.
Synonyms: Common rue; Ruta; R. latifolia; Bitter Synonyms: Black berried European elder.
herb. Habitat: Found in Europe, west Africa, Great
Habitat: Cultivated commonly in gardens Britain, Japan and Siberia.
throughout India. Parts Used: The leaves and flowers are used.
Parts Used: The whole plant is used. Description:
Description: • A deciduous tree growing upto 4 to 9 meters
• An evergreen shrub. high.
• Stem: Several, growing upto 2 feet high. • Bark: Deeply furrowed, whitish bark. The
branches are greyish and strongly
• Leaves: 3 to 4 inch long, alternate, long peti-
leaticellate.
• Leaves: Petiolate, opposite, pinnate. The

leaflets are 3-7, short-stalked, elliptic, acumi-
nate, sharply and oddly serrate, shiny.
• Flowers: Are creamy-white in color with
five-parted cymes.
• Fruits: Black, lustrous, globose, three-celled
fruits; 50 - 65 mm. in diameter.
SANGUINARIA CANADENSIS
Botanical Name: Sanguinaria canadensis Linn.
Synonyms: S. acualis; S. grandiflora; S. minor;
Blood root.
Habitat: India; United States and Canada.
Parts Used: The rhizome. Secale cornutum
Description: Description:
• Rhizome: It is red, cylindrical and prostrate. • It is a fungus growing upon the seed of the
The rhizome is 2-4 inches long, slightly Secale cornutum.
branched with a fibrous root beneath. • The grains or ergots are generally 1-3 cm.
• Leaves: They arise from the bud of the rhi- long, 1-5 broad, sub-cylindrical or obtusely
zome, are 5-9 palmately lobed on long red triangular, fusiform, tapering towards the
orange colored petioles. The leaves are gla- ends, transversely cracked with three longi-
brous, pale green above, bluish-white be- tudinal furrows. Externally, dark violet to
neath, with orange colored veins. nearly black. Internally, whitish with purplish
straie. Surface as of uniform texture; brittle,
• Flowers: White, showy, flowers, 2.5 to 4
breaks with a smooth surface. It has a vis-
cms. in diameter, on a one-flowered, naked
cid, peculiar, offensive smell. The taste is
scape 15 cms. high. The bud is erect, and
characteristic, rancid, flat and sweetish. The
there are usually eight petals; not crampled.
ergots deteriorate on keeping for a long time.
SECALE CORNUTUM
SPIGELIA
Botanical Name: Claviceps purpurea Tul.
Botanical Name: Spigelia marylandica Linn.
Family: Hypocreaceae (fungi).
Family: Loganiaceae.
Synonyms: Acinula clavus; Clavaria clavus;
Synonyms: Pink-root.
Ergot of rye.
Habitat: Found in West Indies, north-east
Habitat: In the fields of Rue plant.
America to Florida and Texas.
Parts Used: The whole fungus is used when
Parts Used: The whole plant.
freshly dried and ground to a coarse powder.
Description: Synonyms: Eugenia jambolana; Jam; Jambol

• A perennial herb growing upto 30-40 cms. seeds.
high. Small, twisted, knotty horizontal rhi- Habitat: Distributed throughout India.
zome. It is 5 cms. long, 2.3 mm. in diameter Parts Used: The fresh seeds.
with numerous, long, slender, fibrous yel-
Description:
low roots beneath.
• It is a large tree.
• Stem: There are several, erect, purplish and
smooth. They are quadrangular above and • Bark: It is light colored, thick, and rough ex-
rounded below. foliating.
• Leaves: Opposite, sessile, existipulate, ovate, • Leaves: Coriaceous, lanciolate leaves. They
lanceolate, acute and smooth leaves are eliptic, oblong or broadly ovate-elliptic,
acute, sub-obtuse or shortly acuminate.
• Flowers: 4 to 12 in number. The color is bril-
liant red and the flowers are large, sessile, • Fruits: Shaped like an olive, subglobose;
tubular and funnel shaped. They have a very vary in size from that of a pea to a pigeon
short stalk. egg, dark purple in color, smooth and juicy;
one-seeded fruit.
• Fruit: Loculicidally dehiscent capsules, com-
• Seeds: Seeds are stony. It is exalbuminous
pressed laterally. The fruits are two-celled,
with straight curved or twisted embryo.
smooth and yellow or greenish-yellow in
color.
THUJA OCCIDENTALIS
SYZYGIUM JAMBOLANUM Botanical Name: Thuja occidentalis Linn.
Botanical Name: Syzygium cuminii Linn. Family: Cupressaceae.
Family: Myrtaceae. Synonyms: American arbor-vitae; Tree of life.
Habitat: In the United States.
Parts Used: Leaves and twigs are used.
Syzygium jambolanum Thuja occidentalis

Description: Parts Used: The rhizome.

• It is a tall tree having a height of upto 20 Description:
meters. • It is a perennial, deciduous herb.
• Leaves: Acute, apiculate, usually conspicu- • Rhizome: It has an erect rhizome which fre-
ously glandular, leaves which are bright quently divided into 2-3 branches. The rhi-
green above and yellowish-green beneath. zome is 5 cm. long and 2 cm. in diameter. It
The twigs are entire or broken, fan-shaped, is dull black in color. Externally, it is rough
flattened, bearing 4 rows of oppressed, scale- and wrinkled with remains of numerous con-
like leaves. All bearing glands are on the centrically arranged leaf bases at the upper
back. The leaves when rubbed between the part and root-scars containing a distinct slen-
palms of the hands gives the a pungent, aro- der xylum in the centre. There are numerous
matic, resinous odor. rootlets which completely envelop the rhi-
• Flowers: Are minute, solitary and terminal. zome. It is dull-gray or yellowish in color,
They appear in May and June. and shrivelled longitudinally. Lower extrem-
ity of the rhizome is bluntly conical or trun-
VERATRUM ALBUM cate.
Botanical Name: Veratrum album Linn.

VERATRUM VIRIDE
Family: Liliaceae.
Botanical Name: Veratrum viride Ait.
Synonyms: European hellebore.
Family: Liliaceae.
Habitat: Distributed in middle and southern
Europe, Russia, China and Japan. Synonyms: Helonias viridis; American white
hellebore.
Habitat: Found in North America, from Canada
to Georgia.
Parts Used: The rhizome.
Description:
• Rhizome: It is coarse, thick, fleshy, more or
less horizontal, with numerous white root-
lets over the lower part which has a strong,
unpleasant odor when fresh; strong, but
nearly odorless when dried. It is about 5 to 8
cms. long, 2 to 3.5 cms. wide, sub-cylindri-
cal and obconical below.
• Stem: Around 1.33 meters high. It is stout,
erect and simple. The stem is leafy on the
top; striated and pubescent.
• Leaves: They are 3-ranked, broadly oval. The
lower leaves are 6 to 12 inches long, curly,
Veratrum album decreasing in size upwards.
• Flowers: Polygamous, yellowish-green flow- by the smooth sheaths of the leaves.

ers, present on pedicles. They are much • Flowers: Greenish, with a small dark purple
shorter than the bracts and are in dense, or purplish-black lip.
spreading spike-like racemes on roundish,
downy peduncles, composing a terminal py-
ramidal panicle.
ANIMAL KINGDOM
ZINGIBER OFFICINALIS
APIS MELLIFICA
Botanical Name: Zingiber officinale Roscoe.
Zoological Name: Apis mellifica.
Family: Zingiberaceae.
Phylum: Arthropoda.
Synonyms: Ginger; Ammonium zingiber; Class: Insecta.
Zingiber albus; Ada; Adrak.
Synonyms: Madhu makhee (Hindi); Honey bee
Habitat: Found throughout India and many other (English); Common live bee.
parts of Asia. Habitat: Found in India and also other parts of
Parts Used: The fresh roots are used . the world.
Parts Used: Live bees.
Apis mellifica
Zingiber officinalis Description:

Description: • A swarm of Apis mellifica, the honey bees
consist of queen bee, several hundred male
• It is a perennial, deciduous shrub.
drones and ten thousand or more female
• Rhizome: Is large, horizontal solid and workers. The queen bee is the only perfectly
tough; roundly jointed, fleshy, cylindrical, developed female. The other female bees
flat and is covered with a brown thin skin. have got the poison apparatus, the stings. The
• Stem: Is 2-4 feet high; erect, oblique invested female bees are externally distinguished
from the males by their shorter abdomen. On 5.8-8.7 mm. broad. It is of a bronze-green
the ligula in the female, there remain two color.
paraglossae, and its maxillary palpi are one • The head is inclined, almost cordiform; an-
jointed. A male bee has smooth hind legs, tennae filiform of twelve joints, black;
almost rudimentary mouth parts and the eyes antennuale equally filiform, the posterior
are united above. swollen at the extremity; a longitudinal chan-
• The bee’s body has three parts: nel traverses the thorax, which has the same
- Head. width as the head; hind coxae are large,
- Thorax. prominent; coxal cavities are open behind;
claws toothed; wings brownish-transparent,
- Abdomen.
many, membranous; eyes large of a deep
The parts are separated by constrictions. The brown color; mouth with an upper lip and
head carries the eyes, antennae and mouth two bifid jaws; body is marked with longi-
parts. The thorax has the wings and legs. The tudinal streaks; elongated body, almost round
abdomen carries the wax glands and sting. and cylindrical head and foot full of whitish
hairs.
CANTHARIS • Odor disagreeable, sweetish, nauseous; taste
Zoological Name: Lytta vesicatoria Febricus. much acrid, almost caustic.
Phylum: Arthropoda. • It has a strong disagreeable odor. The blis-
Class: Insecta. tering property is due to cantharidin
(C10H12O4) which may be extracted from the
Synonyms: Cantharis vesicatoria; Spanish fly;
beetles with ether or chloroform. It is sepa-
Cantharides; Blister beetle; Fabricus; De geer.
rated and purified by crystallisation.
Habitat: Found southern France and Sprain.
Parts Used: Whole dried fly. LACHESIS
Description:
Zoological Name: Crotalus mutus.
• The insect is about 12.7-25.4 mm. long and
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptila.
Synonyms: Lachesis mutus; Surukuku snake-
poison; Deadly bushmaster.
Habitat: Found in the hot countries of South
America.
Parts Used: The venom.
Description:
• The snake is about seven feet long and its
poison fangs are almost an inch long. The
skin is reddish-brown, with large rhomboi-
dal spots of blackish-brown color on the
back.
Cantharis
Suckers on oral arms
Tentacles
Head
Eye
Collar
Trunk
Suckers
Lachesis
• The poison is like saliva, less viscous, limped Internal fin

and inodorous, without any marked taste.
• The venom can be obtained by stunning the Sepia
snake with a blow and then collecting the their prey or escape from their pursuers.
poison on sugar of milk by pressing the fangs
• Sepia in a dry state, as it occurs in commerce,
upwards against the poison sac.
appears as a brittle, dark, blackish-brown
solid mass. It breakes with a shining, con-
SEPIA
choidal fracture, a grapy form; having a faint
Zoological Name: Sepia officinalis Linn. sea fishy odor, hardly any taste and scarcely
Phylum: Mollusca. dyeing the saliva. It is insoluble in alcohol
Class: Cephalopoda. and water. Sepia should be obtained still en-
Synonyms: Inky juice of cuttle fish. closed in a pouch wherein it has been dried.
Habitat: In the Indian ocean and other seas of
Europe and Mediterranean. SPONGIA
Parts Used: The dried inky juice found in a bag- Zoological Name: Sycon gelatinosum.
like structure in the abdomen of the cuttle fish. Phylum: Porifera
Description: Class: Calcarea or Calcispongiae.
• Cuttle fish ink is an excretory liquid present Synonyms: Sponge; Spongia tosta; S. officinalis.
in a bag about the size and shape of a grape Habitat: In the Mediterranean region, near Syria
within the abdomen of a Sepia. It is black- and Greece.
ish-brown in color, and is issued to darken Parts Used: The whole body including the
the water around it when they wish to catch skeleton.
antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) and cream of tar-

tar (potassium bitartarate).
KHC4H4O6 + ½Sb2O23 K (SbO)
C4H4O6.½ H2O
ARGENTUM NITRICUM
Chemical Formula: AgNO3
Molecular Weight: 169.875
Synonyms: Silver nitrate; Argentinitras; Lunar
caustic.
Description:
• Crystallised silver nitrate consists of tabular
Spongia
rhombic anhydrous crystals which are shin-
Description: ing, colorless and odorless. Taste is burning,
bitter and metallic.
• The horny skeleton consists mostly of sili-
• AgNO3 is soluble in it’s own weight of cold
ceous or calcareous matter, while the spongy
and in half that of boiling water, and in 4
portion is soft, elastic and compressible. The
parts of boiling alcohol. The solutions are
spongy portion is traversed by many lacu-
neutral in reaction.
nae, with circular openings on the surface.
• AgNO3 is fused by the action of heat and
• The selected sponge must be free from for-
solidifies on cooling; at red heat it decom-
eign substances. It should be cut into small
poses leaving metallic silver.
pieces and roasted until brown and friable.
• In an aqueous solution with sodium chloride,
it yields abundant white precipitate of silver
MINERAL KINGDOM chloride, which is soluble in ammonia.
• AgNO3 stains the skin black.
ANTIMONIUM TARTARICUM • It melts at 214º C; specific gravity is 4.3.
Chemical Formula: K(SbO) C4H4O6. ½ H2O • It is freely soluble in water; the solution
Molecular Weight: 333.932 slowly darkness on exposure to light. The
Synonyms: Tartarate of antimony and potassium; solution gives a brown precipitate of silver
Tartar emetic. oxide (Ag2O) with ammonium hydroxide so-
lution, soluble in excess of the precipitant—
Description:
the ammoniacal solution on evaporation
• Present as colorless, transparent crystals or
yields the crystals of the amine.
a white, granular, odorless powder, with a
sweet metallic taste. The crystals effloresce • It is prepared in transparent rhombic plates
upon exposure to air. by dissolving silver in hot dilute nitric acid,
HNO3 and concentrating the solution to
• Soluble in 12 parts of water and in 3 parts of
crystallisation.
boiling water; insoluble in alcohol.
• It can be prepared by boiling a mixture of Ag+2HNO3 AgNO3 + NO2 + H2O
ARSENICUM ALBUM foliatum; Precipitated gold; Gold leaf; Metallic

Chemical Formula: AS2O3. gold.
Molecular Weight: 197.841 Description:
Synonyms: Acidum arsenicum; White arsenic; • It is gold, a brilliant, soft, much malleable,
Arsenious acid; Arsenious trioxide; Arsenious ductile, yellowish-orange metal; brown when
anhydride. finely powdered.
Description: • It is not attacked by oxygen or air, or any
acid or alkali.
• It is freshly prepared in a hydrated state
known as arsenious acid. • Density is 19.33; it melts at about 1240º C
and boils at about 2600º C.
• Occurs as heavy, large, vitreous, white amor-
phous masses, which gradually turn opaque, • Gold is attacked by the halogens and there-
crystalline and porcelain-like. It is odorless fore by aqua regia wh-ich yields chlorine and
and stable in air. converts gold into chlorauric acid.
• It is an active poison. 2Au + 3Cl2 + 2HCl 2H(AuCl4)
• Soluble in 25 parts of water at ordinary tem- Gold commonly occurs in the free state.
perature and in boiling water and hydrochlo- Hence commercial purification is generally
ric acid, HCl. Completely soluble in glycer- effected electrolytically.
ine; also in solutions of alkalies and tartaric • With NaOH, solutions of gold salts give a
acid. Very slightly soluble in alcohol. The brown precipitate which is soluble in an ex-
amorphous variety is more soluble than the cess of the reagent.
crystalline variety. • On being treated with stannous chloride, a
• At 218º C, it volatilises without fusing. The solution of salt in aqua regia slowly forms a
vapor is colorless and odorless; brilliant oc- purple precipitate.
tahedrons are formed on cooling.
• When heated with organic matters like char- BARYTA CARBONICA
coal or potassium cyanide, it gives off a
Chemical Formula: BaCO3
strong garlicky odor and turns to the metal-
lic state. Molecular Weight: 197.349
• In an aqueous solution with hydrogen sul- Synonyms: Barium carbonicum; Carbonate of
phide, it yields a yellow precipitate soluble barium; Barii carbonas; Carbonus baryticus.
in aqueous ammonia. Description:
• It is produced by roasting arsenical ores, like • Baryta carbonica is a pure white, dense, soft
purites and condensing the volatile arsenious powder. It has no taste or odor.
oxide in flues as a white matter. • It is almost insoluble in water; soluble in
water containing carbon dioxide. It is readily
AURUM METALLICUM decomposed by acids with the evolution of
CO2.
Chemical Formula: Au.
• Soluble in dilute HCl, HNO3 and CH3COOH
forming the respective salts.
Synonyms: Aurum precipitatum; Aurum
• Its specific gravity is 4.43. In nature it
occurs as mineral witherite and is purified ammonium phosphate and an excess of am-
by precipitation; contains not less than 98 monia to calcium chloride solution.
per cent of BaCO3. 3Ca++ + 2HPO4-- + 2OH = Ca3 (PO4)2 + 2H2O.
• At red heat, it melts forming a white enamel,
without decomposition; at a more strong CAMPHORA
heat, it decomposes into CO2 and barium
oxide. Chemical Formula: C10H16O
• If there be any undissolved residue in its Molecular Weight: 152.238
solution with dilute HCl, barium sulphate is Synonyms: Camphor officinarum; Camphor;
present. Karpur; Kapur.
• Ammonium or hydrogen sulphides produce Description:
no change in its solution, implying absence • Camphora occurs in white translucent crys-
of the metals. tals or crystalline cakes or as blocks of tough
• Sulphuric acid in excess, precipitates its so- consistency; can be easily cut with a knife.
lution which, is not affected by sodium car- • It has a characteristic odor which is aro-
bonate, implying absence of the metals of matic; taste is pungent and warm followed
the earth. by a cooling sensation.
• Moistened with HCl and heated on a plati- • It slowly evaporates at ordinary temperature.
num wire over a bunsen flame, it imparts a • Very lightly soluble in water, 1 part in 700;
green color to the flame. freely soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform
• Heat 1 gram with 5 ml. HNO3, cool and di- and carbon-di-sulphide; also volatile and
lute with three times its volume of H2O. Fil- fixed oils dissolve it readily.
ter; the filtrate gives a precipitate with • Specific gravity is 0.990 to 0.995 at 15º C.
H2SO4. • It fuses at 175º C. Boiling point is 205º C;
sublimes entirely on heating.
CALCAREA PHOSPHORICA
• Camphora burns with a luminous sooty
Chemical Formula: Ca3 (PO4)2 flame.
Molecular Weight: 310.183 • It breakes easily into irregular masses; but
Synonyms: Calcii phosphas precipitatus; Calcium are too tough, not easily reduceable to pow-
phosphoricum; Precipitated phosphate of der, but when moistened with glycerine or
calcium; Tricalcic phosphate; Calcarea alcohol, they are readily pulverisable.
phosphate.
Description: CARBO VEGETABILIS
• It is a white, amorphous or microcrystalline Synonyms: Wood charcoal; Vegetable charcoal;
powder with no odor or taste. Angara.
• Almost insoluble in water; decomposed Description:
slightly by boiling water; insoluble in alco- • It is vegetable charcoal prepared from se-
hol; readily soluble in dilute HNO3 or HCl. lected birch or beech wood.
• Its specific gravity is 3.14. • It is a bluish-black, brittle, porous substance,
• It is formed as a white precipitate on adding with a peculiar glistening aspect and retain-
ing minutely both the form and texture of • Hydrogen sulphide gas or solution gives a
the wood from which it was made. black precipitate.
• It is odorless and tasteless; insoluble and • It slowly dissolves in ammonium hydroxide,
infusible. Its specific gravity is 1.7. in the presence of air, giving a deep solu-
• When heated in air, it is converted into car- tion.
bon oxide or carbon dioxide. • On addition of excess of ammonia to a solu-
• If burnt, should give no unpleasant odor nor tion in HCl, it produces ultimately a deep-
smoke nor flame. blue colored solution.
• Absence of flame implies that it is free from • A solution of potassium ferro cyanide gives
organic compounds. a brown precipitate. Exposed to air, it is
• It absorbs gases readily. slightly tarnished, not acted upon by dilute
sulphuric acid, attacked by halogens and
CUPRUM METALLICUM sulphur.
Chemical Formula: Cu.

GLONOINUM
Chemical Formula: Cu2 H5N3O9
Synonyms: Copper; Cuprum; Metallic copper;
Cuprum filum; Copper wire; Tamba (Sanskrit); Molecular Weight: 227.07
Tama (Bengali); Tamba (Hindi and Oriya); Ragi Synonyms: Glonoine; Nitroglycerine; Glyceryl
(Telugu). trinitrate.
Description: Description:
• Tough, soft, malleable and ductile; lustrous • It is a colorless, odorless liquid having a
and reddish. sweet, burning taste. Glonoine is almost in-
• A rose-red colored metal. It may be present soluble in water but readily dissolves in al-
in the form of a very fine powder. cohol. It explodes on concession or rapid
• After silver, it is the best conductor of elec- heating.
tricity. • Glonoine begins to decompose at 50° to 60°,
• Specific gravity is 8.945; melting point is and is appreciably volatile at 100°.
1083ºC; atomic weight is 63.54. • It evolves nitrous yellow vapors at 135° and
• Readily dissolves in dilute HNO3 giving a explodes at 218°.
blue solution. • It is prepared by nitrating glycerine with a
• It slowly tarnishes in air, becoming covered mixture of HNO3 and H2SO4, called nitra-
with a brown film of oxide or sulphide, tion acid.
which on long exposure is converted to a
green color of basic copper sulphate. GRAPHITES
• It dissolves slowly in concentrated HCl or Synonyms: Plumbago; Black-lead; Carbo
dilute H2SO4 in the presence of air. Hot con- mineralis; Kala sisa (Hindi); Kalo sisa (Bangalo);
centrated H2SO4 also dissolves it; it is slowly Krishna seesaka (Sanskrit).
attacked by boiling concentrated HCl.
Description:
2Cu + 4HCl + O2 2CuCl2 + 2H2O
• Graphites is mineral carbon, blackish-gray
2Cu + 2H2SO4 + O2 2CuSO4 + 2H2O
in color, of metallic lustre. It is soft, and • In solutions, it produces a bright red precipi-
greasy to touch; is an unctuous, lustrous solid tate with potassium iodide.
composed of hexagonal crystalline scales;
odorless. NATRIUM MURIATICUM
• Its specific gravity is 18 - 25 and is a good Chemical Formula: NaCl
conductor of electricity. Molecular Weight: 58.443
Synonyms: Common salt; Sodium chloride; Table
MERCURIUS CORROSIVUS salt; Sodii chloridum; Natrum chloratum;
Chemical Formula: HgCl2 Chloride of sodium; Laban (Sanskrit); Nimak
Molecular Weight: 271.496 (Hindi); Laban noon (Bengali).
Synonyms: Mercuric chloride; Corrosive Description:
sublimate; Perchloride of mercury; Hydrargyri • A colorless, odorless, transparent cubical
chloridum; Corrosivum; Corrosive mercuric crystals, or a white crystalline powder hav-
chloride. ing a saline taste.
Description: • Salt is soluble in 2.8 parts water at 15º C;
• It is a heavy, white, crystalline mass or rhom- slightly soluble in alcohol (1 part in 50 parts
bic prisms. It is odorless but has a strong of alcohol), insoluble in HCl. Its aqueous
metallic taste. solution is practically neutral.
• It is soluble in 13.5 parts of water in 2.1 parts • It has a specific gravity of 2.163. It fuses at
of alcohol. about 804°C.
• When heated to 277° C it changes to a col- • It is obtained by passing HCl gas into a satu-
orless liquid. rated solution of the salt, thus separating the
crystals.
• Boiling point is 32° C; its specific gravity is
about 5.4. • With AgNO3 solution, it gives a white pre-
cipitate, which is soluble in ammonia.
• It is commonly prepared by the direct com-
• Salt is permanent in air, but if contaminated
bination of mercury and chlorine. Contains
with magnesium chloride, it becomes moist
not less than 99.5 per cent of HgCl2.
in damp atmosphere.
MERCURIUS VIVUS
NITRIC ACID
Chemical Formula: Hg.
Chemical Formula: HNO3
Synonyms: Mercurius; Mercury; Parad
(Sanskrit); Para (Hindi and Bengali). Molecular Weight: 63.013
Description: Synonyms: Aqua fortis; Hydrogen nitrate;
Acidum nitri.
• It is a white, shiny, silvery liquid; too mo-
bile, easily divisible into globules. Description:
• Nitric acid is a fuming liquid which is very
• It is odorless and tasteless.
caustic, and has a characteristic irritating
• It is insoluble in alcohol or water; odor.
unoxidisable in air; soluble in HCl, H2SO4 • It is miscible with water and dilute alcohol
and HNO3. in all proportions.
• Specific gravity is 1.41; boiling point is Description:

120°C. • It is a colorless, odorless liquid of a syrupy
• It is prepared by oxidation of ammonia with consistency.
air in the presence of platinum which acts as • It is soluble in water and alcohol in all pro-
a catalyst. It attacks most metals evolving portions. It contains not less than 89.0% w/
brown fumes. It contains not less than 69% w of the absolute acid.
and not more than 71% w/w of HNO3. • Specific gravity is 1.71.
• It can be obtained by the oxidation of phos-
PHOSPHORUS phorus in contact with water. It contains not
Chemical Formula: P less than 88% and not more than 90% w/w
Molecular Weight: 30.974 of H3PO4.
Synonyms: Phosphore. • Phosphoric acid is strongly acidic even when
Description: freely diluted with water.
• It is obtained in cylindrical sticks, pale yel- • When carefully neutralised with potassium
low or colorless transparent or translucent hydroxide test solution and a solution of
solid. AgNO3 added, a characteristic yellow pre-
cipitate, soluble in NH4OH is formed.
• It has a waxy consistency at ordinary tem-
perature, but at low temperature, becomes PLATINUM METALLICUM
brittle and crystalline.
Chemical Symbol: Pt
• On exposure to air, emits white fumes with
Synonyms: Platina; Metallic platinum; Platine.
a garlicky odor. The fumes are lumimous in
Description:
the dark.
• Platina is a lustrous, greyish-white,
• Phosphorus is tasteless.
melleable and ductile metal. It is a good con-
• It is much inflammable; infites at 50ºC, so ductor of heat and electricity.
should be kept under water. It ignites bril- • It is stable in air and does not tarnish on ex-
liantly with a white flame. posure to air.
• Almost insoluble in water; soluble in 667 • Platina is insoluble in a single acid but is
parts of 95% alcohol and in carbon- soluble in hot aqua regia with the formation
disulphide, chloroform, volatile and fixed of chloroplatinic acid.
oils. • Specific gravity is 21.45. It melts at 1,773
• It’s specific gravity is 1.82. It melts at about 0176º C.
44º.
PLUMBUM METALLICUM
PHOSPHORIC ACID Chemical Symbol: Pb
Chemical Formula: H3PO4 Molecular Weight: 207.29
Synonyms: Plumbum; Lead; Metallic lead.
Description:
Synonyms: Orthophosphoric acid; Acidum
• It is heavy, bluish-grey, soft, feebly lustrous
ossium; Acidum phosphoricum.
metal. It tarnishes on exposure to air.
• Pure water does not attack it in the absence • Atomic weight is 118.7; boiling point,
of air. It is attacked by all acids when heated. 2,260°C; melting point, 232°C; specific
• Plumbum is insoluble in dilute HCl; slowly gravity, 7.5
soluble in hot concentrated HCl but readily • It is a good conductor of electricity.
in dilute HNO3; scarcely attacked by con- • Stannum is insoluble in water and alcohol
centrated HNO3. but soluble slowly in cold dilute HCl, dilute
HNO3 and in hot H2SO4; and it can be readily
SILICA dissolved by concentrated HCl.
Chemical Formula: SiO2
SULPHUR
Molecular Weight: 60.06.
Chemical Symbol: S
Synonyms: Silica; Silicon dioxide; Quartz; Pure
flint. Molecular Weight: 32.07
Description: Synonyms: Brime stone; Flowers of sulphur;
Sublimed sulphur.
• A white, odorless, tasteless, amorphous pow-
Description:
der.
• Sulphur is a fine yellow, slightly gritty pow-
• Insoluble in water and in dilute acids, ex-
der. It has a faint odor which is not unpleas-
cept hydrofluoric acid.
ant. It is tasteless.
SiO2 + 4HF SiF4 + 2H2O
• It burns with a blue flame with the produc-
• It is made from sound or silicate mineral by tion of SO2.
fusing with excess of sodium carbonate in a
• Sulphur is almost insoluble in water and in
platinum crucible when sodium silicate is
alcohol; it is incompletely soluble in carbon
formed. The fused mass is extracted with
disulphide.
boiling water. The aqueous extract of sodium
• Melting point, 113°C, boiling point, 444.6°C.
silicate on acidification with HCl yields a
gelatinous precipitate of silicic acid, which • Sulphur is a very poor conductor of heat and
is washed with water, dried and ignited. electricity.
Mg2SiO3 + Na2CO3 MgCO3 +
ZINCUM METALLICUM
Na2SiO3
Chemical Symbol: Zn.
Na2SiO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2SiO3
Synonyms: Zinc; Metallic zinc.
H2SiO3 + H2O SiO2
Description:
STANNUM METALLICUM • Zinc is a bluish-white metal. It has a crystal-
line structure or is present as a fine grey pow-
Chemical Formula: Sn.
der free from all but small aggregates.
Molecular Weight: 119.09 • It is soluble in dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4.
Synonyms: Tin; Metallic tin. • It burns in air with a green flame, if heated
Description: strongly, forming white clouds of zinc ox-
• A silver-white, lustrous, soft, malleable eas- ide which settles in wooly flocks
ily fusible and ductible metal. It is slightly (philosopher’s wool).
tenacious, and can be easily powdered. 2Zn + O2 2ZNO
■
493
9-2
Constituents in Plant Substances
The quality of any drug is determined by the • Carbohydrates are abundantly found in the
amount of medicinal principles present in it. storage region of plants.
These principles or drug constituents are
classified into various groups like: CLASSIFICATION
• Carbohydrates. A. Sugars
• Lipids. B. Non-sugars.
• Fatty acids.
• Alkaloids. A. Sugars
• Glycosides. Sugars are soluble carbohydrate food
• Tannins. materials, generally sweet to taste. Generally
occur as reserve materials in many mono-
• Oils.
cotyledons and in some dicotyledons like beet
• Resins.
root and carrot.
• Gums.
1. Monosaccharides:
CARBOHYDRATES These are the simplest forms of carbohy-
drates. They cannot be hydrolysed further into
PROPERTIES simpler ones.
• Carbohydrates are polyhydroxyaldehydes They may be of the following types:
and polyhydroxyketones, and their conden- • Pentoses: Sugars having 5 carbon atoms.
sation products. These are not common in plants.
• They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Examples: Arabinose, Ribose.
The ratio of hydrogen and oxygen is generally
• Hexoses: Sugars containing six carbon atoms.
2:1.
Examples:
• The general chemical formula is Cn(H2O)n,
but there are several exceptions. - Glucose present in all green plants.
• On heating they lose their water and form - Fructose present in fruits.
carbon. - Others like Mannose and Galactose.
2. Oligosaccharides: acids are classified according to the carboxylic

This includes: or other functional groups they possess.
i. Disaccharides The fatty acids present in plants are usually
• Sucrose - It is widely distributed in bound as esters of glycerol, thus fats or lipids.
some plant tissues, often reaching very There are three major classes of lipids:
high concentration in storage organs. • Triglycerides.
It is extracted mainly from sugarcane
• Phospholipids.
stems and beet roots.
• Maltose: Commonly found in germi- • Glycolipids.
nating seeds during digestion of starch. Fatty acids are generally long carbon chains
ii. Trisaccharides: and can be saturated like myristic and stearic
• Raffinose: It occurs in very small quan- acid, and unsaturated like oleic acid group. The
tities. organic acids are soluble in water and are
colorless, while the lipids can be taken in
B. Non-sugars isopropanol followed by chloroform and
1. Polysaccharides: methanol (2:1).
This includes:
• Inulin: Generally occurs in a colloidal con-
ALKALOIDS
dition in the cell sap of vacuoles of plants Alkaloids means, ‘alkali-like’. The classification
like Dahlia. of alkaloids is according to their therapeutic
• Starch Grains: Universally found in green property and chemical structure.
plants excepts some algae. Generally oc-
curs in all parts of the plant, but is more PROPERTIES
abundant in the storage organs, cereals, • Structurally, it is a nitrogen-containing
fruits and seeds. heterocycle, the secondary metabolite of a
• Glycogen: It is present in blue green al- plant, which is basic in nature.
gae, some moulds, fungi and bacteria. It • Most of them have an amino acid as their
serves as reserve food. biosynthetic precursor.
2. Compound Carbohydrates: • Alkaloids are generally active in their
These are complex carbohydrate molecules. pharmacological behavior.
Examples: Gums and mucilages, tannins, • A great majority of the alkaloids are present
glycosides. in the form of soluble salts, but some occur
as free bases.
• If alkaloids are present as insoluble tannates,
ORGANIC ACIDS, FATTY ACIDS
first bring them into their free form (before
AND LIPIDS
starting the extraction procedure).
Tricarboxylic acids are (products of the • Alkaloidal bases are mostly soluble in organic
Kreb’s cycle) are the commentery metabolised solvents but insoluble in water. However their
organic acids in plants. Other less common ones salts are soluble in aqueous solvents while
include formic, tartaric and oxalic acids. These insoluble in organic liquids.
Constituents in Plant Substances 495
• Alkalies are extremely bitter, but some, like • Quinidine (C20H24N2O2)

‘piperine’, are tasteless.
Coca Cocaine (C17H21NO4)
• Mostly odorless but Necotine, etc. have a
Coffea crude Caffeine (C8H10N4O2. H2O)
strong odor.
Colchicum autumnale Colchine (C22H25O6N)
• Several alkalies are deadly poisons, but in
Conium maculatum Conine (C8H17N)
minute doses, they act as valuable therapeutic
Hydrastis canadensis Hydrastine (C21H21NO6)
agents.
Hyoscyamus niger Hyoscyamine (C17H23NO3)
• Generally colorless, with a few exceptions.
e.g., Berberine which is yellow in color. Ipecacuanha Emitine (C20H40N2O4)
Nux vomica Strychnine (C21H22N2O2)
• The name of the alkaloids terminate in
english in ‘ine’ (quinine), in latin, in ‘ina’ Physostigma Physostigmine
(quinina). (C15H21O2N3,C7H6O3)
Piper nigrum Piperine (C17H19O3N)
IDENTIFICATION OF ALKALOIDS Secale cornutum Ergotine (C35H41O6N5)
Identification is based on: Tabacum Nicotine (C10H14N2)
• Melting point.
• Specific rotation. GLYCOSIDES
• Crystalline form. Glycerides are a non-reducing compounds.
• Solubility. On hydrolysis they yield two components:
Infra-red spectrography is also being used 1. An aglycone, also known as a ganin.
in the present day laboratory technology. 2. Reducing sugar.
Alkaloids are precipitated by the following The physical or chemical nature of a
reagents: glycoside is determined by:
• Mayer’s reagent (mercuric potassium iodide): • The chemical structure of the aglycone
Alkaloids gives white to buff precipitate. may be a derivative of some known sys-
• Wagner’s reagent (iodine in potassium tem like steroids, anthracenes, etc.
iodide): Alkaloids gives brown precipitate. • Type of linkage present between the agly-
• Dragendorff’s reagent (potassium bismuth cone and the glycone, for example C-O-
iodide): Alkaloids gives orange precipitate. C, C-N-C, C-S-C and C-C-C, etc.
• Number and kind of sugar residues (gen-
The process also helps in identifying some
erally the number of sugar residues is di-
of them.
rectly proportional to the solubility of the
Examples: glycoside in water).
Name of the Drug Alkaloids The glycosides are soluble in alcohol and
Aconitum napellus Aconitine (C34H45NO11) water. However, they are insoluble in organic
Belladonna Atropine (C17H23NO3) solvents but they are hydrolysed into their
China • Quinine (C20H24O2N2)
fundamental components. The aglycone part is
and its salts. soluble in organic solvents while the sugar part
is not.
• Cinchonine (C19H22N2O)
The term ‘glucoside’ is applied only to those They remain in the liquid state at ordinary
glycosides where the sugar component is glucose. temperature (10°C-20°C). Their solid state is
The names of all glycosides end in “n”. For e.g.: termed as fats. Oils obtained from various parts
of plants fall under two main categories:
Name of Glycosides Source • Volatile or essential oils.
Adonidin Adonis vernalis
• Fixed or fatty oils.
Agaricin Agaricus muscarius
Aloin aloe socotrine VOLATILE OILS
Arbutin Uva ursi They are also known as essential oils, as
Colocynthin Colocynthis plants often owe their characteristic odor to these
Digitalin Digitalis oils.
Phloridgin Pyrus malus Either of the following methods are used to
Saponinum Quillaria saponaria. obtain fixed oils from plants:
• Distillation with Steam: Most of the oils are
TANNINS obtained by this process.
Tannins are heterogenous groups, of • Expression: For e.g., lemon oil.
complex compounds. They are found in several • Extraction.
plants, especially in the leaves and bark. Tannins Properties:
are non-nitrogenous and are phenolic matters
• They are volatile in nature.
soluble in water and alcohol. They have a bitter
• Fixed oils do not leave a permanent grease
taste (astringent).
spot on paper.
They are precipitated by heavy metals,
• They can be distilled.
albumin and alkaloids. Tannin is present in all
vegetable astringents. For e.g., Rhus toxicoden- • They do not form soaps with alkalis.
dron, Hamamelis virginica, Millefolium, Acacia • Fixed oils do not become rancid. However,
germanica. they tend to resinify on exposure to light and
air.
OILS • Generally inflammable.
Oils are chemical compounds of C, H and O • They cannot be saponified and emulsified.
but the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is not 2:1. • They do not contain fatty acids.
Examples of Volatile Oils:
Common Name Botanical Name Parts
Anise oil Pimpinella anisum Dried ripe fruit.
Caraway oil Carum carve Dried ripe fruit.
Cajuput oil Melanica leucadendron Leaves.
Cinnamon oil Cinnamonum cassia Leaves and twigs.
Clove oil Eugenia caryophyllus Dried flower buds.
Coriander oil Coriandrum sativum Dried ripe fruit.
Eucalyptus oil Eucalyptus globulus Fresh leaves.
Constituents in Plant Substances 497
Fennel oil Foeniculum vulgare Dried ripe fruit.

Lavender oil Lavendula officinalis Fresh flowering top.
Lemon oil Citrus lemon Fresh peel of fruit.
Myristica oil Myristica fragrans Dried kernels of ripe seeds.
(Nutmug oil)
Orange oil Citrus sinensis Fresh peel of ripe fruit.
Peppermint oil Mentha piperita Fresh overground parts of flowering plant.
Rosemary oil Rosemarinus officinalis Flowering tops.
Rose oil Rosa gallica Fresh flowers.
Sandalwood oil Santalam album Wood.
Spearmint oil Mentha spicata Fresh parts of flowering plants.
Turpentine oil Pinus spp. From resin.
Some other drugs contain volatile oils, like: • Decompose under the influence of heat and
• Arnica montana (flowers 9.1%; roots 0.5 to become rancid.
1.5%); • Almost bland, non-irritating substances
• Asa foetida (6.17%); (except croton oil) with nutrient and
• Azadirachta indica (blossoms 0.5%); emollient properties.
• Cheiranthes (flowers 0.06%); • Form soap with alkalis.
• Zingiber officinalis (rhizome 1 to 3%). Example:
Common Name Botanical Name Parts
FIXED OILS
Almond oil Prunus amygdalus Seeds.
These are mixtures of:
Arachis oil Arachis hypogaea Seeds.
• Olein (liquid).
Castor oil Ricinus communis Seeds.
• Palmitin (semi-solid).
Chaulmoogra oil Taraktogenos Seeds.
• Stearin (solid). Cottonseed oil Gossypium arboreum Seeds.
• Other bodies (in small amounts). Croton oil Croton tiglium Dried
Fixed oils are found in seeds, within the ripe
cytoplasm as drops or crystals. They are insoluble seeds.
in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol, freely Linseed oil Linum usitatissinum Seeds.
soluble in ether, chloroform, carbon sulphide and Olive oil Oleum europaeum Fruits.
turpentine. Sesame oil Sesarum indicum Seeds.
Properties: Hydnocarpus oil Hydnocarpus wightiana Seeds.
• Fixed oils are non-volatile and so leave a
permanent grease spot on paper. PLANT EXUDATES
• Cannot be extracted by simple distillation but
• Resin: These are natural or induced exudates
are obtained by applying mere pressure.
from plants. Resin may be obtained in either
the solid or the semi-solid form in nature. E.g.: Asa foetida, Gambogia, Podophyllum.
They are insoluble in water but are can be • Balsams: It is a semi-fluid fragrant, resinous
readily dissolved in alcohol, ether and volatile vegetable juice. Aromatic acids are present
oil. They are usually oxidised turpins or in a high proportion in balsams.
volatiles of plants. Resin is transparent when For e.g.: Tolu balsam, Peru balsam, Gurgan
pure but opaque if it contains water. balsam.
For e.g., Asa foetida (40-64%), Croton
tiglium, Gelsemium, Hypericum,
VITAMINS
Podophyllum, Zingiber officinalis.
• Oleo-resin: Oleo-resins are resins dissolved Generally they are artificially synthesised.
in volatile oils. They can be obtained by However, a few vitamins are synthesized by
incising the trunk of a tree. plants, like:
For e.g., Copaiva officinalis, Turpentine, i. Alfalfa and spinach contain vitamin K.
Rhus tox. ii. Oranges contain vitamin C.
• Gums: Gums are colloidal carbohydrates iii. Wheat germ oil contains vitamin E.
which on swelling or being dissolved in water Many plants do not synthesise vitamins, but
form a viscid adhesive fluid known as they contain their precursors such as:
mucilage. They are exudations from the stems
a. Carotene in carrots is a precursor of vita-
or branches, or both, of plants.
min A.
For e.g.: Ammoniacum gummi, Asa foetida
b. Plant sterol, ergosterol in yeast, moulds
(25%).
and fungi is the precursor of vitamin D.
• Gum-resins: These are natural mixtures of
gums and resins which are obtained as an ■
exudate from plants.
499
9-3
Chemotaxonomy and Active Principles
CHEMOTAXONOMY In the eclectic school, these preparations are

The science of chemical taxonomy is based considered to embody the power of the respective
on the classification of plants on the basis of their plants. These preparations are not used in
chemical constituents which are deeply homoeopathy because it has been observed that
concerned with the molecular characteristics. tinctures made from fresh succulent plants are
far more effective than these precipitates which
According to Molischg, a definite chemical are made without exception, from dried
substance may appear in a single species or in substances.
several species of the same genus, in a single
genus, in several genus of one family, in one A list of resinoid preparation with the name
family, in two to many related families, or in a of plants from which they are derived is given
large division of the plant kingdom. below.
Mac Nair showed the distribution of certain Active Principles Plants From Which They
chemical substances in the families of are Derived
angiosperms and its relation to the climate. Aconitin Aconitum napellus
Climatic conditions have a major influence in Aletrin Aletris farinosa
the distribution of plants containing certain Alnuin Alnus rubra
substance e.g., fat, volatile oils, alkaloids, etc.
Aloin Aloe socotrina
ACTIVE PRINCIPLES OR RESINOIDS Ampelopsin Ampelopsis quinquefolia
Apocynin Apocynum cannabinum
These are plant preparations consisting of
Asclepin Asclepias tuberosa
dried and pulverized precipitates obtained by
Atropin Belladonna
mixing a strong alcoholic tincture to any given
plant or part thereof, with three or four times its Baptisin Baptisia tinctoria
bulk of water, by which process all constituents Barosmin Barosma crenata
soluble only in alcohol are precipitated. Bryonin Bryonia alba
Caulophyllin Caulophyllum thalictroides Hyoscyamin Hyoscyamus niger

Ceracin Cerasus virginiana Irisin Iris versicolor
Chelonin Chelone glabra Juglandin Juglans cinerea
Chimaphilin Chimaphila umbellata Leptandrin Leptandra virginica
Chionanthin Chionanthus virginica Lobelin Lobelia inflata
Collinsonin Collinsonia canadensis Lycopin Lycopus virginicus
Colocynthin Colocynthis Macrotin Actaea racemosa
Cornin Cornus florida Menispermin Menispermum canadense
Corydalin Corydalis formosa Morphin Opium
Cypripedin Cypripedium pubescens Myricin Myrica cerifera
Digitalin Digitalis purpurea Phytolaccin Phytolacca decandra
Dioscorin Dioscorea villosa Populin Populus tremuloides
Emetin Ipecacuanha Podophyllin Podophyllum peltatum
Ergotin Secale cornutum Ptelein Ptelea trifoliata
Euonymin Euonymus atropurpurea Rumin Rumex crispus
Eupatorin Eupatorium perfoliatum Sanguinarin Sanguinaria canadensis
Euphorbin Euphorbium officinarum Scutellarin Scutellaria laterifolia
Fraserin Frasera carolinesis Senecin Senecio aureus
Gelsemin Gelsemium sempervirens Stillingin Stillingia sylvatica
Geranin Geranium maculatum Trillin Trillium pendulum
Gossypin Gossypium herbaceum Veratrin Veratrum album
Hamamelin Hamamelis virginica Viburnin Viburnum opulus
Helonin Helonias dioica Xanthoxylin Xanthoxylum fraxinum
Hydrastin Hydrastis canadensis ■
501
9-4
Drug Action of Some Important
Substances
In the words of Dr. Stuart Close M.D., the have to avail themselves of the mechanical and
physiological action of a drug is not its chemical influences which drugs can exert and
therapeutic or curative action. It is exactly the have to understand these and know how to apply
opposite of a curative action, and is never them when they are needed. One of the many
employed in homoeopathic practice for spheres where this knowledge is implicated is
therapeutic purposes. In-as-much as the action pharmacy.
of the ‘physiological’ dose and the purpose for
which it is given is avowedly to produce drug DRUG ACTION
symptoms in a direct and positive manner, that
fact should be clearly expressed in the name, in Drug action is defined as the sum-total of
order that there may be no misunderstanding.” the action imparted on an individual living human
being and the sum-total of the reaction that it
Various thoughts are present regarding the
can induce in the vital force of the same.
actions of drugs. Those who believe in the
physiologic actions (i.e. pathogenetic) and Drug action depends upon:
depend on them, their ideas are different from • The dose.
the homoeopaths. Action of a drug depends upon • The general receptive capacity of the body
the dose and the general receptive capacity of mechanism.
the body mechanism.
The therapeutic value of the drug action may GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DRUG
be said in a time honored dictum. “Drugs, they ACTION
sometimes cure, they often relieve, they always a. Drugs do not restore a diseased tissue to its
console”. normal integrity. They stimulate a function
All writers on the subject of ‘Principles of or depress hyperexcitability while the repair
Drug Action’ begin by differentiating between processes of nature are at work.
the mechanical, the chemical, and the dynamic b. Pharmacological agents, which are obtained
effects of drugs. It is the dynamic effects of from organs of animals, may replace the
medicines that homoeopathy as a ‘therapeutic secretion absent or present in an insufficient
science’ is interested in. But homoeopathists may quantity in man.
c. Drugs may kill or alter the invading organism, connection with drug action and drug dosage
like virus, bacteria, fungi, etc., thus effecting tends to mislead the unwary and justify the use
the process of cure. of measures which would otherwise be regarded
The living cell is a complex structure, and illegitimate. In one word, is it a euphemism.”
in a dynamic state it acts in a poly phasic manner. In homoeopathy, no medicine is given in
The life process is possibly regulated by certain physiological or massive doses to cure a patient.
biological governors, some of which are enzymes The modus operandi in homoeopathy is on the
and hormones. The interaction created within the dynamic plane. Homoeopathic medicines should
cell by drug substances obey same biological also not be used in physiological doses as some
laws. The cell and the cytoplasm are constantly of them are toxic in nature and injurious to the
undergoing circumstantial changes which health of the patient.
possibly provoke the biological factors to create This textbook uses the word ‘physiological
a condition to process the cure. In creation of action’ to represent the action of drug substances
unstable conditions, instead of cure, palliation when taken in crude state, in maximum or largest
comes. dose consistent with safety. In common parlance
Direct contact by any means is necessary, the it is the ‘maximum dose’.
receptor site of the cell is located in the plasmic
membrane. The receptor site absorbs the TYPES OF DRUG ACTION
molecules of the drug substance or takes up to 1. Stimulate.
rhythm from some constituent of the drug by 2. Depress.
influencing the genetic code or enzyme kinetics.
3. Irritate.
PHYSIOLOGICAL DRUG ACTION Note: In homoeopathy, the question of how a drug
acts has not been explored fully in an arithmetical data.
Dr. Stuart Close M. D., defines physiological By the peculiar process of attenuations, the internal
dose as: “A dose of a drug, empirically selected, dynamic, spiritual power with its pharmacologic
of sufficient quantity and strength to produce a message is liberated from the material bonds and it
definite, pre-determined effect or group of acts upon the dynamicity of the living cell of the human
symptoms. Practically, it amounts to the organism.
maximum dose consistent with safety.”
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUG ACTION
In other words, physiological action is the
action of a drug in physiological dose. The propensity to effect a more particular
Physiological doses, stimulate the normal organ is made by a peculiar pattern of bio-
physiology or functions of different systems / transformation of the dynamicity of the drug
organs of our body. Hence, the symptoms which substance. Rarely from the homoeopathic point
appear are called ‘physiological symptoms’. of view, the drug action could not be grouped in
Thus, a single medicine may act on different a certain division. Yet conventionally the
systems of the body, like nervous system and following classification has been done:
circulatory system, etc.
A. According to the Centre of Action
Physiological action is a misnomer. Stuart
Close, in “The Genius of Homoeopathy” writes: According to Dr. Burt drugs are classified
The use of the word “physiological” in into two groups:
Drug Action of Some Important Substances 503
a. Those having a centre of action in the central Rhus toxicodendron

(cerebro-spinal) nervous system. These are Spigelia
the true remedies for acute and sub-acute Stramonium
diseases. Tabacum
b. Those having a centre of action in the organic Tarentula cubensis
(ganglionic) nervous system. These are the Tarentula hispanica
true remedies for sub-acute and chronic Veratrum album
diseases.
B. According to the Nature of the Drug
Animal Group Organic Group
(Cerebro-spinants) (Ganglionics) a. Corrosives
Aloe socotrina
1. Strong Acids
Aconitum napellus
Ammonium carbonicum Apis mellifica i. Inorganic Acid: Strong mineral acids only
Antimonium crudum Argentum nitricum have a direct chemical action, but no
Antimonium tartaricum
Arsenicum album generalised or remote action on the human
Aurum metallicum system. They extract water from the tis-
Arnica montana
Calcarea carbonica sues and produce a coagulation necrosis
Baptisia tinctoria Carbo vegetabilis by precipitating the cellular proteins con-
Belladonna Croton tiglium verting hemoglobin into hematin.
Bryonia alba Graphites
Cactus grandiflorus Hepar sulphuris For e.g.: Acid sulph.; Acid nitric.
Cannabis sativa Kalium carbonicum ii. Organic Acid: Acid acetic; Acid carbolic;
Cantharides Lycopodium Acid oxalic.
Capsicum annuum Mercurius 2. Strong Alkalis
Natrium muriaticum
Causticum For e.g.: Potash group.
Nitricum acidum
Chamomilla
Petroleum b. Irritants
Cinchona officinalis Phosphorus
Coffea cruda Podophyllum By their specific action, the irritant group
Colocynthis peltatum sets up irritation and inflammations.
Conium maculatum Secale cornutum
1. Inorganic
Crotalus horridus Sepia succus
i. Non-metallic: For e.g.: Bromium; Chlo-
Digitalis purpurea
rine; Iodium; Phosphorus
Dulcamara
ii. Metallic: For e.g.: Arsenicum alb.;
Gelsemium sempervirens
Mercurius; Antimonium; Copper; Lead;
Helleborus niger
Silver, Zinc; etc.
Hyoscyamus niger
Ignatia amara 2. Organic
Ipecacuanha i. Vegetable: Aloe socotrina; Capsicum;
Lachesis mutus Colocynthis; Croton tigrinum.
Nux vomica ii. Animal: Apis mellifica; Cantharides;
Opium Lachesis; Naja; Crotalus; Sepia.
Pulsatilla nigricans
Animal Poisons: resembling those of epilepsy but death is

Such as spiders, lizards and insect venoms almost instantaneous, or occurs in a short
generally contain toxialbumin. To their effects; time from paralysis of the heart.
to some extent they bear similarity. 4. The victim, surviving the first shock, exhibits
symptoms of a hemorrhagic nature,
Snake Poison — Ophida Group: ecchymoses, oozing of dark, thin blood from
This group includes the venoms of different the orifices, and hemorrhagic jaundice and
kinds of snakes, which are referred, as the salivas fever, flushed face, injected, conjunctivae,
are transmitted from the salivary glands through thirst, anorexia, spongy bleeding gums, sore
the fangs of the snakes. throat.
The crude snake venom is a compound, 5. Inflammation, agonizing pain and
consisting of the following ingredients, some of erysipelatous swelling at the seat of the injury,
which may be oxidised by potassium rapidly passing on into gangrene, foul ulcers,
permanganate solution: absorption of the venom by the lymphatics,
a. A proteolytic ferment. inflammation of lymphatic glands, or through
the veins resulting in pyemia.
b. A powerful fibrin ferment.
6. At first there is anxiety, mental excitability
c. Agglutinin.
and hallucinations. Later there may arise
d. Neuro-toxins, which by acting on the mo- mental confusion, stupor, low delirium,
tor nerve cells produces muscular paraly- numbness, twitching, faintness, trembling,
sis of the muscles of the mouth, respira- irregularities of circulation and apoplectic
tion and throat. congestion with great prostration or paralysis.
e. Cytolysins, which act mainly by enzymatic
Spider Poisons:
destruction of the R.B.C., endothelial cells
of the vessels, leucocytes, nerve cells, etc. Their venoms bear much similarity with
1. The ophidians are characterized by their those of snakes; the affected parts become
paralyzing action upon the nerves, disinte- purplish, having tendency of breaking down the
grating effect upon the tissues and tissues, the lymphatic glands swell and their
decomposition of blood. covering-skin gets discolored; which is mostly
pronounced in case of Tarentula cubensis. In the
2. The effects of snake-bites fall into three
cases of Tarentula hispania, Mygale and
groups, corresponding to the three leading
Theridion, the nervous symptoms are more
forms of disease which the poten-tized venom
clearly exhibited, even more those of snakes.
will cure.
Tarentula cubensis is found in Cuba and Mexico;
3. Direct poisoning of the nerve centres without
it produces severe burning pain, gangrene, boils,
local inflammation or blood changes. The
carbuncles having a dark bluish color, dangerous
great shock of the poison is first felt in the
prostration plentiful sweat and even cancer.
centres of the cord, then on the medulla,
involving the functional integrity of the brain, c. Neurotics
the pneumo-gastric producing cardiac and 1. Cerebral:
respiratory symptoms, and finally affecting i. Somniferus: Opium.
the sympathetic nervous system. ii. Deliriant: Cannabis indica; Belladonna;
Occasionally, there are convulsions Hyoscyamus.
2. Spinal: • Diaphoretic.
E.g.: Nux vomica; Gelsemium. • Diuretic.
3. Cardiac: • Vaso-dilator.
E.g.: Aconitum napellus. Pathogenic Effects
Coldness of the whole body; general dry
C. According to the Action of
internal heat, felt first in hands, then in whole
Remedies
body, especially in thorax, no sensible external
Here it may be grouped as: heat; shuddering, lachrymation, pressing
1. Anti-psoric group. headache, red cheeks.
2. Anti-sycotic group.
Physiological Action
3. Anti-syphilitic group.
The properties of Aconitum are mainly those
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF SOME of aconitine, an extremely poisonous narcotic. It
IMPORTANT DRUGS acts primarily through the cerebro-spinal nervous
system. It first stimulates the cardio-inhibitory
Physiological action of some important drugs are
centre and then paralyses the peripheral sensory
mentioned below. However, the student should
and secretory nerves, and the central nervous
always bear in mind the wisdom of Richard
system. As such, locally Aconitum, is an active
Hughes’s observations regarding physiological
irritant and acts as a paralysant.
action:
• Heart:
“How far they are absolutely true, I cannot
- Inhibitory paralysis, blood pressure less-
say, they are the best at which I can arrive at
ened.
present, and that is all I can do. Our comfort is,
that however they may shift in the progress of - The heart’s action is at first showed, but
time and knowledge, homoeopathy as a mode of later it becomes rapid and weak.
the art of healing, is not dependent on them. The • Circulation:
relation it establishes is between the observed - Vaso-motor paralysis.
facts of drug action on one hand, and of disease - The arterioles are contracted.
on the other; and no alteration in our view of the • Temperature:
meaning of either can affect it one bit.” - Depressed with diaphoresis.
• Cerebro-spinal Nervous System:
ACONITUM NAPELLUS
(Acon.)
- Paralysis, first paralyzes the sensory and
then the motor part of the cord.
Centre of Action - Taken internally, it produces tingling and
Cerebro-spinal nervous system. numbness of the lips and mouth.
Non-homoeopathic Use - Death from Aconitum poisoning is due to
• Antipyretic paralysis of the respiratory center from
• Antiphlogistic. direct action of the poison, although this
• Irritant. may be aided by anemia of the medulla
due to imperfect circulation in its con-
• Emetic.
tracted arterioles.
• Paralysant.
• Mucous Membranes: • Liver:

- Asthenic inflammation. - It is a cholagogue and hepatic stimulant.
• Gastro-intestinal System: - Causes portal congestion and increased
- Taken internally it produces increased se- biliary secretion.
cretion from the salivary glands. • Stomach:
- From large doses there results a sense of - In small doses it is a stomachic and in-
constriction about the fauces with pain in creases the secretions of the juice.
the epigastric region, nausea and vomit- - In large doses it acts as a purgative and
ing. emmenagogue.
• Respiratory Organs: • Large Intestine (Muscular Coat):
- Centric vagi paralysis. - Hydragogue cathartic. It not only excites
- Lungs are congested and inflamed. the secretion but also increases the mus-
cular contraction, i.e. increased peristal-
- Respiration is shallow and slow as the res-
sis.
piratory centers are depressed under large
doses. - It causes pelvic congestion, hemorrhoids
and general relaxation of the body.
• Tendons and Fibrous Tissue:
• Female Sexual Organs:
- Rheumatoid inflammation.
- It is an emmenagogue and abortificient.
• Serous Membranes (Especially the
- It causes uterine irritation and increases
Capillaries of Serous Membrane):
the menstrual flow.
- Plastic inflammation.
- Abortion may be produced with large
• Skin: doses.
- It produces a cold, pallid skin covered with - Causes hemorrhage from the uterus due
perspiration with an anxious expression. to pelvic congestion.
• Skin:
ALOE SOCOTRINA
- Produces eczema.
(Aloe)
- On the scalp, the hair turns gray and falls
Centre of Action out in spots.
Organic (ganglionic) nervous system. • Blood:
Non-homoeopathic Use - Corpuscles are increased while fibrin is de-
• Abortificient. creased.
• Cholagogue and hepatic stimulant.
ANTIMONIUM CRUDUM
• Emmenagogue.
(Ant-c.)
• Hydragogue cathartic.
Centre of Action
• Stomachic.
Cerebro-spinal nervous system.
• It is one of the oldest and most famous drugs.
Hahnemann ranked it among his antipsoric • Mucous Membrane:
remedies. - Affects all mucous membranes of the
gastro-intestinal tract especially those of - Through the vagus nerves, it produces in-
the stomach. tense catarrhal inflammation of larynx, tra-
- Produces slow digestion resulting in fer- chea and bronchi.
mentation. - Great increase in bronchial mucus.
- Mucous membranes become loaded with • Spinal Cord:
mucus. - Motor and sensory paralysis occurs.
- In large doses it produces severe nausea - Large doses diminish reflex excitability.
and vomiting. • Kidneys:
- Flatulence. - Urine is first increased. However in severe
• Skin: poisoning, scanty and bloody, even sup-
- Corns, callosities and pustules. pressed.
• Female Sexual Organs - Large doses cause fainting, coldness and
- Prolapse of uterus. lowering of bodily temperature.
• Skin:
ANTIMONIUM TARTARICUM - Applied to the skin, it produces a papular
(Ant-t.) eruptions, which become vesicular, then
Centre of Action pustular with a central umbilication.
Cerebro-spinal nervous system. • Circulation and Blood:
- Depresses heart action with consequent
Non-homoeopathic Use
failing of blood pressure when large doses
• Irritant.
are taken.
• Depressant.
- Blood is liquified.
• Emetic.
• Muscular System:
- Paralysis.
• Mucous Membrane:
- Loss of reflex action.
- Catarrh.
• Stomach: APIS MELLIFICA
- Act as an emetic; it produces depression, (Apis)
with a nausea of severe intensity in com-
Centre of Action
parison to other emetics. The repeated
Organic (ganglionic) nervous system and
vomitings are accompanied by great strain-
skin.
ing.
- Small doses taken internally cause nausea Physiological Action
saliva, gastric and intestinal juices. The first proving of Apis was by Dr. F.
- Large doses produce vomiting, diarrhea, Humphreys, New York, and that of the virus by
cramps in the epigastrium. Dr. Hering.
• Respiratory Organs: • Cellular Tissue:
- The drug directly depresses the medullary - Edema and dropsy.
respiratory centers.
• Skin: lent gastro-intestinal inflammation, espe-

- The affected part rapidly swells up, be- cially of the destructive type occurs.
comes red and hot with stinging, burning • Cartilaginous System (Ears, Nose, False
and itching sensations. Ribs, Tendons, Ligaments):
- Tense pain. - Destructive inflammation of the cartilages
- Skin appears like urticarial patches, red • Glandular System (Salivary Glands,
and shining. Testicles, Liver, Kidney):
• Serous Membranes (Heart, Brain, Abdomen): - Induration and fatty degeneration of the
- Hydropericardium; Hydrocephalus and affected glands.
ascites. • Blood:
• Mucous Membranes (Eyes, Mouth, Fauces, - Destruction of R.B.C’s., This conse-
Throat, Gastro-intestinal Tract, Kidney, quently results in anemia.
Bladder): - Depressed temperature.
- Becomes inflamed and swollen, especially • Skin:
of the eyes or loose tissues.
- Nodular and vesicular inflammation of the
• Glandular System (Ovaries, Testicles): skin.
- Congestion, mild inflammation and hyper- • Cerebro-spinal System (Motor Tract):
trophy.
- Convulsions occur.
• Urinary System:
- Urinary system gets inflamed with a burn- ARNICA MONTANA
ing sensation. (Arn.)
- Scanty urine with feeling as if of structure
in the urethra. Centre of Action
• Joints: Cerebro-spinal nervous system.
- Rheumatic pain in the joints of wrists, Non-homoeopathic Use
shoulder, etc. • Irritant.
• Sensorium: • Stimulant.
- Sensorium depressed. • Depressant.
- Sleepy or drowsy. • Antipyretic.
- Sometimes unconscious. • Vulnerary.
• Diuretic.
ARGENTUM NITRICUM
(Arg-n.)
Arnica is a remedy much older than
Centre of Action
homoeopathy, and was used before Hahnemann’s
Organic (ganglionic) nervous system. time, particularly in the sphere of mental
Physiological Action disorders.
• Mucous Membranes (Stomach, Intestine): • Skin:
- Causes atony with great flatulence. - In some cases, the alcoholic preparations
- In large doses, nausea, vomiting and vio- of the flowers has excited erysipelatous
inflammation of the skin on account of a • Nervous System:

small poisonous fly which sometimes in- - It acts upon the terminal ends of sensory
fests the blossoms. and vasomotor nerves; motor nerves to the
- Small doses internally, stimulate the ac- muscles; spinal nerves and cardio-inhibi-
tion of the skin. tory center.
• Venous System: - In large doses, Arnica produces an initial
- In acts upon venous capillaries, stimulat- excitement followed by depression of
nerve centers.
ing absorption.
- It produces headache, unconsciousness
• Muscular System:
and even convulsions with lowering of
- In paresis and myalgia. body temperature, dilation of pupils and
- Acts upon muscular fibres at the junction muscular paresis.
with the tendons. - Arnica has been employed effectively in
• Gastro-intestinal System: delirium tremens, amaurosis and concus-
- Produces heat in the fauces, increases the sions of the brain.
flow of saliva. - Has been given effectively in idiopathic
- Irritates the gastro-intestinal system, caus- mania.
ing nausea and vomiting. - A poisonous dose paralyses the sympa-
- Has often checked exhaustive diarrhea af- thetic nervous system causing collapse.
ter many other remedies have failed. • Respiratory System:
- Also indicated in chronic dysentery. - In large doses, Arnica produces a transient
• Serous Membranes: excitement followed by depression of res-
- It acts upon the venous capillaries of se- piration.
rous membranes, causing stagnation and
• Fever:
inflammation which soon passes on to ef-
- Arnica is undoubtedly employed effec-
fusion in the cavities.
tively in typhus and typhoid fevers.
• Circulation:
- Accelerated, with high temperature. • Joints:
- Small doses internally increase the action - Arnica has been effectively employed in
of the heart and raise arterial tension. rheumatism and gout.
- Arnica is undoubtedly employed effec- • Injuries:
tively is hemorrhages, epistaxis and he-
- Arnica has long been a popular remedy for
moptysis.
external use in bruises, sprains, etc.
- In large doses, Arnica produces transient
- Potter, in his “Materia Medica, Pharmacy
excitement followed by depression of cir-
and Therapeutics”, states: “Ecchymoses
culation.
are rapidly dispersed by its administration
• Urinary System: internally as well as externally; and for
- Small doses internally stimulate the action internal bruises from shock or concussion,
of kidneys. its internal use has proven very efficacious.
- Has been employed effectively is paraly- The aqueous preparation applied locally
sis of the bladder. promotes rapid union of cut surfaces.”
ARSENICUM ALBUM • Skin:

(Ars.) - Applied to the skin, arsenic acts as a caus-
Centre of Action tic and produces violent inflammation with
Ganglionic nervous system. sloughing of the parts.
- The skin becomes dry and scurfy. This is
followed by herpetic, eczematous or
• Caustic.
urticareous eruptions, bronzing and exfo-
Physiological Action liation.
It is above all, a tissue drug, ranking with - The hair and nails may fall.
Phosphorus and Antimony. In small doses, it acts - Gangrene.
as a stimulant, improves nutritive functioning by - General anasarca.
increasing the flow of saliva, intestinal and
• Blood:
gastric juices. In toxic doses, it causes general
fatty degeneration and anasarca. - Disintegration of blood takes place result-
ing in hemorrhages and serous effusions.
Death from arsenical poisoning follows
exhaustion and collapse. The poison is found in - Red corpuscles of the blood are deceased
the urine, saliva, tears and sweat. in number and the blood is rendered less
coagulable.
• Gastro-intestinal System:
• Heart:
- Congestion, destructive inflammation,
with a thin, ichorous discharge, tending to - The heart becomes irritable and weak, and
malignant ulceration and accompanied fatty degeneration of the heart muscles
with a low fever of a typhoid form. ensues.
- When small doses are taken internally, it - Motor paralysis or heart muscles.
increases the flow of saliva and gastric and • Circulation:
intestinal juices; it stimulates peristalsis - Vasomotor paralysis.
and improves digestion and nutritive func- - Asthenia.
tions. - When small doses are taken internally, it
- Toxic doses produce violent gasro-enteri- has a tonic effect upon the circulation.
tis with nausea, vomiting and diarrhea,
- Fatty degeneration of the heart.
dryness of the mouth and burning in the
• Liver:
stomach.
- Fatty degeneration of the stomach and - Fatty degeneration and disorganisation.
liver. • Lungs:
• Serous Membranes (Pleura, Pericardium, - Congestion.
Peritoneum): - Asthma.
- Edematous inflammation; copious dropsi- - Malignant catarrh.
cal effusion. • Cerebro-spinal Nervous System:
• Muscular System: - Nervous system is profoundly affected
- Fatty degeneration of muscles. with disorders of motor and sensory func-
• Kidneys: tions, finally leading to their paralysis.
- Fatty degeneration in general.
- Depression of the respiratory centers, - Typhoid condition.

tremors and multiple neuritis. • Mucous Membranes (Mouth, Throat,
- Toxic doses increase the bodily tempera- Intestines):
ture, although the extremities are cold. - It produces fetid breath, catarrhal inflam-
• Urine: mation and ulceration, with watery, putrid
- It becomes scanty, albuminous and bloody. and sanious discharges.
• Lymphatic System:
AURUM METALLICUM - Causes putrid secretions.
(Aur.) • Cerebro-spinal Nervous System:
Centre of Action - Motor and sensory paralysis.
Vegetative nervous system.
BELLADONNA
(Bell.)
• Lymphatic Glandular System:
Centre of Action
- Particularly affects the liver and testicles
causing congestion and induration. Cerebro-spinal nervous system.
• Bones: Non-homoeopathic Use
- Causes caries and exostosis of the palatine • Mydriatic.
bones. • Antispasmodic.
• Gastro-intestinal System: • Irritant.
- Inflammation of the entire tract. • Narcotic.
• Vascular System: • Anesthetic anodyne.
- It is excited, with raised temperature. • Antipyretic.
• Skin: • Diaphoretic.
- Copious diaphoresis. • Vasodilator.
• Sexual Organs: Physiological Action
- Are greatly excited. In small doses it is a spinal, respiratory and
- Increased sexual desire in both sexes. cardiac stimulant. In large doses it paralyses both
• Mind: voluntary and involuntary motor nerves, causes
- It causes profound mental depression of- hallucinations delirium, stupor and finally death
ten leading to suicide. from asphyxia.
• Cerebro-spinal System:
BAPTISIA - Complete motor and sensory paralysis.
(Bapt.)
- Reflexes are at first stimulated and later
Centre of Action diminished.
Cerebro-spinal nervous system. - The cardiac intrinsic ganglia are stimulated
Physiological Action and inhibition of the vagus lessened,
thereby the heart rate is markedly in-
• Blood:
creased.
- Disorganisation and decomposition.
• Circulation: BRYONIA ALBA

- Cardiac inhibitory centers stimulated. (Bry.)
- Peripheral capillaries contracted and arte- Centre of Action
rial tension is raised. Eventually, however,
over stimulation induces paralysis of Cerebro-spinal nervous system.
vasomotors, relaxation of blood vessel Non-homoeopathic Use
walls and lowered blood pressure. Antipyretic.
- Its primary action is to immense the se-
• Serous Membranes (Pleura; Arachnoid
cretions of stomach and intestines, but later
Mater; Synovial Membranes; Liver;
causes increased flow.
Peritoneum):
• Temperature:
- In some cases the serous membranes are
- It is elevated; rises from 1°F to 3°F. inflamed and covered with an exudate.
• Vagus Nerve: - There is rheumatoid inflammation with
- Respiratory centre is stimulated. effusions.
• Muscles of Hollow Viscera (Abdomen, etc.): • Gastro-intestinal System:
- Paralysis of all the muscles. - In smaller doses it affects the large intes-
• Kidneys: tines causing an atonic, dry, mucous sur-
- Makes the kidneys congested. face with constipation.
- Bladder. - When taken internally in poisonous doses,
- Sphincters are paralysed. it causes gastro-intestinal inflammation
• Sexual Organs: with profuse vomiting, uncontrollable di-
- Congestion of organs. arrhea, dilated pupils, reduced tempera-
ture, colic, collapse and death.
- Arrested secretions.
• Respiratory System:
• Glandular System (Mucous and Salivary
Glands): - Acts on the respiratory mucous membrane
- Inflammation. resulting in dry nasal catarrh, dry cough
- Arrested secretion causing dryness of (i.e. with little or no expectoration) which
mouth and fauces. is continuous; irritating and violent often
leading to retching and pain in the chest
• Skin:
walls.
- Erysipelatous inflammation.
- Mucous membrane of the large bronchial
- Induces copious perspiration.
tubes is irritated resulting in the cough and
- A diffused eruption like scarlatina often
distress in the chest region.
appears on the skin and fauces.
- The lower portion of the lungs shows hepa-
• Eye:
tization without bronchitis.
- Mydriasis; congestion and inflammation.
• Skin:
• Mucous Membranes:
- When applied to the skin, it causes blis-
- It produces congestion and dryness of the
ters.
mouth, nose, throat and larynx.
- Secretions entirely arrested. • Muscular System:
- Rheumatoid inflammation. CANNABIS SATIVA

- The muscles are intensely irritated and (Cann-s.)
congested. Centre of Action
• Circulation: Cerebro-spinal nervous system.
- It is accelerated with raised temperature. Biological activity of Cannabis sativa is due
to its constituents of alcoholic compounds,
CALCAREA CARBONICA cannabinol, pseudo-cannabinol.
(Calc.) Cannabis sativa exhibits its action mainly on
Centre of Action the ‘central nervous system’ as well as in general
Vegetative (ganglionic) nervous system. on the ‘mucous membrane’. Special mention may
be made as regards its action upon the ‘Mucous
Physiological Action membranes of the urinary tract and prepuce’.
Carbonate of lime produces, when taken in About one and a half grain (97.2 mg.
quantities over a long period of time, a cachectic aproximately) of the extract may produce a
or depressed state which may lead to the poisonous effect.
development of various chronic disorders. The
functions of many organs are disturbed by the
lymphatics. Generally the crude substance, • Mucous Membranes:
carbonate of lime is considered inert. - It affects all mucous membranes but par-
• Osseous System Including Cartilages: ticularly those of the bladder, urethra and
prepuce, producing acute inflammation
- Non-ossification, rachitis and caries.
and excessive irritation.
- Bones may soften or they may become
- The prepuce is dark red, hot and inflamed
more brittle.
with mucous discharges from the urethra
• Lymphatic Glandular System: (a condition closely resembling gonor-
- Most prominently affected with resultant rhea).
enlargement of glands. - Burning in the urethra, difficult and pain-
- Atony and hypertrophy. ful micturition and severe chordee.
• Skin: • Cerebro-spinal Nervous System
- Pale, atonic, flabby; with copious pers- (Intoxication):
piration. - The toxicological effect is characterised
• Mucous Membranes: by:
i. The stage of inebriation—excitement,
- Catarrhal mucorrhea occurs.
visual hallucination, euphoria, loquac-
• Blood: ity, volubility and wild delirium.
- Hydremia; anemia. ii. The stage of narcosis or stupor—di-
- Water content of blood is increased. lated pupil.
- It produces intoxication and arrest of func-
tion, congestive headache; violent throb-
bing, with heat in the head; drowsy and
much lassitude; vomiting of bile and con-
stipation.
CANTHARIDES - With slighter degrees or urinary irritation

(Canth.) there is a moderate erotic excitement.
Centre of Action Hence for centuries it has been used as an
aphrodisiac. However, in poisoning by
Cantharis, this sometimes gets painfully
Non-homoeopathic Use excessive.
• Aphrodisiac. - Priapism, inflammation (even to gangrene)
• Irritant. of the external parts, of the uterus, some-
times causing abortion.
Physiological Action • Gastro-intestinal System (Mouth to Anus):
It was introduced by Dr. Hahnemann in 1805, - Congestion with burning heat.
Fragmenta de Viribus Med., 64 (Allen’s - Inflammation and vesication of the gastro-
Encyclopedia, II, 540 ; 540 ; X. 432). Spanish intestinal mucous membranes.
fly, it is said that about 13,000 dried insects
- Inflamed tract which seems local.
weigh only 1 kg. It is found in middle and south
- Intestines are somewhat irritated with
Europe and south-west Asia. Its blistering
pulse quickened (while being weakened),
properties are due to the substance ‘cantharidin’,
temperature raised—a true febrile condi-
which is insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in
tion (though symptomatic).
alcohol, and readily in ether. On being introduced
into the system, it acts as an irritant poison, • Serous Membranes (Especially Pleura,
developing in all parts pellicular phlegmasia, as Peritoneum, Pericardium and the Cerebral
it causes on skin. and Spinal Arachnoid):
• Mucous Membranes(Genito-urinary Organs, - Congestion and inflammation, followed by
Gastro-intestinal Tract, Respiratory plastic fibrinous effusions.
Organs): • Skin:
- Violent inflammation of the membranes. - Irritated, violently inflamed, red, tissues
destructed, burning sensation; small re-
Genito-urinary System:
sides form, which later unite to form blis-
- This is the chief seat of its action. ters.
- Urination increased and more frequent; - Acute vesicular inflammation.
heat in passing in men and more smarting
• Glandular System (Salivary, Testicles,
in women.
Ovaries):
- Mucous tract from kidney to urethra in-
- Inflammation.
flamed, pain in the loins.
- Scanty, high-colored, bloody, albuminous
urine, often with tube casts, sometimes - Delirium with local throat symptoms,
with epithelial cells. closely resembling hydrophobia, convul-
- Burning pain and tenderness in the hypo- sions and ultimately coma. These are pos-
gastrium with severe strangury, fever, great sibly to some extent due to the meningeal
restlessness. irritation which Cantharis can set up
(Hughes).
- Genital organs are similarly and consider-
ably affected. - Spasms and inflammations.
CAPSICUM ANNUUM CHAMOMILLA

(Caps.) (Cham.)
Centre of Action Centre of Action
Cerebro-spinal nervous system. Cerebro-spinal nervous system.
Physiological Action Non-homoeopathic Use
• Mucous Membranes: • Diaphoretic.
- Acts as an acrid irritant. • Emmenagogue.
- Congestion.
• Carminative.
- Inflammation followed by relaxed, atonic
• Stomachic.
mucous membranes.
• Spinal Cord (Posterior Portion): Physiological Action
- Excessive amount of chilliness is felt along The German Chamomile, Matricaria
the cord. Chamomilla, contains about ¼ per cent of a blue
volatile oil. This drug is a diaphoretic and an
CAUSTICUM emmenagogue. It produces a marked
(Caust.) impressionability of the sensory and excito-
Centre of Action motor nerves, and clonic spasms of intestines and
Cerebro-spinal (especially spinal) nervous uterus. When taken in large doses it induces
system. epistaxis and emesis with excessive mental
irritability. It is widely used in the form of
Physiological Action “Chamomile tea” as a domestic remedy among
• Spinal cord (Motor Tract): German families and by midwives. In France
- It acts on the medulla oblongata and infe- there is great demand for it from the licensed
rior rearrent branch of vagus causing con- herb stores. Potter says, “The homoeopaths find
gestion and inflammation of mucous mem- in it remarkable power in pains aggravated by
brane of the larynx and trachea with pare- night and by heat, irritability of teething children,
sis, or complete paralysis of the vocal or- flatulent colic, etc.”
gans. • Spinal Cord (Posterior Part):
- Also acts on the motor part of facial nerve, - Produces a state of excessive hyperesthe-
causing paralysis of facial muscles. sia, which extends to the emotional nerve
• Mucous Membranes: centers, producing excessive anger and
- Atony. vexation.
- Catarrhal inflammation. - It probably has some specific action on the
• Gastro-intestinal System: pulp of the teeth.
- Atony. • Gastro-intestinal System:
- Congestion. - In the stomach it produces excessive acid-
- Tympanitis. ity, nausea and vomiting.
• Urinary Organs: - In the liver is causes portal congestion.
- Paralysis or paresis of the sphincter of the
bladder.
- Increased urinary solids.
CINCHONA OFFICINALIS • Male Sexual Organ:

(Chin.) - Causes debilitating nocturnal emissions.
Centre of Action - Impotence resulting from long-continued
seminal losses, with sexual dreams and
complete prostration from undue sexual
Non-homoeopathic Use excitement.
• Mydriatic. • Female Sexual Organ:
• Antiseptic. - Sexual excitement.
• Aphrodisiac. - Profuse haemorrhage.
• Disinfectant. • Muscular System:
- Anemia leads to paresis and intermittent
myalgia.
• Skin:
- Brain: Causes intense hyperemia which
- Acne-like eruption, hydremia and ana-
often results in bursting headache. In ex-
sarca.
treme cases coma may result.
• Blood:
- Spine: The motor portion is involved;
causes convulsions and paralysis. - Anemia.
- W.B.C. destroyed.
- Auditory Nerve: Paralysis of the nerve;
one hears various sounds in the ear like - Fibrin levels are increased.
singing, roaring, hissing, buzzing, etc. • Circulation:
Also hardness of hearing and deafness. - Cardiac and vasomotor paralysis.
- Trigeminus Nerve: Hyperesthesia; neural- • Temperature:
gia in the areas supplied by the nerve. - Febrile temperature greatly lowered.
- Vagus: Causes tonic convulsions, paresis • Antiseptic:
and slow digestion. - Has antiseptic properties, arrests fermen-
• Eye (Mydriatic): tation with great rapidity.
- Dilatation of pupil; sometimes even com-
plete blindness. COLOCYNTHIS
• Lungs: (Coloc.)
- Venous congestion causing dyspnea, Centre of Action
which generally results in anemia. Cerebro-spinal and abdominal sympathetic
• Spleen: nervous system.
- Causes venous hyperemia, hypertrophy Non-homoeopathic Use
and hydremia.
• Hydragogue.
• Liver:
• Cathartic.
- Paresis with chronic congestion causing
jaundice. Physiological Action
• Kidneys: • Gastro-intestinal System:
- Diminished urea and uric acid clearance. - It acts as a violent hydragogue cathartic.
• Mucous Membranes: • Blood:

- Has a particular affinity for the mucous - Rapid, septic decomposition of blood; fi-
membrane of the intestines causing vio- brin becomes incoagulable. Hemorrhages
lent inflammation. of thin, black blood from the nose.
• Serous Membranes:
- Has an affinity for the peritoneum, again CROTON TIGLIUM
causing inflammation. (Crot-t.)
• Spinal Cord (Posterior): Centre of Action
- Hyperesthesia of the cord. Abdominal sympathetic nervous system.
- Violent neuralgia. Non-homoeopathic Use
• Hydragogue cathartic.
CROTALUS HORRIDUS
• Cholagogue.
(Crot-h.)
• Rubefacient.
Physiological Action • Vesicant.
Introduced by Dr. Hering, mentioned in Physiological Action
Allen’s Encyclopaedia, III, 588 ; X, 49. It is It contains ‘Crotin’, a toxalbumin-like
North American rattlesnake venom, which is substance, but less poisonous than ricin. It is a
greenish-yellow, odorless, tasteless and acidic in drastic purge, rubefacient, vesicants, most violent
reaction. In dried state it is solid, with fragile of air cathartics.
particles which are transparent or translucent.
The toxicity depends on the presence of venom-
globulins and is not affected by brief boiling or - Congestion; most violent hydragogue;
by brief actions of strong acids. Dr. S. Weir purgation; ptyalism; griping at umbilicus.
Mitchell says that the toxicity of dried venom - Peritonitis
proved unimpaired after even 22 years; and the - Hepatic stimulant.
venom kept in glycerine after 19 years. It is - Bile secretion increased.
readily soluble in water and glycerine; with - Also acts on the pneumogastric nerve in-
alcohol, it throws down a large precipitate. ducing nausea and severe vomiting.
• Cerebrospinal System: - Constant urging in the rectum; sudden
- It instantly destroys the medulla and sen- forcible expulsion of offensive stool, like
sory nerve life. that of choleraic diarrhea.
• Fever: - Pain in the anus.
- Produce low, septic, typhoidal, zymotic • Lungs:
fevers. - Dyspnea.
• Skin: • Pulse:
- Ecchymosis, gangrene, severe local sup- - Tachycardia.
puration, malignant edema.
- Violent inflammation, especially that of
- Spasms of the throat; emesis. the intestines.
• Skin (Locally): • Cerebro-spinal System:

- Vesicular and pustular eruptions with in- - Motor and sensory paralysis.
flamed areola eczema. - Congestion.
- Erythema of face, often symmetrical. • Lungs:
- Cutaneous inflammation. - Labored respiration followed by paralysis
of respiratory centre.
GELSEMIUM - Asphyxia.
(Gels.)
• Eyes (Myotic):
Centre of Action - Diplopia.
Cerebro-spinal nervous system. - Pupils contracted.
Non-homoeopathic Use - Muscles paralysed; ptosis.
• Myotic. • Heart:
• Diuretic. - Paralysis of cardiac muscles. Hence, blood
• Motor-depressant. pressure lowered.
• Diaphoretic. • Temperature:
- Lowered in the disease, especially in ma-
laria.
Gelsemium is a powerful motor-depressant
• Male Sexual Organ:
producing paralysis of motility and depression
- Muscle paralysis.
of sensibility by its action on spinal cord centres.
It also affects the vaso-motors. - Emissions; impotence.
• Female Sexual Organ:
In moderately small doses, Gelsemium
causes languor, diaphoresis, enfeebling - Paralysis.
relaxation of voluntary muscles, slowing of the - Motor spasm; neuralgia.
heart rate, lowered blood pressure, impairment • Urinary Organs:
of special senses, drooping eyelids and dilated - Diuresis.
pupils. - Paralysis of sphincter resulting in enure-
Poisonous doses (one teaspoonful or more) sis.
produce, in addition to exaggerations of the
above, vertigo, diplopia, staggering gait, dropped HELLEBORUS NIGER
jaw, labored respiration, lowered temperature, (Hell.)
enfeebled heart action, extreme muscular
weakness, almost complete anesthesia, loss of Centre of Action
speech and profuse sweating. Death is caused Cerebro-spinal nervous system.
by asphyxia from paralysis of the muscles of Non-homoeopathic Use
respiration. Consciousness is maintained up to • Hydragogue cathartic.
the point of stupor.
• Emmenagogue.
Gelsemium acts differently on men than on • Sialogogue.
the lower animals.
Physiological Action Physiological Action

• Glands (Salivary, Pancreas, Liver): • Mind:
- Increased secretion from all glands. - Makes the patient violent, loquacious,
• Gastro-intestinal System: quarrelsome and delirious.
- Acts on the stomach causing nausea and - Also causes insomnia.
violent vomiting. • Spinal Cord (Motor Tract):
- Gastroenteritis. - Causes convulsions and paralysis.
- Acts as a hydragogue cathartic. • Eyes:
• Kidneys: - They are powerfully mydriatic.
- Causes congestion and inflammation of the • Ears:
kidney. - Paresis of the auditory nerve leading to
- Urine is albuminous. deafness.
• Circulation: • Gastro-intestinal System:
- Increased blood pressure. - Paralysis of all sphincter muscles.
- Heart’s action is slowed. - Acts on the intestines causing involuntary
• Brain: diarrhea.
- Causes congestion, inflammation and ef- • Urinary System:
fusion.
- Diuresis.
• Spinal Cord:
- Paralysis of sphincter.
- Causes congestion, inflammation, effusion
• Circulation:
and paralysis.
- Circulation is slowed with increased blood
pressure.
- They are inflamed with dropsical effu-
• Temperature:
sions.
(i) Increased. (ii) Diminished.
• Generative Organs:
- Emmenagogue. IGNATIA AMARA
(Ign.)
HYOSCYAMUS NIGER
(Hyos.) Centre of Action
Centre of Action Cerebro-spinal nervous system (especially
spinal).
• Emmenagogue.
• Mydriatic.
• Diuretic. Physiological Action
• Vasoconstrictor. The toxicology of Ignatia closely resembles
• Anhydrotic. that of Nux vomica. Both produce a similar
excitation of spinal reflexes with resultant tetanic
spasms and muscular twitchings. Death is caused
by asphyxia occasioned by tetanic contractions Physiological Action

of the respiratory muscles. • Skin:
The susceptibility of the nerves of special - Applied to the skin, Ipecacuanha produces
sense and all sensory nerves are excited for a irritation followed by vesicles, pustules
time but later numbness, torpor and mental and ulceration.
anguish succeed. Potter says in his materia • Respiratory System:
medica, “Cerebro-spinal irritability is diminished
- Inhalation of the dry powder may cause
by small doses, though excited by large ones,
coryza or asthmatic attacks.
Ignatia being probably the most efficient
controller of functional phenomena of the - Taken internally it causes profuse secre-
cerebro-spinal axis.” tion of bronchial mucus.
• Cerebro-spinal System: • Gastro-intestinal System:
- It has a special action upon the medulla - Taken internally, it increases the saliva,
oblongata and spinal cord, producing te- excites nausea and vomiting.
tanic convulsions, dyspnea, asphyxia and - Small doses stimulate the liver. Large
death. doses act as a chologogue cathartic.
• Eyes: • Circulatory System:
- Hysterical asthenopia. - Toxic doses reduce the temperature, cause
• Throat: cardiac paralysis and death.
- Globus hystericus.
KALIUM SALTS
(Kali)
- In the stomach it causes atony; goneness
Kalium bichromicum (bichromate) - Kali-bi.
or great emptiness.
- Acts on the intestines producing diarrhea Kalium bromatum (bromide) - Kali-br.
and prolapsus ani. Kalium carbonicum (carbonate) - Kali-c.
• Kidneys: Kalium iodatum or hydriodicum (Iodide)-Kali-i.
- Nervous diuresis. Kalium muriaticum (chloride) - Kali-m.
• Female Sexual Organ: Kalium phosphoricum (phosphate) - Kali-p.
- Causes profuse menstruation accompanied Kalium sulphuricum (sulphate) - Kali-s.
by hysteria. 1. The principal potash or Kali salts are
powerful, deep-acting remedies. Although
IPECACUANHA possessing many points of resemblance they
(Ip.) are found to differ greatly when compared
Centre of Action as to their individual characteristics.
Pneumogastric nerve. 2. Kalium or potash is a normal constituent of
the tissues and fluids of the body. Next to
Non-homoeopathic Use phosphoric acid, it is the chief inorganic
• Chologogue cathartic. component of the nerve substance. A minute
• Emetic. quantity of sulphocyanide of potassium is
found in the saliva. The chloride is found in
muscles where it aids in maintaining be mucoid or serous, perspiration or

muscular tone. hemorrhage.
3. Experiments on animals have demonstrated 12. Dryness and burning are noted especially in
that potassium compounds, especially the the bichromate, carbonate and iodide.
carbonate, cause profound muscular 13. Kali-c. and less often Kali-i. are useful in
weakness and eventually paralysis. In cases absorbing fluid from the pleural cavity and
of poisoning, weakness of the cardiac muscle the joints; Kali-c. or Kali-m. in ascites.
is an early symptom, and death occurs with 14. Hemorrhage yields more often to the
the heart in diastole and surcharged with carbonate and to the phosphate which, owing
blood. This furnishes the key to some of the to its phosphorus content, is a truly
grand characteristics of the Kalium salts. hemorrhagic remedy. Kali-c. is more often
4. Patients needing a Kalium salt suffer from indicated in metrorrhagia, Kali-bi., in
lassitude, weakness and heaviness of the epistaxis; Kali-c., Kali-m. or Kali-p. in
extremities, and depression of the sexual hemoptysis.
powers. They are unduly affected by mental
and physical exertion or sexual intercourse, LACHESIS
especially the bromide carbonate and (Lach.)
phosphate. The iodide produces impotency,
but from atrophy of testicles. Sexual erethism Centre of Action
may also be a characteristic of the potash Cerebro-spinal nervous system.
salts, more typically of the bicarbonate and Physiological Action
phosphate.
Lachesis (the Lance-headed viper) is the best
5. Kali-s. affects the mucous membranes,
known and therefore the most frequently used
markedly, producing congestion, inflamma-
of all the snake poisons. A brief survey of the
tion, ulceration and increased and altered
symptoms produced by the bite of the snake will
mucus discharges.
suggest the character of the ailments which call
6. Kali-bi., Kali-c., Kali-i. and Kali-m. have for its use. They are fevers of a low type, septic
thin, acrid, watery discharges from mucous and zymotic conditions attended by alarming
membranes. prostration, relaxation of muscles,
7. Kali-bi. stands out from the rest by producing disorganization of the blood, phlegmonous
copious, ropy, yellow mucus, which can be inflammation, diphtheritic deposits, malignant
drawn out in threads; plastic exudations and ulceration with thin, ichorous discharges, violent
greenish, elastic plugs. disturbances of the circulation, exaggerated
8. Kali-c. discharges are thick, yellow or reflexes, paralysis and coma.
greenish. • Cerebro-spinal System:
9. Kali-i. and Kali-p. have green, yellow and - Causes congestion of the brain; coma.
bloody, foul smelling mucopus. - Sensory nerve life destroyed.
10. Kali-m. produces tough mucus which is pure - Acts on the spinal cord producing spasms,
white like milk. convulsions and sudden prostration.
11. In general, the Kalium salts have the power - It also acts on the vagus nerve which sup-
to arrest abnormal secretions whether they plies both the lungs and the stomach. In
the stomach, it produces emesis, where • Skin:

as in the bronchi, spasm of the throat. - Produces brown liver spots, papules and
• Blood: eczema.
- Rapid decomposition of blood takes place, • Gastro-intestinal System:
increasing the tendency to hemorrhage. - Slow, irregular digestion.
- Asthenic fever. - Increased appetite.
• Circulation: - Diarrhea.
- Causes vasomotor paralysis and asthenia. - Congestion and hypertrophy of the liver.
• Heart: • Lymphatic Glandular System:
- Paralysis of cardiac muscles. - Affinity for the lymphatic system in the
• Skin: neck causing atony; congestion, indura-
- Tendency to ecchymosis and hemorrhages. tion.
- The skin has a jaundiced appearance. • Heart:
- Gangrene. - In moderate doses causes quickened heart
• Glandular System: action and circulation.
- All glands become congested. • Nervous System:
- Fatty degeneration of glands. - Moderate doses of the tincture produces
headache and nervous excitement.
- Atony of the ovary atony, delayed and • Sexual Organs:
menses are scanty. - Moderate doses of the tincture produce
increased sexual desire.
LYCOPODIUM CLAVATUM
(Lyc.) MERCURIUS CORROSIVUS
(Merc-c.)
Centre of Action
Vegetative nervous system. Centre of Action
Vegetative nervous system.
• Mucous Membranes: Physiological Action
- Has an affinity for the mucous membrane Mercurius cor. is Mercurius vivus
of the lungs and kidneys. intensified. All its effects are of the most violent
- It causes atony; congestion and catarrhal character. While exhibiting the general
inflammation with profuse mucus dis- characteristics of the parent metal, its ulceration
charges. is more rapidly phagedenic, eating into the
affected part until it almost hangs in shreds; its
• Kidneys:
pains are more intensely burning; its tenesmus
- Frequent painful micturition.
more violent and persistent and the stool and
- Urine cloudy, depositing much sediment urine scald like hot water.
like brick-dust and sometimes with mucus
All the discharges of Mercurius cor. are
and blood.
excoriating and horribly offensive. Usually they
are bloody. Although ptyalism is less than in the - Discharges (saliva, vomit, diarrhea, etc.)
vivus, the saliva is just as acrid and the fetor, if are offensive and excoriating, and contain
anything, more pronounced. mucus and blood.
Clinically, Mercurius cor. has been found
more frequently indicated in nephritis and the MERCURIUS VIVUS
secondary stage of syphilis. (Merc.)
• Eyes: Centre of Action
- Almost specific in syphilitic iritis. The Vegetative nervous system.
symptoms calling for its use are profuse Non-homoeopathic Use
lachrymation scalding the parts over which
• Cholagogue.
it passes, intense photophobia, agonising
burning pain in eyes, tearing pain in bones • Sialogogue.
surrounding the or bit. • Cathartic.
- Corneal ulcers which tend to perforate. • Caustic.
- Hypopion. • Tonic.
• Urinary Tract: • Purgative.
• Alternative.
- Has a special affinity for the kidneys and
urinary tract. • Antiphlogistic.
- Useful in acute nephritis following diph- • Sorbefacient.
theria or scarlet fever or from being chilled. Physiological Action
It is accompanied with general anasarca, Perfectly pure metallic mercury is considered
sallow or red puffy face and albumin, to be non-poisonous. Democrates used it as a
blood and threads of flesh-like pieces of purgative. Inhaling mercury vapor is poisonous.
mucus in the urine. Mercuric chloride is the chief poisonous salt of
- Also used in chronic nephritis, pyelitis, mercury. Some of its salts are corrosive poisons
pyelonephrosis, cystitis and urethritis with and local caustics. All of these, after long and
intense burning, bloody urine and violent continued administration produce the peculiar
tenesmus. cachexia known as “hydrargyrism”, although the
• Sexual Organs: action of the salts differs in some particulars from
- Primary stage of syphilis with a hard or that of the metal alone.
thin Hunterian chancre. The metal itself is inert, but on combining
with the acids and other fluids of the body it
- Used in the tertiary stage when necrosis
becomes actively poisonous, enters the blood
attacks the flat bones more than the long.
current and produces numerous functional and
• Skin:
destructive changes in the organs, tissues and the
- Phagedenic ulcers burn intensely. blood itself.
• Gastro-intestinal system: In small doses, administered over a short
- The entire mucous membrane is affected; period of time, it acts as a blood tonic, increasing
may extend upto ulceration and perfora- the number of red corpuscles, improving the
tion.. general condition of the system and causing a
gain in weight.
Continued use of small doses, by over- Mercury is eliminated rather slowly and may
stimulation of the lymphatic system, promotes be found in the saliva, sweat, bile, feces, urine
waste and retrogrative processes and, if long and milk (in the fetus in utero and in the nursing
continued, definite symptoms of mercurial infant whose mother has been taking the drug).
poisoning. In autopsies, globules of the pure metal are often
The first symptoms of hydrargyrism are fetid found in the bones, even of mules used in the
breath, swelling and sponginess of the gums with mines.
a blue line along their margins, outpouring of Death may occur from malnutrition and
offensive saliva and a metallic taste in the mouth. exhaustion.
Loss of appetite, loosening of the teeth, pain in The fatal dose is 1 to 4 gms. (mercuric
the stomach and bowels, diarrhea, and rise of chloride).
temperature soon follow. The tongue becomes The fatal period is 5 to 10 days (acute
heavily coated and flabby, taking the imprint of poisoning).
the teeth; ulcers form in the mouth; the throat • Lymphatic Glandular System:
becomes inflamed and raw; the salivary glands - All glandular structures of the body are
are swollen and sensitive; and in extreme cases affected.
the tongue and lips may become gangrenous.
- The lymphatic glands become swollen and
Marked changes occur in the blood. The indurated, and may suppurate.
number of its red corpuscles are diminished, its - Paralysis, congestion, inflammation and
albumin and fibrin are reduced in amount, ulceration.
resulting in impairment of its ozonizing function
and power of coagulation. Pallor, neuralgias in
the face and elsewhere; headache, insomnia, - The salivary glands are conjested and over-
active producing excessive salivation.
emaciation, edema of the extremities, ulcers,
Excessive fetor.
eruptions on the skin and other signs of disturbed
nutrition follow. - Pancreas is also congested and over-active.
There is inflammation and hypertrophy of
Large doses of mercury or its compounds
the gland.
act in a manner similar to the long continued use
- The liver is enlarged and sensitive. The
of small doses but more rapidly. Tremors may
secretion of bile is augmented. Jaundice.
develop into epileptiform convulsions followed
by coma and death. - The mucous membrane of the intestines
are congested and inflamed.
The symptoms of mercurial poisoning may
- Acts as a cathartic and causes increased
show first on the skin, an eruption resembling
peristalsis of the intestines.
that of scarlet fever being most frequently
- Tendency to hemorrhage from the colon.
observed. The skin is swollen, burns like fire and
later exhibits abundant desquamations, even of - The fibrous tissue of the peritoneum is also
the hairy scalp. It is a curious fact that the congested and inflamed.
inhalation of mercurial fumes, as among workers • Kidneys:
in laboratories, thermometer or mirror factories - Congestion and inflammation of the tis-
or in mines, is greatly apt to affect the nervous sues.
system; while mercury taken per oral or by - Urine may contain albumin and sugar (dia-
inunction more frequently results in salivation. betes).
• Respiratory System: is an Indian cobra venom, amber in color, frothy,

- Catarrhal inflammation of the air passages. viscous containing proteins belonging to the
• Eyes: heptane group. It is acidic in reaction; it’s strong
alcohol-soluble portion is extremely poisonous
- Congestion, inflammation and ulceration
whereas the precipitated albuminous portion is
of the eyes.
slightly so; on evaporation a yellow, acrid powder
- Iritis. is left.
Produces cardiac hypertrophy, especially in
- Causes inflammation and effusion of all children and young ones; myocarditis with acute
serous membranes. pain, dyspnea, spasms in larynx, frontal headache
• Bones: having palpitation, staggering gait, muscular
- Inflammation of bones. Caries and necro- paralysis, spreads to the trunk, cold feet, head
sis may finally ensue. drops, dysphagia.
- Nocternal bone-pains.
• Blood: NATRIUM MURIATICUM
- Decomposed. (Nat-m.)
- Corpuscles are diminished. Albumin and Centre of Action
fibrin are also reduced in amount. Vegetative nervous system.
- Tendency to hemorrhages from the nose,
mouth and uterus. Physiological Action
• Skin: Taken in normal quantities with the food,
- Vesicular and pustular eczema; eruptions sodium chloride increases the appetite and the
resembling that of scarlet fever. flow of the gastric juice, assists in maintaining
• Female Sexual Organ: nerve and muscle tone and favors assimilation
- Menses may cease or menorrhagia. and the excretion of waste matter, especi ally of
urea.
- Pregnant women abort from impoverish-
ment of the blood. In the form of normal salt solution, it is a
• Mind: non-irritating douche for mucous surfaces, and
is administered intravenously or subcutaneously
- Weakness of mind.
in collapse from surgical shock or serious
- Mental depression.
hemorrhage. If salt is taken in too large an
• Cerebro-spinal System: amount, it causes vomiting, extremely high
- Shaking palsy; neuroses. temperature, delirium, coma, convulsions,
- Debility, nervous tremors, inco-ordination, collapse and ever death.
paralysis and profuse sweating. • Blood:
- Excessive use of salt, causes a great loss
NAJA TRIPUDIANS of R.B.C.’s resulting in anemia which in
(Naja) turn leads to bloating of the face; head-
Physiological Action ache and edema.
Introduced by Dr. Stocks and Russell, • Lymphatics:
mentioned in Allen’s Encyclopaedia VI, 445. It - Secretions are excessively excoriating.
- Due to the anemia, hypertrophy of the Non-homoeopathic Use

spleen. • Laxative.
• Gastro-intestinal System: • Diuretic
- Excessive use of salt causes acidity of the Physiological Action
stomach, great thirst, swelling and
sponginess of the gums, increased and
perverted secretion from the salivary - In small doses it is a laxative.
glands, constipation or diarrhea. - It stimulates the activity of the liver and
- Too large an amount of salt taken by mis- pancreas.
take or given intravenously or by hypo- - Markedly increases the secretions of the
dermoclysis is followed by nausea, vom- intestines.
iting and diarrhea.
- Acts on the liver causing hypertrophy, NITRICUM ACIDUM
jaundice and despondency. (Nit-ac.)
• Mucous Membranes: Centre of Action
- Causes persistent dryness of mucous Organic nervous system.
membranes.
• Skin:
- Falling of hair from all parts of the body. Inhalation of nitric acid fumes causes
lachrymation, photophobia, irritation of air
- Dirty, torpid skin; herpes, tetters, boils,
passages, sneezing, coughing, dyspnea and
eczema and fissures.
asphyxia. The fatal dose is 10-15 c.c., and the
• Female Sexual Organ: fatal period is 18-24 hours.
- Causes delayed menses.
- Diminished sexual desire.
- Inflammation, ulceration, degeneration
• Eyes: and necrosis.
- Excoriating secretions occur. - If the damage is extensive, corrosion of
• Cerebro-spinal System: the mucous membranes of mouth, throat
- Excessive use of salt causes mental slug- and esophagus; burning, pain, dysphagia.
gishness, debility, sleepiness and nervous- - The mucous membranes of mouth be-
ness. comes soft, white and then yellow.
- Too large an amount of salt ingested may • Skin:
produce high temperature upto 104º F - Blistering ulceration with suppuration, col-
leading to delirium, convulsion, even liquative sweats.
coma, collapse and death.
- Fungoid growths .
NATRIUM SULPHURICUM • Glandular System:
(Nat-s.) - Congestion, inflammation and putrid dis-
charges.
Centre of Action
• Blood:
Abdominal sympathetic nervous system.
- Hemolysis, septicemea with toxemia.
• Urine: most marked feature of its action is increased

- Anuria, proteinuria and casts in the urine. reflex excitability of the spinal cord and other
• Gastro-intestinal System: reflex centres, especially the vasomotor and
respiratory. In full doses the pupils are dilated,
- Epigastric pain from abdomen to thorax,
the limbs jerk, respiration becomes spasmodic
with much eructations, nausea, vomiting;
and the jaws stiffen; shuddering and anxiety
vomit mucoid, brown or black, strongly
follow. Toxic doses induce powerful contractions
acid; often spreads on the charred wall of
of tetanic character with dyspnea, suffocation,
stomach.
cyanosis and opisthotonos, although
- Intense attempt at drinking, causes vomit-
consciousness persists until death occurs from
ing, abdominal distention great due to for-
carbondioxide asphyxiation.
mation of gas.
- Liver is congested and hypertrophied; In toxic doses, its action is mainly due to
jaundice. two alkaloids, strychnine and brucine. There is
also a small amount of other alkaloids like
- Yellow discoloration of tissues and crown
caffeotannic acid, glyconside, loganin, etc.
of teeth due to formation of zanthoproteic
present.
acid.
• Tongue: Nux vomica, Ignatia and Chamomilla are
three of the most useful polychrests, especially
- Swollen, sodden and black.
in acute diseases. They have some marked
- Constipation with severe tenesmus.
resemblance in both the mental and physical
• Voice: spheres. They have also many marked
- Hoarse, husky. differences. These will be considered in the
• Eyes: respective lessons in the paragraphs dealing with
- Look wild, sunken pupils dilated. comparisons. Nux vomica is predominantly a
man’s remedy; Ignatia is more often indicated in
NUX VOMICA the female; Chamomilla, especially in children.
(Nux-v.) These three remedies are grouped together
because they are all so frequently indicated in
Centre of Action
hypersensitiveness to external stimuli, irritability,
Cerebro-spinal nervous system. susceptibility to emotional disturbances,
Non-homoeopathic Use hysterical manifestations, convulsions, obstinacy,
• Aphrodisiac. anger, gastro-intestinal ailments, disorders of the
female pelvis and disturbed and exaggerated
Physiological Action reflexes generally.
The physiological action of Nux vomica and • Cerebro-spinal System:
Strychnine are so nearly alike that they are - Spinal cord (motor tract):
commonly considered to be identical. In small
. Tetanic spasm of all muscle fibres, vol-
doses, Nux vomica stimulates the entire digestive
untary and involuntary; incoherent
system, promoting gastric, pancreatic and biliary
muscular paralysis.
secretions But, like other bitter tonics, when used
. Tetanic convulsions.
over a long period of time, it deranges digestion
and produces constipation. In larger doses the . Death from asphyxia.
• Sensory Nerves: Non-homoeopathic Use

- Extreme hyperesthesia. • Anesthetic.
• Motor Nerves: • Diaphoretic.
- Exhaustion. • Emetic.
- Paralysis. • Emmenagogue.
• Eyes: • Hypnotic.
- Pupils are contracted. • Myotic.
- There is hyperesthesia of vision or vision
increased. Physiological Action
• Ears: The dried black juice is used. Opium is a
- Hearing is augmented. Latin word, meaning the juice of the poppy
• Nose: ‘Somnus’ is also a Latin word, meaning
- Sense of smell increased. sleep. It was in use before the Christian era.
Hahnemann introduced the drug in homoeopathy
• Circulation:
in 1805.
- Vasomotor spasm causing increased arte-
rial blood pressure. Constituents: So far 25 alkaloids have been
• Heart: isolated from opium, e.g., morphine, codeine,
narcotine, codamine, cryptopine, gnoscopine,
- There is paresis of inhibitory nerves.
laudaoine, laudanosine, bydrocotarine,
• Gastro-intestinal System: ianthopine, meconidine, harceine, neopine,
- Causes increased appetite. oxynarcotine, papaverine, papa-veraldme,
- Acrid vomiting and gastralgia. prophyroxine, protopine, pseudomorphine,
- Causes constipation and hemorrhoids. rhoeadine, thebaine, tritopine, aporeine,
• Bladder: narcotoline, papaveramine and others. Indian
- Causes paralysis of the muscular coat of Opium contains morphine 7 to 12 per cent,
the bladder, leading to incontinence. narcotin 1.5 to 12.5 per cent, codeine 0.8 to 40
• Male Sexual Organ: per cent in combination with acids; the
commercial variety contains 5 to 21 per cent
- Produces increased sexual desire.
morphine, calculated on a dry sample. The
- Impotence. principal ones are morphine and codeine.
Action: The manifestation of its action
- Menses appear too soon and last too long. occurs in 3 stages, viz.:
• Lungs: 1. Stage of excitement followed by insensibility.
- Produces dry cough and flatulent asthma. 2. Stage of sopor.
• Blood:
3. Stage of narcosis.
- Oxidation is arrested.
- Over the brain it produces severe conges-
OPIUM
tion and intense coma.
Centre of Action - Acts on the posterior part causing com-
Cerebro-spinal nervous system. plete anesthesia.
- Through the vagi it paralysis the respira- • Mucous Membrane:

tory center causing asphyxia. - Secretions are completely arrested except
- In general, it causes diminished reflex ir- milk and sweat, the latter is in fact in-
ritability of the nervous system, but rarely creased..
delirium or convulsions. Consciousness of • Kidneys:
suffering pain is destroyed.
- Secretion is diminished.
- The stage of sopor ensues as the cerebral
- Calculi.
powers are overcome and is manifested by
the lethargic condition, and that of narco- - Urinary retention.
sis by the deep coma. Finally death comes • Male Sexual Organs:
due to failure of respiration. - Causes sexual excitement.
- Small doses of Opium exite vasomotor - Impotence.
spasm while large doses paralyze. • Female Sexual Organs:
• Eyes: - Menses are increased or suspended.
- Pupils are contracted. • Skin:
- Conjunctiva is conjested. - Diaphoresis; prurigo; eczema.
- Oculo-motor paralysis.
- Copper colored eruptions.
• Ears:
• Mind:
- Throbbing; stopped sensation, hearing di-
- Imbecility; they are chronic liars.
minished.
• Face:
OXALICUM ACIDUM
- Flashed, bloated, livid and cyanotic.
(Ox-ac.)
• Throat:
- Fauces red; constriction in pharynx, spasm Physiological Action
of throat; dryness. It is an organic acid.
• Heart: When employed in a concentrated form, i.e.
- Cardiac inhibition and lessened pulsations, oxalic acid crystals and concentrated, solution
from vagus paralysis. of oxalates, produce symptom more or less like
- The blood pressure falls and there is ta- other corrosive mineral acids; concentrated acids
chycardia. rarely damage the skin, but readily corrode the
- Pulse is slow and feeble. mucous membrane of the digestive tract.
• Gastro-intestinal System: • Gastro-intestinal System:
- The tongue is ulcerated and paralysed. - Mucous membrane of mouth white, sour
- Appetite is destroyed with severe thirst. bitter taste.
- Nutrition is destroyed leading to emacia- - Burning sensation from mouth to throat,
tion. esophagus, stomach and all over the ab-
- Dryness of throat, cramp in esophagus on domen.
swallowing. - Agonising pain from the epigastrium to all
- Nausea and vomiting. over the abdomen, tenderness, nausea,
- Acts on the bowels causing obstinate con- eructation.
stipation.
- Vomiting may be persistent; contains mu- - Hypertrophy of the stomach.

cus and altered blood with a coffee-ground - Acts on the small intestines producing con-
appearance. gestion, inflammation and dehydration.
- Thirst may remain; death occurs usually - Watery discharges from the bowels.
before the bowels are affected. - On the liver it produces congestion, ict-
- If life is prolonged, diarrhea, hypocalce- erus, hepatitis, hypertrophy, fatty degen-
mia, irritability of muscles, tenderness, eration and hypoglycemia.
tetany convulsions, numbness and tingling • Spleen:
of finger tips and legs may occur.
- Congestion; hypertrophy; fatty degenera-
• Urine: tion.
- In some cases, urine may be scanty, sup- • Kidneys:
pressed, traces of blood, albumin and cal-
- Produces inflammation resulting in nephri-
cium oxalate crystals may be found.
tis.
• Cardiovascular System:
- Albuminuria; hemorrhage; fatty degenera-
- Cardiovascular collapse, stupor and coma. tion.
• Urine:
PHOSPHORUS
- Dark and scanty.
(Phos.)
- Contains albumin, bile pigment, casts,
Centre of Action leucin, red blood corpuscles, cysterine and
Vegetative nervous system. tyrosine.
Non-homoeopathic Use • Heart:
• Aphrodisiac. - Causes fatty degeneration and venous stag-
nation.
Physiological Action • Lungs:
There are two varieties of phosphorus: - Congestion, inflammation, hepatization.
i. Red amorphus (non-poisonous). • Arteries:
ii. White or yellow crystalline (poisonous). - Fatty degeneration, with vast hemorrhage.
But commercial red phosphorus is • Blood:
poisonous, as it contains about 6 per cent of the - Hemolysis; hydremia; ecchymoses.
yellow variety as an impurity. In high doses it
- Stagnation of blood.
acts as a protoplasmic poison, which affects
cellular oxidation.
- Stimulates the nervous system.
Symptoms may appear within a few minutes,
or they may be delayed for 1-6 hours. Breath of - Destroys nutrition.
the affected person is luminous in the dark with - Produces restlessness, insomnia, cramps,
a garlicky odor and the tongue is coated. tremors, neuralgia and paralysis.
• Gastro-intestinal System: • Male Sexual Organ:
- Characteristics of the gastric irritation stage, - Acts as an aphrodisiac.
gastritis, gastralgia and hematemesis. - Produces paralysis and impotence.
• Female Sexual Organs: with unnatural dryness of the surface, fol-

- Small doses stimulate; large doses para- lowed by copious and profuse mucus dis-
lyze. charges.
• Bones: • Eyes:
- Special affinity for maxillae. - Produces catarrhal inflammation resulting
- Periostitis; caries; necrosis. in profuse mucus discharge.
- In large doses, occular pains and faulty
PODOPHYLLUM vision.
(Podo.) - In fatal doses dilation of pupils.
Centre of Action - Itching of the eyes, when the powdered
Abdominal sympathetic nervous system. root is inhaled.
Non-homoeopathic Use • Ears:
• Cathartic. - Sub-acute inflammation of middle ear.
• Cholagogue. - Recent catarrhal deafness; otalgia.
• Sialogogues. • Gastro-intestinal System:
Physiological Action - Causes indigestion of fatty and other rich
foods
- Acidity and flatulence.
- Inflammation of the gastric and intestinal
(small) mucous membrane. - Yellow-coated tongue present.
- In inhaling the powdered root, colic, vom-
- Acts on the salivary glands producing co-
iting and diarrhea may result.
pious salivation.
- In large doses, Pulsatilla affects the mu-
- It acts as a drastic cathartic.
cous membranes inducing nausea, vomit-
- Duodenitis. ing and slimy mucus diarrhea.
- On the liver, acts as a hepatic stimulant - Autopsies of poisoned cases has shown
and the secretion of bile is greatly in- that the liver, kidney, spleen and other ab-
creased. dominal organs are not pathological.
PULSATILLA • Urinary Organs:
(Puls.) - Catarrhal inflammation and mucus in
Centre of Action urine.
Cerebro-spinal nervous system. • Male Sexual Organs:
- Orchitis.
• Diuretic. - Varicocele.
• Diaphoretic. - Neuralgia.
• Emmenagogue. • Female Sexual Organs:
- Ovaritis.
- Menses are scanty and late.
• Cardio-vascular System:
- In large doses, it affects all mucous mem-
branes producing catarrhal inflammation - A cardiac and vascular sedative, it lowers
arterial pressure and body temperature. RHUS TOXICODENDRON

(Rhus-t.)
- Fatal doses are followed by a slow, feeble
pulse, low blood pressure, slow breathing Centre of Action
and lowered temperature. Cerebro-spinal nervous system.
- Autopsies of poisoned cases show that the Physiological Action
heart is relaxed, and together with the large Fatal results have not followed any case of
vessels is filled with clotted, dark blood. poisoning recorded.
In other parts, the blood is liquid. • Skin:
• Respiratory System: - Applied locally to the skin, it is an irritant
- In large doses, Pulsatilla causes coryza and and causes itching and vesicular eruptions
cough. which may extend to the mucous mem-
- In fatal doses it induces slow breathing branes.
dyspnea, stupor and then death. - Pemphigus, herpes (especially herpes
- Congestion and edema of the lungs has zoster).
been observed in autopsies of poisoned - The sweat is sour.
cases. • Mucous Membranes:
• Joints: - Causes, catarrhal inflammation, which
- Affects the synovial membranes causing produce edematous swelling, dryness, raw-
rheumatico-gouty inflammation. ness and swelling.
• Skin: - Has an affinity for the conjunctiva, fauces
- Pulsatilla pratensis is an active irritant to and gastro-intestinal tract.
the skin producing phenomena ranging • Eyes:
from tingling and burning to vesicular or - Acute rheumatic conjunctivitis.
pustular dermatitis. - Strumous ophthalmia.
- Skin eruptions; urticaria; miliary eruption • Lungs:
• Cerebro-spinal System: - Congestion; infiltration.
- In large doses it produces spinal irritation - Typhoid pneumonia.
at first and later motor and sensory paraly- • Gastro-intestinal System:
sis with stupor and coma. - Acute inflammation in the mouth; sordes.
- Acts on the posterior portion of the spinal - Loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting and
cord producing chilliness along the spine, gastritis.
hyperesthesia and neuralgia. - When taken internally or inhaled there are
- Administered internally, the fresh juice colicky pains in the abdomen, worse at
causes burning and tingling of the tongue night; diarrhea, tenesmus, bloody stools.
followed by numbness. • Sero-fibrous Tissue (Tendons, Fasciae):
- Fatal doses are also followed by paralysis - Rheumatoid inflammation; pains of a rheu-
of extremities, stupor and death. matoid type in fibrous structures, joints and
- Autopsies of poisoned cases show hyper- lumbar region.
emia of the meninges, especially in area - Pains are ameliorated by heat and aggra-
of medulla. vated by rest.
• Lymphatic System: sphincters and uterus. The pupils dilate. Anemia

- Secretions are acrid. of the brain and spinal cord results in coldness
- There is congestion, inflammation. of body surface, tetanic spasms and violent clonic
convulsions.
• Blood:
- Septic fever; fibrin increased. In small doses, Ergot produces two forms of
phenomena—convulsions and gangrene. The
tetanoid spasms involve flexor muscles of the
- Profound depression. uterus, the muscular coat of intestines, muscles
- Rheumatic paralysis. of respiration, and may end in coma and death.
• Urine: Gangrene begins with extreme coldness of
- Bloody urine. the part. Then comes a sense of formication under
• Fever: the skin all over the body, loss of sensibility,
- Often typhoid or intermittent in character. bullae filled with black blood and dry or moist
gangrenous areas, systemic poisoning, coma and
SECALE CORNUTUM death. Artificial anemia of the central nervous
(Sec.) system and the periphery is the basis of its action.
Centre of Action • Heart:
Cerebro-spinal nervous system. - Causes inhibitory paralysis and diminished
pulsations.
• Circulation:
• Abortificient.
- Tonic arterial contraction.
• Emetic.
- Dilated veins.
• Mydriatic.
• Temperature:
• Diaphoretic.
- Greatly lowered, sometimes by 5 degrees.
• Ecbolic. • Female Sexual Organs:
• Emmenagogue. - Acts on the uterus as an abortificient.
• Hemostatic. - Violent tetanic contractions from arterial
• Anhidrosic. anemia and venous hyperemia.
• Oxytoxic. - Death of fetus from uterine tetanus.
Physiological Action • Gastro-intestinal System:
Ergot is a motor excitant and a vascular - Acts on the stomach inducing violent eme-
contractor. It raises blood pressure by stimulating sis; hematemesis.
the vasomotor centres and by producing tetanic - Causes increased peristalsis of the intes-
contractions of the circular muscle fibres of the tines; watery diarrhea.
arterioles, although the pulse is slowed and • Sphincter Muscles:
apparently weakened. - All are paralysed.
Ergot is distinctly bi-phasic in its action. Its • Cerebro-spinal System:
first or acute effect, produced by large doses, is - Formication.
manifested in irritation of the gastro-intestinal - Muscular cramps.
tract. Unstripped muscles contract, especially - Epilepsy.
• Eyes: • Gastro-intestinal System:

- Pupils are dilated; amaurosis, from arte- - Produces portal congestion, torpidity and
rial anemia. congestion of the liver.
• Skin: - Acid secretions.
- Diaphoresis; furuncles; eczema; gangrene; • Kidneys:
purpura. - Scanty urine; increased uric acid.
- Lithiasis.
SEPIA
(Sep.) • Skin:
Centre of Action - Cachectic, yellow, earthy, waxy skin.
Vegetative nervous system. - Chloasma.
Physiological Action - Eczema.
Sepia (Sepiae succus) is not generally SILICEA
recognized as a toxic agent. However, numerous (Sil.)
homoeopathic provings on a large number of Centre of Action
subjects have demonstrated that it has a definite
Organic nervous system.
physiological action upon the human organism.
It’s first effect is upon the vasomotor nerves, and Physiological Action
through them the circulation in general, • Bones and Fibrous Tissues:
especially the portal circulation. Excess of carbon - Suppuration and complete destruction of
dioxide in the cerebral capillaries induces bones, periosteum and fibrous tissue.
confusion, sluggishness of mental operations, - Caries of the shafts or epiphyses of any
languor, faintness and trembling. Sluggish flow of the bones, with excessive nocturnal
of blood through the peripheral capillaries causes bone-pains.
distinct pathological changes in the skin, ranging
from pigmentation to dryness, desquamation,
- Congestion and hypertrophy may lead to
various forms of eruptions and ulceration.
suppuration.
Subsequently, relaxation of sphincter muscles
and connective tissue ensues. The effect, together • Skin:
with venous stasis, results in visceroptosis, - Pustular inflammation. Extremities are
especially of the uterus, hemorrhoidal tumors and cold.
varices. - Sweat is offensive.
• Venous System: • Mucous Membranes:
- Causes venous congestion of the portal - Catarrhal inflammation, may progress to
system. ulceration.
• Female Sexual Organs: • Cerebro-spinal System:
- Acts over the organs producing venous - Loss of nutrition, neurasthenia.
congestion. - Spasms.
- Leucorrhea; scanty menses.
- Ulceration of the uterus, prolapse.
- Atony of ovaries.
SULPHUR • Sympathetic Nervous System:

(Sulph.)
- Causes defective assimilation.
Centre of Action - Hot flushes.
Organic nervous system. • Blood:
Non-homoeopathic Use - Quantity of fibrin is increased.
• Laxative. - Rheumatoid affections occur.
• Diaphoretic. THUJA OCCIDENTALIS
• Disinfectant. (Thuj.)
Physiological Action Centre of Action

Sulphur is a mild laxative and a diaphoretic. Organic nervous system.
In full doses it is an irritant to the stomach and Non-homoeopathic Use
intestines, increases the secretions of the • Diuretic.
intestinal glands and promotes peristaltic action.
Its repeated ingestion for any length of time
causes anemia, emaciation, tremor and great • Skin:
debility. It is eliminated through the skin, - Presence of fig-worts, condylomata and
producing roughness and exfoliation, vesicular, tubercles.
eczematous, furuncular and other forms of - Sycotic affections.
eruptions. Symptoms of poisoning are those of • Mucous Membranes:
asphyxia and muscular tremors followed by - Acrid secretions; corroding ulcer.
convulsions and death. Generally, Sulphur fumes - Polypi.
are disinfecting and deodorizing.
• Male Sexual Organs:
• Venous System:
- Chronic blenorrhea.
- Chronic capillary congestion. - Prostatitis.
- Exudation and suppuration.
• Female Sexual Organs:
- Chronic congestion of the portal system, - Causes delayed menses.
inducing constipation and piles.
- Leucorrhea.
- Ovaritis.
- Profuse acrid secretions, excoriating all
• Blood and Serum:
parts.
- Dissolution; acridity.
- Causes serous effusions; exudative inflam- • Urinary Organs:
mation. - It acts as a diuretic.
• Mucous Membranes: - The sphincter is paralysed.
- Profuse, excoriating mucus discharges.
■
• Skin:
- Produces vesicular and pustular inflamma-
tion.
- Alopecia.
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Section - 10
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LAW AND ETHICS
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10.1 Homoeopathic Pharmacy Acts.
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10.2 Conduct and Etiquette.
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We are free and tolerant in our private life; but in public affairs we keep
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to the law. We give our obedience to those whom we put in positions of
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authority.
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10-1
Homoeopathic Pharmacy Acts
LEGISLATION of Excise). All laws and rules may be

The homoeopathic pharmacy comprises of always revised from time to time. As such,
the following three aspects : the laws or rules mentioned therein-after
is from the existing law book.
• Manufacture or preparations of drugs and
medicines.
THE IMPORT, MANUFACTURE,
• Commerce or /and trading. SALE AND DISTRIBUTION
• Profession or practice.
The homoeopathic drugs and medicines are
- A pharmacist or a homoeopathic druggist regulated mainly by:
or physician must be familiar with the
i. The Drugs and Cosmetic Acts 1940 (XXIII
existing laws and rules relating to the
of 1940) and thereafter amended several
manufacture, sale of homoeopathic drugs
times.
or profession.
- He should also have the knowledge of the ii. The Drugs and Cosmetic Rules 1945, and
general laws relating to commerce, trade thereafter amended several times.
and taxation or by statute or rules iii. The Dangerous Drugs Act 1930 (11 of 1930)
promulgated by the Central or State and Rules, 1957, and amendments thereafter.
Government. iv. The Drugs and Magic Remedies
− A homoeopathic drug or medicine (Objectionable Advertisement) Act 1954
manufacturer should also have (XXI of 1954) and Rules 1955.
knowledge of the import-export v. The Medicinal and Toilet Preparations
procedures, relating to import of exotic (Excise Duties) Act 1955 (XVI of 1955).
drug materials or medicines.
vi. The Drugs (Price Control) Order 1970 and
− Also should have knowledge of laws and
1971, etc.
rules of materials, such as alcohol (Dept.
DEFINITION OF (1) A licence to sell, stock or exhibit for sale or

HOMOEOPATHIC MEDICINE distribute homoeopathic medicines by retail or
Rule 2 (dd) of the Drugs and Cosmetic Rules by wholesale shall be issued in Forms 20-C or
defines the homoeopathic medicines as, 20-D, as the case may be.
‘Homoeopathic medicines include any drug 67-D. Sale at more than one place—If
which is recorded in homoeopathic provings of drugs are sold or stocked for sale at more than
therapeutic efficacy of which has been one place, separate applications shall be made
established through long clinical experience as and a separate licence shall be obtained in respect
recorded in authoritative homoeopathic literature of each place.
of India and abroad and which is prepared 67-E. Duration of licences—An original
according to the techniques of homoeopathic licence or a renewed licence unless it is sooner
pharmacy and covers combinations in ingredients suspended or cancelled, shall be valid up to the
of such homoeopathic medicines but does not 31st December of the year following the year in
include a medicine which is administered by which it is granted or renewed:
parenteral route.
Provided that if the application for renewal
Provisions relating to sale of homoeopathic of the licence in force is made before its expiry
medicines are prescribed in part VI-A, in which: or if the application is made and the additional
Rule 67-A (1) The State Government shall fee paid within one month of its expiry, the
appoint Licensing Authorities for the purpose licence shall continue to be in force until orders
of this part for such areas as may be specified. are passed on the application. The licence shall
(The above Licensing Authority is generally be deemed to have expired, if application for its
the Director of Drugs Control of the respective renewal is not made within one month after its
State Government.) expiry.
Rule 67-A (2) Application for the grant or 64-EE. The certificate of renewal of a sale
renewals of a licence to sell, stock or exhibit for licence in Forms 20-C and 20-D shall be issued
sale or distribution of homoeopathic medicines in Form 20-E.
shall be made in Form 19-B to the Licensing 67-F. Conditions to be satisfied before a
Authority and shall be accompanied by necessary licence in Forms 24-C or 20-D is granted—
fees. • A licence in Forms 20-C or Form 20-D to
Provided that if the applicant applies for sell, stock or exhibit for sale or distribute
renewal of licence after its expiry but within one homoeopathic medicines shall not be granted
month of such expiry the fee payable for renewal to any person unless the authority
of such licence shall be rupees five plus an empowered to grant the licence is satisfied
additional fee of rupees five. that the premises in respect of which the
licence is to be granted are clean. In the case
But at present (i.e. from 1983) the above
of a licence in Form 20-C the sale premises
licence fees of both for the retail and wholesale
is in charge of a person who is, in the opinion
dealer have been increased.
of the licensing authority, competent to deal
The Licensing Authority will issue the in homoeopathic medicines.
requisite licences.
• Any person who is aggrieved by the order
Rule 67-C. Forms of licences to sell drugs passed by the Licensing Authority under sub-
Homoeopathic Pharmacy Acts 541
rule (I) may, within 30 days from the date of why such an order should not be passed by
the receipt of such order, appeal to the State an order in writing stating the reasons
Government, after such enquiry into the therefore, cancel a licence issued under this
matter as it considers necessary and after part or suspend it for such period as he thinks
giving the appellant an opportunity for fit, if in his opinion, the licensee has failed
representing his case, make such order in to comply with any of the conditions of the
relation thereto as it thinks fit. licence or with any provisions of the Act or
67-G. Conditions of licence—Licence in rules made thereunder:
Forms 20-C or 20-D shall be subject to the Provided that if such failure or contravention
conditions stated therein and to the following is the consequence of an act or omission on the
further conditions, namely: part of an agent or employee, the licence shall
• The premises where the homoeopathic not be cancelled or suspended unless the
medicines are stocked for sale or sold are licensing authority is satisfied:
maintained in a clean condition. − That the act or omission was instigated
• The sale of homoeopathic medicines shall or connived at by the owner of the
be conducted under the supervision of a business or, if the owner is a firm or
person competent to deal in homoeopathic company, by a partner of the firm or a
medicines. director of the company: or
• The licensee shall permit an Inspector to − That the owner of the business or an agent
inspect the premises and furnish such or employee of the owner had been guilty
information as he may require for of a similar act or omission within twelve
ascertaining whether the provisions of the months before the date or which the act
Act and the rules made thereunder have been or omission took place and that the owner
observed. had, or reasonably ought to have had,
knowledge of that previous act or
• The licensee in Form 20-D shall maintain
omission; or
records of purchase and sale of
− If the act or omission was a continuing
homoeopathic medicines containing alcohol
together with names and addresses of parties act/omission, and the owner of the
to whom sold. business had or reasonably ought to have
had knowledge of that previous act or
• The licensee in Form 29-C shall maintain
omission; or
records of purchase and sale of
− That the owner of the business had not
homoeopathic medicines containing alcohol.
used due vigilance to ensure that the
No records of sale in respect of
conditions of the licence or provisions of
homoeopathic potentised preparation in
the Act or the rules made thereunder were
containers of 30 ml. or lower capacity and
observed.
in respect of mother tincture made up in
quantities up to 60 ml. need be maintained. • A licensee whose licence has been suspended
or cancelled, may appeal to the State
67-H. Cancellation and suspension of
Government whose decision shall be final.
licences—
• The Licensing Authority may, after giving
the licensee an opportunity to show cause
PART VII-A—MANUFACTURE mother tinctures and potentised

FOR SALE OF HOMOEOPATHIC preparations, and
MEDICINES − Rs. 20 plus an additional fee of Rs. 10
85-A. Manufacture on more than one set for the manufacture of homoeopathic
of premises — If homoeopathic medicines are potentised preparations only.
manufactured in more than one set of premises, • A fee of Rs. 10 shall be paid for a duplicate
a separate application shall be made and a copy of the licence for the manufacture of
separate licence shall be obtained, in respect of homoeopathic mother tincture and
each such set of premises. potentised preparations issued under sub-rule
85-B. Application for licence to (I) if the original is defaced, damaged or lost.
manufacture homoeopathic medicines— While the fee to be paid for such a duplicate
copy of the licence for the manufacture of
• Application for grant or renewal of licences
homoeopathic potentised preparations only
to manufacture for sale of homoeopathic
shall be Rs. 5.
medicines shall be made to the Licensing
Authority appointed by State Government 85-C. Application to manufacture ‘new
for the purpose of this part (hereinafter in homoeopathic medicines’— Subject to the
this part referred to as the Licensing other provisions of these rules:
Authority) and shall be made in Form 24-C. • No ‘new homoeopathic medicine’ shall be
• The application in Form 24-C shall be manufactured unless it is previously
accompanied by a fee of Rs. 40 for approved by the Licensing Authority
manufacture of homoeopathic mother mentioned in Rule 21.
tinctures and potentised preparation, and by • The manufacture of ‘new homoeopathic
a fee of Rs. 25 for manufacture of medicine’ when applying to the Licensing
homoeopathic potentised preparations only. Authority mentioned in sub-rule (I) shall
(Application for licence to manufacture produce such documentary and other
potentised preparation from back potencies evidence as may be required by the licensing
by pharmacies who are already licensed to authority for assessing the therapeutic
sell homoeopathic medicines by retail, shall efficacy of the medicine including the
also be made in Form 24-C and such minimum provings carried out with it.
application shall be accompanied by a fee • While applying for a licence to manufacture
of Rs. 20.) a ‘new homoeopathic medicine’, an
Note: At present (i.e., from 1983) the fee for applicant shall produce along with his
manufacture of homoeopathic mother tinctures application evidence that the ‘new
and potentised preparations has been increased homoeopathic medicine’ for the manufacture
to Rs. 90 in place of Rs. 40. of which application is made has already
• If a person applies for renewal of a licence been approved.
after its expiry, but within one month of such
Explanation—The term ‘new homoeopathic
expiry, the fee payable for the renewal of
medicine’ in this rule, shall have the same
such a licence shall be:
meaning as in rule 30-AA.
− Rs. 40 plus an additional fee of Rs. 20
85-D. Form of licence to manufacture
for the manufacture of homoeopathic
homoeopathic medicines—Licences for
manufacture of homoeopathic medicines as a proper storage of homoeopathic medicines

licence to manufacture potentised preparations manufactured by him:
from back potencies by pharmacies who are i. Provided that the manufacturer has been
already licensed to sell homoeopathic medicines issued Form 20 C.
by retail, shall be granted in Form 25-C. ii. The licensee shall ensure to the
85-E. Conditions for the grant or renewal satisfaction of the licensing authority that
of a licence in Form 25-C — Before a licence the products manufactured by it conform
in Form 25-C is granted or renewed, the to the claims made on the label.
following conditions shall be complied with by 85-F. Duration of licence—An original
the applicant: licence or a renewal of a licence, unless it is
• The manufacture of homoeopathic sooner suspended or cancelled, shall be valid
medicines shall be conducted under the upto the 31st December of the year following
direction and supervision of a competent the year in which it is granted or renewed:
technical staff consisting at least of one Provided that if application for the renewal
person who is a whole time employee and of a licence in force is made before its expiry, or
who has at least five years experience in the if the application is made and the additional fee
manufacture of homoeopathic medicines. paid within one month of its expiry, the licence
• The factory premises shall be clean and the shall continue to be in force until orders are
manufacture shall be carried out under passed on the application. The licence shall be
hygienic conditions. deemed to have expired if application for its
• The applicant for manufacture of renewal is not made within one month after its
homoeopathic mother tinctures shall either: expiry.
i. Provide and maintain an adequate staff, 85-G. Certificate of renewal —The
premises and laboratory equipment for certificate of renewal of a licence in Form 25-C
identifying the raw materials and for shall be issued in Form 26-C.
testing the mother tinctures wherever 85-H. Conditions of licensee—A licensee
possible, or in Form 25-C, shall be subject to the conditions
ii. Make arrangements with some institution stated therein and to the following further
approved by the Licensing Authority for conditions, namely:
tests, wherever possible to be regularly • The licensee shall provide and maintain staff
carried out on his behalf by that and premises as specified in rule 85-E.
institution.
• The licensee shall allow an Inspector,
• The premises where homoeopathic authorised by the Licensing Authority in
medicines are manufactured shall be distinct their behalf to enter, with or without prior
and separate from the premises used for notice, any premises where the manufacture
residential purposes. of a homoeopathic medicine in respect of
• Homoeopathic medicines shall not be which the licence is issued, is carried on, to
manufactured simultaneously with drugs inspect the premises and to take samples of
pertaining to other systems of medicine. the manufactured homoeopathic medicines.
• The applicant shall make arrangements for • The licensee shall allow an Inspector to
inspect all registers and records maintained licensee an opportunity to show cause why
under these rules and shall apply to the such an order should not be passed, by an
Inspector such information as he may require order in writing stating the reasons thereof
by the purpose of ascertaining whether the cancel a licence issued under this part or
provisions of the Act and the rules made suspend it for such period as he thinks fit,
thereunder have been observed. either wholly or in respect of some of the
• The licensee shall maintain an Inspection substances to which it relates, if, in his
Book in Form-35 to enable an Inspector to opinion, the licensee has failed to comply
record his impression and defects noticed. with any of the conditions of the licence or
with any provisions of the Act or rules made
• The licensee shall comply with the following
thereunder.
conditions in respect of mother tinctures
manufactured by him: • A licensee whose licence has been suspended
− The crude drugs used in the manufacture
or cancelled may appeal to the State
of the mother tinctures shall be identified Government whose decisions shall be final.
and records of such identification shall
be kept. PART IX-A—LABELLING AND
− The total solids in the mother tincture
PACKING OF HOMOEOPATHIC
shall be determined and records of such MEDICINES
tests shall be kept. 106-A—Manner of labelling homoeo-
− The alcohol content in the mother tincture pathic medicines
shall be determined and records of the A. The following particulars shall be either
same shall be maintained. printed or written in indelible ink and shall
− The containers of mother tinctures shall appear in a conspicuous manner on the label
preferably be of glass and shall be clean or the innermost container of any
and free from any sort of impurities or homoeopathic medicine and on every other
adhering matter. The glass shall be neutral covering in which container is packed:
as far as possible. • The words ‘Homoeopathic Medicine’.
− In the process of manufacture of mother • The name of the medicine.
tinctures, hygienic conditions shall be − For drugs included in the homoeopathic
scrupulously observed by the licensee. pharmacopoeias of the United States or
Storage handling conditions shall also be the United Kingdom, the name specified
properly observed by the licensee in that pharmacopoeia is printed.
according to homoeopathic principle. − For other drugs, the name descriptive of
− Records shall be maintained of the nature of the drug is printed.
homoeopathic medicines containing • The potency of the homoeopathic medicine.
alcohol and the quantities sold together For this purpose the potency shall be
with names and addresses of parties to expressed either in decimal, centesimal or
whom sold. millesimal system.
85-1. Cancellation and suspension of • Name and address of the manufacturer when
licences— sold in original containers of the
• The licensing authority may, after giving the manufacturer—in case of a homoeopathic
medicine is sold in a container other than medicines therefrom viz., coca or erythroxylon
that of the manufacturer—the name and coca, cocaine, Cocainum muriaticum, etc.,
address of the seller. Cannabis indica and C. sativa, charas, etc.; opium
• In case the homoeopathic medicine contains and its alkaloids, salts or derivatives etc., e.g.,
alcohol, the alcohol content in percentage Codeinum, Cryptopinum, Narceinum,
by volume in terms of ethyl alcohol shall be Narcotinum etc, etc.
stated on the label. The Drugs and Magic Remedies
Provided in case the total quantity of the (Objectionable Advertisement) Act, 1954 and
homoeopathic medicine in the container is 30 the Rules, 1955
millilitre of less it will not be necessary to state Thereunder, with all their amendments, make
the content of alcohol on the label. provisions to control the advertisement of drugs
B. In addition to the above particulars, the label in certain cases, to prohibit the advertisement for
of a homoeopathic mother tincture shall certain purposes of remedies alleged to possess
display the following particulars: magic qualities. They intend to prohibit the
• A distinctive batch number, that is to say, practice of misleading advertisements and
the number by reference to which details extravagant claims including any notice, circular,
of manufacture of the particular batch label, wrapper or other documents made orally
from which the substance in the container or through any other medium of advertisement,
is taken are recorded and available for relating to certain drugs, numbering 54
inspection, the figures representing the (contained in the Schedule) viz., appendicitis,
batch number being preceded by the blindness, deafness, diabetes, dropsy, female
words ‘Batch No.’ or ‘Batch’ or ‘Lot disease (in general), heart diseases, high or low
Number’ or ‘Lot No.’ or ‘Lot’ or any blood pressure, hydrocele, insanity, leprosy,
distinguishing prefix. leucoderma, nervous debility, rheumatism,
sexual impotence, trachoma, etc., etc.
• Manufacturing licence number, the
number being preceded by the words The Poison Act, 1919 is in Vogue
‘Manufacturing Licence Number’ or Repealing the Poisons Act, 1904
‘Mfg. Lic. No., or “M.L”. “to consolidate ............ the law regulating
C. No homoeopathic medicine containing a the importation, possession and sale of poisons”.
single ingredient shall bear a proprietary The poisons cover not only white arsenic, but
name on its label. any poison, specified in notifications, etc. and,
‘The State Government may by rule regulate the
The Dangerous Drugs Act 1930; The
possession for sale and the sale, whether
Central Manufactured Drugs Rule 1962; The
wholesale or retail of any specified poison.’
Dangerous Drugs (Import-Export and
Transhipment) Rules 1957; The Central The Medicinal and Toilet Preparations
Opium Rules 1934 (Excise Duty) Act 1955
They make provisions and govern the And rules thereunder, with subsequent
preparation, collection, sale, import and export amendments up-to-date are in vogue ‘to provide
of all dangerous drugs; and their derivatives or for the levy and collection of duties of excise on
salts, etc. The dangerous drugs include coca leaf, medicinal and toilet preparations containing
hemp and opium, and all manufactured drugs or alcohol, opium, Indian hemp or other narcotic
drugs or narcotics’. modification of the maximum and retail selling

In the preparations of homoeopathic mother prices, calculations of prices of formulations and
tinctures and attenuations, alcohol is largely used. new formulations and trade commissions etc. The
Opium and other narcotics like Cannabis indica, respective retail prices must be displayed on the
Cannabis sativa, Codeinum, etc. are also used. label of containers and the price list must be
displayed at the place of business.
In order to get the requisite excise permit
(or licence) for procurement of alcohol intended If there be any change in the selling prices
for preparing mother tinctures or attenuations, those can be affected only by having prior
one will have to apply to the local Excise approval of the Central Government. But under
Authority of the relevant state in the prescribed a subsequent amendment to this order for the
form AL-1 or AL-2, as the case may be. These change in the prices, the prior approval of the
forms will have to be filled in with the requisite Central Government will not be necessary for
fees and the plan of the premises in duplicate the drugs or medicines covered by the latest
along with the respective drug licence (which edition of the Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeias of
will have to be procured from the local Drug the U.S.A, U.K., Germany and India and not
Control Authority of the state). After completion having a specific brand name.
of all excise formalities and the same authority
being satisfied, an excise permit will be issued FOR PROFESSION OR
with the annual quota and the amount of alcohol PRACTICE OF HOMOEOPATHY
to be issued at a time; along with the name and The requisite law for the practitioner is to
place of the respective dealer of alcohol, from obtain the professional licences to practice, from
where it is to be collected. The requisite excise the State Academic Council and from the local
duty will be mentioned on the permit, which at self bodies of the Government, for which
present, i.e., 1984, is at the rate of Rs. 13-20 on purposes one has to undergo:
pure alcohol content for all homoeopathic a. A specific course and curriculum under
preparations. an authorised body.
Drugs (Price Control) Order 1970 and the b. To approach the Municipal bodies under
Relevant Amendments proper fee in a specific form.
Thereupon make provisions, so that drugs Above all, there are some ethical rules
and medicines be sold at fair prices. They intend framed by authorised agency as an ethical code
to fix some norms for fixation, approval and of the particular profession.
■
547
10-2
Conduct and Etiquette
The word ‘doctor’ is derived from the Latin (Professional Conduct, Etiquette and Code of
word ‘doccre’ which means ‘to teach’ since the Ethics) Regulations, 1982.
doctor has the function of instructing the patient
Declaration and Oath
and his relatives regarding the treatment.
Medicine, as a profession, is an art with a At the time of registration, each applicant
philosophy. It has some norms of conduct termed shall submit the following declaration and oath
‘ethics’. Ethics deal with the principles of read and signed by him to the Registrar
morality. The ethics have been laid down to be concerned, attested by the Registrar himself or
followed by the students and practitioners so as by a registered practitioner of homoeopathy :
to command veneration from the public and to • I solemnly pledge myself to consecrate my
prevent misuse of the medical knowledge and life to the service of humanity.
exploitation of the society. • Even under threat, I will not use my medical
knowledge contrary to the laws of humanity.
PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT, • I will maintain the utmost respect for human
ETIQUETTE AND CODE OF life.
ETHICS • I will not permit considerations of religion,
nationality, race, political beliefs or social
REGULATIONS standing to intervene between my duty and
my patient.
In exercise of the powers conferred by clause
• I will practice my profession with conscience
(I) of section 33 read with section 24 of the
and dignity in accordance with the principles
Homoeopathy Central Council Act, 1973 (59 of
of homoeopathy and/or in accordance with
1973), the Central Council of Homoeopathy, with
the principles of biochemic system of
the previous sanction of the Central Government,
medicine (tissue remedies).
makes the regulations. These regulations may be
• The health of my patient shall be my first
called the Homoeopathic Practitioners
consideration.
• I will respect the secrets which are confided morals, and every practitioner of homoeopathy
to me. owes to the profession and to the public alike a
• I will give to my teachers the respect and duty to attain such a level. It shall be incumbent
gratitude which is their due. on a practitioner of homoeopathy to be temperate
in all matters, for the practice of medicine
• I will maintain by all means in my power
requires unremitting exercise of a clear and
the honour and noble traditions of medical
vigorous mind.
profession.
• My colleagues will be my brothers and Practitioner’s Responsibility
sisters. A practitioner of homoeopathy shall merit
• I make these promises solemnly, freely and the confidence of patients entrusted to his care,
upon my honour. rendering to each full measure of service and
devotion. The honored ideals of the medical
Hahnemannian Oath
profession imply that the responsibilities of a
“On my honour I swear that I shall practise practitioner of homoeopathy extend not only to
the teachings of homoeopathy, perform my duty, individuals but also to the entire society.
render justice to my patients and help the sick
whosoever comes to me for treatment. Advertising
May the teachings of master Hahnemann 1. Solicitation of patients directly or indirectly
inspire me and may I have the strength for by a practitioner of homoeopathy either
fulfillment of my mission.” personally or by advertisement in the
newspapers, by placards or by the
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
distribution of circular cards or handbills is
unethical. A practitioner of homoeopathy
Character of Medical Practitioner shall not make use of, or permit others to
The primary object of the medical profession make use of him or his name as a subject of
is to render service to humanity with full respect any form or manner of advertising or
for the dignity of man; financial reward is a publicity through lay channels which shall
subordinate consideration. Whosoever chooses be of such a character as to invite attention
this profession assumes the obligation to conduct to him or to his professional position or skill
himself in accordance with its ideals. A or as would ordinarily result in his self-
practitioner of homoeopathy shall be an upright aggrandizement provided that a practitioner
man, instructed in the art of healing. He shall of homoeopathy is permitted formal
keep himself pure in character and be diligent in announcement in press about the following
caring for the sick. He shall be modest, sober, matters, namely:
patient and prompt and do his duty without i. The starting of his practice.
anxiety, and shall be pious and conduct himself ii. Change of the type of practice.
with propriety in his profession and in all the
iii. Change of address.
actions of his life.
iv. Temporary absence from duty.
Standards of Character and Morals v. Resumption of practice.
The medical profession expects from its vi. Succeeding to another’s practice.
members the highest level of character and
Conduct and Etiquette 549
2. He shall further not advertise himself directly DUTIES OF HOMOEOPATHIC

or indirectly through price lists or publicity PRACTITIONERS TO THEIR
materials of manufacturing firms or traders PATIENTS
with whom he may be connected in any
capacity, nor shall he publish cases, Obligations to the Sick
operations or letters of thanks from patients Though a practitioner of homoeopathy is not
in non-professional newspapers or journals bound to treat each and everyone asking for his
provided it shall be permissible for him to services except in emergencies, he shall, for the
publish his name in connection with a sake of humanity and the noble traditions of the
prospectus or a director’s or a technical profession, not only be ever ready to respond to
expert’s report. the calls of the sick and the injured, but shall be
mindful of the high character of his mission and
Payment of Professional Service the responsibility he incurs in the discharge of
• A practitioner of homoeopathy engaged in his professional duties.
the practice of medicine shall limit the
sources of his income to fees received from Patient Not to be Neglected
professional activities for services rendered • A practitioner of homoeopathy is free to
to the patient. Remuneration received for choose whom he will serve provided he shall
such services shall be in the form and amount respond to any request for his assistance in
specifically announced to the patient at the an emergency or whenever temperate public
time the service is rendered; in all other cases opinion expects the service.
“he shall deem it a point of honour to adhere • Once having undertaken a case, a practitioner
to the compensation for professional services of homoeopathy shall not neglect the patient
prevailing in the community in which he nor shall he withdraw from the case without
practices. giving notice to the patient, his relatives or
• Fees are reducible at the discretion of the his responsible friends sufficiently long in
practitioner of homoeopathy and he shall advance of his withdrawal to allow them time
always recognise poverty as presenting valid to secure another practitioner.
claims for gratuitous services.
Termination of Service
• It shall be unethical to enter into a contract
• The following shall be valid reasons for his
of “no cure no payment”.
withdrawal:
Rebates and Commission − Where he finds another practitioner in
A practitioner of homoeopathy shall not give, attendance.
solicit or receive, nor shall he offer to give, solicit − Where remedies other than those
or receive, any gift, gratuity, commission; or prescribed by him are being used.
bonus in consideration for the referring, − Where his remedies and instructions are
recommending or procuring of any patient for refused.
medical, surgical or other treatment nor shall he − Where he is convinced that illness is an
receive any commission or other benefit from a imposture and that he is being made a
professional colleague, trader of appliances, party to a false pretence.
dentist or an oculist.
− Where the patient persists in the use of making his visits at the hour indicated to the
opium, alcohol, chloral or similar patients.
intoxicating drugs against medical advice.
Prognosis
− Where complete information concerning
the facts and circumstances of the case • The practitioner of homoeopathy shall
are not supplied by the patient or his neither exaggerate nor minimize the gravity
relatives. of a patient’s condition. He shall ensure that
the patient, his relatives or responsible
• The discovery that the malady is incurable
friends have such knowledge of the patient’s
is no excuse to discontinue attendance so
condition as will serve the best interest of
long as the patient desired his services.
the patient and his family.
Acts of Negligence • In cases of dangerous manifestations, he
• No practitioner of homoeopathy shall shall not fail to give timely notice to the
wilfully commit an act of negligence that family or friends of the patient and also to
may deprive his patient of necessary medical the patient when necessary.
care.
Patience, Delicacy and Secrecy
• A practitioner of homoeopathy is expected
Patience and delicacy shall characterize the
to render that diligence and skill in services
attitude of a practitioner of homoeopathy.
as would be expected of another practitioner
Confidences concerning individual or domestic
of homoeopathy with similar qualifications,
life entrusted by patients to a practitioner and
experience and attainments.
defects in the disposition or character of patients
• His acts of commission or omission shall not observed during the medical attendance shall not
be judged by any non-homoeopathic be revealed by him to anyone unless their
standards of professional service expected revelation is required by the laws of the State.
of him but by those standards as are expected
from a homoeopath of his training, standing DUTIES OF PRACTITIONERS TO
and experience.
THE PROFESSION
• A practitioner of homoeopathy shall use any
drug prepared according to homoeopathic Upholding Honor of Profession
principles and adopt other necessary A practitioner of homoeopathy shall, at all
measures as required. times, uphold the dignity and honour of this
profession.
Behavior Towards Patients
The demeanor of a practitioner of Membership of Medical Society
homoeopathy towards his patients shall always For the advancement of his profession, a
be courteous, sympathetic, friendly and helpful. practitioner of homoeopathy may affiliate
Every patient shall be treated with attention and himself with Medical Societies and contribute
consideration. his time, energy and means to their progress so
that they may better represent and promote the
Visits
ideals of the profession.
A practitioner of homoeopathy shall
endeavor to add to the comfort of the sick by
Exposure of Unethical Conduct travelling and other incidental expenses.

A practitioner of homoeopathy shall expose, • The practitioner of homoeopathy called in
without fear or favor, the incompetent, corrupt, an emergency to visit a patient under the care
dishonest or unethical conduct, on the part of of another practitioner or homoeopathy shall,
any member of the profession. when the emergency is over, retire in favor
of the latter but he shall be entitled to charge
Association with Unregistered Persons
the patient for his services.
A practitioner of homoeopathy shall not − When a practitioner of homoeopathy is
associate himself professionally; with anybody consulted at his own residence, it is not
or society of unregistered practitioners of necessary for him to enquire of the patient
homoeopathy. if he is under the care of another
Appointment of Substitutes practitioner of homoeopathy.
Whenever a practitioner of homoeopathy − When a consulting practitioner of
requests another to attend to his patients during homoeopathy sees a patient at the request
his temporary absence from practice, of another practitioner of homoeopathy,
professional courtesy requires the acceptance of it shall be his duty to write a letter stating
such appointment by the latter, if it is consistent his opinion of the case with the mode of
with his other duties. The practitioner of treatment he thinks is required to be
homoeopathy acting under such an appointment adopted.
shall give the utmost consideration to the interests Engagement for an Obstetric Case
and reputation of the absent practitioner. He shall
• If a practitioner of homoeopathy is engaged
not charge either the patient or the absent
to attend to a woman during her confinement,
practitioner of homoeopathy for his services,
he shall do so. Refusal to do so on an excuse
except in the case of a special arrangement
of any other engagement shall not be
between them. All such patients shall be restored
considered ethical except then he is already
to the care of the absent practitioner of
engaged on a similar or other serious case.
homoeopathy upon his return.
• When a practitioner of homoeopathy who
Charges for Service to Practitioners of has been engaged to attend on an obstetrics,
Homoeopathy case is absent and another is sent for and
• There is no rule that a practitioner of delivery is accomplished, the acting
homoeopathy shall not charge another practitioner of homoeopathy shall be entitled
practitioner of homoeopathy for his services, to his professional fees; provided he shall
but a practitioner of homoeopathy shall secure the patient’s consent to withdraw on
consider it a pleasure and privilege to render the arrival of the practitioner of
gratuitous service to his professional brother homoeopathy already engaged.
and his dependents, if they are in his vicinity When it becomes the duty of a practitioner
or to a medical student. of homoeopathy occupying an official position
• When a practitioner of homoeopathy is to see and report upon an illness or injury, he
called from a distance to attend or advise shall communicate to the practitioner of
another practitioner of homoeopathy or his homoeopathy in attendance so as to give him an
dependents reimbursement shall be made for option of being present. The medical officer shall
avoid remarks upon the diagnosis or the treatment Conduct in Consultation

that has been adopted. • In consultations, there shall be no place for
insincerity, rivalry or envy. All due respect
DUTIES OF PRACTITIONERS IN shall be shown to the practitioner of
CONSULTATION homoeopathy in charge of case and no
statement or remarks shall be made which
Consultation Shall be Encouraged
would impair the confidence reposed in him
In cases of serious illness, especially in by the patient. For this purpose, no
doubtful, or difficult conditions, the practitioner discussion shall be carried on in the presence
of homoeopathy shall request consultation. He of the patient or his representatives.
shall also do so in perplexing illness, in
• All statements of the case to the patient or
therapeutic abortions, in the treatment of a
his representatives shall take place in the
woman who had procured criminal abortion, in
presence of all the practitioners consulting,
suspected cases of poisoning, or when desired
except as otherwise agreed; the
by the patient or his representative.
announcement of the opinion to the patient
Punctuality in Consultation or his relations or friends shall rest with the
Utmost punctuality shall be observed by a attending practitioner of homoeopathy.
practitioner of homoeopathy in meeting for • Differences of opinion shall not be divulged
consultation. If the consultant practitioner of unnecessarily; provided when there is an
homoeopathy does not arrive within a reasonable irreconcilable difference of opinion, the
time such as a quarter of an hour after the circumstances shall be frankly and
appointed time, the first practitioner of impartially explained to the patient or his
homoeopathy shall be at liberty to see the patient friends.
alone provided he shall leave his conclusion in • It shall be open to them to seek further advice
writing in a closed envelope. if they so desire.
Patient Referred to Another Physician Cessation of Consultation
When a patient is referred to another Attendance of the consulting practitioner of
practitioner of homoeopathy by the attending homoeopathy shall cease when the consultation
practitioner of homoeopathy, a statement of the is concluded, unless another appointment is
case shall be given to the latter practitioner of arranged by the attending practitioner of
homoeopathy. The latter practitioner of homoeopathy.
homoeopathy shall communicate his opinion in
writing in a closed cover direct to the attending Treatment After Consultation
practitioner of homoeopathy. • No decision shall restrain the attending
practitioner of homoeopathy from making
Consultation for Patient’s Benefit such subsequent variations in the treatment
In every consultation, the benefit to the as any unexpected change may require;
patient shall be of first importance. All provided at the next consultation, reasons for
practitioners of homoeopathy interested in the variation are stated.
case shall be candid with a member of the • The same privilege, with its obligations,
patient’s family or responsible friends. belongs to the consultant when sent for in
an emergency during the absence of the practitioners shall notify the constituted public
attending practitioner of homoeopathy. The health authorities of every case of communicable
attending practitioner of homoeopathy may disease under their care, in accordance with the
prescribe at any time for the patient, but the laws, rules and regulations of the health
consultant, only in case of emergency. authorities. When an epidemic prevails, the
practitioner of Homoeopathy shall continue his
Consultant Not to Take Charge of the Case
labours without regard to the risk to his own
• When a practitioner of homoeopathy has health.
been called as a consultant none but the rarest
and most exceptional consultant taking Dispensing
charge of the case. A practitioner of homoeopathy has a right to
• He must not do so merely on the solicitation prepare and dispense his own prescription.
of the patient or his friends.
PROFESSIONAL MISCONDUCT
Bar Against Consulting a Non-registered
Practitioner The following actions shall constitute
professional misconduct:
No practitioner of homoeopathy shall have
consultation with practitioner of homoeopathy • Committing adultery or improper conduct
who is not registered. with a patient, or maintaining an improper
association with a patient.
DUTIES OF PRACTITIONERS TO • Conviction by a Court of Law for offences
THE PUBLIC involving moral turpitude.
• Signing of or giving by any practitioner of
Practitioners as Citizens homoeopathy under his name and authority
Practitioners of homoeopathy as good any certificate, report or document of kindred
citizens, possessed of special training, shall character which is untrue, misleading or
advise concerning the health of the community improper.
wherein they dwell. They shall play their part in • Contravention of the provisions of laws
enforcing the laws of the community and in relating to drugs and regulations made
sustaining the institutions that advance the thereunder.
interest of humanity. They shall cooperate with
• Selling a drug or poison regulated by law to
the authorities in the observance and enforcement
the public or his patients save as provided
of sanitary laws and regulations and shall observe
by that law.
the provisions of all laws relating to Drugs,
Poisons and Pharmacy made for the protection • Performing or enabling an unqualified
and promotion of public health. person to perform an abortion or any illegal
operation for which there is no medical
Public Health surgical or psychological indication.
Practitioners of homoeopathy engaged in • Issue of certificates in homoeopathy to
public health work, shall enlighten the public unqualified or non-medical persons provided
concerning quarantine regulations and measures that this shall not apply so as to restrict the
for the prevention of epidemic and proper training and instruction of legitimate
communicable diseases. At all times the employees of doctors, midwives, dispensers,
surgical attendants or skilled mechanical and CENTRAL REGISTER OF

technical assistants under the personal HOMOEOPATHY
supervision of practitioners of homoeopathy. Under the provisions of Homoeopathy
• Affixing a signboard on a chemist’s shop or Central Council Act 1973, the Central Council
in places where the practitioner of has the responsibility to maintain the Central
homoeopathy does not reside or work. Register of homoeopathy in Part I and Part II.
• Disclosing the secrets of a patient that have Part I contains the name of all persons who posses
been learnt in the exercise of profession, any of the recognised medicinal qualification in
except in a Court of Law under orders of the homoeopathy. Part II contains the names of all
presiding judge. persons other than those included in Part I who
• Publishing photographs or case-reports of were enrolled on any State Register of
patients in any medical or other journal in a homoeopathy before the commencement of the
manner by which their identity could be provisions of the homoeopathy Central Council
made out without their permission, provided Act 1973.
that if the identity of patients is not disclosed, A number of technicalities have been
their consent is not necessary. fulfilled and regulations have been framed viz.,
• Public exhibition of the scale of fees Homoeopathy Central Council (Registration)
provided that the same may be displayed in Regulations, 1982 (amended in 1994).
the physician’s consulting or waiting room. The Central Register of homoeopathy in Part
• Using of touts or agents for procuring I and Part II containing the names of practitioners
patients. has been published in the official gazette on 2nd
• Claiming to be a specialist without having January, 1993 and 6th January 1996. The Central
put on substantial number of years of study Council is continuing the work to prepare the
and experience in the subject concerned or next supplement of Central Register of
without possessing a special qualification in Homoeopathy. The Central Council continue to
the branch concerned. register practitioners of Homoeopathy directly
too Part I who possess recognised qualification.
■
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Section - 11
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DEVELOPMENT, SCOPE AND RESEARCH
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11.1 Scope of Homoeopathic Pharmacy.
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11.2 Development of Homoeopathy in the Country.
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If you are planning for a year sow rice,
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If your are planning for a decade plant trees,
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If you are planning for a life time educate.
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11-1
Scope of Homoeopathic Pharmacy
It is seen that a homoeopathic practitioner care delivery systems in the national programs.
takes upon himself multiple roles: That of a To become partners in attaining ‘Health for
physician, a pharmacist, a botanist, a zoologist, All’, a systematic approach is needed in various
a scientist, to mention a few. This practice has dimensions. This chapter deals in brief with
made him ‘The Jack of All Trades, Master of scope in various fields of health.
None’ and has severely crippled the development
of homoeopathic pharmacy. Homoeopathic
pharmacy remains vastly unexplored. It presents STANDARDISATION OF HEALTH
immense scope in social, economic and academic SERVICES
pursuits. In post-independent India, the There is a significant gap between the health
government recognised the merit of status of developed and developing regions of
homoeopathy and made attempts to develop it the world. While the infant mortality rate (IMR)
into a viable system of medicine. It was clubbed in India in 2001-02 was 70 per 1000, it is
together with Indian System of Medicine negligible in developed countries. This glaring
(ayurveda, siddha and unani) and was established difference is due to many socio-economic factors.
as Indian Systems of Medicine and Homoeopathy According to WHO, World Health Report 1998,
(ISM & H). It is now increasingly felt that the GNP (per capita) is 1240 US$ in developed
foal of the World Health Organisation of “Health countries. Similarly, per capita public
For All” cannot be achieved through allopathic expenditure on heath in % of GDP (1995) is 1.8
system alone and that there is need to involve in developing countries, whereas 6.3 in
ISM & H practitioners in the national main developed countries.
stream for achieving this goal. For the first time,
While accurate statistical data are difficult
a separate National Policy on Indian Systems of
to obtain, it becomes sufficiently clear that in a
Medicine and Homoeopathy 2002 was
country like India (which houses 16.7 % of
formulated. The basic objectives of the policy
world’s population and where 26.10% of the
are to promote good health, expand the outreach
people live below the poverty line), health service
and to ensure affordable ISM & H services to
delivery is an onerous task.
the people as also to integrate ISM & H in health
SCOPE A proper integration will help in quicker and

Advantage of homoeopathic pharmacy is its sustained improvement in the health index of the
comprehensiveness, affordability and feasibility country.
which makes it accessible to people of all status.
STANDARDISATION OF
It is comprehensive because there is an
EDUCATION
optimum mix of preventive, curative, promotive
and palliative services. In developing countries Central Council for Homoeopathy (CCH)
which fall prey to communicable diseases was setup under the Acts of Parliament, to
frequently, preventive services at primary health prescribe course curricula, evolve and maintain
care level will help in a significant reduction of standards of education and maintain central
morbidity and mortality rates. There are National registers for practitioners of homoeopathy. Their
Health Programs for malaria, T.B., leprosy, etc. main responsibility is to regulate education and
Homoeopathic services should be integrated with practice of homoeopathy. In order to maintain
these national programmes. stringent standards, Central Council’s Acts has
To tackle the problem of increase in non- been amended to allow the Central Government
communicable diseases like cardio-vascular to take over the powers to grant permission for
ailments, cataract induced blindness, diabetes, opening of new colleges, starting of new or
etc., homoeopathy can provide curative services higher courses of ISM & H education and
at a secondary health care level. Research increase of admission capacity .
activities can be undertaken by integrating with
SCOPE
National AIDS Control Program. Homoeopathy
has much to offer in mental diseases. Therefore, The above mentioned developments should
studies and research must be conducted by be emulated in the field of pharmacy education.
associating with the National Mental Health Serious consideration should be given for
Program and the District Mental Health Program. establishing an independent council for
Similarly, curative and palliative treatment can regulating pharmacy education in homoeopathy.
be given in cancer patients also. A Homoeopathic Pharmacy Council of India
Homoeopathy is based on the law ‘Similia should be constituted. It should be responsible
Similibus Curenter’, which makes its application for regulation and maintenance of uniform
easy in any outbreak of new infections. standards of training of pharmacists. It should
also prescribe syllabi and regulations for degree
Homoeopathic medicines are affordable as
courses in homoeopathic pharmacy and
the cost of health care will be within the means
registration of pharmacists.
of the individual and the state.
Homoeopathic pharmaceuticals are feasible Postgraduate and specialisation studies
even in most backward areas as its operational should be standardised to promote excellence in
efficiency is high and material resource is cheap. the field of medical education.
Other areas which need to be explored and
which provides immense scope are fields of
STANDARDISATION OF DRUGS
reproductive and child health care, maternal Pharmacopoeia Committee of Homoeopathy,
health care, family planning programmes, set up by the government is engaged in evolving
emergency medicine and sports medicine. standards for drugs. The Homoeopathic
Scope of Homoeopathic Pharmacy 559
Pharmacopoeia Committee has evolved manufacturing procedures cannot be compro-

standards for 916 drugs contained in eight mised at any stage. If compromised, it will
volumes. The first volume of Homoeopathic invariably expose the drug potential to
Pharmaceutical Codex having additional irreversible damage. Therefore, scrupulous
information on homoeopathic drugs is under practice in all stages of medicinal manufacturing
print. Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Laboratory is paramount.
located at Ghaziabad, U.P., provides the technical Even now, genuineness of drugs only upto
support to the Pharmacopoeia Committee. A potency 3X can be ascertained. A research
scheme for strengthening of drug—testing programme should be started wherein assistance
laboratories and drug manufacturing units of the is provided to accredited and reputed research
states /UT governments has been implemented of scientists to device instruments to help in
for ensuring quality and genuineness of raw solving this problem.
materials and production of quality medicine. An Pharmaceutical companies must be made to
enabling provision for recognising private Drug comply with good manufacturing practices
Testing Laboratories to augment testing facilities (G.M.P.) and specific Organisational Procedure
for drugs of ISM & H has been made in the Drug (S.O.P.). (There is a practice of using alkaloids
and Cosmetics Rules, 1945. An amendment in instead of fresh plant substances in certain
the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945 has been pharmaceutical companies.) Medicinal products
made for the purpose of inclusion of 49 should be labelled specifying the source (alkaloid
homoeopathic medicines which are very or fresh drug substances).
frequently used for the treatment of common
With determination and hardwork from all
ailments, to be sold through all the licensed
of us, we can achieve a lot.
pharmacies of allopathy and homoeopathy in the
country.
HOW THE KNOWLEDGE OF
A central scheme has been implemented PHARMACY HELPS TO
under which 33 institutes of agriculture, INCREASE THE KNOWLEDGE
horticulture and forestry are working on project OF MATERIA MEDICA
basis for development of agro-techniques of
important medicinal plants used in ISM & H From the study of pharmacy, we gather
drugs. The government has constituted a National knowledge of the different arts or science as
Medicinal Plants Board for regulating medicinal follows:
plants sector and to coordinate the related
A. KNOWLEDGE OF DRUG PROVING
activities like conservation and cultivation,
AND THEIR DIFFERENT SYMPTO-
demand and supply, marketing and export,
MATOLOGY
quality control, standardisation, etc., in respect
of medicinal plants. The board is supporting a This is the most important part of
project on large scale cultivation of commercially homoeopathy. Efficacy of homoeopathy can only
important medicinal plants. be proclaimed if the latent curative power of the
drug is well understood. Drug proving is an
SCOPE integral part of homoeopathic pharmacy.
Different observations and symptoms so
As minuteness is homoeopathy’s strength,
observed and collected from the drug provings
purity and genuineness of drug substances and
on healthy humans increase the correct A materia medica may be defined not only
knowledge of the materia medica that means the by the symptoms or the language of the drugs
latent curative power of the drug and the effects but also by its origin, composition, preparations
of the drug in general, susceptible and and its physical, chemical and biological
idiocyncratic persons. This improves the characters, and without the knowledge of
knowledge of applied materia medica with pharmacy, this part of the materia medica will
greater efficiency to have the ideal cure which not become a complete one.
should be strictly according to the rules of The respective relation between the source
Organon of Medicine. of a drug and drug symptoms is known as the
Knowledge of pharmacy not only improves ‘Doctrine of Signature’. For example:
the knowledge of materia medica but helps to i. The Belladonna plant grows in a soil rich in
have a deep impression in the physician’s mind calcium carbonate. It has been observed that
with greater and perfect ability in respect of Calcarea carbonica (derived from the natu-
practical pharmacology which is a part of the ral sources calcium carbonate by
practical aspect of the materia medica. Hahnemann) complements the action of
Belladonna very well.
B. KNOWLEDGE OF THE SOURCES
OF DRUGS ii. Bryonia alba is prepared from the root. The
root is fleshy, the edges of the root are yel-
With some exceptions, medicines prepared
lowish-white in color, and rough; it tastes
from the drugs of vegetable kingdom are short-
acidic and bitter; odor is nauseating. A Bryo-
acting in nature. In acute forms of diseases, short-
nia patient is also to some extent fleshy; with
acting remedies work very well. Medicines or
a tongue coated yellowish-white; with a
remedies prepared from the nosodes and from
rough irritating temperament; possessing a
many drugs of the animal kingdom are deep-
bitter taste in mouth and if there be any dis-
acting or long-acting whose efficacies are seen
charge, it is bitter.
in chronic diseases.
Medicines or remedies derived from the iii. Lachesis is prepared from the poison of the
drugs of the same family (of any sources, e.g. extremely poisonous snake Surukuku of
vegetable, animal or mineral) have some South America. The snake remains in a
similarity in their actions by producing generic curled position during winter and wakes up
symptoms. For example, all snake venoms of the in spring. It stretches out all-time its trem-
same family of ophiotoxin e.g., Elaps, Crotalus bling tongue all the time and passes an ex-
horridus, Lachesis, Naja, etc. possess some tremely offensive black stool. All these re-
similarity in many of their actions, but they do main in the symptoms of Lachesis.
not follow each other fully in their peculiarities. As such, it can be inferred that the sources
In case of mineral kingdom, the members of the of drugs help to some degree in the knowledge
halogen group, i.e. Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, of materia medica.
Iodine have resemblance in many of their actions, Therefore it is obvious that the knowledge
and also their respective salts have much of pharmacy supplements the knowledge of
similarity of action between them. materia medica.
C. MODES OF COLLECTION OF abbreviations. Knowledge of vehicles for

VARIOUS DRUG SUBSTANCES particular medicines is different. This part of the
AND THEIR METHODS OF knowledge of pharmacy is directly related to
PRESERVATION practical part of the materia medica. 3X or mother
Effects of medicine depends if the drug tinctures are preferably to be used in liquid
substances are properly collected from the (distilled water) vehicles.
different parts, time, season and preserved as per
directions of the homoeopathic pharmacology. F. THE DOCTRINE OF DOSES OR
THE POSOLOGY
Different bio-metrological conditions make
variations in the essential elements of the drug It bears a speciality in homoeopathy. It is not
substance, which has made the pharmacologist the amount or quantity but potency is also a
to reprove the drugs in different bio-metrological factor under homoeopathic posology. In the
conditions. The knowledge of pharmacology absence of proper knowledge of homoeopathic
consequently the knowledge of materia medica posology, a well chosen remedy will not be able
so published in different countries help to to initiate the required amount of dynamic thrust
improve the knowledge of materia medica for a for an ideal cure and to avoid unnecessary
practitioner. medicinal aggravations.
In absence of proper acquaintancy with
D. KNOWLEDGE OF PREPARATIONS,
posology, the exact remedy can never be made
SCALES AND PRESERVATIONS
to act properly. Here also knowledge of pharmacy
Medicines or remedies are prepared from complements the knowledge of materia medica.
crude drug substances, according to the specific
homoeopathic formula and scales observed. § 264
The drug substances and the medicines The true physician must be provided with
should be properly preserved according to the genuine medicines of unimpaired strength, so that
pharmacopoeial directions, otherwise they will he may be able to rely upon their therapeutic
lose their efficacy on storing. Pharmacy is an aid powers; he must be able, himself, to judge of their
to the knowledge of different methods of genuineness.
potentisation. As such, this knowledge of
dynamisation of the three different methods as § 265
used by a homoeopathic physician is a subject
matter of pharmacy. Ideal cure depends not only It should be a matter of conscience with him
on the proper selection of remedy but the doses to be thoroughly convinced in every case that
and potency to be prescribed. This part, the patient always takes the right medicine.*
homoeopathic posology is greatly under the * Sec. § 265: The following is the addition
domain of pharmacy. in the Sixth Edition:
E. KNOWLEDGE OF PRESCRIPTIONS [‘and therefore, he must give the patient the

AND SERVING THEM correctly chosen medicine prepared moreover,
by himself.]
A physician must know how to write a
correct and proper prescription with the relevant
§ 266(a) immediately with equal parts of spirits of wine

of a strength sufficient to burn in a lamp. After
Substances belonging to the animal and
this has stood a day and a night in a close
vegetable kingdom possess their medicinal
qualities most perfectly in their raw state. [All crude stoppered bottle and deposited the fibrinous and
animal and vegetable substances have a greater or less albuminous matters, the clear superincumbent
amount of medicinal power, and are capable of altering fluid is then to be decanted off for medicinal use
man’s health, each in its own peculiar way. Those plants [Buchholz (Taschenb. f. Scheidek. u. Apoth, a.d.J., 1815,
and animals used by the most enlightened nations as Weimar, Abth. i, vi) assures his readers (and his reviewer
food have this advantage over all others, that they contain in the Leipziger Literaturzeitung, 1816, No. 82, does not
a larger amount of nutritious constituents; and they differ
contradict him) that for this excellent mode of preparing
from the others in this, that their medicinal powers in their
medicines we have to thank the campaign in Russia,
raw state are either not very great in themselves, or are
whence it was (in 1812) imported into Germany. According
diminished by the culinary processes they are subjected
to the noble practice of many Germans to be unjust
to in cooking for domestic use, by the expression of the
pernicious juice (like the cassava root of South America), towards their own countrymen, he conceals the fact that
by fermentation (of the rye-flour in the dough for making this discovery and those directions which he quotes in
bread, sour-crout prepared without vinegar and pickled my very words from the first edition of the Organon of
gherkins), by smoking and by the action of heat (in boiling, Rational Medicine, § 230 and note, proceed from me,
stewing, toasting, roasting, baking), whereby the and that I first published them to the world two years
medicinal parts of many of these substances are in part before the Russian campaign (the Organon appeared in
destroyed and dissipated. By the addition of salt (pickling) 1810). Some folks would rather assign the origin of a
and vinegar (sauces, salads) animal and vegetable discovery to the deserts of Asia than to a German to
substances certainly lose much of their injurious medicinal whom the honour belongs. O tempora! O mores!
qualities, but other disadvantages result from these
Alcohol has certainly been sometimes before this
additions.
used for mixing with vegetable juices, e.g., to preserve
But even those plants that possess most medicinal them some time before making extracts of them, but never
power lose that in part or completely by such processes. with the view of administering them in this form.].
All
By perfect desiccation all the roots of the various kinds
of iris, of the horseradish, of the different species of arum fermentation of the vegetable juice will be at once
and of the peonies lose almost all their medicinal virtue. checked by the spirits of wine mixed with it and
The juice of the most virulent plants often becomes an
rendered impossible for the future, and the entire
inert, pitch-like mass, from the heat employed in preparing
the ordinary extracts. By merely standing a long time, medicinal power of the vegetable juice is thus
the expressed juice of the most deadly plants becomes retained (perfect and uninjured) for ever by
quite powerless; even at a moderate atmospheric
keeping the preparation in well-corked bottles
temperature it rapidly takes on the vinous fermentation
(and thereby loses much of its medicinal power), and and excluded from the sun’s light [Although equal
immediately thereafter the acetous and putrid parts of alcohol and freshly expressed juice are usually
fermentation, whereby it is deprived of all its peculiar the most suitable proportion for effecting the deposition
medicinal properties; the fecula that is then deposited, if of the fibrinous and albuminous matters, yet for plants
well washed, is quite innocuous, like ordinary starch. By that contain much thick mucus (e.g., Symphytum
the transudation that takes place when a number of green officinale, Viola tricolor, etc.), or an excess of albumen
plants are laid one above the other, the greatest part of (e.g., Aethusa cynapium, Solanum nigrum, etc.), a double,
their medicinal properties is lost.]. proportion of alcohol is generally required for this object.
Plants that are very deficient in juice, as Oleander, Buxus,
§ 267 Taxus, Ledum, Sabina, etc., must first be pounded up
alone into a moist, fine mass and then stirred up with a
We gain possession of the powers of double quantity of alcohol, in order that the juice may
indigenous plants and of such as may be had in a combine with it, and being thus extracted by the alcohol,
fresh state in the most complete and certain may be pressed out; these latter may also when dried be
brought with milk- sugar to the millionfold trituration, and
manner by mixing their freshly expressed juice then be further diluted and potentized (v. § 271).].
§ 268 from the daylight (in covered boxes, chests,

cases). If not shut up in air-tight vessels, and not
The other exotic plants, barks, seeds and
preserved from the access of the light of the sun
roots that cannot be obtained in the fresh state
and day, all animal and vegetable substances in
the sensible practitioner will never take in the
time gradually lose their medicinal power more
pulverized form on trust, but will first convince
and more, even in the entire state, but still more
himself of their genuineness in their crude, entire
in the form of powder.].
state before making any medicinal employment
of them [In order to preserve them in the form of § 269
powder, a precaution is requisite that has hitherto
been usually neglected by druggists, and hence The homoeopathic system of medicine
powders even of well-dried animal and vegetable develops for its use, [‘special use’ in the Sixth
substances could not be preserved uninjured even Edition] to a hitherto unheard-of degree, the
in well- corked bottles. The entire crude spirit-like medicinal powers of the crude
vegetable substances, though perfectly dry, yet substances by means of a process peculiar to it
contain, as an indispensable condition of the and which has hitherto never been tried, whereby
cohesion of their texture, a certain quantity of only they all become [‘immeasurably and’ in the
moisture, which does not indeed prevent the Sixth Edition] penetratingly efficacious [This
footnote is added here in the Sixth Edition: (Long before
unpulverized drug from remaining in as dry a
this discovery of mine, experience had taught several
state as is requisite to preserve it from corruption, changes which could be brought about in different natural
but which is quite too much for the finely substances by means of friction, for instance, warmth,
pulverized state. The animal or vegetable heat, fire, development of odor in odorless bodies,
magnetization of steel, and so forth. But all these
substance which in its entire state was perfectly properties produced by friction were related only to
dry, furnishes therefore, when finely pulverized, physical and inanimate things, whereas it is a law of nature
a somewhat moist powder, which, without according to which physiological and pathogenic changes
take place in the body’s condition by means of forces
rapidly becoming spoilt and mouldy, can yet not capable of changing the crude material of drugs, even in
be preserved in corked bottles if not previously such as had never shown any medicinal properties. This
freed from this superfluous moisture. This is best is brought about by trituration and succussion, but under
the condition of employing an indifferent vehicle in certain
effected by spreading out the powder in a flat tin
proportions. This wonderful physical and especially
saucer with a raised edge, which floats in a vessel physiological and pathogenic law of nature had not been
full of boiling water (i.e., a water-bath), and, by discovered before my time. No wonder then, that the
means of stirring it about, drying it to such a present students of nature and physicians (so far
unknowing) cannot have faith in the magical curative
degree that all the small atoms of it (no longer powers of the minute doses of medicines prepared
stick together in lumps, but) like dry, fine sand, according to homoeopathic rules (dynamized).] and
are easily separated from each other, and are remedial, even those that in the crude state give
readily converted into dust. In this dry state the no evidence of the slightest medicinal power on
fine powders may be kept forever uninjured in the human body.
well-corked and sealed bottles, in all their
original complete medicinal power, without ever In Sec. § 269 – Another paragraph with
being injured by mites or mould; and they are footnotes is added in the Sixth Edition, as
best preserved when the bottles are kept protected follows:
[This remarkable change in the qualities of specific medicinal powers contained within and brought
forth by rubbing and shaking. The aid of a chosen,
natural bodies develops the latent, hitherto
unmedicinal medium of attenuation is but a secondary
unperceived, as if slumbering [The same thing is condition.
seen in a bar of iron and steel where a slumbering trace
Simple dilution, for instance, the solution of a grain
of latent magnetic force cannot but be recognized in their
of salt will become water, the grain of salt will disappear
interior. Both, after their completion by means of the forge
in the dilutions with much water and will never develop
stand upright, repulse the north pole of a magnetic needle
into medicinal salt which by means of our well prepared
with the lower end and attract the south pole, while the
upper end shows itself as the south pole of the magnetic dynamization, is raised to most marvelous power’.] or
needle. But this is only a latent force; not even the finest potencies in different degrees.’]
iron particles can be drawn magnetically or held on either
end of such a bar.
§ 270
Only after this bar of steel is dynamized, rubbing it
with a dull file in one direction, will it become a true active Thus two drops of the fresh vegetable juice
powerful magnet, one able to attract iron and steel to mingled with equal parts of alcohol are diluted
itself and impart to another bar of steel by mere contact with ninety-eight drops of alcohol and potentized
and even some distance away, magnetic power and this
in a higher degree the more it has been rubbed. In the
by means of two succussions, whereby the first
same way will triturating a medicinal substance and development of power is formed and this process
shaking of its solution (dynamization, potentization) is repeated through twenty-nine more phials,
develop the medicinal powers hidden within and manifest each of which is filled three-quarters full with
them more and more or if one may say so, spiritualizes
ninety-nine drops of alcohol, and each
the material substance itself.] hidden, dynamic (§ 11)
succeeding phial is to be provided with one drop
powers which influence the life principle, change
from the preceding phial (which has already been
the well-being of animal life [On this account it refers
only to the increase and stronger development of their
shaken twice) and is in its turn twice shaken, [In
power to cause changes in the health of animals and order to maintain a fixed and measured standard for
men if these natural substances in this improved state, developing the power of liquid medicines, multiplied
experience and careful observation have led me to adopt
are brought very near to the living sensitive fibre or come
two succussions for each phial, in preference to the
in contact with it (by means of intake or olfaction). Just as
greater number formerly employed (by which the
a magnetic bar especially if its magnetic force is increased
medicines were too highly potentized). There are,
(dynamized) can show magnetic power only in a needle
however, homoeopathists who carry about with them on
of steel whose pole is near or touches it. The steel itself
their visits to patients the homoeopathic medicines in the
remains unchanged in the remaining chemical and
fluid state, and who yet assert that they do not become
physical properties and can bring about no changes in
more highly potentized in the course of time, but they
other metals (for instance, in brass), just as little as
thereby show their want of ability to observe correctly. I
dynamized medicines can have any action upon lifeless
dissolved a grain of soda in half an ounce of water mixed
things.].This is effected by mechanical action with alcohol in a phial, which was thereby filled two-thirds
upon their smallest particles by means of rubbing full, and shook this solution continuously for half an hour,
and shaking and through the addition of an and this fluid was in potency and energy equal to the
thirtieth development of power.] and in the same
indifferent substance, dry or fluid, are separated
manner at last the thirtieth development of power
from each other. This process is called
(potentized decillionth dilution X) which is the
dynamizing, potentizing (development of
one most generally used.
medicinal power) and the products are
dynamizations [‘We hear daily how homoeopathic * Sec. § 270 is wholly re-written in the Sixth
medicinal potencies are called mere dilutions, when they Edition, as follows:
are the very opposite, i.e., a true opening up of the natural
substances bringing to light and revealing the hidden [‘In order to best obtain this development of
power, a small part of the substance to be spatula are then put in a kettle of boiling water for half an
hour. Precaution might be used to such an extent as to
dynamized, say one grain, is triturated for three
put these utensils on a coal fire exposed to a glowing
hours with three times one hundred grains sugar heat.] up to the one-millionth part in powder form.
of milk according to the method described below For reasons given below (b) one grain of this
[One-third of one hundred grains sugar of milk is put in a powder is dissolved in 500 drops of a mixture of
glazed porcelain mortar, the bottom dulled previously by
rubbing it with fine, moist sand. Upon this powder is put
one part of alcohol and four parts of distilled
one grain of the powdered drug to be triturated (one drop water, of which one drop is put in a vial. To this
of quicksilver, petroleum, etc.). The sugar of milk used are added 100 drops of pure alcohol [The vial used
for dynamization must be of that special pure quality that
for potentizing is filled two-thirds full.] and given one
is crystallized on strings and comes to us in the shape of
long bars. For a moment the medicine and powder are hundred strong succussions with the hand against
mixed with a porcelain spatula and triturated rather a hard but elastic body [Perhaps on a leather – bound
strongly, six to seven minutes, with the pestle rubbed dull, book.]. This is the medicine in the first degree of
then the mass is scraped from the bottom of the mortar
and from the pestle for three to four minutes, in order to dynamization with which small sugar globules
make it homogeneous. This is followed by triturating it in [They are prepared, under supervision by the
the same way 6-7 minutes without adding anything more confectioner, from starch and sugar and the small globules
and again scraping 3-4 minutes from what adhered to freed from fine dusty parts by passing them through a
the mortar and pestle. The second third of the sugar of sieve. Then they are put through a strainer that will permit
milk is now added, mixed with the spatula and again only 100 to pass through weighing one grain, the most
triturated 6-7 minutes, followed by the scraping for 3-4 serviceable size for the needs of a homoeopathic
minutes and trituration without further addition for 6-7 physician.] may then be moistened [A small cylindrical
minutes. The last third of sugar of milk is then added, vessel shaped like a thimble, made of glass, porcelain or
mixed with the spatula and triturated, as before, 6-7 silver, with a small opening at the bottom in which the
minutes with most careful scraping together. The powder globules are put to be medicated. They are moistened
thus prepared is put in a vial, well corked, protected from with some of the dynamized medicinal alcohol, stirred
direct sunlight to which the name of the substance and and poured out on blotting paper, in order to dry them
the designation of the first product marked 1/100 is given. and quickly spread on blotting paper to
quickly.]
In order to raise this product to 1/10,000, one grain of the
powdered 1/100 is mixed with the third part of 100 grains
dry and kept in a well-corked vial with the sign
of powdered sugar of milk and then proceed as before, of (I) degree of potency. Only one [According to
but every third must be carefully triturated twice thoroughly first directions, one drop of the liquid of a lower potency
each time for 6-7 minutes and scraped together 3-4 was to be taken to 100 drops of alcohol for higher
minutes before the second and last third of sugar of milk potentization. This proportion of the medicine of
is added. After each third, the same procedure is taken. attenuation to the medicine that is to be dynamized
When all is finished, the powder is put in a well corked (100:1) was found altogether too limited to develop
vial and labelled 1/10,000. If now, one grain of this last thoroughly and to a high degree the power of the medicine
powder is taken in the same way, the 1/1,000,000, i.e., by means of a number of such succussions without
(1), each grain containing 1/1,000,000 the original specially using great force of which wearisome
substance. Accordingly, such a trituration of the three experiments have convinced me.
degrees requires six times six to seven minutes for
But if only one such globule be taken, of which 100
triturating and six times 3-4 minutes for scraping, thus
weigh one grain, and dynamize it with 100 drops of
one hour for every degree. After one hour such trituration
alcohol, the proportion of 1 to 50,000 and even greater
of the first degree, each grain will contain 1/000 of the
will be had, for 500 such globules can hardly absorb one
second 1/10,0000 and in the third 1/1,000,000 of the
drop, for their saturation. With this disproportionate higher
drug used (These are the three degrees of the dry powder
ratio between medicine and diluting medium many
trituration, which, if carried out correctly, will effect a good
succussive strokes of the vial filled two-thirds with alcohol
beginning for the dynamization of the medicinal substance.).
can produce a much greater development of power. But
Mortar, pestle and spatula must be cleaned well before
with so small a diluting medium as 100 to 1 of the
they are used for another medicine. Washed first with
medicine, if many succussions by means of a powerful
warm water and dried, both mortar and pestle, as well as
machine are forced into it, medicines are then developed
which, especially in the higher degrees of dynamization, of this mechanical procedure, provided it is
act almost immediately, but with furious, even dangerous,
carried out regularly according to the above
violence, especially in weakly patients, without having a
lasting, mild reaction of the vital principle. But the method teaching, a change is effected in the given drug,
described by me, on the contrary, produces medicines of which in its crude state shows itself only as a
highest development of power and mildest action, which, material, at times as unmedicinal material but
however, if well chosen, touches all suffering parts
curatively (In very rare cases, notwithstanding almost full
by means of such higher and higher
recovery of health and with good vital strength, an old annoying dynamization, it is changed and subtilized at last
local trouble continuing undisturbed it is wholly permitted and into spirit-like [ A new footnote is added in the Sixth
even indispensably necessary, to administer in increasing doses Edition as follows: ‘This assertion will not appear
the homoeopathic remedy that has proved itself efficacious but improbable, if one considers that by means of this method
potentized to a very high degree by means of many succussions of dynamization (the preparations thus produced, I have
by hand. Such a local disease will often then disappear in a found after many laborious experiments and counter-
wonderful way.). In acute fevers, the small doses of the experiments, to be the most powerful and at the same
lowest dynamization degrees of these thus perfected time mildest in action, i.e., as the most perfected) the
medicinal preparations, even of medicines of long material part of the medicine is lessened with each degree
continued action (for instance, belladonna) may be of dynamization 50,000 times and yet incredibly increased
repeated in short intervals. In the treatment of chronic in power, so that the further dynamization of 125 and 18
diseases, it is best to begin with the lowest degrees of ciphers reaches only the third degree of dynamization.
dynamization and when necessary advance to higher, The thirtieth thus progressively prepared would give a
ever more powerful but mildly acting degrees.] globule fraction almost impossible to be expressed in numbers.
It becomes uncommonly evident that the material part
of this is taken for further dynamization, put in a by means of such dynamization (development of its true,
second new vial (with a drop of water in order to inner medicinal essence) will ultimately dissolve into its
dissolve it) and then with 100 drops of good individual spirit-like, (conceptual) essence. In its crude
state therefore, it may be considered to consist really only
alcohol and dynamized in the same way with 100
of this undeveloped conceptual essence.’]medicinal
powerful succussions.
power, which, indeed, in itself does not fall within
With this alcoholic medicinal fluid globules our senses but for which the medicinally prepared
are again moistened, spread upon blotting paper globule, dry, but more so when dissolved in
and dried quickly, put into a well-stoppered vial water, becomes the carrier, and in this condition,
and protected from heat and sun light and given manifests the healing power of this invisible
the sign (II) of the second potency. And in this force in the sick body.]
way the process is continued until the twenty-
ninth is reached. Then with 100 drops of alcohol § 271*
by means of 100 succussions, an alcoholic All other substances adapted for medicinal
medicinal fluid is formed with which the thirtieth use–except sulphur, which has of late years been
dynamization degree is given to properly only employed in the form of highly diluted (X)
moistened and dried sugar globules. tincture (a)–as pure or oxydised and sulphurated
By means of this manipulation of crude drugs metals and other minerals, petroleum,
are produced preparations which only in this way phosphorus, as also parts and juices of plants that
reach the full capacity to forcibly influence the can only be obtained in the dry state, animal
suffering parts of the sick organism. In this way, substances, neutral salts, etc., all these are first
by means of a similar artificial morbid affection, to be potentized by trituration for three hours,
the influence of the natural disease on the life up to the millionfold pulverulent attenuation, and
principle present within is neutralized. By means of this one grain is to be dissolved, and brought
to thirtieth development of power through [‘Such a globule [ A new footnote is added in the
twenty-seven attenuating phials, in the same Sixth Edition, as follows: ‘These globules (§ 270) retain
their medicinal virtue for many years, if protected against
manner as the vegetable juices. [As is still more
circumstantially described in the prefaces to Arsenic and sunlight and heat.], placed dry upon the tongue, is
Pulsatilla in the Materia Medica Pura. ](a) one of the smallest doses for a moderate recent
case of illness. Here but few nerves are touched
* Sec. § 271 is wholly re-written in the Sixth
by the medicine. A similar globule, crushed with
Edition, as follows:
some sugar of milk and dissolved in a good deal
[‘If the physician prepares his homoeopathic of water (§ 247) and stirred well before every
medicines himself, as he should reasonably do administration will produce a far more powerful
in order to save men from sickness, [‘Until the State, medicine for the use of several days. Every dose,
in the future, after having attained insight into the
no matter how minute, touches, on the contrary,
indispensability of perfectly prepared homoeopathic
medicines, will have them manufactured by a competent many nerves.]
impartial person, in order to give them free of charge to
homoeopathic physicians trained in homoeopathic § 273*
hospitals, who have been examined theoretically and
practically, and thus legally qualified. The physicians may It is not conceivable how the slightest dubiety
then become convinced of these divine tools for purposes could exist as to whether it was more consistent
of healing, but also to give them free of charge to his
with nature and more rational to prescribe a
patients—rich and poor’.], he may use the fresh plant
single well-known medicine at one time in a
itself, as but little of the crude article is required,
disease, or a mixture of several differently acting
if he does not need the expressed juice perhaps
drugs.
for purposes of healing. He takes a few grains in
a mortar and with 100 grains sugar of milk three * Sec. § 273 is wholly re-written in the Sixth
distinct times brings them to the one-millionth Edition, as follows:
trituration (§ 270) before further potentizing of [‘In no case under treatment is it necessary
a small portion of this by means of shaking is and therefore not permissible to administer to a
undertaken, a procedure to be observed also with patient more than one single, simple medicinal
the rest of crude drugs of either dry or oily substance at one time. It is inconceivable how
nature.’] the slightest doubt could exist as to whether it
was more consistent with nature and more
§ 272*
rational to prescribe a single, simple [ A new
In no case is it requisite to administer more footnote is added in the Sixth Edition, as follows: ‘Two
than one single, simple medicinal substance at substances, opposite to each other, united into neutral
Natrium and middle salts by chemical affinity in
one time. [Some homoeopathists have made the unchangeable proportions, as well as sulphurated metals
experiment, in cases where they deemed one remedy found in the earth and those produced by technical art in
homoeopathically suitable for one portion of the constant combining proportions of sulphur and alkaline
symptoms of a case of disease, and a second for another salts and earths, for instance (natrium sulph. and calcarea
portion, of administering both remedies at the same or sulph.) as well as those ethers produced by distillation of
almost at the same time; but I earnestly deprecate such alcohol and acids may together with phosphorus be
a hazardous experiment, which can never be necessary, considered as simple medicinal substances by the
though it may sometimes seem to be of use.] homoeopathic physician and used for patients. On the
other hand, those extracts obtained by means of acids of
* Sec. § 272 is wholly re-written in the Sixth the so-called alkaloids of plants, are exposed to great
variety in their preparation (for instance, chinin, symptoms which this medicinal substance had
strychnine, morphine), and can, therefore, not be
already shown in experiments, on the healthy
accepted by the homoeopathic physician as simple
medicines, always the same, especially as he possesses, human body are confirmed, an advantage that is
in the plants themselves, in their natural state (Peruvian lost by the employment of all compound
bark, nux vomica, opium) every quality necessary for remedies [When the rational physician has chosen the
healing. Moreover, the alkaloids are not the only perfectly homoeopathic medicine for the well-considered
constituents of the plants.’] medicine at one time in a case of disease and administered it internally, he will leave
to irrational allopathic routine the practice of giving drinks
disease or a mixture of several differently acting
or fomentations of different plants, of injecting medicated
drugs. It is absolutely not allowed in glisters and of rubbing in this or the other ointment.].
homoeopathy, the one true, simple and natural
art of healing, to give the patient at one time two § 275
different medicinal substances.’] The suitableness of a medicine for any given
case of disease does not depend on its accurate
§ 274 homoeopathic selection alone, but likewise on
the proper size, or rather smallness, of the dose.
As the true physician finds in simple
If we give too strong a dose of a medicine which
medicines, administered singly and uncombined,
may have been even quite homoeopathically
all that he can possibly desire (artificial disease-
chosen for the morbid state before us, it must,
forces which are able by homoeopathic power
notwithstanding the inherent beneficial character
completely to overpower, extinguish, and
of its nature, prove injurious by its mere
permanently cure natural diseases), he will,
magnitude, and by the unnecessary, too strong
mindful of the wise maxim that “it is wrong to
impression which, by virtue of its homoeopathic
attempt to employ complex means when simple
similarity of action, it makes upon the vital force
means suffice,” never think of giving as a remedy
which it attacks and, through the vital force, upon
any but a single, simple medicinal substance; for
those parts of the organism which are the most
these reasons also, because even though the
sensitive, and are already most affected by the
simple medicines were thoroughly proved with
natural disease.
respect to their pure peculiar effects on the
unimpaired healthy state of man, it is yet
impossible to foresee how two and more § 276
medicinal substances might, when compounded, For this reason, a medicine, even though it
hinder and alter each other’s actions on the may be homoeopathically suited to the case of
human body; and because, on the other hand, a disease, does harm in every dose that is too large,
simple medicinal substance when used in the more harm the larger the dose, and by
diseases, the totality of whose symptoms is magnitude of the dose [‘and in strong doses’ in
accurately known, renders efficient aid by itself the Sixth Edition] it does more harm the greater
alone, if it be homoeopathically selected; and its homoeopathicity and the higher the potency
supposing the worst case to happen, that it was [The praise bestowed of late years by some few
not chosen in strict conformity to similarity of homoeopathists on the larger doses is owing to this, either
that they chose low dynamizations of the medicine to be
symptoms, and therefore does no good, it is yet administered as I myself used to do twenty years ago,
so far useful that it promotes our knowledge of from not knowing any better, or that the medicines
therapeutic agents, because, by the new selected were not homoeopathic (‘and imperfectly prepared
symptoms excited by it in such a case, those by their manufacturers’ is added in the Sixth Edition)]
selected, and it does much more injury than any very small dose of a highly potentized China would
unfailingly help (in marsh intermittents and even in
equally large dose of a medicine that is persons who were not affected by any evident psoric
unhomoeopathic, and in no respect adapted disease). A chronic China malady (coupled at the same
(allopathic) to the morbid state;* for in the former time with the development of psora) is produced, which,
if it does not gradually kill the patient by damaging the
case the so-called homoeopathic aggravation (§
internal important vital organs, especially spleen and liver,
157–160)–that is to say, the very analogous will put him, nevertheless, suffering for years in a sad
medicinal disease produced by the vital force state of health. A homoeopathic antidote for such a
stirred up by the excessively large dose of misfortune produced by abuse of large doses of
homoeopathic remedies is hardly conceivable.’].]
medicine, in the parts of the organism that are
most suffering and most irritated by the original § 277
disease–which medicinal disease, had it been
appropriate intensity, would have gently effected For the same reason, and because a medicine,
a cure–rises to an injurious height; [See note to § provided the dose of it was sufficiently small, is
246.] the patient, to be sure, no longer suffers from all the more salutary and almost marvellously
the original disease, for that has been efficacious the more accurately homoeopathic its
homoeopathically eradicated, but he suffers all selection has been, a medicine whose selection
the more from the excessive medicinal disease has been accurately homoeopathic must be all
and from useless exhaustion of his strength. the more salutary the more its dose is reduced to
the degree of minuteness appropriate for a gentle
The remaining portion (marked *) of Sec. §
remedial effect.
276 is re-written in the Sixth Edition, as follows:
[‘Too large doses of an accurately chosen § 278
homoeopathic medicine, and especially when
Here the question arises, what is this most
frequently repeated, bring about much trouble
suitable degree of minuteness for sure and gentle
as a rule. They put the patient not seldom in
remedial effect; how small, in other words, must
danger of life or make his disease almost
be the dose of each individual medicine,
incurable. They do indeed extinguish the natural
homeopathically selected for a case of disease,
disease so far as the sensation of the life principle
to effect the best cure? To solve this problem,
is concerned and the patient no longer suffers
and to determine for every particular medicine,
from the original disease from the moment the
what dose of it will suffice for homoeopathic
too strong dose of the homoeopathic medicine
therapeutic purposes and yet be so minute that
acted upon him but he is in consequence more
the gentlest and most rapid cure may be thereby
ill with the similar but more violent medicinal
obtained—to solve this problem is, as may easily
disease which is most difficult to destroy. [ A new
footnote is added in the Sixth Edition, as follows: [‘Thus,
be conceived, not the work of theoretical
the continuous use of aggressive allopathic large doses speculation; not by fine-spun reasoning, not by
of mercurials against syphilis develop almost incurable specious sophistry, can we expect to obtain the
mercurial maladies, when yet one or several doses of a
solution of this problem. [‘It is just as impossible
mild but active mercurial preparation would certainly have
radically cured in a few days the whole venereal disease, as to tabulate in advance all imaginable cases’ in
together with the chancre, provided it had not been the Sixth Edition] Pure experiment, careful
destroyed by external measures (as is always done by observation [‘of the sensitiveness of each patient’
allopathy). In the same way, the allopath gives Peruvian
bark and quinine in intermittent fever daily in very large in the Sixth Edition], and accurate experience
doses, where they are correctly indicated and where one can alone determine this; and it were absurd to
adduce the large doses of unsuitable (allopathic) of ordinary physicians; [Let them learn from the
medicines of the old system, which do not touch mathematicians how true it is that a substance divided
into every so many parts must still contain in its smallest
the diseased side of the organism homoeopa- conceivable parts always some of this substance, and
thically, but only attack the parts unaffected by that the smallest conceivable part does not cease to be
the disease, in opposition to what pure experience some of this substance and cannot possibly become
nothing;–let them, if they are capable of being taught,
pronounces respecting the smallness of the doses
hear from natural philosophers that there are enormously
required for homoeopathic cures. powerful things (forces) which are perfectly destitute of
weight, as, for example, caloric, light, etc., consequently
§ 279 infinitely lighter than the medicine contained in the
smallest doses used in homoeopathy;–let them, if they
This pure experience shows UNIVERSALLY, that can, weigh the irritating words that bring on a billious
if the disease does not manifestly depend on a fever, or the mournful intelligence respecting her only son
that kills the mother; let them touch, for a quarter of an
considerable deterioration of an important viscus
hour, a magnet capable of lifting a hundred pounds weight,
(even though it belong to the chronic and and learn from the pain it excites that even imponderable
complicated diseases), and if during the treatment agencies can produces the most violent medicinal effects
all other alien medicinal influences are kept away upon man;–and let the weak ones among them allow the
pit of their stomach to be slightly touched by the thumb’s
from the patient, the dose of the homoeopa- point of a strong-willed mesmeriser for a few minutes,
thically selected remedy [‘selected and highly and the disagreeable sensations they then suffer will make
potentized’ in the Sixth Edition] can never be them repent of attempting to set limits to the boundless
activity of nature; the weak-minded creatures!
prepared so small that it shall not be stronger
If the allopathist who is trying the homoeopathic
than the natural disease, and shall not be able
system imagine he cannot bring himself to give such small
to overpower, extinguish and cure it, at least in and profoundly attenuated doses, let him only ask himself
part* as long as it is capable of causing some, what risk he runs by so doing ? If the scepticism which
though but a slight preponderance of its own holds what is ponderable only to be real, and all that is
symptoms over those of the disease resembling imponderable to be nothing, be right, nothing worse could
result from a dose that appears to him to be nothing,
it (slight homoeopathic aggravation, § 157–160)
than what must result from his too large doses of allopathic
immediately after its ingestion.(a) medicine. Why will he consider his inexperience, coupled
* The remaining portion of this Section is with prejudice, more reliable than an experience of many
years corroborated by facts ? And, moreover, the
re-written in the Sixth Edition, as follows:
homoeopathic medicine becomes potentized at every
[‘and extinguish it from the sensation of the division and diminution by trituration or succussion!–a
principle of life and thus make a beginning of development of the inherent powers of medicinal
substances which was never dreamed of before my time,
cure.’]
and which is of so powerful a character that of late years
I have been compelled by convincing experience to
§ 280* reduce the ten succussions formerly directed to be given
after each attenuation, to two. ] their idle declamations
This incontrovertible axiom of experience
must cease before the verdict of unerring
is the standard of measurement by which the
experience..
doses of all homoeopathic medicines, without
exception, are to be reduced to such an extent * Sec. § 280 is wholly re-written in the Sixth
that after their ingestion, they shall excite a Edition, as follows:
scarcely observable homoeopathic aggravation, [‘The dose of the medicine that continues
let the diminution of the dose go ever so far, and serviceable without producing new troublesome
appear ever so incredible to the materialistic ideas symptoms is to be continued while gradually
ascending, so long as the patient with general continuing good hygienic regulations nothing
improvement, begins to feel in a mild degree the more of the original disease is seen, he is
return of one or several old original complaints. probably cured. But if in the later days traces of
This indicates an approaching cure through a the former morbid symptoms should show
gradual ascending of the moderate doses themselves, they are remnants of the original
modified each time by succussion (§ 247). It disease not wholly extinguished, which must be
indicates that the vital principle no longer needs treated with renewed higher potencies of the
to be affected by the similar medicinal disease remedy as directed before. If a cure is to follow,
in order to lose the sensation of the natural the first small doses must likewise be again
disease (§148). It indicates that the life principle gradually raised higher, but less and more slowly
now free from the natural disease begins to suffer in patients where considerable irritability is
only something of the medicinal disease hitherto
evident than in those of less susceptibility, where
known as homoeopathic aggravation.’]
the advance to higher dosage may be more rapid.
§ 281* There are patients whose impressionability
compared to that of the unsusceptible ones is like
Every patient is, especially in his diseased the ratio as 1000 to 1.’]
point, capable of being influenced in an
incredible degree by medicinal agents § 282*
corresponding by similarity of action; and there
The smallest possible dose of homoeopathic
is no person, be he ever so robust, and even
medicine capable of producing only the very
though he be affected only with a chronic or so-
slightest homoeopathic aggravation, will,
called local disease, who will not soon experience
because it has the power of exciting symptoms
the desired change in the effected part, if he take
bearing the greatest possible resemblance to the
the salutary, homoeopathically suited medicine
original disease (but yet stronger even in the
in the smallest conceivable dose, who, in a word,
minute dose), attack principally and almost solely
will not thereby be much more altered in his
the parts in the organism that are already affected,
health than a healthy infant of but a day old would
highly irritated, and rendered excessively
be. How insignificant and ridiculous is mere
susceptible to such a similar stimulus, and will
theoretical scepticism in opposition to this
alter the vital force that rules in them to a state
unerring, infallible experimental proof !(a)
of very similar artificial disease, somewhat
* Sec. § 281 is entirely re-written in the Sixth greater in degree than the natural one was; this
Edition, as follows: artificial disease will substitute itself for the
[‘In order to be convinced of this, the patient natural (the original) disease, so that the living
is left without any medicine for eight, ten or organism now suffers from the artificial
fifteen days, meanwhile giving him only some medicinal disease alone, which, from its nature
powders of sugar of milk. If the few last and owing to the minuteness of the dose, will
complaints are due to the medicine simulating soon be extinguished by the vital force that is
the former original disease symptoms, then these striving to return to the normal state, and (if the
complaints will disappear in a few days or hours. disease were only an acute one) the body is left
If during these days without medicine, while perfectly free from disease–that is to say, quite
well.
* Sec. § 282 is entirely re-written in the Sixth homoeopathic medicine upon the vital principle which
affects it in a similar but stronger manner and thus extracts
the sensation of internal and external spirit-like
[‘It would be a certain sign that the doses (conceptual) disease enemy in such a way that it no longer
exists for the life principle (for the organism) and thus
were altogether too large, if during treatment,
releases the patient of his illness and he is cured.
especially in chronic diseases, the first dose
Experience, however, teaches that the itch, plus its
should bring forth a so-called homoeopathic external manifestations, as well as the chancre, together
aggravation, that is, a marked increase of the with the inner venereal miasm can and must be cured
original morbid symptoms first discovered and only by means of specific medicines taken internally. But
the figwarts, if they have existed for some time without
in the same way every repeated dose (§ 247)
treatment, have need for their perfect cure, the external
however modified somewhat by shaking before application of their specific medicines as well as their
its administration (i.e., more highly dynamized internal use at the same time.]).’]
A new footnote is added in the Sixth Edition, as
follows: [The rule to commence the homoeopathic § 283*
treatment of chronic diseases with the smallest possible
doses and only gradually to augment them is subject to a
Now, in order to act really in conformity with
notable exception in the treatment of the three great nature, the true physician will prescribe his well-
miasms while they still effloresce on the skin i.e., recently selected homoeopathic medicine only in exactly
erupted itch, the untouched chancre (on the sexual
as small a dose as will just suffice to overpower
organs, labia, mouth or lips, and so forth), and the figwarts.
These not only tolerate, but indeed require, from the very and annihilate the disease before him–in a dose
beginning large doses of their specific remedies of ever of such minuteness, that if human fallibility
higher and higher degrees of dynamization daily (possibly should betray him into administering an
also several times daily). If this course be pursued, there
is no danger to be feared as is the case in the treatment inappropriate medicine, the injury accruing from
of diseases hidden within, that the excessive dose while its nature being unsuited to the disease will be
it extinguishes the disease, initiates and by continued diminished to a mere trifle; moreover the harm
usage possibly produces a chronic medicinal disease.
done by the smallest possible dose is so slight,
During external manifestations of these three miasms this
is not the case; for from the daily progress of their that it may be immediately extinguished and
treatment it can be observed and judged to what degree repaired by the natural vital powers, and by the
the large dose withdraws the sensation of the disease speedy administration of a remedy more suitably
from the vital principle day by day; for none of these three
can be cured without giving the physician the conviction selected according to similarity of action, and
through their disappearance that there is no longer any given also in the smallest dose.
further need of these medicines.
* Sec. § 283 is entirely re-written in the Sixth
Since diseases in general are but dynamic attacks
upon the life principle and nothing material—no materia
peccans—as their basis (as the old school in its delusion [‘In order to work wholly according to
has fabulated for a thousand years and treated the sick
nature, the true healing artist will prescribe the
accordingly to their ruin) there is also in these cases
nothing material to take away, nothing to smear away, to accurately chosen homoeopathic medicine most
burn or tie or cut away, without making the patient suitable in all respects in so small a dose on
endlessly sicker and more incurable (Chronic Diseases account of this alone. For should he be misled
Part I), than he was before local treatment of these three
miasms was instituted. The dynamic, inimical principle by human weakness to employ an unsuitable
exerting its influence upon the vital energy is the essence medicine, the disadvantage of its wrong relation
of these external signs of the inner malignant miasms to the disease would be so small that the patient
that can be extinguished solely by the action of a
could through his own vital powers and by means
of early opposition (p 249) of the correctly with simultaneous internal administration.’ [The
chosen remedy according to symptom similarity power of medicines acting upon the infant through the
milk of the mother or wet nurse is wonderfully helpful.
(and this also in the smallest dose) rapidly Every disease in a child yields to the rightly chosen
extinguish and repair it.’] homoeopathic medicines given in moderate doses to the
nursing mother and so administered, is more easily and
§ 284* certainly utilized by these new world-citizens than is
possible in later years. Since most infants usually have
The action of a dose, moreover, does not imparted to them psora through the milk of the nurse, if
diminish in the direct ratio of the quantity of they do not already possess it through heredity from the
mother, they may be at the same time protected
material medicine contained in the dilutions used antipsorically by means of the milk of the nurse rendered
in homoeopathic practice. Eight drops of the medicinally in this manner. But the case of mothers in
tincture of a medicine to the dose do not produce their (first) pregnancy by means of a mild antipsoric
treatment, especially with sulphur dynamizations
four times as much effect on the human body as prepared according to the directions in this edition (§ 270),
two drops, but only about twice the effect that is is indispensable in order to destroy the psora—that
produced by two drops to the dose. In like producer of most chronic diseases—which is given them
manner, one drop of a mixture of a drop of the hereditarily; destroy it both within themselves and in the
foetus, thereby protecting posterity in advance. This is
tincture with ten drops of some unmedicinal true of pregnant women thus treated; they have given
fluid, when taken, will not produce ten times birth to children usually more healthy and stronger, to
more effect than one drop of a mixture ten times the astonishment of everybody. A new confirmation of
more attenuated, but only about (scarcely) twice the great truth of the psora theory discovered by me.]]
as strong an effect, and so on, in the same ratio–

so that a drop of the lowest dilution must, and
§ 285*
really does, display still a very considerable The diminution of the dose essential for
action. [Supposing one drop of a mixture that contains homoeopathic use, will also be promoted by
1/10 of a grain of medicine produces an effect diminishing its volume, so that, it, instead of a
................................................................................... = drop of a medicinal dilution, we take but quite a
a, one drop of a more diluted mixture containing 1/100th
of a grain of the medicine will only produce an effect small part [For this purpose it is most convenient to
.................................................................................... = employ fine sugar globules of the size of poppy seeds,
a/2; if it contain 1/10000th of a grain of medicine, one of which imbibed with the medicine and put into the
dispensing vehicle constitutes a medicinal dose, which
about.........................................= a/4;
contains about the three hundredth part of a drop, for
*Sec. § 284 is entirely omitted in the Sixth three hundred such small globules will be adequately
moistened by one drop of alcohol. The dose is vastly
Edition, and replaced by a new Section, as diminished by laying one such globule alone upon the
follows: tongue and giving nothing to drink. If it be necessary, in
the case of a very sensitive patient, to employ the smallest
[‘Besides the tongue, mouth and stomach, possible dose and to bring about the most rapid result,
which are most commonly affected by the one single olfaction merely will suffice (see note to § 288).]
administration of medicine, the nose and of such a drop for a dose, the object of
respiratory organs are receptive of the action of diminishing the effect still further will be very
medicines in fluid form by means of olfaction effectually attained; and that this will be the case
and inhalation through the mouth. But the whole may be readily conceived for this season, because
remaining skin of the body clothed with with the smaller volume of the dose but few
epidermis, is adapted to the action of medicinal nerves of the living organism can be touched,
solutions, especially if the inunction is connected whereby the power of the medicine is certainly
also communicated to the whole organism, but the rest remain to prepare themselves for their eternal
resting place, a fact that is verified by the presence of
it is a weaker power. numerous well-filled graveyards surrounding the most
* Sec. § 285 is entirely omitted in the Sixth celebrated of these spas.’ (A true homoeopathic physician,
one who never acts without correct fundamental principles,
Edition, and replaced by a new Section, as never gambles with the life of the sick entrusted to him as in a
follows: lottery where the winner is in the ratio of 1 to 500 or 1000
(blanks here consisting of aggravation or death), will never
[‘In this way, the cure of very old diseases expose any one of his patients to such danger and send him for
may be furthered by the physician applying good luck to a mineral bath, as is done so frequently by allopaths
externally, rubbing it in the back, arms, in order to get rid of the sick in an acceptable manner spoiled
extremities, the same medicine he gives by him or others.).].
internally and which showed itself curatively. In

doing so, he must avoid parts subject to pain or § 286*
spasm or skin eruption.’ [From this fact may be
For the same reason the effect of
explained those marvelous cures, however infrequent,
where chronic deformed patients, whose skin homoeopathic dose of medicine increases, the
nevertheless was sound and clean, were cured quickly greater the quantity of fluid in which it is
and permanently after a few baths whose medicinal
dissolved when administered to the patient,
constituents (by chance) were homoeopathically related.
On the other hand, the mineral baths very often brought although the actual amount of medicine it
on increased injury with patients, whose eruptions on the contains remains the same. For in this case, when
skin were suppressed. After a brief period of well-being,
the medicine is taken, it comes in contact with a
the life principle allowed the inner, uncured malady to
appear elsewhere, more important for life and health. much larger surface of sensitive nerves
At times instead, the ocular nerve would become responsive to the medicinal action. Although
paralyzed and produce amaurosis, sometimes the theorists may imagine there should be a
crystalline lens would become clouded, hearing lost, weakening of the action of a dose of medicine
mania or suffocating asthma would follow or an apoplexy
would end the sufferings of the deluded patient. by its dilution with a large quantity of liquid,
A fundamental principle of the homoeopathic
experience asserts exactly the opposite, at all
physician (which distinguishes him from every physician events when the medicines are employed
of all older schools) is this, that he never employs for any homoeopathically [It is only the most simple of all
patient a medicine, whose effects on the healthy human stimulants, wine and alcohol, that have their heating and
has not previously been carefully proven and thus made intoxicating action diminished by dilution with much
known to him (§ § 20, 21). To prescribe for the sick on water.].
mere conjecture of some possible usefulness for some
similar disease or from hearsay “that a remedy has helped * Sec. § 286 is entirely omitted in the Sixth
in such and such a disease”—such conscienceless Edition, and replaced by a new Section, as
venture the philanthropic homoeopathist will leave to the
allopath. A genuine physician and practitioner of our art
follows:
will therefore never send the sick to any of the numerous [‘The dynamic force of mineral magnets,
mineral baths, because almost all are unknown so far as
their accurate, positive effects on the healthy human electricity and galvanism act no less powerfully
organism is concerned, and when misused, must be upon our life principle and they are not less
counted among the most violent and dangerous drugs. homoeopathic than the properly so-called
In this way, out of a thousand sent to the most celebrated
of these baths by ignorant physicians allopathically medicines which neutralize disease by taking
uncured and blindly sent there perhaps one or two are them through the mouth, or by rubbing them on
cured by chance more often return only apparently cured
the skin or by olfaction. There may be diseases,
and the miracle is proclaimed aloud. Hundreds,
meanwhile sneak quietly away, more or less worse and especially diseases of sensibility and irritability,
abnormal sensations, and involuntary muscular attenuation) likewise only for one hour, and to make the
third attenuation (to the 1/1000000) also by one hour of
movements which may be cured by those means.
strong trituration of one grain of the previous mixture with
But the more certain way of applying the last one hundred grains of milk-sugar, in order to bring the
two as well as that of the so-called electro- medicine to such an attenuation that its development of
magnetic machine lies still very much in the dark power shall remain moderate. A more exact description
of this process will be found in the preface to Arsenic and
to make homoeopathic use of them. So far both
Pulsatilla in the Materia Medica Pura.] that the smallest
electricity and Galvanism have been used only
portion of the diluting fluid receives the same
for palliation to the great damage of the sick.
quantity of medicine in proportion as all the rest;
The positive, pure action of both upon the healthy
for the latter becomes much more medicinally
human body have until the present time been but
powerful by the diluting mixture than the former.
little tested.’]
From this every one will be able to judge for
himself how to proceed with the regulation of
§ 287*
the homoeopathic medicinal doses when he
But in this increase of action by the mixture desires to diminish their medicinal action as
of the dose of medicine with a larger quantity of much as possible, in order to make them suitable
liquid (before its ingestion), the result is vastly for the most sensitive patients. [The higher we carry
different whether the mixture of the dose of the attenuation accompanied by dynamization (by two
medicine with a certain quantity of liquid is succussion strokes), with so much the more rapid and
penetrating action does the preparation seem to affect
performed merely superficially and imperfectly,
the vital force and to alter the health, with but slight
or so uniformly and intimately [By the word diminution of strength even when this operation is carried
intimately I mean this : that when, for instance, the drop very far,–in place, as is usual (and generally sufficient) to
of a medicinal fluid has been shaken up once with one X when it is carried up to XX, L, C, and higher; only that
hundred drops of spirits of ine; that is to say, the phial then the action always appears to last a shorter time.]
containing both, held in the hand, has been rapidly moved
from above downwards with a single smart jerk of the * Sec. § 287 is entirely omitted in the Sixth
arm, there certainly ensues a thorough mixture of the Edition and replaced by a new Section, as
whole, but with two, three, ten and more such strokes,
this mixture becomes much more intimate; that is to say, follows :
the medicinal power becomes much more potentized, and
[‘The powers of the magnet for healing
the spirit of this medicine, so to speak, becomes much
more unfolded, developed, and rendered much more purposes can be employed with more certainty
penetrating in its action on the nerves. If, then, the required according to the positive effects detailed in the
object we wish to attain with the low dilutions be the Materia Medica Pura under north and south pole
diminution of the doses for the purpose of moderating
their powers upon the organism, we would do well to give
of a powerful magnetic bar. Though both poles
no more than two such succussion-jerks to each of the are alike powerful, they nevertheless oppose each
twenty, thirty, etc., dilution phials, and thus to develop the other in the manner of their respective action.
medicinal power only moderately. It is also advisable, in
The doses may be modified by the length of time
attenuating the medicine in the state of dry powder by
trituration in a porcelain mortar, to keep within certain of contact with one or the other pole, according
limits, and, for example, to triturate strongly, for one hour as the symptoms of either north or south pole
only, one grains of the crude entire medicinal substance, are indicated. As antidote to a too, violent action
mixed with the first hundred grains of milk-sugar, and to
triturate the attenuation of one grain of this mixture with
the application of a plate of polished zinc will
another hundred grains of milk-sugar (to the 1/10000th suffice.]
■
11-2
Development of Homoeopathy in India
HOMOEOPATHIC PHARMACOPOEIA testing the quality and purity of homoeopathic

COMMITTEE drugs. The laboratory has also been designated
Government of India constituted the as a drug testing laboratory for the purpose of
Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Committee in quality control. The laboratory submits data of
1962 and re-constitutes it from time to time. This homoeopathic drugs to the homoeopathic
committee has finalized standards of pharmacopoeia Committee for their considera-
homoeopathic drugs which run into 916 tion and approval. The laboratory maintains a
monographs. Six volumes of Homoeopathic medicinal plant garden and conducts survey and
Pharmacopoeia of India have already been collection of medicinal plants. It has a
published containing standards of 710 drugs and computerized information centre-cum-
rest are being published in Homoeopathic documentation cell for dissemination of technical
Pharmacopoeia of India, Vol. VII and VIII. information of homoeopathic drugs.
DRUGS AND COSMETICS ACT, 1940 Address: Director

Homoeopathic drugs, manufacture and Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Laboratory,
licensing thereof and all other matters connected Central Government Offices Building-I,
therewith are covered under Drugs and Kamla Nehru Nagar, Ghaziabad-201 002.
Cosmetics Act, 1940 and Rules thereunder.
System of regulation and monitoring and
enforcement is well laid down for homoeopathic CENTRAL COUNCIL OF
drugs. HOMOEOPATHY
The Central Council of Homoeopathy has
HOMOEOPATHIC PHARMACOPOEIA been constituted under the provisions of
LABORATORY, GHAZIABAD. Homoeopathy Central Council Act, 1973 for
Homoeopathic Phamacopoeia Laboratory maintenance of a Central Register of
was established in the year 1975 at Ghaziabad Homoeopathy, and for matters connected
(Uttar Pradesh) to work out the standards for therewith viz., standardization of homoeopathic
education, code of ethics, etc. The Central network of 51 research centers functioning in
Council of Homoeopathy has made regulations different parts of the country. The council’s
to conduct 5 years BHMS (Bachelor of activities include clinical research on selected
Homoeopathic Medicine and Surgery) degree problems, clinical research in tribal areas, drug
course and 3 years postgraduate course (M.D.) proving research, drug standardization, clinical
besides Minimum Standard Regulations, etc. verification, literary research and, survey and
Address: cultivation of medicinal plants. The council has
Registrar-cum-Secretary made significant achievements in the treatment
Central Council of Homoeopathy, of behavioral disorders, respiratory allergies, skin
5th & 6th Floor , allergies, amoebiasis, filarial and osteoarthritis.
Jawahar Lal Nehru Bhartiya Chikitsa The clinical trials in the treatment of HIV / AIDS
Avum Homoeopathic Anusandhan Bhavan, have also shown positive leads. Fifty one
61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite ‘D’ Block, homoeopathic drugs including 24 drugs of Indian
Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058. origin, have been proved by the council. The
Tel: 91-11-25622906 pharmacognostic and physico-chemical
standards for 136 drugs have been worked out
INFRASTRUCTURE and work on 102 other drugs is in progress. The
India has a vast infrastructure of medical council has successfully cultivated Cineraria
institutions, dispensaries, hospitals registered maritima, an exotic plant used in the preparation
practitioners and drug manufacturing units. of widely used homoeopathic eye drops and a
These are: number of other medicinal plants used in
Registered Medical Practitioners 1,94,000 homoeopathy are being raised and maintained
at a demonstration garden at Udhagamandalam
Institutionally Qualified Practitioners 75,709
(Ooty), Tamilnadu. Under the Literary Research
Number of Dispensaries 7,155 Programme 15 chapters of Kent’s General
Number of Hospitals 297 Repertory of Homoeopathic Materia Medica
Bed Strength 12,836 have been revised and published. The council
No. of Teaching Institutions-Under has published 20 priced and 4 non-priced
Graduate 166 publications. Central Council for Research in
No. of Institutions imparting Homoeopathy also brings out a quarterly bulletin
Post Graduate Courses 21 and the CCRII News Letter which can be
obtained from the Director on request.
No. of Specialties in Post Graduate .
Licensed Pharmacies Manufacturing Address:
Homoeopathic Medicines 857 Director
C.C.R.H., Jawahar Lal Nehru Bhartiya
CENTRAL COUNCIL FOR RESEARCH Chikitsa Avum Homoeo. Anusandhan Bhavan,
IN HOMOEOPATHY 61-6-5, Institutional Area,
Opp-‘D’ Block, Janakpuri, New Delhi-058.
Central Council for Research in
Tel.: 91-11-25505523, 91-11-25592651,
Homoeopathy was established in 1978 at New
91-11-25592162 Fax: 91-11-5506060
Delhi. It is a premier research organization
E-mail: ccrh@del3. vsnl.net.in
engaged in research on various fundamental and
Website: www.ccrhindia.org.
applied aspects of homoeopathy and has a
Development of Homoeopathy in India 579
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF A research project on clinical, hematological,

HOMOEOPATHY, KOLKATTA biochemical and immunological studies on
National Institute of Homoeopathy, Kolkatta, patients with chronic arsenic toxicity and its
an autonomous organization set up by the homoeopathic management has been undertaken
Government of India is affiliated to the by the Institute. The institute has its own herb
University of Kolkatta. It was established in 1975 garden situated in Kalyani on 24.97 acres of land.
as a model institute of homoeopathy. The main Indian species as well as exotic plants are grown
objectives of the Institute are to develop a high there.
standard of teaching, training and research in all Address:
aspects of the homoeopathic system of medicine. Director
It presently conducts a regular degree course in National Institute of Homoeopathy,
homoeopathy BHMS of 5½ years duration and Block GE, Sector III,
also has an established Faculty of homoeopathy Lake City Kolkatta - 700 091
for postgraduate teaching (M.D. Hom.). Tel.: 91-33-337-970 Fax: 91-33-3375295
■
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Section - 12
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MISCELLANEOUS
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12.1 Plant Collection and Preparation of Herbarium.
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12.2 Drugs of Plant Kingdom: Its History and Authority.
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12.3 Drugs and Their Local Names.
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12.4 Table of Drugs.
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12.5 Relationship of Remedies with Duration of Action.
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12.6 Abbreviations.
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12.7 Indigenius Homoeopathic Drugs.
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12.8 Preparation of Some Drugs.
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To fresh woods and pastures new.
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12-1
Plant Collection and Preparation of
Herbarium
WHAT IS A HERBARIUM specimens. The herbaria of Agricultural College-

A herbarium is a collection of plants, which and Research Institute, Coimbatore and National
have been dried, pressed and mounted on Botanical Gardens, Lucknow, have about
herbarium sheets, identified and classified 200,000 and 40,000 specimens respectively.
according to some approved system of There are about 25,000 specimens in the
classification. The succulent plants are usually herbarium of the Divisions of Mycology and
preserved as such in some suitable preservative, Plant Pathology at Indian Agricultural Research
such as 4% formaline solution. Many types of Institute, New Delhi. The herbarium of the
dry fruits, cones of gymnosperms and Division of Botany at I.A.R.I. New Delhi,
inflorescences of palms, etc., are dried and kept contains about 3000 specimens.
in large containers.
SOME IMPORTANT INDIAN HERBARIA
At about 1550, Cesalpini and his co-workers
began to preserve the materials they studied, and • Forest Research Institute (FRI),
since then herbarium making became a great and Dehradun. The botany branch, one of the
interesting feature of botanical work. All civilized first to be created today comprises of three
countries possess their own plant collections sections, viz., systematic botany, wood
(herbaria). The greatest herbarium of the world anatomy and plant physiology. The division
is at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, today maintains a botanical garden, an ar-
possessing about six million specimens. A few boretum, having one of the richest live col-
good herbaria are there in our country. The lections of both indigenous and exotic tree
biggest herbarium of our country is at the Indian species, and a bambusetum, containing germ
Botanic Garden, Calcutta, possessing about one plasm of forty species of indigenous and
million specimens. The herbarium of the Forest exotic bamboos. All this provides a rich
Research Institute, Dehradun has about 3,00,000 source of material for research, teaching and
training.
Systematic Botany and Herbarium. This from world-wide, mainly phanerogams. Im-
section has been largely responsible for the portant collections are, collections of the
collection and indentification of a large por- flora of Madras.
tion of the floristic diversity of the Indian • Herbarium of the Division of Botany, In-
sub-continent. Started by Gamble (1890), the dian Agricultural Research Institute,
herbarium of the FRI has grown to become (I.A.R New Delhi) is, maintained by Gov-
one of the largest of its kind in Asia. It houses ernment of India. Number of specimens are
more than 3,00,000 authenticated plant about 10,000 (herbarium, consists of plants
specimens, including more than 1300 type of north India, introduced plants of economic
specimens, as well as a carpological collec- value, wild relatives of crop plants).
tion. Some of the notable publications of the
division, based primarily upon the herbarium PURPOSES OF HERBARIA
collection, are ‘Manual of Indian Forest
The drawings, photographs and descriptions
Botany, ‘World Monograph on the genus
of the plants cannot show what is desired to show
Toorui’’, forest flora of Punjab, Kumaon,
by them about individual variation and details
Chakrata, Andamans, orchids of north-west-
of structure and development. In most cases it
ern India and food from forests.
becomes necessary to compare descriptions with
• Herbarium of the Indian Botanic Gar- actual specimens which are found in widely
dens, Calcutta. It was founded in 1787: It separated regions. Most comparative studies for
is run by the state of West Bengal, Depart- taxonomic purposes are made in the herbarium
ment of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and and laboratory. The plant collections are much
Forests. The number of specimens collec- used for comparison with new material. The
tion is more than one million. The herbarium newly collected specimens are identified by the
consists of plants from world-wide, mainly comparison of their morphology and the
phanerogams and ferns of India and morphology of the plants collected in the
neighbouring countries of south and south- herbarium.
east Asia. In addition to these there are some
authentic collections of cryptogams. METHODS OF PLANT COLLECTION
• Herbarium of the National Botanic Gar- The specimens must be collected in every
dens, Lucknow. Founded in 1948 and in stage of their growth and reproduction and from
1953 taken over by the Council of Scientific different localities and habitates. The single
and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, specimen may be collected in the late flowering
Government of India. Number of specimens stage having both flowers and young fruits. A
are about half million. The garden has been complete specimen possesses all parts of the
established by C.S.I.R., as a Central Garden plant including the root system. In certain cases,
for India. the roots and other underground parts of the plant
• Madras Herbarium, Agricultural College are necessary for identification. For collection
and Research Institute, Coimbatore. It of the plants one should go out on excursion
comes under Department of Agriculture, several times in a season. A list of instruments
Government of Tamil Nadu. Founded in required by a plant collector, while on excursion
1874, the number of specimens are about half is given below:
million. The herbarium consists of plants
Plant Collection & Preparation of Herbarium 585
• A pair of secateurs for cutting woody twigs. Drying of Plant Materials

• A khurpi for digging up roots and under- Blotting sheets or newspaper sheets which
ground stems. have been used for pressing the plant materials
• A knife. must be frequently changed (after every 24, 48
• A pair of forceps. or 72 hours). The changing depends very much
• A vasculum for keeping the collected plants upon the weather conditions. Changing every 24
and their twigs. hours for two or three days and then two or three
more times at longer intervals is a good rule, but
• A wooden plant press.
this is too much for plants of arid region.
• Blotting papers and newspapers. Succulent plants require more frequent changing,
• A field book. and they require a long time to dry. The drying
• A pocket lens. of some plants such as saprophytes (Monotropa
• A small diary to write notes about plants and spl.), succulent hydrophytes and plants wet with
their habitat. rain or dew is very difficult.
Such plants turn black while drying. It
PRESSING OF THE PLANT MATERIALS becomes necessary that the driers (blotting
Generally the plants are pressed flat. To get sheets, newspapers, etc.) must be changed twice
good specimens, the plants must be pressed or thrice in a day continuously for several days.
before they wilt. Even great care does not prevent the
Generally the plants are collected in a cork discoloration of some species.
lined tin vasculum, and then they are pressed after Drying of Plant Materials with Artificial
the day’s trip. To get the finest specimens, the Heat
plants must be pressed directly in the plant press,
Now-a-days, this method is generally used
then and there, as soon as they are collected in
for drying of plants by plant collectors. Usually
the field.
this method is employed in damp climates
Methods of Pressing the Plant Materi- especially in hilly regions during rainy season.
als The method is as follows—The specimens are
The plants are pressed in between sheets of pressed in the field press for 24 hours in the usual
newspaper. These sheets are alternated between way. The plants are then rearranged within the
sheets of blotting paper. Wooden presses are too finely corrugated aluminium sheets. The press
heavy to be carried to the fields, and therefore, is then strapped and thereafter, the heated dry
while going on a collection trip, presses with air is passed over through the corrugations of
aluminium covers are preferred. The field press the aluminium sheets. These presses with plant
remains tied with leather straps. The plants dry specimens are placed in specially constructed
by transferring their moisture into the blotting ventilated boxes fitted with electrical
sheets. Weights are kept upon the press or the incandescent light bulbs. The strapped press may
press is tied lightly with leather straps so that, also be placed in a hot air oven at desired
the wrinkles of the plant materials are maintained temperature. A small electric fan is also be placed
without crushing the plant tissues. The standard in the oven, so that the warm air may be forced
size of the press is 12" x 18". through the corrugations of the aluminium sheets.
Instead of electrical appliances, kerosene lanterns
and stoves may also be used for the purpose. Distribution - - - -

Small and rare specimens may be dried Abundance - - - -
quickly with an electric iron by keeping them in Remarks - - - -
between layers of thick cloth or paper. The time Collector’s name - - - -
required for drying the plant specimens by Now-a-days the ecologists show the effects
artificial heat ranges from 6 to 24 hours. of habitat on morphology and also the
Generally the plants are taken out from the press distribution of species according to habitat, and
after 24 hours, and then they are transferred to such data are only possible when the plant
an ordinary press. specimens are labelled very properly.
MOUNTING OF SPECIMENS THE FIELD DATA

After drying, the plant specimens are There are two important methods for
mounted on herbarium sheets. The sheets must recording field data. They are as follows:
be of heavy white paper to give support to the • While collecting the plants, a plant collector
plants in handling. The standard size of the keeps a field book. The field book contains
herbarium sheets must be of good quality, so that the number which correspond to the number
it will not turn yellow or brittle with age. The of specimens collected. The ecological and
specimens are fastened to the sheets by glue or other data about the collected plants must
gummed cellophane tape. Usually one specimen, also be given in the same field book.
no matter how small it is, should be mounted
on one herbarium sheet. • According to this method, the printed forms
with headings indicating the required infor-
LABELLING OF THE SPECIMEN mation are put in convenient sized pads.
While making collections each printed form
A label must contain as much information
duly filled is attached with a specimen, and
as possible about the specimen. It is then attached
then the specimen is pressed in the field
to the lower right hand corner on the herbarium
press.
sheet. The label must contain the following
information. STORAGE OF HERBARIUM SHEETS
Flora of - - - -
After mounting the plant specimens on
Collector’s number - - - - herbarium sheets they are usually kept in
Date of collection - - - - specially constructed herbarium cases. The
Botanical name of the plant - - - - wooden or steel cabinets with shelves slightly
Local name of the plant - - - - bigger than the size of the herbarium sheets are
Family - - - - used for keeping the mounted plant specimens.
Locality - - - - Keeping mounted plant specimen for further
Attitude - - - - record is known as ‘filling the specimen’. In
Slope - - - - comparison to wooden cabinets, the steel
almirahs are being preferred as they protect the
Soil - - - -
plants from being damaged by the insects and
Habitat - - - - fire. The specimens are arranged in their cases
Use - - - - according to any well-known taxonomic system
Plant Collection & Preparation of Herbarium 587
of classification. In our country and most and therefore, they are supposed to be so valuable
Commonwealth countries and British colonies that they are always preserved with special care.
the Ben-tham and Hooker’s system of The type specimens are handled with care and
classification is being used for this purpose. are kept away from regular specimens in separate
Engler and Prantl’s system of classification is steel cases by the curators. Usually such
also used to classify the plants in many countries. specimens are kept in separate cellophane
The plants are arranged familywise and an index envelopes.
card of the families is prepared. Within the
families, the genera are arranged alphabetically. ROLE OF HERBARIA IN MODERN
The specimens of one genus are placed in a TAXONOMIC RESEARCH
folded genus cover. The species are also arranged Herbaria and herbarium taxonomists have
alphabetically within the genus. contributed significantly to our understanding of
natural history.
PROTECTION OF HERBARIUM
SHEETS AGAINST MOULDS AND Herbaria may be approached for
INSECTS identification of plant specimens and supply of
information not easily available from public
Mold fungi do sufficient harm to the plant libraries. Without active basic research
specimens, if they are not well dressed by some identification of specimens may be often difficult
effective chemical. For this purpose the plant or impossible. In preparation of homoeopathic
specimens are sprayed with a 2% solution of medicines identification of species is of
mercuric chloride which is highly poisonous. The paramount importance.
insects do much harm to the specimens. To
overcome this difficulty, various chemicals have DESIGNING OF MODERN FLORA
been applied to the specimens. Moth balls and
The species concept and the recognition of
naphthalene flakes are placed in the shelves of
intraspecific categories need particular
herbarium to check the insects. These as
examination; in fact a rational process of
repellents to the insects. The mixture of paradi-
taxonomic thought should pervade the entire
chlorobenzene act as an effective repellent to the
work. It should reflect adequately the current
insects.
trends in taxonomic thought and practice and at
Heat is also employed sometimes to kill the the same time, keep itself within the limits of a
insects. If the mounted sheets are placed in well balanced, integrated botanical work, a
suitably designed steel almirahs for four to six creative work meant to inspire botanists of all
hours at 60°C, all the insects and their eggs are disciplines and thus help to elevate systematics
destroyed. to its deserved place among the more
sophisticated branches of botany (M.A. Rau,
PRESERVATION OF TYPE SPECIMENS
1970).
The type specimens are those on which the Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a
name of some taxon has been based. These taxon, and attempts to account for its origin and
specimens are those which are used by the author development. The term phylogeny is the autonym
as a basis for the name and description of a of ontogeny. Ontogeny differs from phylogeny
species and designed by him as a type specimen, in that it accounts for the life history of the
individual plant from its development from the ultimate goal of phylogenetic research is the
zygote to the production of its own gametes. A production of a phylogenetic system of
primary objective of phylogenetic studies in classification. The phylogenetic system shows
botany is the determination of origins and the genetic and lime relationship of any one taxon
relationships of all taxa of both extinct and living to another. According to Turrill (1942),
plants. “Taxonomy is based on characters, phylogeny
on changes of characters.” A phylogenetic system
SIGNIFICANCE OF PHYLOGENY TO of classification for plants would provide the
TAXONOMY answer to questions of their origin to their modes
Phylogeny deals with the evolutionary of evolution to the problems of monophyleticism
history of all taxa. It is a function of taxonomic ‘polyphyleticism’ etc.; the identity of primitive
research at all levels of classification. The and advanced characters.
■
589
12-2
Drugs of Plant Kingdom:
It’s History and Authority
ACONITUM NAPELLUS ATROPA BELLADONNA
History and Authority: Master Hahnemann History and Authority: Hahnemann
introduced this drug into the homoeopathic introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1805.
materia medica in 1805. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica, Vol. II,
Materia Medica Vol. I, 12; Hering’s Guiding 67; X 373, 645.
Symptoms Vol. I, 28. The word ‘Belladonna’ is derived from two
The word ‘Aconite’ is derived from ‘Aconis’, Latin words ‘Bella’ meaning fine or beautiful and
a city of Bithynia (in Asia Minor). Also, ‘Acon’ ‘donna’ means ‘lady’.
means ‘dart’ because the darts were poisoned Its generic name atropa comes from the
with Aconite. Also, Greek word ‘Aconitum’ Greek word ‘atropos’, ‘the inflexible one’.
means ‘with soil’, as this plant grows on a stony
ground. BAPTISIA TINCTORIA
The word ‘napellus’ means ‘little turnip’, it History and Authority: It was introduced to
refers to the shape of the root. homoeopathy by Dr. W.L. Thompson in 1857.
Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica, Vol. II,
ARNICA MONTANA
31; X, 372.
History and Authority: Hahnemann This plant was used officially as a medicine
introduced this drug in homoeopathic practice from 1830 to 1840. It somewhat resembles
in 1805. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica, asparagus. The indigo was used by the American
Vol. I, 476. Indians as an antiseptic and as a dressing for
The name ‘Arnica’ is derived from the word gangrenous wounds, especially when these
‘Arnakis’ meaning ‘lambskin’ due to the wooly wounds were accompanied by fever.
appearance of the leaf.
BERBERIS VULGARIS
‘Montana’ is from latin word ‘mountainous’,
it is the place where it grows. History and Authority: This drug was
introduced by Dr. Hesse in homoeopathy. Allen’s The word ‘Cannabis’ is derived from the
Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. II, 139. Celtic word ‘Can’, meaning ‘a reed’ and ‘Ab’
This drug was used in medicine by Galen, meaning ‘small’ because of its small slender
Pliny and Dioscorids. The bark of the root was stems.
official from 1860 to 1880. The fruit was official
CAPSICUM ANNUM
from 1830 to 1840.
History and Authority: Hahnemann
BRYONIA ALBA introduced it in homoeopathy in 1805.
History and Authority: Hahnemann The word ‘Capsicum’ is derived from
introduced this drug to homoeopathic practice ‘Capsa’, meaning ‘a chest, a box’, because the
in 1816. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica, shape of the fruit is like a chest box which covers
Vol. II, 249. or conceals the seeds. On the other hand it may
The word ‘Bryonia’ means ‘growing be derived from the Greek word ‘Kapto’ meaning
rapidly’, as the stem grows rapidly. ‘to bite’, because of its hot pungent properties.
‘Alba’ derived from the Latin word ‘albus’ CARDUUS MARIANUS
meaning white as the roots and flowers both are
yellowish or white. History and Authority: Dr. Reil introduced
this drug in homoeopathy in 1852. Allen’s
CACTUS GRANDIFLORUS Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. II, 635.
History and Authority: Dr. Rubini introduced The word ‘Carduus’ is the genus of this plant
this drug in homoeopathy in 1862. Allen’s and other prickly plants known as thistles.
Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. II, 321. The word ‘Marianus’ is related to Virgin
The name ‘Cactus’ was originally given by Mary (since according to the fable, a portion of
Theophrastus, to a spiny plant of Sicily in Italy. Virgin Mary’s milk fell on the leaves, producing
the white veins).
CALENDULA OFFICINALIS
CAULOPHYLLUM THALICTROIDES
History and Authority: Dr. Franz introduced
this drug in homoeopathic materia medica History and Authority: Dr. E.M. Hale
practice in 1838. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia introduced this drug in homoeopathy. Allen’s
Medica, Vol. II, 419. Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. III, 31.
The word ‘Calendula’ is derived from The word ‘Caulophyllum’ is derived from
‘Calendos’ meaning the first day of the month as ‘Kavlos’, meaning ‘a stem’, and ‘phyllon’, ‘leaf’,
it plant flowers on the first of the month or at as the stem appears to be a leaf stalk.
least once a month. The word ‘Thalictroide’ derived from
‘thallow’, meaning ‘to grow green’, and Troides,
CANNABIS SATIVA resembling green stems.
History and Authority: Master Hahnemann
CHAMOMILLA
introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1811.
Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. II, History and Authority: Hahnemann
492. introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1805.
Drugs of Plant Kingdom 591
Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. III, CIMICIFUGA RACEMOSA

89. History and Authority: Dr. Houghton
The word ‘Chamomilla’ is derived from introduced this drug in N.A.J. of Homoeopathy
‘Chemaemelum’ and ‘Matricaria’ from ‘Matric’ Vol. 27, 1856; Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia
meaning ‘apple on the ground’, as the plant grows Medica Vol. X, 468.
to the ground and has an odor like that of apples. The word ‘Cimicifuga’ is derived from
It has been used since ages as a domestic remedy ‘Cimex’, which means a bug, and ‘Fugo’, ‘to
by the name of Chamomile. drive away’. It was used in Siberia and
Kamchatka to drive away the bugs.
CHELIDONIUM MAJUS
The word ‘Racemosa’ is derived from Latin
History and Authority: Dr. Hahnemann word ‘Racemosus’ meaning ‘full of clusters’.
introduced this drug in the homoeopathic practice
in 1819. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica CINA PAUCIFLORA
Vol. III, 127.
The word ‘Chelidonium’ is derived from introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1829.
‘Chelidon’ which means, ‘a swallow as’, its Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. III,
flowers were said to bloom and wither with the 337.
arrival and departure of the swallows.
The word ‘Cina’ comes from one of its
The word ‘Majus’ means ‘greater ’ or common name ‘Cynae’. ‘Pauciflora’ originates
‘larger’. from the word ‘pauces’ meaning ‘few’ and
‘florus’ means ‘flower’, as it has few real blooms
CHIMAPHILA UMBELLATA
and mostly only buds; it was first used as an
History and Authority: Dr. S.A. Jones first antihelmintic.
introduced this drug in homoeopathic materia
In Europe, it was introduced by the
medica in 1875.
Crusaders. After its alkaloid Santonine was
The word ‘Chimaphila’ is derived from isolated, Cina was discontinued.
‘Cheima’, meaning ‘winter’, and ‘Phileo’, to
‘love’. CINCHONA OFFICINALIS
The word ‘Umbellata’ is derived from Latin
History and Authority: Introduced by Dr.
word ‘Umbellatus’, meaning ‘umbellated’.
Hahnemann. This drug showed the pathway for
the establishment of homoeopathy. Allen’s
CHIONANTHUS VIRGINICA
Encyclopaedia Materia Medica, Vol. III, 460;
History and Authority: Dr. E.M. Hale Dewey, p. 96.
introduced this drug in homoeopathy.
Cinchon is a place where the Countess Ann,
The word ‘Chionanthus’ comes from Greek wife of the 4th Count of Cinchon lived. She was
word ‘Chio’, meaning ‘white’ and ‘Anthos’ cured of tertian fever in 1638 by the use of
meaning ‘a flower’, — it has snow-white Cinchona bark. Its virtues were made known to
flowers. Europe in 1640. It was identified by the botanists
The word ‘Virginica’ is derived from in 1717.
‘Virginia’, a state in U.S.A. in which it grows
abundantly.
CINNAMOMUM CAMPHORA (or ‘Autumnale’ is the season in which the plant

CAMPHORA OFFICINARUM) flowers.
introduced this drug in homoeopathic materia COLOCYNTHIS (CITRULUS
COLOCYNTHIS)
medica. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica
Vol. II, 422. History and Authority: Hahnemann
The word ‘Cinnamomum’ is derived from introduced this drug in homoeopathic practice
‘Kaju Manis’ which means ‘sweet wood’, from in 1821. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica
its aromatic odor and taste. Vol. III, 477.
The word ‘Camphor’ is derived from The name ‘Citrulus Colocynthis’ is derived
‘Kafur’, meaning ‘chalk’ or ‘lime’. from the Latin words ‘Citrus’, meaning ‘orange’,
as the color of the fruit is yellow after cutting. It
COCCULUS INDICUS was known to the Greek, Roman and Arabian
History and Authority: Dr. Hahnemann physicians as early as the 11th century.
medica in 1805. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia CONIUM MACULATUM
Medica Vol. III, 338. History and Authority: Master Hahnemann
The berries were powdered and mixed with introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1825.
dough and used for stupefying fishes. The berries Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. III,
have been used to prevent secondary fermenta- 519.
tion of liquors and also by brewers to impart The name ‘Conium’ comes from the Greek
intoxicating properties to beer. word ‘Konas’ meaning ‘to whirl about’, because
when eaten the plant causes great vertigo before
COFFEA CRUDA death.
History and Authority: Dr. Stapf introduced ‘Maculatum’ is a French word meaning
this drug in homoeopathy in 1823. Allen’s ‘spot’; Latin ‘Maculatus’ means ‘spotted’,
Encyclopaedia Materia Medica, Vol. III, 435. because the stem has small brownish-purple
The word ‘Coffea’ is derived from the spots.
Turkish ‘Qahveh’ or the Arabic ‘Qahuah’, the
name of a beverage. CROTON TIGLIUM
This plant is indigenous to Abyssinia but is History and Authority: Dr. Joret introduced
majorly cultivated in tropical countries. this drug in homoeopathy in 1834. Allen’s
Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. III, 606.
COLCHICUM AUTUMNALE
The word ‘Croton’ means ‘dog tick’, as the
History and Authority: Dr. Stapf introduced seeds resemble that of dog tick. This plant was
this drug in homoeopathy in 1826. Allen’s introduced in 1818.
Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. III, 448.
The word ‘Colchicum’ is derived from DIGITALIS PURPUREA
‘Colchis’, an ancient province in Asia Minor, east History and Authority: Hahnemann
of the Black sea, where this poisonous plant introduced this drug in homoeopathic practice
grows and flourishes.
in 1805. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica The name ‘Euphrasia’ is derived from the
Vol. IV, 92. Greek word ‘Euphrosyne’, one of the muses
The word ‘Digitalis’ is derived from expressing joy or pleasure.
‘Digitus’, meaning ‘a finger’, as it has a finger-
shaped corolla. GELSEMIUM SEMPERVIRENS
The word ‘Purpurea’ is derived from Latin History and Authority: Dr. Metcase
word ‘purpureus’, meaning ‘purple colored’ as introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1853.
it has purple flowers. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. IV,
385.
DROSERA ROTUNDIFOLIA
The word ‘Gelsemium’ is derived from Latin
History and Authority: Hahnemann word ‘Gelsimino’ which means ‘jasmine’ and
introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1805. ‘Sempervirens’ means ‘evergreen’.
Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. IV,
1701. HAMAMELIS VIRGINICA
The word ‘Drosera’ is derived from the History and Authority: Dr. Preston
Greek word ‘drosarus’, meaning ‘dewy’.
DULCAMARA
528.
The word ‘Hamemelis’ is derived from the
introduced this drug in homoeopathic practice
Greek word, ‘Hama’, meaning ‘at the same time’
in 1811. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica
Vol. IV, 178. and ‘Melles’ meaning a fruit.
The word ‘Dulcamara’ is derived from ‘Virginica’ is derived from ‘Virginia’, a state
‘Amarus’ meaning ‘bitter’, owing to the in U.S.A.
transition of tastes which it yields.
HYDRASTIS CANADENSIS
EUPATORIUM PERFOLIATUM History and Authority: It was introduced in
History and Authority: Dr. Williamson homoeopathic practice in 1866. Allen’s
introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1845. Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. IV, 613.
Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. IV, The word ‘Hydrastis’ is derived from
178. ‘Hydro’, meaning ‘water’, and ‘Drao’, meaning
The word Eupatorium ‘means’ ‘born of a ‘to act’. It is so named because of the active
noble father’, after King Pontus who discovered properties of the juice.
one of the species. ‘Per’ means ‘through’ and
‘Canadensis’ is related to its habitat, the
‘Folium’ means ‘leaves’ as the stem passes
northern limits of Canada.
through the leaves.
HYOSCYAMUS NIGER
EUPHRASIA
History and Authority: Dr. Hahnemann
medica in 1805. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia
Medica Vol. V, 25.
254.
The word ‘Hyoscyamus’ is derived from The word ‘Lobelia’ is derived from ‘Mathias
‘Hyos’, meaning ‘a hog’ and ‘Kyamos’ meaning Lobel’ a Flemish botanist.
‘a bean’, because the bean acts as an intoxicant ‘Inflata’ is derived from the Latin word
upon the swine, but not on other animals. ‘Inflatus’ meaning ‘inflated’, ‘swollen’, because
The word ‘Niger’ means ‘black’, as the the seeds are born in an egg-shelled inflated pod.
inside or throat of the flowers is purplish-black.
LYCOPODIUM CLAVATUM
HYPERICUM PERFORATUM
History and Authority: Dr. Hahnemann
History and Authority: Dr. Mueller introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1828.
introduced this drug in homoeopathic materia Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. VI,
medica in 1837. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia 1.
Medica Vol. V, 53. The word ‘Lycopodium’ is derived from
The word ‘Hypericum’ is derived from ‘Lycos’ meaning ‘wolf’ and ‘Pes’ meaning ‘the
‘Hyper’ meaning ‘above’, and ‘Eicon’ meaning foot’, as the shoots have an appearance of the
‘an image’, because the superior part of the ‘wolf’s foot’.
flower represents a figure. ‘Clavatum’ is derived from the Latin word
‘clavatus’ meaning ‘club-like’.
IPECACUANHA
History and Authority: Dr. Hahnemann MEZEREUM (or DAPHNE
introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1805. MEZEREUM)
Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. V, History and Authority: Dr. Hahnemann
137. introduced in homoeopathy in 1805. Allen’s
The name ‘Ipecacuanha’ is a Portuguese Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. VI, 330.
word meaning, ‘road-side-sick making plant’. It The word ‘Mezereum’ is derived from
is also used as a remedy for bloody flux or ‘Mazariyum’, which was then applied to a
dysentery which goes back as far as the late species of ‘Daphane’.
sixteenth century.
The word ‘Daphne’ is derived from ‘Daio’,
IRIS VERSICOLOR
meaning ‘burn’ and ‘Phone’, meaning ‘noise’
because of the cracking noise it makes while
History and Authority: Dr. Kitchen first burning.
The word ‘Iris’ means ‘rainbow’ due to MILLEFOLIUM
bright and varying color of the flowers. History and Authority: Hahnemann
‘Versicolor’ is derived from the Latin word introduced this drug in the homoeopathic practice
‘Versare’ meaning ‘to change’, because of the in 1833.
changeable color combination of the flower. The word ‘Millefolium’ is derived from
‘Mille’ meaning ‘thousand’ and ‘Folium’
LOBELIA INFLATA meaning ‘leaf’ as the plant has numerous narrow
History and Authority: It was introduced in pointed leaves.
the homoeopathic materia medica in 1841.
NUX MOSCHATA (or MYRISTICA PHYTOLACCA DECANDRA

FRAGRANS)
History and Authority: Dr. Helbig introduced introduced this drug in homoeopathy. Allen’s
this drug in homoeopathy in 1833. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. VII, 502.
Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. VII, 61. The word ‘Phytolacca’ is derived from
The Latin word ‘Myristica’ means ‘to anoint’ ‘Phyton’ meaning ‘plant’ and ‘Lacca’ meaning
or ‘be sprinkled with perfume’ as the plant has a ‘ten stamens’ because of the flowers have ten
fragrant odor. stamens.
NUX VOMICA PODOPHYLLUM PELTATUM

History and Authority: Master Hehnemann History and Authority: Dr. Williamson
introduced this drug in our materia medica in introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1842.
1805. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. VIII,
Vol. VII, 83. 130.
The word Nux vomica is derived from the The word ‘Podophyllum’ is derived from the
Latin word ‘Nux’ meaning ‘nut’ and ‘Vomere’ Latin word ‘Podos’, meaning ‘foot’ and ‘Phyllon’
meaning ‘vomiting’ because of the peculiar meaning, ‘leaf’, as its leaves resemble the
property of the nut to induce vomiting. webbed feet of a duck; hence also its nickname
‘duck’s foot’.
OPIUM (or PAPAVER SOMMIFERUM)
The word ‘Peltatum’ is derived from Latin
History and Authority: Hahnemann word ‘peltatus’ having a pella or tight shield
introduced this drug in the homoeopathic practice because the petioles are attached to the middle
in 1805. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica of lamina which gives it the appearance of a
Vol. VIII, 173. shield.
The Latin word ‘Opium’ means ‘juice of the
poppy’. PULSATILLA NIGRICANS
‘Somnus’ means ‘sleep’. History and Authority: Hahnemann

introduced this drug in homoeopathic practice
PASSIFLORA INCARNATA in 1805. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica
Vol. VIII, 20.
History and Authority: Dr. Hait first
introduced this drug in homoeopathy. The word ‘Pulsatilla’ is derived from
‘Pulsatus’ meaning ‘to beat’ or ‘to strike’ as it
The word ‘Passiflora’ is derived from
pulsates from the blowing winds.
‘Passio’, meaning ‘passion’ and ‘Flos’, meaning
‘flower’. RHUS TOXICODENDRON
The word ‘Incarnata’ is derived from the
Latin word ‘incarnatus’ meaning ‘to cloth with
flesh’, due to its purple and flesh colored flower-
crown. The word ‘Rhus’ means ‘red’ because its
flowers and leaves are red in color.
‘Toxicodendron’ means ‘poison tree’.
SANGUINARIA CANADENSIS THUJA OCCIDENTALIS

History and Authority: Dr. Bute introduced History and Authority: Master Hahnemann
this drug in homoeopathy in 1837. Allen’s introduced this drug in homoeopathy in 1819.
Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. VIII, 481. Allen’s Encyclopaedia Materia Medica Vol. IX,
The word ‘Sanguinaria’ is derived from 576.
‘Sanguis’ meaning ‘blood’ because when the The word ‘Thuja’ is derived from the Greek
plant is injured, it emits a blood-like juice. word ‘thero’ which means ‘fumigate’ or
The word ‘Canadensis’ is related to its ‘sacrifice’, as in ancient times this fragrant wood
habitat, Canada. was burnt at sacrifices.
■
12-3
Drugs and Their Local Names
The following abbreviations have been used: ACALYPHA INDICA

E=English; S.=Sanskrit; B.=Bengali; E. Mukta-jhuri; Bom. & H. Khokali; G.
H.=Hindi; T.=Tamil; Te.=Telugu; Vanchi kanto; M., T. & Te. Kuppamani; O.
M.=Malayalam; Bom.= Bombay; A.=Assamese; Indramaris; C. Kuppi; S. Arittamunjari.
O.=Oriya; P.= Punjabi; G.= Gujrati;
Mar.=Marathi; C.= Canarease; U.=Urdu; Dec.= ACHYRANTHES ASPERA
Decan; Ar.= Arabic.
E. Prickly chaff-flower; S. Apamarga; B.
ABEL MOSCHUS ESCULENTUS Apang; H. Laljiri; A. Ubtisath; P. Kutri; Bom.
Aghada; Mar. Aghara; M. Katalati; T.
E. Lady’s finger; S. Gandhamula; B. Nayurivi; Te. Uttareni; C. Utranigida.
Dhenras; H. Bhindi; U. Bhendi; A. & O.
Bhendi; G. Bhinda; M. Venda; T. Vendi; Te. ACONITUM NAPELLUS
Benda; C. Bende.
E. Monk’s hood; S. Bisha; B. Katbish,
ABROMA AUGUSTA Mithabis; A. Bish; H. Mitha-zahar; G.
Shangadio
E. Devil’s cotton; B.&H. Ulatkambal; A.
Guakhiakarai; O. Pishachogonjali; G. Olat AEGLE MARMELOS
kambal; T. Sivaputtutti.
E. Wood apple, Bael tree; S. Sriphal; B. &
ABRUS PRECATORIUS A. Bel; H. Bili., Sriphal; U. Bel; O. Bela,
Bilwa; P. Bil; G. Billy; Bom. Bela; Mar. Bel;
E. Crab’s eye; S. Gunga; B. Kunch; H. Rati; M. Vilvam; T. Villuamaram; Te. Bilambu;
Bom. Gunja; Mar. Ganj; C. Bilva.
M. Kunni; C. Galaganji.
ARTEMISIA VULGARIS ASA FOETIDA

B. & Bom. Nagadona; H. Nagadouna; P. H. Hing; M. Kayam; Bom. Hingra; S, Hingu.
Tarkha; S. Nagadamani; T. Mashibattiri; Te.
Machipatri. ASPARAGUS OFFICINALIS
E. Asparagus; S. Shatavari; S. Satamuli; H.
ALLIUM CEPA
Satwar; U. Satavara; A. Shatmul; P. Satwar;
E. Onion; H. Piyaz; B. Pianj; S. Paladu; A. G. & Bom. Satavari; Mar. Satmuli; M.
Ponoru; P. Peyaz; Bom. Puyaj; Mar. Kanda; Satavali.
M. Ulli; T. Irulli; Te & C. Nirulli.
ATISTA INDICA
ALLIUM SATIVUM
E. Toothbrush plant; S. Ashvashkota; B. Ash-
E. Garlic; S. Lashuna; B. Rasun; H. Lashun; shaora; H. Bannimbu; A. Chauldhoa; O.
U. Lehsun; O. Rasuna; G. Lasan; Bom. Chauladhua; Bom. Kirmira; M. Panal; T.
Lusoon; Mar. Lasun; M. Veluthulli; T. Anam; Te. Golugu.
Vallipundu; Te. Tellagadda; C. Belluli.
ATROPHA BELLADONNA
ALOE SOCOTRINA
E. Deadly nightshade; B. Yebruj; H. Sug-
Ar. Musabar; B., M. & C. Ghritakumari; G. angur; P. Suchi; Bom. Girbutita.
Kudvikunvar; H. Ghikumari, Ghikavar; Mar.
Kunvarpata; T. Kattalai; Te. Manjikattali; U. AVENA SATIVA
Ghiqwara. E. Oat; B. Jai; H. Ganer; P. Ganerji; C.
Togekoddi.
ALSTONIA SCHOLARIS
E. Devil tree; S. Saptaparni; B. Chatim; H. AZADIRACHTA INDICA
Chatium; P. Satona; Mar. Satvin; C. Hale; E. Neem, Margosa; B & H. Nim; Bom.
A. Chatian. Balnimb, Nim; G. Limbado; Mar. Nimbay;
O. Nimo; S. Nimba; M & T. Veppu; Te.
AMOORA ROHITAKA
Nimbamu.
S. Rohitaka; B. Taktaraj; H. Harinhara; G.
Ragtarohido; Mar. Raktarohida; M. Sim; T. BETA VULGARIS
Vangul; Te. Rohitaka E. Sugar beet; B. Palangshak; H. Chukandar;
U. Chakundar; A. Beet-palang; O. Palanga
ANACARDIUM ORIENTALE
saga; G. & Mar. Beet; T. Chakunda.
H. Vilba, Bhilwa; B. Vela; S. Bhallika; M.
Temprakku; T. Serangottai; Te. Bhallatamu. BOERHAAVIA DIFFUSA
B. Punarnaba; H. Thikri, Punarnava; G. Moto
ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA
satodo; Mar. Vasu; S. Shothaghai,
B. Kalmegh; G. Kariyatu; H. Kiryat; M. Punarnava; T. Mukkarattai, Tel. Punarnaba.
Kiryat, Nelavepu; Mar. Olikirayat; S.
Bhunimba; T. Nilavembu; Te. Nelavemu.
Drugs and Their Local Names 599
BRAHMI OR HERPESTIS MONNIERIA Kasunda; A. Medelua; O. Kolokasunda; G.

S. Brahmacharini; B. Brahmi; H. Barambhi; Kasundari; Mar. Kala-kasbinda; Te. Tegara.
U. Jalanim; O. Krishnaparni; Bom. Bama;
CEPHALANDRA INDICA
T. Brame; M. Kudangal; Te. Sambranichattu.
E. Scarlet gourd; S. Bimba; B. Telakucha;
BRYOPHYLLUM CALYCINUM H. Bhimba; U. Kundaru; A. Belipoka; O.
E. Sprout-leaf plant; S. Paramabija; B. Pathar Kunduri; P. Kundru; G. Ghol; Bom. Bhimb;
kuchi; A. Petegaza; O. Amarpoi; U. Mar. Tondale; M. Kovel; T. Kovarai; Te.
Chubehayat; P. Pathurchat; Bom. Ahiravana; Kakidonda.
Mar. Panphuti; T. Ranakalli.
CINNAMOMUM CAMPHORA
CAESALPINIA BONDUCELLA E. Camphor; S. & O. Karpura; B. & E.
E. Fever nut; S. Kuberakshi; B. Nata; H. & Karpur; H., G & Mar. Kapur; P. Kafur; M.
P. Katkaranj; A. Letaguti; O. Gila; G. Karpuravriksham.
Kakachila; Bom. Gaja; Mar. Sagargota; T.
Kalakkodi; Te. Gacha; C. Gajjiga. CITRUS DECUMANA
E. Shaddock; S. Madhukarkati; B.
CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA Batabinebu; H. & P. Chakotra; U. Chokutrah;
E. Madar; S. Arka; B. Akanda; Bom. Ak; G. O. Batapi; G. Obakotru; Bom. Papnas; T.
Akado, Akro; H. Ak, Mudar; Mar. Akanda; Bambalmas; Mar. Papanas.
O. Arka; M. & T. Errukku; Tel. Jilledu.
CLERODENDRON INFORTUNATUM
CANNABIS SATIVA
S. Bhantaka; B. Ghettl; H. Bhant; A. Bhettita;
B. Bhang, Ganga; M. Bhang; H. Bhung, O. Kunti; P. Karu; Bom. & Mar. Kari; M.
Charas, Ganja; G., T.& Te. Ganja; S. Bhanga, Pellu-vellem; T. Karukanni; Te.
Ganjika Basavanapadu.
CAPSICUM ANNUUM COCCULUS INDICUS

E. Chilli, Red pepper; B. Lanka; H. & P. Lal- B. & H. Kakmari; Bom. Kakphal; G.
mircha; U. Lalmarach; A. Joloka; O. Lanka- Kakaphola; S. Kakmari; T. Kaka; Te.
maricha; G. & Mar. Mirchi; Bom. Lalmirchi; Kakamari.
M.&T. Mulaku; Te. Mirapakaya.
COFFEA ARABICA
CARICA PAPAYA
E. Coffee; B. Kafi; H. Kahwa; M. Kappi,
B. Papay; H. Ambal; E. Papaw; A. Amita; G. Bannu; T. Kaddumallikal; Te. & C. Kapi.
Papayi; C. Parangi; M. Kurutha; O.
Amrutabhanda; T. Papali; Te. Boppay. COLCHICUM AUTUMNALE
CASSIA SOPHERA H. Hirantutiya, Suringam; P. Surinjin talkh;

S. Hiranya utha; U. Suranhane talkh.
S. Talapota; B. Kalkashunda; H. & P.
COLOCYNTHIS Wad; M. Vatam; T. Vadam; Te. Vitapi; C.

Ala, Vata.
B. Indrayan, Makhal; Bom. Indrayan; P.
Tumbi, Ghurumba; S. Mahendravaruni; T. FICUS RELIGIOSA
Payk kumutti. Te. Etipuchchha.
B. Ashwattha; G. Jeri; H. Pipal; M. Areyal;
CROCUS SATIVUS S. Pippala; T. Arshemaran.
E. Saffron; B. & A. Jafran; H. Zafran; G. & GOSSYPIUM HERBACEUM
Mar. Keshar; T. Kungumapu; Te.
Kunkumapove. E. Cotton; S. Karpasi; A. Kopah; B., H., Bom.
& Mar. Kapas; O. Kapa; P & G. Rui; M.
CROTON TIGLIUM Kuruparathy; T. Parathy; Te. Patti; C. Hatti.
B. Jaypal; Bom. & H. Jamalgota; M. & T. GRANATUM
Nirvalam; S. Jayapala; Te. Nepala.
S. Darimba; B. & A. Dalim; H. & P. Anar; O.
CYNODON DACTYLON Dalimba; G. Dadam; Mar. Dalimb, M.
Mathalam.
E. Doob grass; B. Durba; S. & G. Durva; H.
& P. Doob; U. Dub; A. Duboribon; O. GYMNEMA SYLVESTRIS
Dubaghasa; Mar. Harali; M. & T.
Arugampullu; Te. Gericha gaddi; C. B. & H. Merasingi; Bom. Kavali; S.
Garikehulla. Meshashringi; T. Shiru kuranja.
HELIANTHUS ANNUS
DATURA METEL
E. Sunflower; S. Adityabhakta; B.
E. Thorn-apple; S. Dhutura; B., H. & U.
Suryamukhi; H. & P. Shyruamukhi; U.
Dhutura; A. Dhotura; O. Dudura; P. & C.
Suryamakkhi; A. Beliphul; G. Suryamukhi;
Dattura; G. Dhatoora; Mar. Dhotra; M.
Bom. Surajmaki; Te. Suryakanta; C.
Ummam; T. Umathi; Te. Ummathi.
Hottutirugana; Mar. Suryaphul; M. & T.
DESMODIUM GANGETICUM Suryakanti.
S. Shaliparni; B. Shalpani; H. Salpan; U. HEMIDESMUS INDICA

Shalwan; O. Karsopani; P. Shalpurchi; G. E. Indian sarsaparilla; H. Salsa; S. & O.
Salvan; Bom. & Mar. Salparni; M. Pullah; Anantamula; Bom. Upasara; B., A.&Mar.
T. Pulladi; Te. Gitanaram; C. Murelehone. Anantamul; P. Desisarva; G. & Mar.
Upalasari; M. Narunari; T. Nannari; Te. &
EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS
C. Sungandipala.
E. Eucalyptus tree; T. Karpuram; Te.
Karpuramu; C. Karpura. HOLAERRHENA ANTIDYSENTERICA
A. Dudcory; B. Kurchi; Bom. Kalakura; G.
FICUS INDICA
Dhowda; H. Kurchi, Kura; M. Kodagapala;
E. Banyan; S. Vitapi; B. Bot; H. & P. Barh; O. Kherwa; S. Kutaja; T. Indrabam; Te.
U. Bargoda; A. Borgoch; O. Bara; G. & Mar. Palakodsa.
HYDROCOTYLE ASIATICA JUSTICIA ADHATODA

A. Manimuni; B. Thankunui; Bom. Karinga; E. Malabar nut; B. Basak; G. Ardhsi; H.
G. Barmi; S. Bramamanduki; H. & Mar. Adulasa, Vasaka; Mar. Baksa; O. Basongo;
Mandukparni; T. Vallerai; Te. Bokkudu; U. P. Bhaikar; S. Vasaka; T. Adhatodai; V.
Brahmi. Arusa.
HYOSCYAMUS NIGER LEUCAS ASPERA

E. Henbane; B. Khorasaniajayan; G. S. Dandakalash; B. Ghalghase; H.
Khorasani ajmo; H. & U. Khurassani Barahalkhusa; A. Doron, Durumphul; O.
ajvayan; Mar. Khorasaniova; S. Parasikaya; Gaisa; Bom. Tampa; M. Thumba; T. Tumbai;
T. Kurasaniyoman; Te. Kurashnivamam. Te. Tummaehettu.
HYPERICUM PERFORATUM LUFFA AEGYPTIAEA

H. Bassant; U. Balsana. E. Sponge-gourd; S. Ghoshaka; B. Dhundul;
H. & P. Ghiya-tori; U. Turi; A. Bhol; O. Pita-
HYDROPHILA SPHINOSA tarada; G. Taria; Bom. Ghosali; Mar.
S. Kakilaksha; B. Kyleykhara; U. Goshale; T. Tikku; Te. Guttibira.
Talimkhana; O. Kantakalia; P. Talmakhana;
LYCOPERSICUM ESCULENTUM
G. Ekharo; Bom. Kolsunda; Mar. Kolshinda;
M. Vayal Chulli; T. Nirmulli; Te. E. Tomato; B. Balati-begun; H. & P. Tamatar;
Nirguvivera. A. Belahibengena; O. Bilati baigana; G.
Tameta; Mar. Tambeta, M. Thakkali.
INDIGO TINCTORIA
LYCOPODIUM CLAVATUM
E. Indigo; S. Nili; B., H. & A. Nil; U. & O.
Nila; G. Gali; Bom. Nilaguli; Mar. Neel; Te. H. Bendarli; P. Walayati bagan.
Aviri; C. Ajara.
MELILOTUS ALBA
JATROPHA CURCAS
E. White melilot; S. Methika; B. Sadamethi;
E. Purging nut; S. Parvateranda; B. H. Safed methi.
Bagbharenda; H. Jangli-arandi; A.
Bongliara; O. Baigaba; P. Jamalgota; G. MOMORDICA CHARANTIA
Jepal; Bom. Irundi, Jepal; Mar. Mogali E. Bitter gourd; S. Karavella; B. Kalara; H.
erand; M. Katalvanakku; T. Adalai; C. Kareli; U. Karella; A. Titakerata; O. Kalara;
Adavijamudamu. G. Karelu; Bom. Karla; Mar. Karle; M. & T.
Paval; Te. Kakara; C. Hagola.
JOANESIA ASOCA
B. Asok; G. Ashopalaya; H. Ashok; M. MYRTUS COMMUNIS
Asoka; Mar. Ashoka; O. Osoko; T. Asogam. E. Murtle; B. Bilati-mehedi; H. & P.
Vilayatimehedi; U. Hubulas; T. Kulinaval.
NUX MOSCHATA Te. Usiri; Mar. Awala; M. Amalakam; T.

Amalgam; C. Amalaka.
B. Jayphal; Bom., P. & H. Jaiphal; G.
Jeyephal; S. Jaiphata; M. & T. Jadikkai; Te. PSORALEA CORYLIFOLIA
Jaji kava.
S. & O. Bakuchi; B. Lata kasturi; H. & P.
NUX VOMICA Babchi; U. Babechi; G. Bavacha; Bom.
Bawachi.
B. Kuchila; Bom. Kaira; G. & H. Kuchla;
M. Kanjhiram; Tel. Mushti; U. Kuchala; P. RAUWOLFIA SERPENTINA
Kuchila; S. Kachchira; T. Ettikkottai. B. Sarpagandha; S. Chandrika; H.
Sarpagandh; M. Amalpapriyan; T.
NYCTANTHES ARBORTRISTIS
Sovannamilbori; Te. Dumparasna.
E. Night jasmine; S. Sephalika; B. Sheuli;
H. Harishinagar; U. Gulejafari; A. Sewali; RHEUM EMODI
O. Singadhara; P. Harsanghar; G. Ratrase; S. Revatchini; B. Revanchini; H. Dolu; P.
Bom. Parijataka; Mar. Parijataka; M. Atsu; U. Rewanchini.
Pavizhamulla; T. Pavrelem; Te. Parijatham;
C. Harisringi. RICINUS COMMUNIS
S. Eranda; B. Rehri; H. Arand; U. Eranda;
OCIMUM SANCTUM A. Erigoch; O. Joda; P. Rendi; G. & Bom.
H. Tulsi; B. Tulasi; O. Tulasi; Bom., T., Te.& Erandi; Mar. Erand; M. & T. Avanakku; Te.
Mar. Tulasi; M. Shiva tulasi, Krishna tulasi. Amidamu; C. Avudalu.
OLDENLANDIA HERBACEA RUTA GRAVEOLENS
S. Parpata; B. Khet-papra; H. Daman-pappar; B. Ermul; Bom. Satap; H. Sadab; P. Sudab;

G. Parpat; O. Gharpodia; Mar. Pitapada; T. S. Somalata; T. Arvada.
Parpadagaru; Te. Verinellavamu.
SANTALUM ALBUM
OLEANDER S. Chandanna; B. & A. Chandan; H. Sufed
chandan; O. & P. Chandana; G. Sukhada;
S. Karavira; H. & P. Kaner; B. Karabi; Bom.
Bom. Chandan; Mar. Chandan; M.
Kanhera; M. Lam; Te. Karavirum.
Chandanam.
OPIUM SOLANUM XANTHOCARPUM
S. Ahiphena; H., B. & P. Afim; Bom. Aphim; B. Kantikari; H. Kateli; O. Ankaranti; P.
M. & A. Afium; T. Abini; Te. Kosakora; G. Kandiali; G. Bhoyaringani; Bom. Bhuringni;
Aphina; Mar. Aphim. Mar. Kateringani; Te. Nelavakudu.
PHYLLANTHUS EMBLICA SYZYGIUM JAMBOLANUM

S. Amlika; B. & A. Amloki; H & P. Amla; U. A. Jamu; B. Jam; Bom. Jambhul; G. Jambu;
Anwala; O. Anala; G. Ambala; Bom. Avala; H. Jaman; S. Jambu; T. Nagai; Te. Jambuvu.
TABACUM VERNONIA ATHELMINTICA

B. Tamak; B. & H. Tambaku; P. Tamaku; M. S. Somraji; B. & H. Somraj; M. Karalye; T.
Pukayila; S. Tamakhu; T. Pugaiyilay; Tel. Kattushiragam; Te. Advijilakara.
Pogaku.
VISCUM ALBUM
TERMINALIA ARJUNA
B. Banda; H. & P. Bhangara; U. Maizakeashi;
A. Orjun; B., Bom. & H. Arjuna; G. T. Ottu; A. Roghumala; O. Malanga; Mar.
Arjunasadra; M. Marutu; O. Orjuno; S. Jalundar; M. Iththill.
Arjuna; T. Maruda; Tel. Tellamaddi.
WITHNIA SOMNIFERA
TERMINALIA CHEBULA
B. Ashvagandha; H. & P. Asgandh; A.
S. & B. Haritaki; H. Harara; A. Shilikha; O. Lakhana; O. Ajagandha; G. Asundha; Bom.
Harida; P. Harrar; G. Pilo-harda; Mar. Hirda; Asgund; Mar. Askandh; M. Peretti; T.
M. & T. Kadukka; Te. Karaka; C. Harade. Amukkiram; Te. Asvagandi
TRICHOSANTHES DIOICA ZINGIBER OFFICINALE

S. Patola; B. Patol; H. Parwal; U. Parawal; E. Ginger; S., O. & U. Adraka; B., O. & A.
A. Patal; O. Patala; P. Palwal; G. Potala; M. Ada; H. Adarak; G. Adhu; Bom. Adu; Mar.
Patolam; Mar. Parwar. Ale; M. Inchi; T. Inji; Te. Allam; C. Sunti.
■
TRIBULUS TERRESTRIS
B. Gokhru; G. Gokharu; H. Chota gokhru;
M. Neringil; S. Gokshura; T. Nerunji.
12-4
Table of Drugs
Name of Drug Synonyms Family Distribution Parts Used
Abies canadensis Hemlock spruce Pinaceae North America Bark

Abies nigra Black spruce Pinaceae North America; Canada Amber resin
Abroma augusta Olat kambal Sterculiaceae Bengal; Bihar; Sikkim Leaves
Abroma radix Olat kambal Sterculiaceae Bengal; Bihar; Sikkim Root
Abrotanum Southern wood Compositae Great Britain Leaves & young shoots
Acalypha indica Indian nettle Euphorbiaceae Throughout India Whole plant.
Achyranthes aspera Prickly chaff flower Amarantaceae Throughout India Whole plant excluding
excluding root
Aconitum napellus Monk’s hood Ranuculaceae Western Himalayas Whole plant
Actaea spicata Black shakeroot Ranunculaceae Germany; Canada Roots
Adonis vernalis Pheasant’s eye Ranunculaceae Northern Europe; Asia Whole plant
Aegle folia Bael Rutaceae India Leaf
Aesculus Horse chestnut Sapindaceae Europe; India; America Ripe nut excluding
hippocastanum outer shell
Aethusa cynapium Garden hemlock Umbelliferae Europe; New England Whole plant
Agaricus muscarius Toad stool Agaricaceae Europe; Asia; America Whole fungus except
outer skin
Agnus castus Chaste tree Verbenaceae Europe; France; Greece Berries
Ailanthus glandulosa Chinese sumach Simarubaceae Northern India Stem-bark
Aletris farinosa Star-grass Liliaceae Eastern United States Rhizome
Allium cepa Onion Liliaceae Cultivated in India The red mature bulb
Allium sativum Garlic Liliaceae Universally cultivated The mature bulb
Aloe socotrina Ghikumari; Mocha Liliaceae India; Africa; Sri Lanka Inspissated juice of the
leaves

Alstonia scholaris Chatim; Dita bark Apocynaceae India; Sri lanka; Burma Bark
Anacardium orientale Marking nut Anacardiaceae India Resinous juice of seed
Andrographis Kalmegh Acanthaceae Throughout India Whole plant
paniculata
Apocynum Indian hemp Apocynaceae U.S. A.; Canada Roots
cannabinum
Aralia racemosa American spikenard Araliaceae North America Roots
Arnica montana Leopard’s bane Compositae Central Europe; Russia Whole plant
Artemisia vulgaris Nagadouna; Compositae India; Europe; Canada Roots
Mugwort
Arum triphyllum Bog onion Araceae America; Canada Roots
Asafoetida Hing; Devil’s dung Umbelliferae India; Iran Gum-resin
Asarum European Aristo- Throughout Europe Whole plant
europaeum snake root lochiaceae
Asparagus Common garden Liliaceae Europe Young shoots
officinalis asparagus
Avena sativa Oat; Jey Graminae India Seeds
Azadirachita indica Nim; Margosa bark Meliaceae India; Burma Fresh bark
Baptisia tinctoria Wild indigo Leguminosae Southern New England; Bark of root
America
Belladonna Deadly nightshade Solanaceae Europe; Kashmir Whole plant
Bellis perennis Daisy Compositae Britain Whole plant
Berberis vulgaris Kashmal; Berberidaceae India; Europe; Asia Bark of the root
Pipperidge
Boerhaavia diffusa Punarnava Nyctaginaceae India Entire fresh
herb with flowers
Bovista Warted puff-ball Lycoperdaceae Europe; Asia minor Ripe bovista (fungus)
Bryonia alba Wild hops Cucurbitaceae Middle & South Europe Roots
Cactus grandiflorus Night blooming Cactaceae Tropical America Flowering stems
cereus
Calendula Garden marigold Compositae Cultivated in India Fresh flowering tops
officinalis and leaves
Calotropis gigantia Mudar; Akanda Asclepiadaceae India Roots
Cannabis indica Hashish Cannabinaceae Western Central Leaves
Asia; India
Cannabis sativa Hemp Cannabinaceae Western Central Flowering tops
Asia; India
Capsicum annum Chilly Solanaceae India; South America Ripe fruit
Carduus marianus Blessed thistle Compositae Punjub; Himalayas Seeds
Table of Drugs 607

Carica papaya Melon tree; papaya Caricaceae Throughout India Unripe furits
Caulophyllum Blue cohosh Berberidaceae U.S. A.; Kentucky Rhizome
thalictroides
Ceanothus New Jersey tea Rhamnaceae Southern Canada; Texas Leaves
americanus
Chamomilla Bitter chamomile Compositae India; Asia; Europe Whole plant
Chelidonium Celandine Papaveraceae Europe; Germany; Whole plant
majus France
Cicuta virosa Water hemlock Umbelliferae India Roots
Cimicifuga Black snake-root Ranunculaceae U.S. A.; Canada Rhizome
racemosa
Cinchona Peruvian bark Rubiaceae India, Sikkim Bark
officinalis
Cinnamonum Cinnamon Lauraceae India; Srilanka Inner bark
Cocculus indicus Indian cockle Menisper- India; Burma Seeds
maceae
Coffea cruda Coffee Rubiaceae India; Abysinia Seeds
Colchicum Meadow saffron Liliaceae India; Europe Bulb
autumnale
Collinsonia Stone-root Labiatae Canada; U.S.A. Rhizome
canadensis
Colocynthis Bitter gourd Cucurbitaceae India; Ceylon; Japan Pulp of the fruit
Conium Poison hemlock Umbelliferae Asia; Europe; Whole plant
maculatum North Africa
Convallaria Lily of the valley Liliaceae Europe; Asia; Whole plant
majalis United State
Crataegus Ban-sangli Rosaceae Asia; Europe Berries
oxyacantha
Crocus sativus Saffron Iridaceae India; Europe; China Dried stigma of flower
Croton tiglium Purging nut Euphorbiaceae Bengal; Assam; Burma Oil from seeds
Cyclamen Snow-bread Primulaceae Central & South Europe Roots
europaeum
Daphne indica Spurge-laurel Thymelaceae West Indies; China Bark of branches
Digitalis purpurea Common Scrophular- India; Europe; Leaves of 2nd
fox-glove iaceae England year growth
Dioscorea villosa China root; Dioscoriaceae United States Rhizomes
Colic root
Drosera rotundifolia Round leaved Droseraceae Europe; North America Whole plant
sundew

Dulcamara Bitter-sweet Solanaceae Europe; Asia; Africa Whole plant
Echinacea angustifolia Black Sampson Compositae America; Central Whole plant
Europe
Equisetum hyemale Scouring rush Equisetaceae U.S.A. Whole plant
Eucalyptus globulus Blue gum leaves Myrtaceae Universal Fresh leaves
Eupatorium Ague weed Compositae North America Leaves & tops
perfoliatum of flowers
Euphrasia officinalis Eye-bright Scrophulariaceae Europe; Asia Whole plant
Ficus religiosa Pipal; Ashwath Moraceae India Tender leaves
Gelsemium Yellow jasmine Logaminaceae Virginia; Mexico Rhizome
sempervirens
Geranium maculatum Alum root Geraniaceae North America Roots
Gossypium herbaceum Cotton plant Malvaceae Asia; Europe; America Bark of the the root
Gratiola officinalis Hedge hossyp Scrofulariaceae North America; Europe Whole plant
Gymnema sylvestre Merasingi Asclepiaricaceae Central India Leaves
Hamamelis virginica Witch hazel Hamamelideceae U.S.A., Canada Bark of root & stem
Helleborus niger Black hellebore Ranunculaceae Alpine regions Rhizome
Holarrhena Kurchi; Kura Apocynaceae Throughout India Dried bark
antidysenterica
Hydrastis canadensis Golden seal Ranunculaceae Canada; U.S.A. Rhizome
Hydrocotyle asiatica Thick-leaved Umbelliferae Moist places of India Whole plant
pennywort
Hyoscyamus niger Black henbane Solanaceae India; Europe; USA Whole plant
Hypericum St. John’s wort Hypericaceae India; Asia; Europe Whole plant
perforatum
Ignatia amara St. Ignatius’ bean Loganiaceae Phillippine islands; China The bean
Ipecacuanha Ipecac Rubiaceae India; Brazil; America Roots
Iris versicolor Blue flag Iridaceae America; India; Europe Rhizome
Jatropha curcas Purging nut Euphorbiaceae Throughout India Seeds
Joanesia asoca Ashok; Kankelia Leguminoceae Evergreen forests Bark
of India
Justisia adhatoda Adulsa; Vasaka Acanthaceae India Leaves
Kalmia latifolia Broad-leaved Ericaceae North America Leaf
laurel
Lachnanthes tinctoria Spirit-weed Haemodoideceae North America Whole plant
Lathyrus sativus Chick-pea Leguminoceae India; Southern Europe Seeds
Laurocerasus Cherry-laurel Rosaceae Persia; Turkey Leaf
Ledum palustre Wild rosemary Ericaceae Northern Europe; Asia Whole plant
Table of Drugs 609

Lobelia inflata Red Indian Lobeliaceae Northern America; Whole plant
tobacco Canada
Lycopodium clavatum Club moss Lycopodiaceae Bengal, Sikkim; Europe The spores
Lycopus virginicus Bugle weed Labiatae North America Whole plant
Melitotus alba Sweet scented Leguminoceae India; Europe; Mexico Flowering tops
clover
Menyanthes trifoliate Buck bean Gentianaceae America; Kashmir; Europe Whole plant
Mezereum Mezereon Thymeliaceae Europe The bark
Millefolium Yarrow Compositae Asia; North Whole plant
America; India
Myrica serifera Wax-myrtle Myricaceae Along the Atlantic coast Bark of root
Nux moschata Nutmeg Myristicaceae East Indies; Seeds
South America
Nux vomica Poison nut Loganiaceae Western ghats; Seeds
Himalayas
Ocimum sanctum Tulsi Labiatae India Whole plant
excluding root
Opium Poppy Papaveraceae India Gummy juice
Petroselinum sativum Garden parsley Umbelliferae India; Europe Whole plant
Physostigma Calabar bean Leguminosae India; Brazil; Africa Seeds
Phytolacca decandra American night- Phytolacaceae North America Roots
shade
Plantago major Greater plantain Plantaginaceae India; Europe; America Whole plant
Podophyllum peltatum May apple Berberidaceae United States Rhizome
Psoralea corylifolia Babchi; Bakuchi Leguminosae Throughout India Seeds
Pulsatilla nigricans Wind flower Ranunculaceae Europe; Russia; Asia Whole plant
Ranunculus bulbosus Butter-cup Ranunculaceae Europe; United States Whole plant
Ratanhia Rhatany Polygonaceae Peru Roots
Rauwolfia serpentina Sarpagandha Apocynaceae India Roots
Rhus toxicodendron Poison-ivy; Anacardiaceae Forests of United States Leaves
Poison oak
Rhus venata Poison sumach Anacardiaceae Forests of United States Leaves & stems
Robinia pseudocacia Locust Leguminoseae America Bark of root & stem
Rumex crispus Yellow dock Polygonaceae United States; Europe Rhizome
Ruta graveolens Bitter herb Rutaceae India; Western Asia Whole plant
Sabadilla Cevadilla seeds Liliaceae Mexico; West Indies Seeds
Salix nigra Black-willow Salicaceae United states Bark
Sambucus nigra Elder Caprifoliaceae Britain; Japan; Europe Leaves & flowers

Sanguinaria Blood root Papaveraceaea India; United States; Rhizome
canadensis Canada
Secale cornutum Ergot of rye Hypocreaceae Found in fields on Whole fungus
the rye plant (dried)
Senega Seneca Polygalaceae U.S. A.; Western Dried roots
snake root New England
Staphysagria Louse seeds Ranunculaceae Italy; Greek islands Seeds
Stramonium Thorn apple Solanaceae India; North America Whole plant
Sumbul Sumbul root Umbelliferae Central Asia; Russia Roots
Tabacum Tobacco Solanaceae All over India Leaves
Terminalia arjuna Arjuna Combretaceae Throughout India Bark
Thuja occidentalis American Cupressaceae United States Leaves & twigs
arbor vitae
Tinospora cordyfolia Gulancha Menispermaceae Throughout India Stem
Tribulus terrestris Gokhru Zygophyllaceae India (Kashmir) Whole plant
Urtica urens Dwarf nettle Urticaceae Great Britain; Whole plant
United States
Valeriana officinalis Valerian Valerianeceae India; Europe Rhizome
Veratrum album White hellebore Liliaceae Europe; Japan; Russia Rhizome
Veratrum viride American white Liliaceae North America Rhizome
hellebore
Verbascum thapsus Common mullein Scrophulariaceae India; Canada Whole plant
Viburnum opulus Cranberry high Caprifoliaceae Canada; USA Europe Bark
bush
Viburnum prunifolium Black-haw Caprifoliaceae Central U.S.A. Bark
Vinca minor Lesser periwinkle Apocynaceae India Whole plant
Viola tricolor Pansy Violaceae Cultivated in India Whole plant
Viscum album Mistletoe Loranthaceae India; Europe Fresh leaves
& berries
Withania somnifera Ashvagandha Solanaceae Throughout India Roots
12-5
Relationship of Remedies
with Duration of Action
(R. Gibson Miller)
Remedy Comple- Remedies That Inimicals Antidotes Duration

mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Acet-ac. Chin. Borx., Caust., Nux Acon., Nat-m., 14-20 d.

-v., Ran-b., Sars. Nux-v., Sep., Tab.
Acon. Arn., Abrot., Arn., Ars., Bell., Acet-ac., Bell.,

Coff., Bry., Cact., Calc., Cocc., Berb., Coff.,
Sulph. Canth., Coff., Hep., Ip., Nux-v., Par.,
Kali-br., Merc., Puls., Rhus- Sulph., Vinum.
t., Sep., Spig., Spong.,
Sulph., Sil.
Aesc. Nux-v. 30 d.
Aeth. Calc. Vegetable acids 20-30 d.
Agar. Bell., Calc., Cupr., Merc., Calc., Puls., 40 d.

Op., Puls., Rhus-t., Sil., Rhus-t., Vinum.
Tub.
Agn. Ars., Bry., Calad., Ign., Camph., Nux-v. 8-14 d.

Lyc., Puls., Sel., Sulph.
All-c. Phos., Calc., Sil. All-s., Aloe, Arn., Cham., 1 d.

Puls., Sars., Squil. Nux-v., Thuj.,
Thuj. Verat.
All-s. Ars. Aloe, All-c., Squil. Lyc.
Aloe Sulph. Kali-bi., Sep., Sulph., All-s. Camph., Lyc., 30-40 d.

Sul-ac. Nux-v., Sulph.

mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Alum. Bry., Ferr. Arg-met., Bry. Bry., Camph., 40-60 d.
Cham., Ip.
Alumn. Cham., Nux-v., Long

Ip., Sulph. acting.
Ambr. Lyc., Puls., Sep., Sulph. Camph., Coff., 40 d.

Nux-v., Puls., Staph.
Am-c. Bell., Bry., Lyc., Puls., Phos., Lach. Arn., Camph.,

Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph., Verat. Hep. 40 d.
Am-m. Ant-c., Coff., Merc., Nux-v., Coff., Hep., Nux-v. 20-30 d.

Phos., Puls., Rhus-t., Sanic.
Anac. Lyc., Puls., Plat. Clem., Crot-t., 30-40 d.

Coff., Jug., Ran-b.,
Rhus-t.
Ang. Bell., Ign., Lyc., Sep. Coff. 20-30 d.
Ant-c. Squil. Calc., Lach., Merc., Calc., Hep., Merc. 40 d.

Puls., Sep., Sulph.
Ant-t. Ip. Bar-c., Carb-v., Cina, Asaf., Chin., Cocc., 20-30 d.

Camph., Ip., Puls., Ip., Laur., Op.,
Sep., Sulph., Ter. Puls., Rhus-t., Sep.
Apis Nat-m. Arn., Ars., Graph., Iod., Rhus-t. Carb-ac., Canth.,

Lyc., Puls., Nat-m., Stram., Ip., Lac-ac., Lach.,
Sulph. Led., Nat-m., Plan.
Arg-met. Calc., Puls., Sep. Merc., Puls. 30 d.
Arg-n. Bry., Calc., Kali-c., Lyc., Ars., Calc., Lyc., 30 d.

Merc., Puls., Sep., Spig., Nat-m., Merc.,
Spong., Sil., Verat. Phos., Puls., Rhus-t.,
Sep., Sil., Sulph.
Arn. Acon., Ip., Acon., Ars., Bell., Bry., Acon., Ars., 6-10 d.
Hyper., Bar-m., Berb., Cact., Calc., Camph., Chin.,
Rhus-t., Chin., Cham., Calen., Ign., Ip.
Verat. Con., Cur., Hep., Ip.,
Nux-v., Phos., Led., Puls.,
Psor., Rhus-t., Ruta,
Sul-ac., Sulph., Verat.
Relationship of Remedies 613

mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Ars. All-s., Carb- Aran., Arn., Apis, Bell., Camph., Carb-ac., 60-90 d.
v., Nat-s., Bar-c., Cact., Calc-p., Chin., Chinin-s.,
Phos., Pyrog., Cham., Chin., Cic., Ferr., EuphR., Ferr., Graph.,
Thuj. Fl-ac., Hep., Iod., Ip., Kali- Hep., Iod., Ip., Kali-
bi., Lach., Lyc., Merc., Nit- bi., Merc., Nux-v.,
s-d., Nux-v., Phos., Ran-s., Nux-m., Op., Samb.,
Sulph., Thuj, Verat. Sulph., Tab., Verat.
Arum-t. Euphr. Calad. Acet-ac., Bell., 1-2 d.

Lac-ac., Puls.
Asaf. Chin., Merc., Puls. Caust., Camph., 20-40 d.

Chin., Merc., Puls.,
Valer.
Asar. Bism., Caust., Puls., Sil., Acet-ac., Camph. 8-14 d.

Sul-ac.
Asc-t. 40-60 d.
Aster. Coff., Nux-v. Plb., Zinc.
Aur-m-n. Coff.
Aur. Acon., Bell., Calc., Chin., Bell., Chin., Cocc., 50-60 d.

Lyc., Merc., Nit-ac., Puls., Coff., Cupr., Merc.,
Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph., Syph. Puls., Spig., Sol-ni.
Bad. Merc., Sulph. Lach.
Bapt. Crot., Ham., Nit-ac., 6-8 d.

Pyrog., Ter.
Bar-c. Dulc. Ant-t., Con., Chin., Lyc., After Calc. Ant-t., Bell., Camph., 40 d.
Merc., Nit-ac., Psor., Puls., Dulc., Zinc.
Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph., Tub.
Bell. Calc. Acon., Ars., Cact., Calc., Acet-ac., Acon., Camph., Coff., 1-7 d.
Cham., Carb-v., Chin., Con., Dulc., Hep., Hyos., Merc.,
Cur., Hep., Hyos., Lach., Op., Puls., Sabad.,
Merc., Merc-i-r., Mosch., Vinum.
Mur-ac., Nux-v., Puls.,
Rhus-t., Sep., Sil., Stram.,
Sulph., Seneg., Valer., Verat.
Berb. Bell., Camph. 20-30 d.


mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Bism. Bell., Calc., Puls., Sep. Caps., Coff., Calc., 20-50 d.

Nux-v.
Borx. Ars., Bry., Calc., Lyc., Nux-v., Acet-ac., Cham., Coff. 30 d.

Phos., Sil. Vinum.
Bov. Alum., Calc., Rhus-t., Sep., Coff. Camph. 7-14 d.

Verat.
Brom. Arg-n., Kali-c. Am-c., Camph., Mag 20-30 d.
-c., Op.
Bry. Alum., Alum., Ars., Abrot., Ant-t., Bell., Acon., Alum., Camph., 7-21 d.
Rhus-t. Berb., Cact., Carb-v., Dulc., Cham., Chel., Clem.,
Hyos., Kali-c., Mur-ac., Nux-v., Coff., Ign., Mur-ac.,
Phos., Puls., Rhus-t., Sil., Sabad., Nux-v., Puls., Rhus-t.,
Squil., Sulph. Seneg.
Cact. Dig., Eup-per., Lach., Nux-v., Acon., Camph., Chin. 7-20 d.

Sulph.
Cadm. Bell., Carb-v., Lob.
Calad. Nit-ac. Acon., Canth., Caust., Puls., Arum-t. Camph., Caps., Carb 30-40 d.
Sel., Sep. -v., Ign., Hyos., Merc.
Calc-ar. Con., Glon., Op., Puls. Carb-v., Glon., Puls.
Calc. Bell., Rhus-t. Aran., Agar., Bell., Borx., Bism., Bar-c., Nit- Bry., Camph., Chin., 60 d.
Dulc., Graph., Ip., Kali-bi., Lyc., ac. & Sulph. Ip., Nit-ac., Nit-s-d.,
Lyc., Nat-c., Nit-ac., Nux-v., do not follow. Nux-v., Sep., Sulph.
Phos., Plat., Podo., Puls., Rhus- After Kali-bi.
t., Sars., Sep., Sil., Ther., Tub. and Nit-ac.
Calc-f. Calc-p., Nat-m., Ph-ac., Sil.
Calc-p. Ruta, Sulph., Iod., Psor., Rhus-t., Sanic., 60 d.

Zinc. Sulph.
Calen. Hep. Arn., Ars., Bry., Nit-ac., Phos., Camph. Arn.

Rhus-t.,
Camph. Canth. Ant-t., Ars., Bell., Cocc., After Kali-n. Canth., Dulc., Nit-s-d., 1 d.
Nux-v., Rhus-t., Verat. Op., Phos.
Cann-s. Bell., Hyos., Lyc., Nux-v., Op., Camph., Merc. 1-10 d.

Puls., Rhus-t., Verat.

mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Canth. Camph. Bell., Kali-i., Merc., Phos., Puls., Coff. Acon., Apis, Camph., 30-40 d.
Sep., Sulph. Kali-n., Laur., Puls.,
Rheum.
Caps. Bell., Cina, Lyc., Puls., Sil. Calad., Camph., Chin., 7 d.

Cina, Sul-ac.
Carb-an. Calc-p. Ars., Bell., Bry., (Carb-v.) Nit- Carb-v.? Ars., Camph., Nux-v., 60 d.
ac., Phos., Puls., Sep., Sil., Sulph., Vinum.
Verat.
Carb-v. Dros., Ars., Acon., Chin., Dros., Kali- Carb-an.? Ars., Camph., Coff., 60 d.
Kali-c., c., Lyc., Nux-v., Ph-ac., Puls., Kreos. does Lach., Nit-s-d.
Phos. Sep., Sulph., Verat. not follow.
Caul. Coff.
Caust. Carb-v. Ant-t., Arum-t., Coloc., Calc., Acet-ac., Asaf., Coloc., Dulc., 50 d.
Coloc., Guaj., Kali-i., Lyc., Nux-v., Puls., Coff., Phos. Guaj., Nux-v.
Petros. Rhus-t., Ruta, Sep., Sil., Stann.,
Sulph.
Cham. Bell., Acon., Arn., Bell., Bry., Cact., Zinc. Acon., Alum., Borx., 20-30 days.
Mag-c. Calc., Cocc., Form., Merc., Camph., Chin., Cocc.,
Nux-v., Puls., Rhus-t., Sep., Coff., Coloc., Con.,
Sil., Sulph. Ign., Nux-v., Puls.,
Valer.
Chel. Acon., Ars., Bry., Cor-r., Ip., Acids., Acon., Cham., 7-14 d.
Led., Lyc., Nux-v., Sep., Spig., Coff., Vinum.
Sulph.
Chin. Ferr. Acet-ac., Arn., Ars., Asaf., Bell., After Dig. Apis, Aran., Arn., Ars., 14-21 d.
Calc., Carb-v., Calc-p., Ferr., and Sel. Asaf., Bell., Bry., Calc.,
Lach., Merc., Ph-ac., Phos., Puls., Caps., Carb-an., Carb
Sulph., Verat. -v., Caust., Cedr.,
Cina, Eup-per., Ferr.,
Ip., Lach., Led., Lyc.,
Meny., Merc., Nat-c.,
Nat-m., Nux-v., Puls.,
Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph.,
Verat.
Cic. Bell., Hep., Puls., Rhus-t., Op., Arn., Coff., Op., Tab. 35-40 d.
Sep.

mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Cimic. Acon., Bapt. 8-12 d.
Cina Calc., Chin., Ign., Nux-v., Plat., Arn., Camph., Caps., 14-20 d.
Puls., Rhus-t., Sil., Stann. Chin., Pip-n.
Cist. Bell., Carb-v., Mag-c., Phos. Coff. Sep., Rhus-t.
Clem. Clac., Rhus-t., Sep., Sil., Sulph. Anac., Bry., Camph., 14-20 d.
Cham., Crot-t., Ran-
b., Rhus-t.
Cob. 30 d.
Cocc. Ars., Bell., Hep., Ign., Lyc., Coff. Camph., Cham., 30 d.

Nux-v., Puls., Rhus-t., Sulph. Cupr., Ign., Nux-v.
Coff. Acon. Acon.,Aur., Bell., Fl-ac., Lyc., Canth., Caust. Acet-ac., Acon., 1-7 d.
Nux-v., Op., Sulph. Cocc., Ign. Cham., Chin., Grat.,
Merc., Nux-v., Puls.,
Sulph.
Colch. Carb-v., Merc., Nux-v., Puls., Bell., Camph., Cocc., 14-20 d.

Sep., Rhus-t. Led., Nux-v., Puls.,
Spig.
Coll. Aesc., Aloe, Con. Nux-v. 30 d.
Coloc. Bell., Bry., Caust., Cham., Camph., Caust., 1-7 d.

Merc., Nux-v., Puls., Spig., Cham., Coff., Op.,
Staph. Staph.
Con. Bar-m. Arn., Ars., Bell., Calc., Calc-ar., Coff., Dulc., 30-50 d.
Cic., Dros., Lyc., Nux-v., Phos., Nit-ac., Nit-s-d.
Psor., Puls., Rhus-t., Stram.,
Sulph.
Cor-r. Sulph. Calc., Merc.
Croc. Chin., Nux-v., Puls., Sulph. Acon., Bell., Op. 8 d.
Crot-h. Lach. 30 d.
Crot-t. Rhus-t. Anac., Ant-t., Clem., 30 d.
Ran-b., Rhus-t.
Cupr. Calc. Apis, Ars., Bell., Calc., Caust., Bell., Camph., Cic., 40-50 d.
Cic., Hyos., Kali-n., Puls., Chin., Cocc., Con.,
Stram., Verat., Zinc. Dulc., Hep., Ip., Merc.,
Nux-v., Puls., Verat.

mentary Follows Well
Remedies
Cycl. Phos., Puls., Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph. Camph., Coff., Puls. 14-20 d.
Dig. Acet-ac., Bell., Bry., Cham., Chin., Nit-s-d. Apis, Camph., Calc., 40-50 d.
Lyc., Nux-v., Op., Phos., Puls., (Colch.), Nit-ac.,
Sep., Sulph., Verat. Nux-v., Op.
Dios. 1-7 d.
Dros. Nux-v. Calc., Cina, Con., Camph. 20-30 d.

Puls., Sulph., Verat.
Dulc. Bar-c., Calc., Bell., Calc., Lyc., Rhus-t., Acet-ac., Bell., Camph., Cupr., Ip., 30 d.
Kali-s., Sulph. Sep. Lach. Kali-c., Merc.
Eup-per. Nat-m., Sep., Tub. 1-7 d.
Euph. Ferr., Lach., Puls., Sep., Sulph. Acet-ac., Camph. 50 d.
Euphr. Acon., Alum., Calc., Con., Lyc., Camph., Caust., Puls. 7 d.

Merc., Nux-v., Phos., Puls.,
Rhus-t., Sil., Sulph.
Ferr. Alum., Chin., Acon., Arn., Bell., Chin., Con., Acet-ac. Arn., Ars., Bell., 50 d.
Ham. Lyc., Merc., Phos., Puls., Verat. Chin., Hep., Ip., Puls.,
Sulph., Verat.
Fl-ac. Coca., Sil. Graph., Nit-ac. Sil. 30 d.
Gamb. Camph., Coff., Coloc., 1-7 d.

Kali-c., Op.
Gels. Bapt., Cact., Ip. Atro., Chin., Coff., 30 d.

Dig.
Glon. Acon., Camph., 1 d.

Coff., Nux-v.
Graph. Aran., Caust., Euphr., Nat-s., Sil. Acon., Ars., Nux-v. 40-50 d.
Ferr., Hep.,
Lyc.
Guaj. Calc., Merc. Nux-v. 40 d.
Ham. Ferr. Arn.
Hell. Bell., Bry., Chin., Lyc., Nux-v., Camph., Chin. 20-30 d.

Phos., Puls., Sulph., Zinc.

mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Hep. Calen. Abrot., Acon., Arum-t., Hell., Acet-ac., Ars., Bell., 40-50 d.
Bry., Calen., Iod., Lach., Merc., Cham., Sil.
Nit-ac., Nux-v., Rhus-t., Sep.,
Spong., Sil., Sulph.
Hyos. Bell., Puls., Stram., Verat. Acet-ac., Bell., Chin., 6-14 d.

Cit-ac., Stram.
Hyper. Ars., Cham., Sulph. 1-7 d.
Ign. Nat-m. Ars., Bell., Calc., Chin., Cocc., Coff., Nux-v., Acet-ac., Arn., 9 d.
Lyc., Ph-ac., Puls., Rhus-t., Sep., Tab. Cham., Cocc., Puls.
Sil., Sulph.
Iod. Bad., Lyc. Acon., Arg-n., Calc., Calc-p., Ant-t., Apis, Ars., 30-40 d.
Kali-bi., Lyc., Merc., Phos., Puls. Acon., Bell., Camph.,
Chin., Chinin-s., Coff.,
Ferr., Graph., Grat.,
Hep., Op., Phos.,
Spong., Sulph., Thuj.
Ip. Ant-t., Arn., Ant-c., Ant-t., Apis, Aran., Arn., Ars., Chin., 7-10 d.
Cupr. Arn., Ars., Bell., Bry., Cact., Nux-v., Tab.
Cadm., Calc., Cham., Chin.,
Cupr., Ign., Nux-v., Phos.,
Podo., Puls., Rheum, Sep.,
Sulph., Tab., Verat.
Kali-bi. Ars. Ant-t., Berb., Puls. Does not Ars., Lach., Puls. 30 d.
follow Calc.
Kali-br. Cact. Camph., Helon.,

Nux-v., Zinc.
Kali-c. Carb-v., Ars., Carb-v., Fl-ac., Lyc., Nit- Camph., Coff., Dulc., 40-50 d.
Nux-v. ac., Phos., Puls., Sep., Sulph. Helon., Nit-s-d.
Kali-i. Am-m., Ars., Chin., 20-30 d.

Merc., Rhus-t.,
Sulph., Valer.
Kali-n. Bell., Calc., Puls., Rhus-t., Camph. does Nit-s-d. 30-40 d.

Sep., Sulph. not follow
Kali-s. Acet-ac., Ars., Calc., Hep., Kali-

c., Puls., Rhus-t., Sep., Sil., Sulph.

mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Kalm. Benz-ac. Calc., Lith-c., Lyc., Nat-m., Acon., Bell., Spig. 7-14 d.
Puls., Spig.
Kreos. Ars., Bell., Calc., Kali-c., Lyc., After Carb-v. Acon., Nux-v. 15-20 d.
Nit-ac., Nux-v., Rhus-t., Sep.,
Sulph.
Lach. Hep., Lyc., Acon., Alum., Ars., Bell., Acet-ac., Am- Alum., Ars., Bell., 30-40 d.
Nit-ac. Brom., Cact., Calc., Carb-v., c., Carb-ac., Calc., Cham., Carb-v.,
Caust., Chin., Cic., Con., Dulc., Nit-ac., Cocc., Coff., Hep.,
Euphr., Hep., Hyos., Kali-bi., Psor. Led., Merc., Nit-ac.,
Lac-c., Lyc., Merc., Merc-i-f., Nux-v., Op., Ph-ac.
Nat-m., Nux-v., Olnd., Phos.,
Puls., Rhus-t., Sil., Sulph.,
Tarent.
Lac-ac. Psor. Coff. Bry.
Laur. Bell., Carb-v., Phos., Puls., Camph., Coff., Ip., 4-8 d.

Verat. Op., Nux-m.
Led. Acon., Bell., Bry., Chel., Nux- Chin. Camph. 30 d.

v., Puls., Rhus-t., Sul-ac., Sulph.
Lil-t. Helon., Nux-v., 14-20 d.

Plat., Puls.
Lyc. Iod., Lach., Anac., Bell., Bry., Carb-v., After Sulph. Acon., Camph., 40-50 d.
Puls. Colch., Dulc., Graph., except in cycle Caust., Cham.,
Hyos., Kali-c., Lach., Led., of Sulph., Graph., Puls.
Nux-v., Phos., Puls., Stram., Calc., Lyc.,
Sep., Sil., Ther., Verat. Sulph. etc.Coff.
Mag-c. Cham. Caust., Phos., Puls., Sep., Ars., Cham., Merc., 40-50 d.
Sulph. Nux-v., Puls., Rheum.
Mag-m. Bell., Lyc., Nat-m., Nux-v., Ars., Camph., Cham., 40-50 d.

Puls., Sep. Nux-v.
Manc. 30-40 d.
Mang. Puls., Rhus-t., Sulph. Camph., Coff. 40 d.
Med. Sulph., Thuj. Ip.
Meny. Caps., Lyc., Puls., Rhus-t. Camph. 14-20 d.


mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Meph. 1 d.
Merc. Bad. Ars., Asaf., Bell., Calc., Calc-p., Acet-ac., Sil. Aran., Ars., Asaf., 30-60 d.
Carb-v., Chin., Dulc., Guaj., disagrees Aur., Bell., Bry.,
Hep., Iod., Lach., Lyc., Mur-ac., before or Calad., Calc., Carb-v.,
Nit-ac., Phos., Puls., Rhus-t., after potenti- Chin., Clem., Con.,
Sep., Sulph., Thuj. sed Mercury, Cor-r., Cupr., Daph.,
but antidotes Dulc., Ferr., Guaj.,
the crude Hep., Iod., Kali-bi.,
substance. Kali-chl., Kali-i., Lach.,
Mez., Nit-ac., Nux-m.
Op., Phyt., Podo.,
Rat., Sars., Sep., Spig.,
Staph., Still., Stram.,
Sulph., Valer.
Mez. Calc., Caust., Ign., Lyc., Merc., Acids, Acon., Bry., 30-60 d.
Nux-v., Phos., Puls. Calc., Kali-i.,
Nux-v.
Mill. Coff. Arum-m. 1-3 d.
Mosch. Camph., Coff. 1 d.
Mur-ac. Calc., Kali-c., Nux-v., Puls., Bry., Camph. 35 d.

Sep., Sil., Sulph.
Nat-c. Calc., Nit-ac., Nux-v., Camph., Nit-s-d. 30 d.

Puls., Sel., Sep., Sulph.
Nat-m. Apis, Ign., Apis, Bry., Calc., Hep., Kali-c., Ars., Phos., Nit-s-d., 40-50.
Sep. Puls., Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph., Thuj. Nux-v., Sep.
Nat-s. Ars., Thuj. Bell., Thuj. 30-40 d.
Nit-ac. Ars., Calad. Arn., Arum-t., Bell., Calc., Lach., after Acon., Calc., Hep., 40-60 d.
Carb-v., Kali-c., Kreos., Merc., Calc. Con., Merc., Mez.,
Phos., Puls., Sil., Sulph., Sep., Sulph.
Thuj.
Nux-m. Ant-t., Lyc., Nux-v., Camph., Gels., Laur., 60 d.

Puls., Rhus-t., Stram. Nux-v., Op., Valer.,
Zinc.

mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Nux-v. Sulph., Act-sp., Aesc., Aran., Ars., Acet-ac., Ign., Acon., Ars., Bell., 1-7 d.
Kali-c., Bell., Bry., Cact., Calc., Carb- Zinc. Camph., Cham.,
Sep. v., Cob., Cocc., Colch., Hyos., Cocc., Coff., Euphr.,
Lyc., Ph-ac., Phos., Puls., Op., Puls., Thuj.
Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph.
Olnd. Con., Lyc., Nat-m., Puls., Camph., Sulph. 20-30 d.

Rhus-t., Sep., Spig.
Op. Acon., Ant-t., Bell., Bry., Hyos., Acet-ac., Bell., Cham., 7 d.

Nux-m., Nux-v., Samb. Cic., Coff., Cupr.,
Gels., Ip., Merc., Mur-
ac., Nux-v., Puls.,
Verat., Zinc.
Par. Calc., Led., Lyc., Nux-v., Puls., Ferr-p. Coff. 2-4 d.
Phos., Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph.
Pall. Plat. Bell., Chin., Glon.
Petr. Bry., Calc., Lyc., Nit-ac., Nux Cocc., Nux-v. 40-50 d.

-v., Puls., Sep., Sil., Sulph.
Ph-ac. Ars., Bell., Caust., Chin., Ferr., Camph., Coff., 40 d.

Fl-ac., Lyc., Nux-v., Puls., Rhus- Staph.
t., Sel., Sep., Sulph., Verat.
Phos. All-c., Ars., Ars., Bell., Bry., Calc., Carb-v., Caust. Calc., Coff., Mez., 40 d.
Carb-v. Chin., Kali-c., Lyc., Nux-v., Nux-v., Sep., Ter.
Puls., Rhus-t., Sep., Sil., Sulph.
Plat. Anac., Arg-met., Bell., Ign., Bell., Nit-s-d., Puls. 35-40 d.

Lyc., Puls., Rhus-t., Sep., Verat.
Plb. Ars., Bell., Lyc., Merc., Phos., Alum., Alumn., Ant-c., 20-30 d.
Puls., Sil., Sulph. Ars., Bell., Caust.,
Cocc., Hep., Hyos.,
Kali-br., Kreos., Nux-
m., Nux-v., Op., Petr.,
Plat., Stram., Sul-ac.,
Zinc.
Podo. (Sulph.) Coloc., Lac-ac., 30 d.
Lept., Nux-v.
Psor. Sulph., Alum., Bar-c., Borx., Sep.? Coff. 30-40 d.
Tub. Carb-v., Chin., Sulph.

mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Puls. All-c., Anac., Ant-c.,. Ant-t., Ars., Asaf., Coff., 40 d.
Kali-m., Asaf., Bell., Bry., Calc., Euphr., Cham., Ign.,
Kali-s., Lyc., Graph., Ign., Kali-m., Kali-s., Nux-v., Stann.
Sil., Sul-ac., Lyc., Nit-ac., Nux-v., Phos.,
(Tub.). Rhus-t., Sep., Sil., Sulph.
Ran-b. Bry., Ign., Kali-c., Nux-v., Acet-ac., Anac., Bry., Camph., 30-40 d.
Rhus-t., Sep., Sabad. Staph., Sulph., Clem., Crot-t., Puls.,
Vinum. Rhus-t.
Ran-s. Bell., Lach., Phos., Puls., Camph. 30-40 d.

Rhus-t., Sil.
Rheum Mag-c. Bell., Puls., Rhus-t., Sulph. Camph., Cham., 2-3 d.

Coloc., Merc.,
Nux-v., Puls.
Rhod. Arn., Ars., Calc., Con., Lyc., Bry., Camph., 35-40 d.

Merc., Nux-v., Puls., Sep., Clem., Rhus-t.
Sil., Sulph.
Rhus-t. Bry., Aran., Arn., Ars., Bell., Bry., Apis, disagrees Acon., Am-c., Anac., 1-7 d.
Calc. Berb., Cact., Calc., Calc-p., but Phos. Bell., Bry., Camph.,
Cham., Con., Graph., Hyos., follows well. Clem., Coff., Crot-t.,
Lach., Merc., Mur-ac., Nux-v., (Kent). Graph., Grind., Guaj.,
Ph-ac., Phos., Puls., Sep., Lach., Ran-b., Sep.,
Sulph. Sulph.
Ruta Calc-p. Calc., Caust., Lyc., Ph-ac., Camph. 30 d.

Puls., Sep., Sulph., Sul-ac.
Rumx. Calc. Bell., Camph., Con.,
Hyos., Lach., Phos.
Sabad. Sep. Ars., Bell., Merc., Nux-v., Puls. Con., Puls. 20-30 d.
Sabin. Thuj. Ars., Bell., Puls., Rhus-t., Puls. 20-30 d.

Spong., Sulph.
Samb. Ars., Bell., Con., Dros., Nux- Ars., Camph. 1 d.

v., Phos., Rhus-t., Sep.
Sars. All-c., All-c., Bell., Hep., Merc., Acet-ac. Bell., Merc., Sep. 35 d.
Merc., Sep. Phos., Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph.
Sec. Acon., Ars., Bell., Chin., Camph., Op. 20-30 d.

Merc., Puls.

mentary Follows Well
Remedies
Sel. Calc., Merc., Nux-v., Sep. Chin., Vinum. Ign., Puls. 40 d.

Seneg. Arum-t., Calc., Lyc., Phos., Arn., Bell., Bry., 30 d.
Sulph. Camph.
Sep. Nat-m., Bell., Calc., Carb-v., Con., Bry., Lach. Acon., Ant-c., Ant-t., 40-50 d.
Nux-v., Dulc., Euphr., Graph., Lyc., Nit-s-d., Sulph.,
Sabad. Nat-c., Nux-v., Petr., Puls., Vegetable acids.
Rhus-t., Sars., Sil., Sulph.,
Tarent.
Sil. Calc., Fl-ac., Aran., Ars., Asaf., Bell., Calc., Merc. Camph., Fl-ac., Hep. 40-60 d.
Puls., Sanic., Clem., Fl-ac., Graph., Hep.,
Thuj. Lach., Lyc., Nux-v., Phos., Puls.,
Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph., Thuj., Tub.
Spig. Arn., Ars., Bell., Calc., Cimic., Aur., Camph., 20-30 d.
Dig., Iris, Kali-c., Kalm., Nux- Cocc., Puls.
v., Puls., Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph.,
Zinc.
Spong. Brom., Bry., Con., Carb-v., Camph. 20-30 d.
Fl-ac., Hep., Kali-br., Nux-v.,
Phos., Puls.
Squil. Ars., Bar-c., Ign., Nux-v., All-s. Camph. 14-20 d.
Rhus-t., Sil.
Stann. Puls. Calc., Kali-c., Nux-v., Phos., Puls. 35 d.
Puls., Rhus-t., Sulph.
Staph. Caust., Calc., Caust., Coloc., Fl-ac., Ran-b. Ambr., Camph. 20-30 d.
Coloc. Kali-c., Ign., Lyc., Nux-v., Puls.,
Rhus-t., Sel., Sulph.
Stram. Acon., Bell., Bry., Cupr., Coff. Acet-ac., Bell., Hyos.,
Hyos., Nux-v. Nux-v., Op., Puls.,
Tab.
Stront-c. Bell., Caust., Kali-c., Puls., Camph. 40 d.
Rhus-t., Sep., Sulph.
Sulph. Acon., Acon., Aesc., Alum., Apis, Ars., Sulph., follows Acon., Ars., Camph., 40-60 d.
Aloe, Ars., Bar-c., Bell., Berb., Borx., Bry., Lyc., but Lyc. Caust., Cham.,
Bad., Nux Calc., Carb-v., Euphr., Graph., does not Chin., Con., Merc.,
-v., Psor. Guaj., Kali-c., Merc., Nit-ac., follow Sulph. Nux-v., Puls., Rhus-t.,
Nux-v., Phos., Podo., Puls., (Kent.). Sep., Sil.
Rhus-t., Samb., Sars., Sep. Ran-b.

mentary Follow Well
Remedies
Sul-ac. Puls. Arn., Calc., Con., Lyc., Plat., Puls. 30-40 d.
Sep., Sulph.
Tab. Carb-v. Acet-ac., Ars., Clem.,

Cocc., Ign., Ip., Lyc.,
Phos., Nux-v., Puls.,
Sep., Staph., Verat.
Tarax. Ars., Asaf., Bell., Chin., Lyc., Camph. 14-21 d.

Rhus-t., Staph., Sulph.
Tell. Nux-v. 30-40 d.
Ther. Acon., Mosch., Graph. 30 d.
Teucr. Chin., Puls., Sil. Camph. 14-21 d.
Thuj. Ars., Med., Asaf., Calc., Ign., Kali-c., Lyc., Camph., Cham., 60 d.
Nat-s., Merc., Nit-ac., Puls., Sabin., Cocc., Merc., Puls.,
Sabin., Sil. Sil., Sulph. Staph., Sulph.
Tub. Bell., Calc. Bar-c., Calc., Calc-p., Sil.

Hydr., Psor.,
Sulph.
Valer. Phos., Puls. Bell., Camph., Coff., 8-10 d.

Merc., Puls.
Verb. Bell., Chin., Lyc., Puls., Camph. 8-10 d.

Rhus-t., Sep., Stram., Sulph.
Verat. Arn. Acon., Arg-n., Arn., Ars., Acon., Ars., 20-30 d.
Bell., Carb-v., Cham., Chin., Camph., Chin.,
Cupr., Dulc., Ip., Puls., Coff.
Rhus-t., Samb., Sep., Sulph.
Vesp. Arg-n. Acet-ac., Apis.
Viol-o. Bell., Cina, Cor-r., Nux-v., Camph. 2-4 d.

Puls.
Viol-t. Puls., Rhus-t., Sep., Staph. Camph., Merc., Puls., 8-14 d.

Rhus-t.
Zinc. Hep., Ign., Puls., Sep., Sulph. Cham., Nux- Camph., Hep., Ign. 30-40 d.
v., Vinum.
■
12-6
Abbreviations
Abies-c., Abies canadensis. Anac., Anacardium orientale.
Abies-n., Abies nigra. Androg-p., Andrographis paniculata.
Abrom-a., Abroma augusta. Anthrac., Anthracinum.
Abrot., Abrotanum. Anthraco., Anthracokali.
Absin., Absinthium. Ant-ar., Antimonium arsenicosum.
Acal., Acalypha indica. Ant-c., Antimonium crudum.
Acet-ac., Aceticum acidum. Ant-t., Antimonium tartaricum.
Acon., Aconitum napellus. Apis, Apis mellifica.
Act-sp., Actaea spicata. Apoc., Apocynum cannabinum.
Aesc., Aesculus hippocastanum. Aral., Aralia racemosa.
Aesc-g., Aesculus glabra. Arg-met., Argentum metallicum.
Aeth., Aethusa cynapium. Arg-n., Argentum nitricum.
Agar., Agaricus muscarius. Arn., Arnica montana.
Agn., Agnus castus. Ars., Arsenicum album.
Ail., Ailanthus. Ars-i., Arsenicum iodatum.
Alet., Aletris farinosa. Ars-s-f., Arsenicum sulphuratum flavum.
All-c., Allium cepa. Ars-s-r., Arsenicum sulphuratum rubrum.
All-s., Allium sativum. Art-v., Artemisia vulgaris.
Aloe, Aloe socotrina. Arum-t., Arum triphyllum.
Alumn., Alumen. Asaf., Asafoetida.
Alum., Alumina. Asar., Asarum europaeum.
Alumin., Aluminium metallicum. Aspar., Asparagus officinalis.
Alum-sil., Aluminium silicata. Aur., Aurum metallicum.
Ambr., Ambra grisea. Aven., Avena sativa.
Am-be., Ammonium benzoicum. Aza., Azadirachita indica.
Am-c., Ammonium carbonicum. Bad., Badiaga.
Am-caust., Ammonium causticum. Bapt., Baptisia tinctoria.
Am-m., Ammonium muriaticum. Bar-c., Baryta carbonica.
Aml-ns., Amylenum nitrosum. Bar-m., Baryta muriatica.
Bell., Belladonna. Coloc., Colocynthis.

Bell-p., Bellis perennis. Con., Conium maculatum.
Benz-ac., Benzoicum acidum. Crat., Crataegus oxyacantha.
Berb., Berberis vulgaris. Croc., Crocus sativus.
Blatta-o., Blatta orientalis. Crot-h., Crotalus horridus.
Boerh-d., Boerhaavia diffusa. Crot-t., Croton tiglium.
Borx., Borax. Cupr-ar., Cuprum arsenicosum.
Bov., Bovista. Cupr., Cuprum metallicum.
Brom., Bromium. Cycl., Cyclamen europaeum.
Bry., Bryonia alba.
Dig., Digitalis purpurea.
Bufo, Bufo rana.
Dios., Dioscorea villosa.
Cact., Cactus grandiflorus. Dol., Dolichos pruriens.
Calc-ar., Calcarea arsenicosa. Dros., Drosera rotundifolia.
Calc., Calcarea carbonica. Dulc., Dulcamara.
Calc-f., Calcarea fluorica.
Elaps, Elaps corallinus.
Calc-p., Calcarea phosphorica.
Equis-h., Equisetum hymale.
Calen., Calendula officinalis.
Erig., Erigeron canadense.
Calo., Calotropis gigantia.
Eup-per., Eupatorium
Camph., Camphora.
perfoliatum.
Cann-i., Cannabis indica.
Eup-pur., Eupetorium purpureum.
Cann-s., Cannabis sativa.
Euphr., Euphrasia officinalis.
Canth., Cantharis.
Caps., Capsicum. Ferr., Ferrum metallicum.
Carb-ac., Carbolicum acidum. Ferr-p., Ferrum phosphoricum.
Carb-an., Carbo animalis. Fic-r., Ficus religiosa.
Carb-v., Carbo vegetabilis. Form., Formica rufa.
Card-m., Carduus marianus.
Caul., Caulophyllum thalictroides. Gels., Gelsemium semipervirens.
Caust., Causticum. Ger., Geranium maculatum.
Cean., Ceanothus americanus. Glon., Glonoinum.
Cham., Chamomilla. Graph., Graphites.
Chel., Chelidonium majus. Gymne., Gymnema sylvestre.
Chin., China officinalis.
Cic., Cicuta virosa. Ham., Hamamelis virginica.
Cimic., Cimicifuga racemosa. Hecla, Hecla lava.
Cina, Cina maritima. Hell., Helleborus niger.
Clem., Clematis erecta. Helon., Helonias dioica.
Cocc., Cocculus indicus. Hep., Hepar sulphuris calcareum.
Coc-c., Coccus cacti. Hydr., Hydrastis canadensis.
Coff., Coffea cruda. Hydroc., Hydrocotyle asiatica.
Colch., Colchicum autumnale. Hyos., Hyoscyamus niger.
Coll., Collinsonia canadensis. Hyper., Hypericum perforatum.
Abbreviations 627
Ign., Ignatia amara. Mez., Mezereum.

Iod., Iodium. Mill., Millefolium.
Ip., Ipecacuanha. Murx., Murex.
Iris, Iris versicolor. Mur-ac., Muriaticum acidum.
Myric., Myrica cerifera.
Jab., Jaborandi.
Joan., Joanesia asoca. Nat-c., Natrium carbonicum.
Just., Justisia adhatoda. Nat-m., Natrium muriaticum.
Nat-p., Natrium phosphoricum.
Kali-bi., Kalium bichromicum. Nat-s., Natrium sulphuricum.
Kali-br., Kalium bromatum. Nux-m., Nux moschata.
Kali-c., Kalium carbonicum. Nux-v., Nux vomica.
Kali-i., Kalium iodatum.
Kali-m., Kalium muriaticum. Oci-s., Ocimum sanctum.
Kali-p., Kalium phosphoricum. Op., Opium.
Kali-s., Kalium sulphuricum. Ox-ac., Oxalicum acidum.
Kalm., Kalmia latifolia. Petr., Petroleum.
Kreos., Kreosotum. Petros., Petroselinum.
Kurch., Holarrhena antidysenterica. Ph-ac., Phosphoricum acidum.
Lac-c., Lac caninum. Phos., Phosphorus.
Lac-d., Lac defloratum. Phys., Physostigma.
Lach., Lachesis mutus. Phyt., Phytolacca decandra.
Led., Ledum palustre. Pic-ac., Picricum acidum.
Lil-t., Lilium tigrinum. Plan., Plantago major.
Lob., Lobelia inflata. Plat., Platinum metallicum.
Lyc., Lycopodium clavatum. Plb., Plumbum metallicum.
Lycpr., Lycopersicum. Podo., Podophyllum peltatum.
Lycps-v., Lycopus virginicus. Psoral-c., Psoralea corylifolia.
Lyss., Lyssinum. Puls., Pulsatilla nigricans.
Pyrog., Pyrogenium.
Mag-c., Magnesium carbonicum.
Mag-m., Magnesium muriaticum. Ran-b., Ranunculus bulbosus.
Mag-p., Magnesium phosphoricum. Rat., Ratanhia.
Med., Medorrhinum. Rauw., Rauwolfia serpentina.
Meli-a., Melitotus alba. Rhus-t., Rhus toxicodendron.
Meph., Mephitis. Rhus-v., Rhus venenata.
Merc., Mercurius vivus. Rob., Robinia pseudocacia
Merc-c., Mercurius corrosivus. Ruta, Ruta graveolens.
Merc-cy., Mercurius cyanatus.
Sabad., Sabadilla.
Merc-d., Mercurius dulcis.
Sabal, Sabal serrulata.
Merc-i-f., Mercurius iodatus flavus.
Sabin., Sabina.
Merc-i-r., Mercurius iodatus ruber.
Samb., Sambucus nigra.
Merc-s., Mercurius solubilis.
Sang., Sanguinaria canadensis.
Sanic., Sanicula aqua. Tab., Tabacum.

Sars., Sarsaparilla. Tarax., Taraxacum.
Sec-c., Secale cornutum. Tarent., Tarantula hispanica.
Sel., Selenium. Tarent-c., Tarentula cubensis.
Seneg., Senega. Term-a., Terminalia arjuna.
Sep., Sepia Ther., Theridion.
Sil., Silicea. Thlas., Thlaspi bursa pastoris.
Spig., Spigelia anthelmia. Thuj., Thuja occidentalis.
Trib., Tribulus terrestris.
Spong., Spongia tosta.
Tril-p., Trillium pendulum.
Stann., Stannum metallicum.
Tub., Tuberculinum.
Staph., Staphysagria.
Stram., Stramonium. Urt-u., Urtica urens.
Sulph., Sulphur. Ust., Ustilago maydis.
Symph., Symphytum officinale. Uva, Uva ursi.
Syzyg., Syzygium jambolanum. Valer., Valeriana.
■
12-7
Indigenous Homoeopathic Drugs
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR IDENTIFICATION OF A FEW

STUDY OF INDIGENOUS DRUGS
DRUGS Identification of a few homoeopathic drugs
Detailed study of indigenous drugs is not a is given on the following pages:
one-man job. It needs close collaboration and
association of scientific workers in different ACONITE
allied subjects. The pre-requisites for the work
to be done properly on scientific lines are: Family: RANUNCULACEAE
1. A Botanical Unit: Consists of experienced Botanical Name : Aconitum species.
botanists and technicians. Work is collection Indian Names:
and identification of genuine drugs and a 1. Aconitum chasmanthum Sta. ex Hol.
survey of medicinal plants. (Kashmiri: Mohri)
2. A Chemical Unit: Consists of expert chem- 2. A. deinorrhirum Hol. ex Sta.
ists in plant chemistry. Work is extraction (Kashmiri: Dudhia bish, Safed-bish mohra)
and identification of active principals, e.g., 3. A. heterophyllum Wall.
alkaloids, glucosides, essential oils, antibi-
(Kashmiri: Atis, Ativish, Patis)
otics, etc.
3. A Pharmacological Unit: Consists of phar- The drug comprises of tuberous roots of the
macologists. Work is testing the constituents plant. It has medicinal value and has some very
in planned experimentation. Also, bio-as- toxic properties. (The species A. napellus L.
says, testing toxicity of drugs and suggest- recognized in the British Pharmacopoeia is not
ing doses for therapeutic uses. found in India. But the three species stated above
have similar properties.)
4. A Clinical Unit: Testing of drugs on patients
in the out-patients department and in the Alkaloid of the plant is effective in drug,
hospital. Consists of clinicians. known as ACONITINE. Chief usage of the drug
is for external application in neuralgia. The Distribution: All over India.

alkaloid has dangerous side-effects and should Drug and it's Properties: Leaves and seeds
be used in controlled doses. are medicinal. Oil obtained from leaves destroy
bacteria and insects. Juice or infusion of leaves
RAUWOLFIA is useful in bronchitis, catarrh and digestive
complaints. It can be applied locally on ringworm
Family : APOCYNACEAE
and skin diseases. It is dropped in ears to relieve
Botanical Name: Rauwolfia serpentina (L.) earache. Seeds are useful in urinary
Bentham ex Kurz complications. Decoction of roots is given in
Indian Names: Chandra (Bengali); Chotachand malarial fever for sweating.
(Hindi); Sarpagandha or Chandrika (San- Other Species of Tulsi:
skrit)
1. Ocimum canum Sims (Kali Tulsi): Seeds are
Description: An erect glabrous shrub, 30-75 tonic and diurectic.
cm. high, leaves whorled, 8-20 cm. long, tapering 2. Ocimum basilicum L. (Munjariki, etc.): Plant
into a short petiole. Flowers 1.5 cm. long, petals is useful in fever, cough, worms, stomach
white or pinkish, peduncle deep red in small complaints and gout. Juice is used as a nasal
clusters. Fruits small, round, dark purple or black drop. Seeds taken internally relieve consti-
when ripe. pation and piles.
Distribution: All parts of India upto 1,000 3. Ocimum kilmandscharicum Guerke (Cam-
metres altitude. More common in submountain- phor Basil): Source of camphor. Plant grows
eous regions of the Himalayas and Western in places of altitude upto 1000 metres.
Ghats. Also in the plains of W. Bengal, Bihar,
U.P. and M.P. ASOKA
Drug and it's Properties: Drug consists of
Family: CAESALPINIACEAE
dried roots with bark intact, collected in autumn
and from plants 3-4 years old. Roots contain Botanical Name: Saraca asoca (Roxb.)
several alkaloids. Chief use is sedative, hypnotic De Wilde syn. Saraca indica auct. non L.
and anit-hypertensive. Indian Names : Ashoka (Beng.), Ashoka (Hindi
and Sanskrit).
TULSI (Sacred Basil, Holy Basil)
Description: Small tree, leaves compound,
evergreen, forming a dense crown. Leaflets 7 -
Family : LABIATAE
25 cm. long, slightly leathery. Flowers bright
Botanical Name : Ocimum sanctum L.
orange in color, (sometimes yellow), due to
Indian Names : Tulsi, Krishna Tulsi or Manjari colored bracts. Fruits 15 - 25 cm. long, flat. Seeds
(Sanskrit), Vishnu Tulsi, Trittavu, etc. are many.
Description: Much branched, erect herb, Distribution: In central and eastern
upto 75 cm. high, hairy all over, leaves opposite, Himalayas, eastern India and in south India.
about 5 cm. long, margins entire or toothed,
dotted with glands. Flowers small, purplish or Drug and it's Properties: Dried bark of the
reddish in clusters. Fruits small, seeds yellow or tree has medicinal value. Used as an astringent
red. in excessive menstruation as a uterine sedative.
Indigenous Homoeopathic Drugs 631
As a substitute for ergot in uterine hemorrhages. Drug and it's Properties: Comprises of fresh,
Flowers are useful in hemorrhagic dysentery. ripe or half-ripe fruits. Fruit is valuable for
Seeds are useful in urinary discharges. mucilage and pectin. Useful in chronic diarrhea
and dysentery, particularly for patients having
NEEM (Margosa tree) diarrhea alternating with spells of constipation.
Improves appetite and digestion. Antibiotic
Family : MELIACEAE activity of leaf, fruit and root of bael tree has
Botanical Name: Azadirachta indica A. Juss recently been confirmed.
Indian Names : Neem, Nimba (Sanskrit), Nim,
Limbro, Bevu, Vepa. BELLADONNA
Description: Large tree. Leaves pinnate; the Family : SOLANACEAE
leaves are divided into smaller segments called
Botanical Name : Atropa acuminata Royle ex
leaflets and each leaflet looks like a leaf. Flowers,
Lindley.
small, white. Fruits 1.2-1.8 cm. long; green or
yellow; one seed in each fruit. Indian Names : Angurshafa, Sagangur (Hindi).
Another species is Atropa belladona L.
Distribution: All over India, especially in which occurs in Europe. The trade name,
south India. Belladona, is derived from this species.
Drug and it's Properties: Dried stem bark, Description: Erect, branched, perennial herb,
leaves and root bark are used. Bark is a bitter 60-90 cm. high. Leaves brownish green, narrow
tonic, astringent and antiperiodic, i.e., usful in at both ends. Flowers yellowish-brown, bell-
fevers, breaks the periodic sequence of fever (in shaped. Fruit round, about 1.5 cm. across, purple-
malaria), useful in skin disease. Leaves are useful black.
in skin diseases and boils. Antibiotic properties Distribution: Cultivated in Kashmir, at 2000
of leaves and roots in skin diseases have been to 3000 metres altitudes.
confirmed.
Drug and it's Properties: The drug Belladona
consists of dried leaves and other parts of plant
BAEL
when the plant flowers. The drug obtained fom
Family : RUTACEAE the leaves and above-ground parts decrease the
Botanical Name : Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa secretion of sweat, and salivary and gastric
glands. Strong antispasmodic action in intestinal
Indian Names : Bilya (Sanskrit), Vilvam, Sriphal
colic. Also useful in asthma and whooping cough.
(Sanskrit), Maredu, etc.
The drug obtained from roots has similar
Description: Medium-sized deciduous tree,
properties but contains poisonous substances.
bearing strong auxiliary thorns. Leaves with 3
Used for external applications in rheumatism,
or 5 leaflets. Flowers greenish-white, sweet
neuralgia, inflammations, etc.
scented, in small bunches. Fruits of 8 - 20 cm. in
diameter, globose, green, finally greyish. Rind
DHATURA
woody. Pulp orange colored, sweet, aromatic.
Family : SOLANACEAE
Distribution: Submountaineous regions and
Botanical Name: Datura, stramonium L.
plains all over India.
Indian Names: Dhatura, Ummatthai, etc.
Description: Bushy plant, upto 1 metre high. Drug and it's Properties: Dried leaves,
Leaves large, ovate, toothed. flowering tops and seeds are used. The chief
Flowers large, white. Fruit ovoid, deeply active principle is Hyoscyamine. The drug is
divided into four, covered with prickles. useful in the same manner as Belladona. Useful
in bronchitis or asthma, and controls salivation
Distribution: Eastern, central and south in mouth. Anti-spasmodic and narcotic.
India. In Himalayas, upto 2500 metres. Inhalation of smoke from the burning leaves
relieves asthma.
■
633
12-8
Preparation of Some Drugs
HAHNEMANNIAN METHOD 3. Next, preserve it in well-stoppered bottles.

If allowed to cool gradually in the open air,
Following few Hahnemannian preparation most of the carbon would be consumed.
of homoeopathic drugs or medicines would History and Authority
provide some idea regarding his originality.
These preparations were used by Hahnemann Hahnemann, Allen’s Encyclopaedia of
himself in his drug provings, and which ought, Materia Medica, Vol II, 549.
therefore to be preferred to all others. Preparations
a. Trituration 1x Drug strength 1/10
CARBO ANIMALIS
Carbo animalis in coarse power 100 gms
Common Name Saccharum lactis 900 gms
Animal charcoal. To make one thousand grammes of the tritu-
ration.
Synonyms b. Potencies:
English: Leather charcoal; French: Charbon i. Trituration 2x and up wards.
animalis; German: Knockenkohle, Tierkhole. ii. Dilutions.
Procedure Decimal Scale: Trituration 6x may be
The crude drug was made by Hahnemann as converted to liquid 8x with the customary
follows: method. One minim of 8x potency to 9 minims
1. Place a thick piece of well-cleaned ox-hide of dilute alcohol gives 9x potency. All upward
leather (neat’s leather) on red-hot coals, potencies are made with 1 minim of the preceding
where it must remain as long as it burns with potency to 9 minims of 60 O.P. rectified spirit.
a flame. Centesimal Scale: One grain by weight of
2. As soon as the flame ceases, lift off the red- the 3rd trituration dissolved in 50 minims of
hot mass, and extinguish it by pressing be- purified water and mixed with 50 minims 60 O.P.
tween two clean flat stones. rectified spirit gives the 4th potency. One minim
of the 4th potency to 99 minims of 60 O.P. Preparations

rectified spirit gives the 5th potency. All upward a. Trilurations 1x and upwards.
potencies are made with 1 minim of the preceding b. Dilutions:
potency to 99 minims of 60 O.P. rectified spirit.
i. Decimal scale.
CALCAREA CARBONICA
ii. Centesimal scale.
All the above preparations are made as
Common Names
directed under Class VII.
Carbonate of lime; Impure carbonate of lime;
Calcarea carbonate of Hahnemann; Calcium CAUSTICUM
carbonate of Hahnemann.
Synonyms
Chemical Formula
CaCO3 Latin: Tinctura acris sine Kali.
Molecular Weight Procedure

100.08 This is of uncertain nature and strength and
a preparation peculiar to homoeopathy. It was
Synonyms introduced and proved by Hahnemann, and hence
Latin: Calcii Carbonas, Calcarea ostrearum, must be prepared strictly according to
Ostrea edulis, Testa ostryae; English: Oyster Hahnemann’s instructions.
shells; French: Carbonate de chaux; German: 1. “Take a piece of freshly burnt lime approxi-
Calciumkarbonat. mately 2 kg. in weight and put it for one
Procedure minute in a vessel of purified water.
The drug substance employed by 2. Next lay it in a dry dish, where it soon be-
Hahnemann was an impure carbonate of lime. comes pulverised, emitting much heat and a
peculiar odor, called the vapor of lime.
1. Take a clean, well selected, thick oyster shell,
and break into small pieces in a wedgewood 3. Out of this fine powder take 10 gms. and
or porcelain mortar. place it in a pre-warmed porcelain triturat-
2. Select the inner snow-white portions very ing bowl.
carefully. 4. Now mix it with a solution of 60 ml.
3. Next wash cautiously with purified water. bisulphate of potash, which has been previ-
ously heated to redness, melted and then
4. Dry over a waterbath and powder to a fine
pulverised and dissolved in 60 ml. of boil-
state.
ing purified water.
It is a fine white micro-crystalline powder
5. Put the thickish preparation thus obtained in
which is odorless; tasteless, almost insoluble in
a small glass retort, whose open end should
water and becomes slightly soluble in water
be dipped in water to half its height, it is
containing carbon dioxide.
attached to a wet bladder.
History and Authority 6. Until the preparation is perfectly dry, the
First prepared and proved by Hahnemann intermingled liquid is distilled over by gradu-
himself. Alien’s Encyclopaedia of Materia ally heating the glass retort by a coal fire.
Medica, Vol. II. 351.
Preparation of Some Drugs 635
7. The distillate is collected which measures sulphuretted hydrogen; insoluble in water or

about 30 ml. It is clear as water, and con- strong alcohol but soluble in hot hydrochloric
tains Causticum in a concentrated form hav- acid with the evolution of hydrogen sulphide.
ing the smell of potash lye.
History and Authority
It is with an astringent and burning taste on
In 1794, Hahnemann had used it internally
the back part of the tongue. It freezes at a lower
for removing the bad effects of intake and topical
temperature than water and promotes the
application of mercury; of which use was then
putrefaction of animal substances if kept in it;
very common. Allen’s Encyclopaedia of Materia
with the salts of Baryta and with the oxalate of
Medica Vol. IV. 572.
ammonia it gives no trace of sulphuric acid, nor
lime-earth respectively.” Procedure
History and Authority a. Crude Drug
Allen’s Encyclopaedia of Materia Medica It is to be prepared according to

Vol. III. 35; X. 455. Hahnernann’s instructions, viz.:
1. Mix equal parts of clean, finely powdered
Preparations oyster shells and pure well-meshed flowers
a. Mother Solution Drug strength 1/2 of sulphur, and place them in hermetically-
Causticum 500 ml. closed clay crucible.
Strong alcohol 500 ml. 2. Keep the mixture at a white heat at least for
ten minutes.
To make one thousand millilitres of solution.
3. Next cool the product and thus the required
b. Dilutions 2x and upwards; 1 and upwards
drug is obtained.
with 60 O.P. rectified
Identification
spirit.
c. Medications 2x and upwards; 1 and upwards. With oxalate of ammonia the solution gives
a white precipitate.
HEPAR SULPHURIS CALCAREUM Storage
Common Name Preserve in well-closed glass-stoppered

phial, and protect from light.
Hepar sulphuris; Impure calcium sulphide.
b. Trituration 1x Drug strength 1/10
Chemical Formula Hepar sulphur in coarse powder 100 gms.
CaS Saccharum lactis 900 gms.
Synonyms To make one thousand grammes of the tritu-
Latin: Calcarea sulphuratum; English: Liver ration.
of Sulphur; French: Foie de soufre calcaire; c. Triturations: 2x and upwards, 1 and up-
German: Schwe-felleber. wards.
d. Dilutions:
Description
i. Trituration 6x to be converted to liquid
It is a white, porous, friable mass, or a white 8x, 9x and upwards with 60 O.P. recti-
amorphous powder; odor and taste of fied spirit.
ii. Trituration 3 to be converted to 4, 5 and 3. Next the alcohol, which has been converted
upwards with 60 O.P. Rectified spirit. into ether, is thrown away. The trituration of
the mercurial is continued with fresh por-
MERCURIUS SOLUBILIS tions of alcohol for half an hour each time,
until these fluids emit no longer the smell of
Chemical Formula
ether.
Approximately Hg4 ON H2 NO3 + NH4 NO2 4. That being done, the alcohol is decanted, and
Synonyms the salt is dried on blotting paper, which is
Latin: Hydrargyrum oxydum nigum Hahne- renewed from time to time.
manni, H. oxydulatum nitricum ammonilatum, 5. Next the salt is triturated for a quarter of an
Dimercurosa nitrate; English: Mercury oxide hour in a glass mortar with twice its weight
black Hahnemann, Ammoniated nitrate of of purified water.
mercury; French: Mercure de Hahnemann; 6. The clear fluid is decanted, and the same
German: Hahnemann’s Queckailber. process is repeated with a fresh quantity of
water, these clear fluids are added to the pre-
Description
ceding, and thus we get an aqueous solution
It is a heavy, greyish-black, velvety powder; of all that the saline mass, consisting of mer-
taste is metallic, slightly acidic; insoluble in curial nitrate, really saturated. The residue
water, alcohol or ether; entirely volalilised by is composed of other mercurial salts of chlo-
heat with decomposition; contains no metallic ride and sulphate.
globules. 7. Finally by precipitating this combined aque-
History and Authority ous solution by caustic ammonia, the so-
called black oxide of mercury is obtained.”
A mercurial preparation devised by
Hahnemann as a substitute for the corrosive Hahnemann’s method is complex, and the
mercurial salts, which were used in his time. resulting product is likely to prove unsatisfactory.
(Allen’s Encyclopaedia of Materia Medica Vol. The following formula of the B.H.P. will give
VI, 296). better result and secure uniformity’in the
preparation:
Preparation Mercury, by weight 85 gms.
Crude Drug: Pure Nitric acid 48 ml.
Hahnemann discovered its preparation, but Ammonia, strong solution 15 ml.
he had abandoned it, by signifying his preference Purified water in sufficient quantity.
for pure mercury (Mercurius vivus). The process 1. Mix the nitric acid with 235 ml. of water in
recommended by him is as follows: a flask and digest the mercury in the mix-
1. Having purified the mercury, it is dissolved, ture, applying gradually increased heat until
cold, in common nitric acid, which consumes about 70 gms. of the mercury has dissolved.
many days.
2. A small portion of this solution is diluted
2. The resulting salt is dried on blotting paper, with about twenty times its bulk of purified
and triturated in a glass mortar for half an water. It yields a perfectly black precipitate
hour, adding one-fourth of its weight of the with ammonia.
best alcohol.
3. Dilute the hot solution with 350 ml. of puri- Molecular Weight
fied water while warm, filter it into a vessel 138.20
containing four times its bulk of cold puri-
fied water. Synonyms
Latin: Corbonas potassicus, S. kalicus,
4. A solution of ammonia, previously diluted
Kalium carbonicum (purum, s. e tartaro),
with 290 ml. of purified water in a thin
Potassae carbonae, Potassi carbonas, Potassi
stream, stirring constantly meanwhile.
carbonas purus, Sal tartari; English: Carbonate
5. As soon as the precipitate subsides, decant
of Potash, Carbonate of Potassium, Potassic
the supernatant liquid, and shake the
carbonate, Potassium carbonate; French:
precipitates with a fresh portion of purified
Carbonate de potasse; German: Kalium
water.
carbonate, Konlensaures kali. Sanskrit and
6. Collect it on a filter, wash thoroughly, and Bengali: Yavakshara; Hindi: Javakhar.
dry it between the folds of filter paper with-
out applying heat.” Description
The official potassium carbonate is a dry,
Storage
white, granular powder or a coarse mass or a
Preserve in dry well-stoppered phails white crystalline powder. It is odorless,
protected from light. hygroscopic, having a strong alkaline taste and
reaction. Exposed to air it deliquesces, ultimately
forming a slightly yellowish liquid. It is soluble
The preparation has a historical importance, in 1 part of water at 15°C; it is insoluble in
as it was discovered by Hahnemann. Therapeuti- alcohol. Treated with dilute acids, evolves CO2
cally, it seems to act well, and till is used forming a salt with the acid used. Its aqueous
popularly, but in no way is different or superior solution is alkaline, and gives a white, granular
to Mecurius vivus. According to Jahr, precipitate with an excess of tartaric acid; it
Hahnemann entirely abandoned this preparation imparts a violet coloration to the bunsen flame.
in favour of Mercurius vivus many years before Formerly it was obtained from the ashes of plants,
his death. now prepared by passing COz in a solution of
Preparation KOH, and next by heating the resultant KHCO3.
Being prepared according to above formula, History and Authority

Mercurious solubilis Hahnamanni is triturated Hahnemann first proved the drug. Allen’s
under Old Method, Class VII. Encyclopaedia of Materia Medica Vol. V. 81,
558.
KALIUM CARBONICUM
Procedure
Common Name 1. Half an ounce of pure Cream of Tartar
Kali carbonate; Salt of tartar; Potassium car- (bitartarate of potash), is moistened with a
bonate. little distilled water and formed into a small
balls, wrapped in filter paper and dried.
Chemical Formula 2. After this, it is gradually heated to bright
K2 CO3 redness by placing between the glowing
coals or a good fire.
3. Next, the product is placed in a porcelain A comprehensive and as an accurate test, the
capsule, covered with linen, and placed in a B.P. directs that “150 grains of bitartarate of
damp cellar for two to three weeks, within potassium, heated to redness till gas ceases to
which the last trace of the calcareous earth evolve, leave an alkaline residue which require
would be precipitated. for exact neutralisation, 100 grain measure of
the volumetric solution of oxalic acid.”
Preparations
According to Hahnemann’s Method BRIEF PREPARATORY METHOD
OF A FEW NOSODES AND
a. Triturations
IMPONDERABILIA
i. A clear drop of the above preparation is
used for making the first trituration ac- The nosodes or the morbid preparations are
cording to Class VIII, or in most cases at first triturated and attenuated
ii. Decant the dissolved salt of the above according to the different classes of the old
preparation, add distilled water, and fil- method. A very few are also prepared according
ter; next evaporate to dryness, briskly to the modern method. In the homoeopathic
stirring towards the close of the process. therapy, they are generally used in dilution forms
of higher potencies.
One part by weight of the above is triturated
with ninety-nine parts of milk sugar according DIPTHERINUM
to Class VII.
A nosode. The membrane from a case of
b. Liquid Potencies malignant diphtheria, triturated with milk sugar
According to Class VIII or Class VII, as the to the 6th centesimal, then potentised by Swan.
case may be.
ELECTRICITAS
According to the B.H P.
a. Trituration An imponderabilia. The energy imparted by
b. Liquid Potencies electricity (atmospheric or static), The potencies
are prepared from milk sugar which has been
i. 1x in distilled water, 3x with proof spirit;
saturated with the current.
and upwards with rectified spirit.
ii. One with distilled water, to which 5 per HIPPOZAENINUM
cent of rectified spirit has been added; 2
with 20 O.P.; and upwards with recti- The nosode of glanders of Farcy. (The
fied spirit. disease is called “Glanders”, when the catarrhal
symptoms are pronounced. “Farcy” when these
Tests for Purity are not noticeable, the skin being chiefly affected,
If Hahnemann’s preparation be made from with deposits in the lungs. Homoeopathic
pure potassium bitartarate, no tests for the purity preparations of both have been made. Those
of the product will be necessary. But potassium made from Farcy are distinguished by the letter
bitartarate is frequently adulterated with “F”.) Trituration of milk sugar saturated with
chlorides and sulphates of calcium and the virus.
potassium, chalk, terra alba etc.
MALLEIN Encyclopaedia of Materia Medica, Vol. X, p.

658).
A toxin prepared from glanders (Allen's,
Materia Medica of Nosodes, p. 561.)
MAGNETIS POLI AMBO
LUNA An imponderabilia; prepared by exposing
milk sugar to the influence of an entire magnet,
An imponderabilia, prepared from the rays
stirring and thereby saturating the vehicle.
of a full moon, by saturating milk sugar or
Attenuations are prepared from this trituration.
purified water.
In case of liquid attenuations, purified water is
used in place of milk sugar.
LYSSINUM OR HYDROPHOBINUM
The nosode of the virus of a rabid bitch (or MAGNETIS POLUS AUSTRALIS
dog). Introduced and proved by Dr. Hering in An imponderabilia, being prepared as above,
1833, fifty years before the crude experiment of employing the south pole of a magnet.
Pasteur with the serum (Allen’s Keynotes).
Procedure MALARIA OFFICINALIS
An empty flour-barrel was put from behind First prepared and proved by Dr. Bowen, of
over a rabid bitch, and to secure her saliva, the Fort Wayne, Ind.
barrel was lifted on one side until the bitch, in Procedure
trying to escape, put out her head, between the
He proceeded as follows:
edge of the barrel and the ground. A quill was
used to get as much as of the saliva as possible Vegetable matter of different forms, which
out of her mouth and from her teeth. was covered with distilled water and kept at a
temperature of 32.2º C, was decomposed in a
The above saliva was divided into two parts:
glass jar. The decomposition was passed through
One part was triturated in the same day, one drop
three stages, and at the end of each period, some
with 100 grains milk sugar, and exactly according
of the supernatant liquid was taken and preserved
to the Old method, Class VIII, carried to the 3rd
with alcohol. The tincture was prepared as
centesimal, with the aid of some water and
follows:
alcohol. Further trituration was done by alcohol
i. Some quantity of the supernatant liquid
alone upto the 6th potency, and later on to the
was taken from the vegetable matter that
30th.
had undergone decomposition for one
From the tincture of the other part of the week and was mixed with equal parts
saliva put in alcohol, some weeks after, one drop by weight or alcohol.
was potentised in the usual way for the purpose ii. In the second stage, equal part by weight
of comparative experiment. of alcohol was mixed with the liquid
All this has been related in particulars as an taken from the vegetable matter which
advice to others who may have a chance to get had undergone decomposition for two
the saliva from another dog. It may be of some weeks.
use to get it from a male for comparison. (Allen's iii. In the final stage by taking some quan-
Materia Medica of Nosodes, p. 136-137; Allen’s tity of the supernatant liquid from the
vegetable matter which had undergone Preparations from the tincture obtained as
decomposition for three weeks, and mix- described above, attenuations are prepared
ing with an equal part of alcohol. according to Class Vl-b.
Provings PYROGEN OR PYROGENIUM
Vide “New, Old and Forgotten Remedies,” A nosode; a product of sepsis, artificial
by Dr. E.P. Anshutz. sepsin. A product of decomposition of the
chopped lean beef in water, allowed to stand in
PSORINUM the sun for two or three weeks.
A nosode. The sero-purulent matter
SEPSINUM
contained in the scabies vesicle was used for
Hahnemann’s provings The product of ‘Psora A nosode. A toxin of Proteus vulgaris,
sicca’ (epidermoid efflorescence of pityriasis) prepared by Dr. Shedd, same symptoms a
was used for Dr. Gross’s provings. exhibited by Pyrogenium, of which it is main
constituent.
Preparation
Trituration (Allen’s Encyclopaedia of SEPTICAEMINUM
Materia Medica Vol. VIII, p. 164), Dr. A nosode introduced and proved by Dr. Swan
Constantine Hering gives the following accounts and was prepared from a portion of septic boil.
(The North American Journal of Homoeopathy,
II, 362): “In the Autumn of 1880, I collected the SOL
pus from the itch pustule of a young and An imponderabilia, prepared by exposing
otherwise healthy negro, who had been infected, milk sugar in a glass pot and by continnous
but whether by means of acari or not, I cannot stirring the vehicle by a glass-rod, under the
say. The pustules were full, large and yellow, influence of the concentrated rays of the sun.
particularly between the fingers, on the hands
and forearms. I opened all the mature, SYPHILINUM OR LEUTICUM
unscratched pustules for several days in
succession, and collected the pus in a vial with The nosode of the syphilitic virus Luesinum.
alcohol. After shaking it well allowing to stand, The matter exuding from a true chancre is
I commenced my provings with the tincture on triturated (Allen’s Encyclopaedia of Materia
the healthy. Its effects were striking and decided, Medica Vol. X, p. 636).
I administered it to the sick with good results,
and sometime witnessed aggravations, I called TUBERCULINUM AND BACILLINUM
this preparation of Psorinum.” The nosodes are glycerine extracts of pus
“When this alcohol is placed in a watch-glass (with bacilli) from tubercular abscesses. The
and allowed to evaporate, small needle-shaped potencies of Fincke and Swan were prepared
and transparent crystals of a cooling, pungent from a drop of pus obtained from a pulmonary
taste will be left behind. I have always been of tubercular abscess or sputa. Those of Heath were
the opinion that this salt, contained in the morbid prepared from a tuberculous lung in which the
product, was the cause of its peculiar effects.” bacillus tuberculosis had been found
microscopically; hence the former was called
Tuberculinum and the latter Bacillinum. Both distilling unchanged. Crystallises when cooled
preparations are reliable and effective. to about 10° C, which completely remelts at about
15°C. It may be obtained by the action of
TUBERCULINUM BOVINUM OR sulphuric acid on an acerate or by synthesis.
BOVINE TUBERCULIN Manufactured by the destructive distillation of
wood carbohydrates, or by the oxidation of
The nosode is also called the tuberculin of
alcohol. Contains not less than 99.0 per cent w/
animals (cattles), and now is prepared in
w of C2H4O2.
homoeopathic attentuated forms in London by
Epps and Nelson. Introduced and proved by Dr. Solubility
Kent, procured from the tubercular glands of a
Mixible with water, alcohol, glycerine and
slaughtered cow.
with most fixed and volatile oils; dissolves
camphor, gum-resins and resins.
X-RAY
Identification
An imponderabilia, prepared by exposing a
phial containing alcohol to X-ray for half an hour. i. Strongly acidic, even when diluted freely.
Dilutions are prepared according to the ii. When heated to boiling, the vapor is inflam-
centesimal scale. mable and burns with a blue flame.
iii. When diluted with water and neutralised,
responds to the reactions characteristic of
FEW EXAMPLES OF
acetates.
PREPARATIONS UNDER
MODERN METHOD iv. Freezing point: Not lower than 14.80°C.
v. Wt. per ml.: At 25°C, about 1.047 gm.
ACIDUM ACETICUM vi. Arsenic: Not more than 2 parts per million.
vii. Chloride: 5 ml., complies with the limit test
Common Name
for chlorides.
Acetic acid.
viii.Lead: Not more than 3 parts per million.
Chemical Formula ix. Copper: In 1 ml. with 10 ml. of water slightly
C4H3O3 acidified with hydrochloric acid add hydro-
gen sulphide; no perceptible coloration, in-
Molecular Weight dicating the absence of more than the slight-
60.053 est traces (also of arsenic and lead).
Synonyms x. Nitrate: On to the surface of a cold mixture
Latin: Acidum aceticum glacial, Aceticum of 2 ml. and 2 ml. of sulphuric acid pour
acidum, Acid of vinegar; English: Glacial acetic gently 1 ml. of cold ferrous sulphate T.S.;
acid; French: Acide acetique crystallisable; no dark or colored zone developes at the
German: Essigsaure, Aceti acidum junction between the two liquids.
xi. Sulphate: 2.5 ml. complies with the limit test
Description
for sulphates.
A colorless, limpid liquid; odor pungent,
xii. Sulphite: To 1 ml. in 10 ml. of water add
characteristic, strong that of vinegar; vesicant
silver nitrate T.S. or barium chloride; no pre-
or caustic. Boiling point, about 118° C, the acid
cipitate or turbidity.
xiii.Sulphuric acid: To 6 ml. in 14 ml. of water History and Authority

add 1 ml. potassium permanganate solution First proved by Dr. C. Hering. Allen’s
(0.1 per cent w w); do not lose the red color Encyclopaedia of Materia Medica 1-4 ; Hering’s
within 1 hour. Guiding Symptoms 1.
xiv. Certain aldehydic substances: To 5 ml. add
10 ml. of mercuric chloride, make alkaline Preparations
with sodium hydroxide; allow to stand for 5 a. Solution Q Drug strength 1/10
minutes, and make acid with dilute sulphuric Acid acetic (glacial) 101 gms.
acid; the solution shows merely faint turbid- Purified water in sufficient quantity
ity. To make one thousand millilitres of the
xv. Formic acid and oxidisable impurities: Di- solution
lute 5 ml. with 10 ml. of water; mix 5 ml. of b. Dilutions:
this solution with 6 mll of sulphuric acid and
i. 2x and upwards with purified water, and
cool to 20° C. Add 2 ml. of N/10 potassium
dichromate and allow to stand for 1 minute. ii. Potency 1 is equivalent to 2x, 2 and up-
Dilute with 25 ml. of water, add 1 ml. of wards with purified water, all are to be
freshly prepared potassium iodide T.S., and freshly prepared for immediate use only.
titrate the liberated iodine with N/10 sodium But in practice dilutions above 6x or 3
thiosulphate, using starch mucilage as indi- are made with dispensing alcohol.
cator. Not less than 1 ml. of N/10 sodium c. Trituration 1x Drug strength 1/10
thiosulphate is required. Acid acetic (glacial) 101 gms.
xvi. Odorous impurities: Neutralise 1.5 ml. in Saccharum lactis sufficient quantity
5ml of water with sodium hydroxide, keep- To make one thousand grammes of the tritu-
ing the solution cool; the solution has no ration
odor other than a faint acetous odor. Note: During the process of trituration be cautious,
xvii. Readily oxidisable impurities: To 2 ml. in so that the temperature does not exceed 12° C.
10 ml. of water add 0.1 ml. of N/10 potas- d. Attenuations
sium permanganate; the pink color does i. 2x and upwards.
not turn brown within 2 hours.
ii. 2x is equivalent to 12 and upwards.
xviii. Non-volatile matter: Leaves not more than
0.01 per cent w/w of residue, when evapo- Medication
rated to dryness and dried to constant All attenuations upto the 30th are generally
weight at 105° C. used.
Assay Old Method
Same as laid by H.P.I. may be followed. Class Va.
Caution and Storage
ACONITUM NAPELLUS
It blisters the skin, but is sometimes
employed for destroying warts. Being Botanical Name
hygroscopic, should be kept in well-stoppered Aconitum napellus Linn.
containers.
Family smooth, round and slightly hairy above. Long-

Ranunculaceae stalked alternate leaves are palmately cut, dark
green and shiny upper surface, undersurface paler
Molecular Weight and slightly hairy. Dark violet colored flowers
360.3 appear on stalked recemes and on the stems
Synonyms summits, from May to July, large, beautiful.
Latin: Aconitum angustifolium, A. caulesim- Macroscopical
plex, A. coeruleum, A. dissectum, A. multifidum. The tuberous roots are either single or in
A. stoerckia-num, A. tauricum, A. vulgare, cluster of two or more, the younger ones are
Napellum coeruleum; English: Common aconite, smoother and connected by means of side branch
Friar’s cap, Helmet flower, Monkshood, or branches with the older deeply wrinkled roots.
Wolfsbane; French: Aconite napel; German: Each root is about 4 to 10 cm. long, conical in
Sturmhut, Eisenhut; Spanish and Italian: shape, 1 to 3.5 cm. wide at the crown and tapering
Napello; Sanskrit: Visha; Hindi: Mithazahar; to a point at the lower end.
Bengali: Kathbish; Bombay: Bachnab; Tamil:
Vashanavi. Constituents
Habitat The active principles mostly occur in the

roots. Roots contain the alkaloid aconitine,
It is found in shady and wet places of hilly
aconine, benzoylaconine, hypaconitine,
districts, growing at high altitudes in the mounty
mesaconitine, neopelline, napeliae and neoline.
regions; naturalised in west England and Wales.
The total amount of alkaloid present varies from
It is found in the Himalayan ranges of India,
0.2 to 1.5 per cent. Other constituents are starch
above 3000 M to 3500 M.
and aconitic acid.
Flowering Time: June to August.
Time for Collecting: The leaves and
flowering tops, when about one-third of the The name is said to originate from Aconis, a
flowers have expanded. The roots in spring, city of Bithynia (in Asia Minor); and Napus
before the leaves have appeared. means a turnip, from the shape of its roots. The
word ‘Aconite’ may also be derived from Akone,
Note: The cultivated plant is sometimes used in
a whetstone, a-konigos, without dust, as because
place of the wild one, and it yields a very good tincture.
It is needful, however, to procure plants which have the herb grew on rocks devoid of soil; ‘akon’, a
not been grown in rich, over-abundant soil, and also dart, as because darts were poisoned therewith.
such as retain all the characters of the wild plant In 1762, Baron Stoerck, a Viennese physician
unaltered by cultivation. introduced Aconite to medicine. In 1805,
Hahnemann introduced it to homoeopathy
Description
(Fragmenta de Viribus Medicamentorum).
The herbaceous annual stem of Aconite starts Allen’s Encyclopaedia of Materia Medica Vol.
from an elongated conical tuberous root; 53 to I, 12; X 262 and 642.
100 mm. long, sometimes 25 mm. in thickness.
This root tapers off in a long tail with numerous Parts Used
branching rootlets from its sides. The stem is For preparing mother tincture the whole
upright, 0.6 m. to 1.13 m. in height, green, plant with root gathered at the beginning of
flowering is used. The root is much stronger and magus, S. maniacum, S. melanoceros, S.
more ‘uniform in strength than the herbor leaves. somniferum, S. sylvaticum; English: Common
Note: There are many species of Aconite, and it dwale, Deadly nightshade; French: Belladonne;
is not certain which were used by Hahnemann. In the German: Tollkraut, Tolkirsche; Hindi:
subsequent provings different species have been used. Angurshefa, Lukmuna, Sagangur; Bengali:
In the provings the symptoms of the herb, seed, root Yebruj; Bombay: Girbuti; Kashmir: Mait brandi,
etc. have not been separated, not even those of Jalakafal; Punjabi: Angurshefa.
different species.
Habitat
Preparations Common in Europe, especially in southern
a. Tincture Q parts, grows in ruins and waste stony places;
Aconitum—moist magma cultivated to a small extent in Kashmir.
containing solids 100 gms. Flowering Time: Summer.
Plant moisture 350 c.c. 450 Time for Collecting: When in full flower.
Strong alcohol 683 ml.
Description
To make one thousand millilitres of tincture.
A perennial herb, bushy, large. Root is
Alcohol content—64 per cent v/v.
spreading; branches, thick, fleshy and juicy, in
b Dilutions fresh state white internally, pale brown
i. 2x to contain one part tincture, two parts externally. Stems are from 0.91 m. to 1.52 m.
purified water, seven high, smooth, cylindrical, thick, often branching;
parts alcohol, 3x and upwards with recti- younger shoots pubescent. Numerous leaves,
fied spirit 60 O.P. alternate below, and in pairs above, one is smaller
ii. 2x is equivalent to 1, 2 and upwards with than the other. Flowers appear from May to
rectified spirit 60 O.P. August, solitary (rarely 2 to 3 together), stalked,
c. Medications axillary and dropping, bell-shaped, pendulous
3x and upwards, 3 and upwards. and purple in color; berries ripen in September.
If brushed, the whole plant is fetid and has a dark
Old Method purplish color. Fruit is a berry.
Class I and II (for dilutions), excluding root. Constituents
Belladonna herb contains the alkaloids:
BELLADONNA
Hyoscyamine, B-methylaesculetin (scopletin,
Botanical Name chrysatropic acid; which gives a blue
fluorescence in ultraviolet light), atropine, and
Atropha Belladonna Linn.
traces of hyoscine, belladonnine; and other
Family alkaloids. Further constituents are variable
Solanaceae quantities of volatile bases, including pyridine,
N-methylpyrraline and N-tnethylpyrroldine. All
Synonyms these occur in variable amount in the whole plant,
Latin: Atropha acuminata Royle ex Lindley, roots, stems, leaves also in “the berries. In a good
A. belladonna, A. lethalis, Belladonna baccifera, quality of the dried herb total quantity of
B, trichotoma, Solanum furisoum, S. lethale; S. alkaloids present will be about 0.4 to 1.0 per cent.
Entire herb contains not less than 0.20 per Preparations

cent of the alkaloids of Belladonna herb a Tincture Q Drug strength 1/10
(excluding root), calculated as hyoscyamine. Belladonna, moist magma containing
The total amount of alkaloid in the root solids 100 gms.
varies from about 0.3 to 0.8 per cent. Plant moisture 567 ml. 667
Standards and Tests Strong alcohol 470 ml.
i. For Belladonna herb (excluding root): To make one thousand milliiitres of tincture
• Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 3.0 Alcohol content 44 per cent v/v.
per cent. b. Dilutions
• Foreign organic matter: Not more than i. 2x to contain one part tincture, four parts
2.0 per cent. purified water, five parts alcohol; 3x and
• Stem: Not more than 3.0 per cent hav- upwards with rectified spirit 60 O.P. (dis-
ing a width greater than 5 mm. pensing alcohol).
• Assay: As per B.P. method, For roots ii. 1 is equivalent to 2x; and upwards with
only. rectified spirit 60 O.P.
• Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 2.0 c. Medications
per cent. i. 3x and upwards.
• Foreign organic matter: Not more than ii. 3 and upwards.
2.0 per cent.
Action
• Assay: As per B.P.C. method.
Belladonna roots and leaves are analgesic,
History and Authority diuretic, mydriatic, narcotic and sedative; berries
The name Belladonna originates from two are poisonous. Its centre of action is the
Latin words, ‘Bella’, means fine or beautiful and cerebrum. The brain and its membranes are
‘Donna’, means lady. It was used by the famous involved producing active congestion followed
Italian poisoner Leucota to kill beautiful women. by inflammation. The sensorium being
The word ‘Atropha' originates from Greek prominently affected, the special senses become
‘Atropos’, means inflexible, one of the Fates, intensely acute and perverted in function. Acting
whose duty was to cut the thread of human life. as an irritant to the entire nervous system, it
Belladonna’s mydriatic property was discovered causes congestion of the medulla oblongata and
in 1802, and its ‘analgesic’ property in 1860, the spinal cord; and thus brings forth
Hahnemann introduced it in homoeopathy, in his consequently general hyperaesthesia of both the
Fragmenta de viribus, 25 (in 1805): (Allen’s sensory and motor nerves. Its action on the heart
Encyclopaedia of Materia Medica, Vol. II, p. 67; is too complicated. It stimulates the accelerative
Vol. X, p. 373, 645). centres and paralyses the pseumo-gastric or
vagus nerves, causing the heart’s action to be
Parts Used rapid and full, and peripheral vessels dilated;
The whole plant, two and half to three years bringing forth wild delirium leading to stupor;
old, when beginning to flower, is employed for convulsions with dilated pupils, the respective
preparing mother tinctures. mucus membranes of the urinary organs, throat,
mouth and eyes being also affected, bring purified water l/1000(3x)
suppressions of their respective secretions. Cortisone Q in strong alcohol 1/1000
Uses Crotalus horridus solution in glycerine 1/100
Croton tiglium in strong alchol 1/100
In addition to the homoeopathic curative
applications, it is used in external applications. Cuprum aceticum solution in
Belladonna linaments are sometimes used as purified water 1/100
counter-irritants. Belladonna suppositories are Elaps corallinus solution in glycerine 1/100
used to relieve the painful spasm of anal fistula. Ferrum picricum in strong alcohol 1/100
Tinctures and solutions other than 10 per Glonoinum in strong alcohol 1/100
cent. Kalium arseuicosum solution 1/100
Kalium chloricum solution in purified
water 1/100
DRUG STRENGTH
Kalium permanganicum in purified water1/100
Drug strength
Lophophora wiliamsii 1/20
Acidum butyricum Q solution,
Mephitis mephitica Q 1/100
in dilute alcohol 1/00
Moschus Q 1/20
Acidam hydrocyanicum Q using the
acid in a 2% solution with equal Mercurius bromatus Q solution in
volume of alcohol 1/100 purified water 1/100
Acidum picricum Q solution in strong Mercurius cyanatus Q solution in
alcohol 1/100 purified water 1/100
Ambra grisea Q 1/100 Natrium hydroiodium Q in strong
alcohol 1/100
Ammonium aceticum, solution in
purified water 1/100 Phosphorus Q 1/667
Arsenicum album Q solution 1/100 Propylaminum Q solution in purified
water 1/100
Bromium Q solution 1/100
Stannum perchloratum Q solution in
Buthus australis Q solution in purified
purified water 1/100
water 1/100
Succini oleum 1/100
Cactus grandiflorus Q 1/20
Thalium aceticum Q 1/100
Calcarea caustica Q solution in purified
water 1/1000 (3x) Formulas and parts taken for preparations
Carboneum chloratum Q in alcohol 1/100 of different drug substances according to
American Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia and
Carboneum oxygenisatum Q solution 1/100
German Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia (G).
500 c.c. Causticum 1/100
{
Causticum Q to make
}
500 c.c. strong alcohol 1000 c.c.
(For Drug Control Authority purpose
Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of India should
be mentioned where such preparations have been
of Q
mentioned.)
Chlorinum Q solution in
Name of Drugs Part Used Class of Old Method
Abies canadensis Fresh bark and yound bud 3

Abies nigra Gum 6a
Abroma augusta folia Fresh developed leaves 3
Abroma augusta radix Fresh root with bark 4
Absinthium Fresh young leaf and blossom 3
Acalypha indica Fresh plant 3
Achyranthes aspera Fresh herb, seed and root 3
Acidum aceticum Pure glacial acetic acid 5a
Acidum benzoicum Pure benzoic acid 6b (G), 6a 7
Acidum boracicum Pure boracic (or boric) acid 7
Acidum carbolicum Pure crystallised carbolic acid 6a
Acidum chromicum Pure chromic acid 5a
Acidum citricum Pure citric acid 7
Acidum fluoricum Pure fluoric acid 5b
Acidum formicum Pure formic acid 5a
Acidum gallicum Pure gallic acid 7
Acidum hydrocyanicum Officinal acid (having about 2 per cent
of the anhydrous acid) 6b
Acidum lacticum Pure lactic acid 6b
Acidum muriaticum Pure hydrochloric acid (specific gravity 1.16) 5a
Acidum nitricum Pure nitric acid (specific gravity 1.42) 5a
Acidum oxalicum Pure oxalic acid 5b (G), 7
Acidum phosphoricum Pure glacial phosphoric acid 5a (G), 5b
Acidum picricum Pure picric acid 5b, 7
Acidum salicylicum Pure salicylic acid 7
Acidum sulphuricum Pure sulphuric acid (specific gravity 1.843) 5a
Acidum tannicum Pure tannic acid 7
Aconitum napellus Plant in flower, without root 1, 2, 1(G)
Aconitum radix Fresh root (uncultivated herb) 3
Actaea spicata Fresh root, of just pre-flowering plant 3
Adonis vernalis Fresh plant 3
Aegle folia Full grown green leaves 3
Aegle marmelos Pulp of unripe fruit 4
Aeusculus glabra Fresh ripe nut, except outer shell 3, 7
Aesculus hippocastanum 3
Aethusa cynapium Fresh plant in flower 3
Agaricus emeticus Fresh mushroom 3

Agaricus muscarius Whole young fungus 9(G), 3
Agave americana Fresh leaves 3
Agnus castus Fresh ripe dried berries 3
Agrostema githago Ripe dried seeds 4
Ailanthus glandulosa Equal parts fresh shoots, leaf, blossoms, young bark 3
Aletris farinosa Fresh bulb 3
Allium cepa Freshly matured bulb 3
Allium sativum Freshly matured bulb 3
Alnus serrulata Fresh bark 3
Aloe socotrina Inspissated juice of leaves 4&7
Alstonia scholaris Dried bark 4
Alumen The pure potassium alum 7
Alumina Alumina white powder 7
Ambra grisea Genuine grey ambergris 7
Amloki Fresh dried mature fruit 4
Anacardium orientale Resinous fluid of fruit 4, 9
Arctium lappa Fresh root, gathered in spring
Arjuna Freshly dried bark 3
Arnica montana In parts, herb in bloom one, root
two, flower one, (free of arnica fly larva) 3, 4(G)
Arsenicum album Vitreous arsenious acid 6b, 7
Arum triphyllum Fresh root, pre-leaf development 1(G), 3
Asa foetida Gum-resin (incising live root) 4
Asarum europaeum Fresh plant in flower 1
Asparagus officinalis Young sprouts 3
Asterias rubens Entire live animal 4
Avena sativa Fresh plant in flower 1(G), 3
Azadirachta indica Freshly dried bark 4
Baptisia tinctoria Fresh root, with its bark 3
Belladonna Fresh plant when coming into flower 1
Berberis vulgaris Fresh bark of root 4(G), 3
Blatta orientalis Whole live animal 9, 4
Bovista Ripe entire fungus 7, 4; 7 (G)
Bryonia alba Fresh root—pre-flowering 1
Cactus glandiflorus Fresh flowers, youngest and tenderest stems 3
Cannabis indica Dried herb—tops 4
Cannabis sativa Freshly blooming herb—tops both male and female 1 (G)

Cantharis Dry Spanish fly (large ones) 4, 7; 4(G)
Capsicum annuum Dry ripe fruit 4
Carbo animalis Charcoal of neat's leather 7
Carbo vegetabilis Chrcoal of birch or beech wood 7
Carica papaya Fresh leaves 3(G)
Caulophyllum Fresh root 3
Ceanothus americanus Fresh leaves 3, 4(G)
Chininum arsenicosum Pure arsenate of quinia 7
Chininum sulphuricum Pure sulphate of quinia 7
Chionanthus virginica Fresh bark 3
Chirata Whole dried plant 4
Cicuta maculala Fresh root, got in summer 1
Cicuta virosa Fresh root (plant just into bloom) 1
Cimicifuga racemosa Fresh root 3
Cina Dried flower 4
Cinchona officinalis (China) Dried bark 4, 7, 4(G)
Cinnamomum Bark (of Srilanka) 4
Cistus canadensis Fresh plant in flower 3
Clematis erecta Fresh leaves & stems of plant just coming into bloom 1
Cocculus indicus Dried fruit 4
Coccus cacti Dried female insects 4
Coffea Unroasted coffee beans 4; 4 & 7 (G)
Colchicum atumnale Fresh bulb, shortly before blooming 1
Collinsonia canadensis Fresh root gathered in early spring, or late autumn 3
Colocynthis Dried fruit, free of outer yellow rind and seeds 4
Conium maculatum Whole fresh plant, when the flowers begin to fade 1
Convallaria majalis Fresh whole plant, coming to flower 3(G), 1
Copaiva officinalis Balsam (oleoresin) 6b
Corallium rubrum Red coral, small branchy, striated pieces 7
Crataegus oxyacantha Fresh fully ripe fruit 3
Crocus sativus Dried stigmas of flowers 7(G),4
Crotalus horridus Venom or the poison 8
Croton tiglium Pure croton oil 4 & 7(G), 6b, 8
Cubeba officinalis Dried berries 4
Cundurango Dried bark 4,7
Cuprum metallicum The precipitated metal 7
Curare Arrow poison of South America 7

Cyclamen europaeum Fresh root, got in autumn 1
Daphne indica Fresh bark 3
Datura arborea Fresh flowers 3
Digitalis purpurea Fresh leaf (uncultivated plant, 2nd
year growth, about to bloom) 1
Dioscorea villosa Fresh root 3
Dolichos pruriens Hair carefully scraped from epidermis of pods 4
Drosera rotundifolia Fresh plant just at flower 1
Dulcamara Fresh green stems, flowers 1
Echinacea augustifolia Fresh plant, when in bloom 3
Elaps corallinus The poison 8
Equisetum hyemale Fresh plant 3
Eucalyptus globulus Fresh leaves 4(G), 3
Eupatorium perfoliatum Fresh herb, just in bloom 3
Euphrasia officinalis Fresh plant (not root) in bloom 2
Gambogia Gum-resin 4
Gelsemium sempervirens Fresh root, not thicker than a goose-quill 3
Gnaphalium Fresh plant 3
Gossypium herbaceum Fresh inner root-bark 3
Granatum Dried root-bark 1
Graphites Purified graphite 7
Gratiola officinalis Fresh plant pre-flowering 1
Guaiacum officinale Resin 6a
Hamamelis virginica Fresh bark of twigs & root 3
Hekla lava Finer ash of hekla eruptions 7
Helleborus niger Root, just after flowering 4
Helonias diocia Fresh root, got just before flowering 3
Hydrastis canadensis Fresh root 3
Hydrocotyle asiatica Carefully dried plant 1
Hyoscyamus niger Fresh blooming plant 4
Hypericum petforatum Fresh blooming plant 3
Ignatia amara Powdered seeds 4, 7
Indigo Blue dye stuff indigo 7
Ipecacuanha Dried root 4
Iris versicolor Fresh root of late autumn 3
Jatropha curcas Ripe seeds 4
Joanasia asoca Bark of mature tree

Justicia adhatoda Fresh leaves of bakash 3(G)
Kalium bichromicum Bichromate of potassium 5b, 7
Kalium carbonicum Hahnemann’s preparation of potassium carbonate 5a(G), 7
Kalmia latifolia Fresh leaves in flowering 3
Kreosotum Beechwood-tar kreosote 6b
Kurchi Bark,chopped
Lachesis Venom 8
Lachnanthes tinctoria Fresh plant in flower 3
Lapis albus Genuine Lapis albus 7
Lathyrus sativus Ripe seeds 4
Laurocerasus Mature fresh leaves gathered in summer 2
Ledum palustre Fresh herb 4(G)
Leptandra virginica Fresh root of the 2nd year 3
Lilium tigrinum Fresh plant in flower 1(G), 3
Lithium carboncium Pure carbonate of lithium 7
Lobelia inflata Whole fresh plant 3
Lycopodium clavatum Spores 4,7
Lycopus virginicus Whole fresh plant in flower 3
Melilotus alba Fresh flowers 3
Melilotus officinalis Fresh flowers 4(G),3
Menyanthes trifoliata Fresh plant just to bloom 1
Mezereum Fresh bark, pre-flowering 2
Millefolium Fresh plant just to flower & before stems are ligneous 1
Moschus The whole bag of musk 4, 7
Murex purpurea Fresh juice 8
Naja tripudians Venom 8
Nux moschata Dried seeds 4
Nux vomica Finely powdered seeds 4, 7
Ocimum sanctum Fresh leaves
Oleander Fresh leaf, when in bloom 2
Opium Dried gum opium 4,7
Petroleum Crude petroleum 6b
Petroselinum Fresh plant, just blooming 1
Physostigma venenosum Bean, pulverised 4
Phytolacca decandra Fresh root 3
Plantago major Fresh plant, coming in flower 1 (G), 3
Podophyllum peltatum Fresh root, before fruit ripens 3
Pulsatilla Fresh plant in flowers 3

Ranunculus bulbosus Fresh flowering plant 3(G), 1
Ratanhia Dried root 4
Rhus toxicodendron Fresh, leaves of May & June, collect after sunset 2(G),3
Rhus venenata Fresh leaves and bark 3
Robinia Fresh bark of young twigs 3
Rumex crispus Fresh root, at flowering 3
Ruta graveolens Fresh herb, pre-blooming 3(G),1
Sabadilla Seeds excluding capsules 4
Salix nigra Fresh bark 3
Sambucus canadensis Fresh leaves and flowers 3
Sambucus nigra Freih leaves and flowers 1, 3(G)
Sanguinaria canadensis Fresh roots 4 (G), 3
Sarsaparilla Dried root of Honduras variety 4, 7
Secale cornutum Fresh ergot 3
Selenium The metal selenium 7
Senega Dried root 4
Senna Dried leaves 4
Sepia Dry inky juice 7(G), 4, 7
Sinapis alba Ripe seeds 4(G)
Sinapis nigra Ripe seeds 4(G), 4
Spigelia Fresh dry herb, bearing flowers and seeds 4
Staphysagria Ripe seeds 4
Stramonium Ripe seeds 4, 1(G)
Sumbul Dried root 4
Symphytum officinale Fresh root, pre-blooming 2 (G), 3
Syzygium jambolanum Fresh seeds 4, 7; 4(G)
Tabacum Dried leaves (genuine Havana tobacco) 4
Taraxacum officinale Fresh whole plant with root before flowers open 1
Tarentula cubensis Virus of live spider 6b
Tarentula hispania The live spider 7, 9(G)
Teucrium marum verum Fresh plant, blooming 3(G), 1
Theridion The live spider 4
Thuja occidentalis Fresh leaves (plant just blooms) 3(G), 2
Trillium pendulum Fresh root 3
Urtica urens Fresh plant in flower 1(G),3

Ustilago maydis Fresh, just ripe fungus 4, 7
Veratrum album Dried root 4
Veratrum viride Fresh root of autumn 4(G), 3
Viburnum opulus Fresh bark of root 3
Vinca minor Fresh plant, when begins flowering 2
Viola tricolor Plant in flower, having blue & yellow
colors preferable 2(G),3
Viscum album Equal parts of fresh berries and leaves 2(G),3
Xanthoxylum fraxineum Fresh bark 4(G), 3
Zingiber officinale Dried root, powdered 4
■
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Section - 13
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Glossary
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13-1
Glossary
Acid: A compound which contains Primary Alcohol: Contains CH2OH group.

hydrogen. This hydrogen may be replaced Secondary Alcohol: Contains CHOH group.
partially or wholly by metals to produce salts. A Tertiary Alcohol: Contains COH group.
liquid acid turns blue litmus paper red. There
Aldehyde: A class of organic compounds,
are organic acids and inorganic acids.
formed by the oxidation of primary alcohols, e.g.,
Organic Acids: Acidum aceticum, Acidum Formaldehyde, Acetyldehyde, etc.
benzoicum, Acidum picricum, etc.
Alkali: Water-soluble base is an alkali, e.g.,
Inorganic Acids: Acidum muriaticum, Natrium causticum, Kalium causticum, etc.
Acidum nitricum, Acidum sulphuricum, etc.
Alkaloids: They mean alkali-like. Alkaloids
Vegetable drugs contain many organic acids are organic bases, containing nitrogen, having
either in a free stage or as compounds with specific physiological actions. Vegetable
elements of potassium, calcium, etc. alkaloids occur in any part of plants, but are
Active Principle: The strongly influential generally abundant in barks, seeds and root. They
constituent of a drug, which can be extracted are seldom found alone, usually a number of them
from a drug and be analysed chemically, e.g., are found together; e.g., Opium contains 25
Apiolum (of Petroselinum sat.), Condurangin alkaloids.
(Cundurango), Cymarin (Apocynum can.), A few alkaloids are also prepared
Digitoxinum (Digitalis), Ditain (Alstonia synthetically. Most alkaloids do not occur free
scholaris), Guaiacol (Creosote), etc. in plants, but as salts. In nature, almost
Alcohol: A class of organic compounds exclusively, they are found in dicotyledons and
derived from the hydrocarbons, one or more scarcely in monocotyledon plants. Alkaloids are
hydrogen atoms in molecules of which being classified according to their sources, as well as
replaced by hydroxyl groups, e.g., Ethyl alcohol their chemical and therapeutical properties. They
of Ethanol (ordinary alcohol) is C2H2OH. combine with acids to form crystalline salts,
They are subdivided into primary, secondary without producing water; they are alkaline, turn
and tertiary alcohols. red litmus paper blue. They are extremely bitter,
but some like Piperine are tasteless. Most are Hyoscyamine and its salts H. hydrobrom, H.
odorless, but Nicotine, etc. have a strong odor; sulph. (Hydras can.); Hyoscyamine and its salts
many are deadly poisons, but in minute doses, H. hydrobrom, H. sulph. (Hyoscyamus);
act as valuable therapeutic agents. They are Lobeline (Lobelia); Muscarine (Agarem.);
generally colorless, but a few are yellow, e.g., Nicotine (of Tabacum); Physostigmine (?)
Berberine. As a rule, alkaloids contain the (Physostigma v.); Pilocarpine and its salts P.
element, C, H, O and N. But a few like Nicotine, mur., P. nit. Jaborandi); Piperine (Piper nig.) ;
etc. contain no oxygen; which are usually liquid; salts Sanguinarin nit. and S. tartar.
but most alkaloids are crystalline solids. (Sanguinariacan. an alkaloidal salt Scopolamine
Identification of Alkaloids: Often they are hydrom. (Scopola, Japanese Bell.); Sparteine
identified by their ‘melting points’. Finding out (volatile, of Cystisus scop.) and its salt, salt S.
their solubilities, crystalline forms or ‘specific sulph.; Strateg bube (Several species of
rotations’, etc. may also help in identification. Strychnos, especially Nux-v.) and its salts S.
In general, they give a white or yellow arsenic, S. ferri cit., S. mur., S. nit., S. phos.. S
precipitate, in a solution of mercuric iodide and sulph S. valerin.; Thein (of tea); alkaloid
potassium iodide (Mayer’s reagent); white or Veratrine (of Sabadilla); alkaloids from Opium—
yellowish precipitate with a dilute solution of Codeine and its salts C. hydrochloride, C. phos.;
iodine in potass iodide (Wagner’s reagent) and Cryptopine; Morphine and its salts M. acet., M.
an orange-red precipitate with potassium lact, M. mur., M. sulph.; Narceine, Narcotine etc.
bismuth-iodide (Dragendroff’s reagent), etc. Anesthetics: Drugs which diminish
There are other specific tests for alkaloids also. sensibility by depressing the terminations of
The following alkaloids are used as drugs in sensory nerves (local) or lead to a total loss of
homoeopathy Aconitine (of Aconitum nap.); consciousness (general) e.g., Acidum
Areolin hydrobrom (a salt of Areca cat.); carbolicum; Belladonna; Bromium; Chloralum;
Aspidospermine and its salt A. hydrochlor (of Chloroformum; Cocaine; Ether; Iodoform;
Quebracho); Berberine and its salt B. sulph. (of Kalium bromatum; Opium; Platina; Valeriana;
Berberis vul., Hydrastis can., Columbo, etc.); Veratrum viride.
Brucine and its salt B. nitric, (of Angustura spu., Anhydrotic, Anti-hydrotic, Anti-sudorific:
and Nux-v.); alkaloid Caffeine and its salt C. Drugs which prevent, reduce perspiration that is
citrate (of Coffea, Paullinia s., Ilex para., and opposite to diaphoretic, e.g., Agaricinum;
Thea chin. From China or Cinchona off.— Atropinum; Hyoscyamus niger; Stramonium;
alkaloid Chinine (or Quinine), and its salts C. Belladonna; Opium.
arsenici, C. arsenico, C. ferro. cit., C. hydrocy Anhydrous: This term is applied to a
C. mur., C. salicy., C. Sulph; Chinoidine a substance, when it is completely free from water.
mixture of several alkaloidal bodies; Cinchonine
sulph.; Alkaloid colchicine (of Colchicum aut.); Antidote: It is a substance which modifies
Alkaloid conine and its salts C. bromatum, C. or opposes the effects of a remedy, i.e., Nux
mur. (of Conium mac.); Duboisine and the salt vomica and Coffea; Belladonna and Opium;
D. sulph. (Duboisia; Emetine (of Ipecac; Ergotine Bryonia and Rhus tox.
and E. wiggersi (Secale) Eserine, and its salt E. Antihelmintics: Drugs which are used to kill
sulph (of physostigma ven.). Hydrastine and salt or expel the worms. It may be a vermicide (which
H. hydrochl., H. sulph. (Hydrastis can.); kill the worms) or vermifuge (which expel the
Glossary 659
worms without killing, e.g., Carbon tetrachloride; esters, e.g., Balsam peru, Balsam tolu; (resin
Chelone; Oil of Chenopodium; Cina; Spigelia; 80%, volatile oil 1.5 to 3.0%, free cinnamic and
Stannum; Teucrium marum verum; Thymol; benzoic acids).
Kausso-Brayera. Base: An oxide or hydroxide of metal (or
Antipyretics: Drugs which lower the non-metal). It reacts with acid to produce a salt;
temperature of the body in pyrexia e.g., in a solution of water turns red litmus blue, e.g.,
Acetanilidum (Antifebrinum); Aconitum Magnesium oxydatum.
napellus; Arnica montana; Belladonna; Bryonia Bioavailability: It is defined as the yield of
alba; Micromeria. the active drug from a pharmaceutical
Antiseptics: Drugs which prevent or retard preparation at the required sites in the body.
the growth of micro-organisms as long as they Boiling Point or B.P.: When a pure liquid
remain in contact with them but do not destroy boils under constant pressure and the
them, e.g., Acidum carbolicum; Acidum temperament remains constant, then that constant
boracicum; Arbutinum; Canchalagua; Chlora- temperature under one atmosphere pressure is
lum; Borax; Kreosotum; Myristica sebifera; called the boiling point of that liquid.
Myrtus communis; Pyrogenium; Cinchona; Carbohydrates: A large group of organic
Sulphur. compounds consisting of the elements carbon,
Antispasmodics: Drugs which relax the hydrogen and oxygen only, are termed as
spasm of the muscular coat of the bronchial tubes, carbohydrates. They comprise of:
e.g., Belladonna; Chloroformum; Magnesium A. Sugars:
phos.; Passiflora.
i. Monosaccharides, e.g., d-glucose, grape
Aphrodisiacs: Drugs which increase sexual
sugar or dextrose C5H12O6
desire, e.g., Cantharides; Camphora; China;
Coffea; Ether; Moschus; Nux vomica; ii. Disaccharides e.g., sucrose, cane-sugar
Phosphorus; Stramonium; Nasturium aquaticum; or saccharose, C12H22O12,
Valeriana; Vanilla; Yohimbinum. iii. Tri and Tetrasaccharides.
Astringents: Drugs which cause contraction B. Non-sugars: Polysaccharides e.g., starch and
or shrinkage of the tissues or diminished cellulose.
exudations or secretions, e.g., Adrenalinum;
Carminatives: Drugs which help in
Hamamelis; Hypericum; Sanicula; Zincum
expulsion of gases, e.g., Chamomilla.
oxyd.; Tannicum acidum.
Caustics or Escharotics: Drugs which
Atom: The smallest portion of an element
destroy the vitality of the part on which they are
which can take part in a chemical reaction. The
applied, e.g., Arsenicum album; Mercurius;
ultimate particle of matter is commonly
Sulphuricum acidum.
understood as atom.
Characteristic Symptom: It is the
Atomic Weight: The atomic weight of an
individualising symptom of a drug. In its
element is a number which expresses how many
complete expression it should belong to a drug
times the weight of one atom of an element is
alone.
greater than the weight of one atom of hydrogen.
Chemical Symbol or Chemical Formula:
Balsams: They are mixtures or resinous
Symbol or formula is an abbreviation for the full
substances, benzoic or cinnamic acids or their
name of an element or compound. The chemical
symbol or the chemical formula expresses the they produce a compound. A compound may be
names of the elements, or the names of the separated chemically again into its constituents,
elements constituting a radicle or group or a e.g., water is made from the chemical union of
compound, and contains the respective number the elements oxygen and hydrogen; these two
of atom in each molecule of a radicle or elements can also be separated chemically.
compound. For example, the elements hydrogen, Concordant Remedies: Drugs whose
oxygen and carbon are represented by the symbol actions are similar but of dissimilar origin are
H, O and C respectively; the group ethyl is said to be concordant and they follow each other
represented by symbol CH3 and on 2 molecules well i.e., China and Calcarea; Pulsatilla and
of ammonia contains one atom of nitrogen and Sepia; Nitricum acidum and Thuja; Belladonna
three atoms of hydrogen. and Mercuris.
Chloralum (Chloral Hydrate): Another Condense: It means to make or become
drug used in homoeopathy; it is prepared by the dense. Condensation means the act of making or
action of water on the aldehyde chloral. being dense.
Cholagogues or Hepatic Stimulants: Drugs
Crystallisation and Crystal: When a
which increase the amount of bile actually
solution of a solid in a liquid, saturated at some
secreted, e.g., Aloe soc.; Colchicum; Croton tig.;
higher temperature, is made to cool down, then
Euonymus; Eupatorium per.; Iris versicolor;
a quantity of the solid held in solution is
Leptandra; Manganum; Mercurius; Podo-
deposited at the bottom spontaneously in the
phyllum; Rheum; Sanguinaria; Veratrum alb.
form of particles having regular and definite
Clinical Pharmacology: Evaluation of geometrical shapes. This process is called
drugs in a clinical setting is termed clinical crystallisation and the particles are called
pharmacology. crystals.
Clinical Symptom: One that is observed on
Every solid has got its own crystalline form.
the sick and has not been obtained from a
A crystal of common salt or Natrium muriaticum
proving. A patient under treatment is given a
is cubic. Alum or Alumen crystal is like a double
remedy for certain condition, if a certain marked
pyramid. If a perfect crystal is broken, then it
symptom is not found in the proving of that
breaks in to smaller crystals, and all of which
remedy but it disappears, it is credited to the
are similar as the bigger mother crystal.
action of that remedy and is called a clinical
symptom. The solids which have no crystalline shape
are known as amorphus solids, e.g., Carbon,
Complex Protein: An example is gelatin or
Sulphur, etc.
gelatine, which is used as a drug in homoeopathy.
It occurs in cells of algae, also in animal There are different methods of getting solids
cartilages and bones; it is soluble in water and in their crystalline forms, e.g.,
its solution has the property of setting to a jelly. i. By cooling or evaporating the solution
Complimentary: A relation wherein one of a solid in a liquid.
drug completes the cure which was commenced ii. By sublimation.
by another drug, i.e., Belladonna and Calcarea, iii. By solidification of a melted substance.
Sulphur and Nux vomica, Apis and Natrium mur. Curative Medicine: This field is exclusively
Compounds: If two or more elements occupied by homoeopathy because the cure as
chemically unite in some definite proportion,
Glossary 661
said in the Organon of Medicine could not be which is known as condensation; and the liq-
effected by any other branch of medicine. uid collected in the receiver is called the dis-
Decantation: It is a process of pouring tillate.
gently and slowly a liquid (or solution of tincture) Distillation Under Reduced Pressure or
contained in a vessel, out of a mixture of the said Distillation Vacuo: Some liquids decompose at
liquid and other insoluble solid substances, their boiling points. So, they cannot be distilled
without disturbing those solid substances, which under the atmospheric pressure and they distill
are deposited at the bottom as sediment. under reduced pressure. This is done by
It is a rather crude method of separating a connecting the receiver with a filter pump in
liquid (or solution or tincture) from its insoluble order to exhaust the air out, for reducing pressure
solid contents, which settle down at the bottom. inside, and thus producing partial vacuum. This
This method is applied in cases of mother process is called distillation under vacuo.
tinctures or solutions or other liquid preparations, Deodorants: Drugs which destroy offensive
for making them bright by removing their or disagreeable odors, e.g., Formalin.
insoluble solid contents. Desication: It is a process of drying or
Density: The density of a liquid is the weight removing the moisture contained in any
in grammes in vacue of 1 ml. of that liquid. substance. In practice it is errected by keeping
Dilute (or dil.) and Concentrated (or the substance in any ordinary temperature as well
conc.) Solution: If only a small amount of solute as by heating it at a temperature upto 100°C in
is present in a solution, then it is called a dilute an air own or steam over or electrical oven.
solution, and if the solution contains a relatively Diaphoretics or Sudorifics: Drugs which
large amount of the solute, it is called increase the secretion of sweat. When a
concentrated. diaphoretic acts very powerfully it is called a
Dilution: It is the method of mixing one sudorific e.g., Aconitum nap.; Achyranthes
liquid with another liquid. The more one liquid aspera; Apocynum; Aurum met.; Belladonna;
is added, the more weak the other liquid becomes Chamomilla; Colchicum; Ether; Eucalyptus
in strength. globus; Eupatorium perf.; Gelsemium;
Ipecacuanha; Jaborandi; Opium; Pulsatilla;
Take the first liquid in a suitable vessel, and
Muscarine; Sambucus nigra; Secale cor.;
pour it upon the second liquid contained in
Sulphur; Veratrum alb.; Antipyrinum.
another vessel; the gradual addition of the first
liquid results in rendering the second liquid more Disinfectants: Drugs which destroy the
weak in strength. pathogenic microbes, e.g.,
Distillation: The distillation process consists • Oxidizing Disinfectants: Chlorine and its
of two steps: preparations; Bromine and its preparations;
Iodine and its preparations; Permanganate of
i. In converting a liquid into its vapor state by
potassium; Ozone.
the application of heat or by reduction of pres-
sure (or by both the application of heat and • Antizymotic Disinfectants: Benzoicum
reduction of pressure) is known as vaporiza- acidum; Borax; Carbolicum ac.; Caustic lime;
tion. Chloride of zinc; Cinchona; Eucalyptus;
Kreosotum; Salicylicum acidum; Sulphate of
ii. Then conversion of the said vapor into the
iron; Sulphur; Sulphurus acid; Thymolum.
former liquid state by the application of cold,
• Desulphurating Disinfectants: Metallic salts; Cheldonium; Cocculus; Colchicum; Crotalus

Lime; Zinc salts. hor.; Cuprum sulph.; Digitalis; Eupatorium perf.;
• Absorbing Disinfectants: Charcoal; Coffee; Helonias; Ipecacuanha; Iris versicolor;
Chloride of lime; Aluminium. Kreosotum; Lachesis; Natrium mur.; Opium;
Diuretics: Drugs which increase the flow Phytolacca; Robinia; Secale cor.; Sanguinaria;
of urine, e.g., Aconitum ferox; Acidum Tabacum; Veratrum viride; Zincum sulph.
salicylicum; Adonidinum; Amylenum nitrosum; Emmenagogues: Drugs which increase or
Apocynum; Aralia hispania; Argentum phos; restore menstrual flow when deficient or absent,
Arbutinum; Arnica montana; Asparagus; e.g., Aloe; Borax; Gossypium; Helleborus;
Caffeine; Coffea; Collinsonia; Chelidonium Ignatia; Kreosotum; Opium; Secale cor.;
majus; Cicera arist.; Digitalis; Eucalyptus; Ustilago.
Eupatorium per.; Fabiana imbricata; Gelsemium; Emulsion: It is a suspension of the droplets
Gummi guttae; Hyoscyamus niger; Hypericum; of one liquid in another, in which it does not
Juncus effusus; Juniperus communis; dissolve. The milk is an emulsion of very fine
Kreosotum; Liatris spicata; Millepedes; Natrium drops of fat in a watery liquid.
sulph.; Ononis spinosa; Pulsatilla; Senega; Esters: Organic compounds formed by
Strophanthus; Thuja; Urotropinum; Valeriana; reactions between acids and alcohols;
Verbena; Veratrum viride. corresponding to inorganic salts derived by
Drug: A substance which alters the function replacing hydrogen of an acid by an organic
or nutrition of a part or parts of the body. It has radical, e.g., Ethyl acetate, CH3, COOC2H5, it is
the capacity to effect a change in the humans or the ethyl ester of acetic acid CH3 COOH. Many
animals in health or disease. vegetable and animal fats and oils also belong to
Drug Power: It is the amount of crude drug this class.
contained in it. Ethopharmacology: Scientific study of the
Elective Affinity of Drugs: It is the affinity drugs traditionally used by a small ethnic group
that certain drugs have for certain parts or organ in different parts of the world.
of the body, i.e., Podophyllum for liver; Cantharis Evaporate and Evaporation: Evaporate
for urinary tract; Tellurium for tympanum. means to fly off in vapor, evaporation is a process
A more modern term that is sometimes used by which a liquid is converted into vapor either
is tissue proclivity and possibly it is more exact. by exposure to air at ordinary temperature or by
Element: An unanalysable substance, i.e., a applying heat.
substance which cannot be separated or divided Expectorants: Drugs which increase
into two or more dissimilar substances, e.g., bronchial secretion and help its expulsion, e.g.,
Arsenic, Copper, Mercury, Plumbum, Carbon, Adrenalinum; Ammonium mur.; Antimonium
Fluorine, Nitrogen, Oxygen, etc. tart.; Apomorphinum; Balsamum peru.; Bella-
donna; Camphora; Grindelia; Ipecacacuanha;
Embolics: Drugs which cause expulsion of
Kalium iod.; Kreosotum; Lobelia; Oleo-resin;
the contents of the uterus by contracting the
Senega; Squilla; Volatile oils.
uterine muscle, e.g., Borax; Secale cor.; Ustilago;
Joanasia asoca. Experimental Pharmacology: Experi-
mental study of a drug.
Emetics: Drugs which produce vomiting,
e.g., Aconitum nap.; Alumen; Antimonium tart.; Exsiccation: It is a method of driving away
Glossary 663
the moisture content or the water of Spiranthes; Urtica urens.

crystallization of a solid substance by heating it Generic Symptom: Generic symptoms are
strongly. common to a number of drugs. They are: Loss
Filtration: It is a process of passing a fluid of appetite, weakness, headache, etc. They are
through some porous medium. By filtration we of little value to the prescriber.
separate the insoluble suspended materials from
Glycosides: They are organic compounds
a liquid substance or a solution. The liquid or
and derivatives of Glucose from the combination
the solution, which passes out is called the
of hydroxy compound with sugars. Some
filtrate.
glycosides are cathartics i.e., medicines which
Usually filter papers of different sizes and promote intestinal evaluations, such as Aloin (of
qualities are used for filtering purposes. Aloe socotrina), Purshianin (of Cascara sagrada),
However, for different requirements, filters of etc. Some are cardiotonics, i.e., therapeutic
charcoal, asbestos, ground glass, etc., are in use. agents which impart strength or tone to the
A filter or bed of sand, gravel, clinker, etc. is cardiac functions, e.g., Digitoxin (of Digitalin),
used for filtering water or sewage. Strophanthin (of Strophanthus), etc. In
Fixed Oils: There are esters of glycerol (or homoeopathy a number of glycosides are used
glycerine) and fatty acids e.g., Oleic, Stearic, including these ones, e.g., Adonidin (of vernalis),
Palmitic acids, etc. They are found mostly in seas; Aesculin (Aesculus), Arbutin (Uva ursi),
partly soluble in alcohol, freely in chloroform, Colocynthin (Colocynthis), Digitalin (Digitalis),
insoluble in water. Those melting above 20°C Phloridzin (apple and other fruit trees), Saponin
are usually known as fats; while oils melt below (Quillaya saponaria), Solanin (an alkaloidal
20°C. Examples of fixed oils are Almond oil, glycoside, of Solanum nigrum), Dulcamara and
Castor oil (Oleum ricini), Olive oil, etc. sprouts of common potato).
Lycopodium spores contain which contains Gum-resins: They are natural mixtures of
carbohydrate, albumen and Lycopodic acid. gum and resins, obtained by incising plant bodies,
Formalin: A drug used in homoeopathy e.g., Gambogia.
prepared by dissolving 35% formaldehyde gas
Gums: They are carbohydrates in colloidal
in water.
forms, which form a mucilaginous substance
Fractional Distillation: The components of when treated with water, e.g., Ammoniacum
a mixture of different liquids, having different gummi, Asafoetida (25%), etc.
boiling points may be separated individually
Hemostatic: Drugs which constricts the
more or less completely by the process known
blood vessels, e.g., Adrenaline; Calendula;
as fractional distillation. Fractional distillation
Calcarea sulphurata stibiata; Ceanothus;
of a mixture of liquid substances can be more
Hydrastininum mur.; Hypericum; Ipecacuanha;
effectively carried out with the help of a good
Matico; Millefolium; Tannicum acidum.
fractionating column, purification of alcohol is
achieved by fractional distillation. Hydrocarbon: Organic compounds made of
Freezing Point or F.P.: It is the temperature carbon and hydrogen only. Mineral oils are
at which a pure liquid substance solidifies. mainly a mixture of various hydrocarbons.
Galactogogues: Drugs which increase the Hydrolysis: Chemical decomposition (i.e.

secretion of milk, e.g., Jaborandi; Lactuca virosa; division) of a substance by water, water its self
being also decomposed. Salts of weak (or dilute his followers under his suppression.
acids, weak bases or both are partially hydrolyzed Medicine: When a drug has been proved on
in solution. healthy human beings of different ages and of
Hydroxide: It is a compound containing the both the sexes, male or female, and their
hydroxyl radical or group, e.g., Sodium subjective and objective symptoms have been
hydroxide, NaOH. thoroughly known, it is called a medicine.
Hypnotics: Drugs which are employed to A homoeopathic medicine may also be
induce or maintain sleep, e.g., Aspirin; defined as, which is included in any standard
Acetanilidum; Bromide of lithium; Bromide of book of “materia medica” from Hahnemann
sodium; Bromide of potassium; Chloral hydrate; down to the recent authorities; and is prepared
Codeine; Morphinum; Opium; Passiflora; as per homoeopathic pharmaceutical technique,
Sulphonal; Rauwolfia serpentina. and is administered to a patient as per Law of
Ignition Point: It means the act of setting Similars.
on fire. The ignition point of a substance is the Melting Point or M.P.: For a pure solid,
particular temperature at which this burning or during the time of its fusing, the temperature
taking fire occurs. remains constant, this temperature is called the
Inimical Remedies: Drugs which have a melting point of that solid.
relation of enemity towards each other and Metals and Non-metals: The elements are
therefore do not follow each other well i.e., Apis divided into two major divisions:
and Rhus tox.; Phosphorus and Causticum; • Metals e.g., Arsenic (As), Copper (Cu), Mer-
Silicea and Mercurius. cury (Hg), Lead (Pb), etc.
Inorganic Substances: They consist of all • Non-metals, e.g., Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H),
the elements and their compounds. Nitrogen (N); Oxygen (O), etc.
Long Acting or Deep Acting Remedy: A Molecular Weight: The molecular weight
remedy whose action lasts for a comparatively of a substance is a number, which expresses how
long period, e.g., Anthracinum, Bacillinum, many times a molecule of this substance is
Calcarea fluor., Carcinosinum, Kalium carb., heavier than one atom of hydrogen. This is the
Lachesis, Lycopodium clavatum, Mallandrinum, sum total of the atomic weights of the constituent
Natrium muriaticum, Pertusinum, Psorinum, atoms of the molecule.
Silicea, Sulphur, Tuberculinum, etc.
Molecule: A molecule is a smaller part of
Materia Medica: Materia medica is the an element or compound, which can exist freely.
study of drugs—medical materials for the cure A molecule is made of atoms; it may have one or
of the sick. It is a book which contains the more similar or dissimilar atoms.
collected facts from different experimentations,
Mother Tincture: The strongest liquid
clinical experiences, including their
preparation used in homoeopathy and is made
pharmacodynamic effects of the drugs and their
by macerating of the drug or portion of it in
method of application and doses.
alcohol or water.
Materia Medica Pura: A book written by In acid it means the first decimal dilution,
Dr. Hahnemann himself. It is called a Pura that is, one part of the acid to nine parts of
because it contains the pure or the most reliable distilled water.
effect of drugs experimented on himself or to
Glossary 665
Mydriatics: Drugs which dilate the pupils, of solvent to the solution side or the flow of weak
e.g., Acidum salicylicum; Belladonna; solution to the concentrated solution side.
Chloroformium; Cina; Cinchona; Conium mac.; Palliative Medicine: The use of drugs in
Digitalis; Hyoscyamus; Secale cornutum; physiological doses for their effect. This is
Spigilea; Stramonium; Valeriana; Veratrum practically antipathy. Good palliative results are
viride. obtained by the use of homoeopathic remedies
Myotics: Drugs which contract the pupils, also, specially in incurable cases.
e.g., Gelsemium; Jaborandi; Nux vomica; Parasiticides: Drugs which kill the parasite,
Opium; Tabacum. e.g., Cina; Filix mas; Plantago major.
Nosodes: The homoeopathic designation for Pathogenesis of a Drug: The record of all
the morbid product of diseases when employed the symptoms, subjective and objective,
as remedies i.e., Psorinum, Ambra grisea, produced by testing drugs on the human body in
Tuberculinum, etc. varying doses, on different individuals and both
Objective Symptom: Are those which sexes. It includes toxicological symptoms which
appeal directly to the sense of the physician. are an expression of the disturbance in a healthy
Oleo-resins: They are natural mixtures of body produced by a drug or a morbid agent.
resins and volatile oils, obtained by incising Pathogenetic Symptoms: One obtained
trunks of plants, e.g., Copaiva, Turpentine (of from provings on healthy or from toxicological
several species of ‘Pinus’, especially P. palustris). observations.
Optical Rotation: The optical rotation is the Pathognomic Symptoms: Pathognomonic
angle through which the place of polarisation of symptoms are characteristic symptoms of disease
light is rotated when the polarised light passes and belong to a diagnostician.
through a layer of the liquid.
Pharmacal: Pertaining to or relating to
Organic Substances (Compounds): They pharmacy or drugs.
contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and often
Pharmaceutic: Pertaining to the knowledge
oxygen, nitrogen and other elements and
or art of preparing medicines.
compounds. Members of vegetable and animal
kingdoms are mainly made of them. Pharmaceutical: A chemical used in
Osmosis: If a solution is separated from a medicine, pertaining to or engaged in pharmacy
solvent by a semi-permeable membrane relating to the preparation, use, sale of drugs and
(generally an animal membrane, e.g., a bladder), medicines.
then the solvent will spontaneously flow through Pharmaceutics: The science or art of
the membrane to the solution side. In case of two preparing medicines. The science of pharmacy.
different solutions, the weak solution will flow That branch of medical science which relates to
to the concentrated solution side. This kind of the use of medicinal drugs.
diffusion of solvent (or weaker solution) is Pharmacist: A person skilled or engaged in
known as osmosis. pharmacy. One who prepares or dispenses
A Semi-permiable Membrane: It is a medium medicines. A druggist or pharmaceutical chemist.
which when utilised as a pertition between a pure One legally qualified to sell drugs or poisons.
solvent and a solution or two solutions of Pharmacochemist: A pharmaceutical
different concentrations, freely allows the flow chemist, a person who is well conversant with
the organic and inorganic chemistry in relation Pharmacopedics: The teaching of

to pharmacy. pharmacy and pharmacodynamics.
Pharmacochemistry: Pharmaceutical Pharmacophilia: Self-drugging carried to
chemistry. the degree of insanity.
Pharmacodynamics: It is that part of the Pharmacophobia: Morbid dread of
information about the interaction of the drug medicines.
molecules and the body or may be said as the Pharmacophore: The group of aroma in the
molecule which is carrying pharmacological molecule of a drug which causes the therapeutic
message and the body. effect.
Pharmacogenetics: The study of genetically Pharmacopolist: A dealer in drugs.
determined variations in response to drugs in man
Pharmacopraxy: It is the art or science by
or in laboratory organism. Study of the effect of
which crude drug substances are converted into
genetic factors on the individual organism’s
real medicines.
response to drugs.
Pharmacognosy: It is the science of Pharmacopsychosis: A mental disease due
identification of drugs. The scope of a to alcohol, drugs or poisons; drug addiction.
pharmacognosist is confined to drugs of Pharmacoradiography: Roentgen
vegetable and animal origin. He is concerned examination of a body or organ under influence
with the characteristics of various species of of a drug which best facilitates such examination.
plants, their gross and cellular structures and also Pharmacotherapy: Treatment of disease
characteristics which serve as a means of with medicines.
identification. He is also concerned with Pharmacy: It is the name applied to the art
biochemistry of plants (biosynthesis), moulds, and science of preparing drugs for administration
fungi, sera and vaccines. to the sick and dispensing them as medicines.
Pharmacography: A treatise on or Placebo: It is a Latin word meaning, ‘to
description of drugs. please’. An inert preparation, usually of sugar of
Pharmacokinetics: It is the role of a drug milk given to the patient, while watching a case
in the body or the way in which the body handles for the development of symptoms or while
the drug preparation. permitting a previously administered drug to act
Pharmacologist: One who is conversant in undisturbed. It is also some times necessary in
the knowledge of drug, its sources, appearance, impatient cases.
chemistry and action. Plant Exudations: They are naturally
Pharmacology: It is the science that deals occurring heavy liquid or semisolid or solid,
with different aspects of the drugs. chemically complex mixtures. Their properties
Pharmacomania: Abnormal tendency for depend upon climate, season, age and other
taking drugs. environmental factors. Some examples are as
Pharmaconomy: The subject dealing with follows: Gums, resins, balsams.
the route of administration of drugs and Polarimeter: It is a commercial instrument
medicines, the usual routes are mouth, nose, eye, constructed for use with sodium light or a
ear, skin, intramuscular, intravenous, rectum, mercury vapour lamp. The maker’s instruction
vagina, etc. relating to a suitable source should be followed.
Glossary 667
Polychrest: It is a Greek word meaning: Purgatives: Drugs which cause evacuation

“many uses”. A drug that is frequently used, one of the bowels.
whose range of applicability is extensive; an • Cathartic (Drastic): Drugs which excite
every day remedy. It also includes the drugs greatly increased secretion and peristaltic
which are thoroughly and repeatedly proved in movements.
accordance to Hahnemann’s directions and
− Hydragogue (because of the large
verified through clinical experiences or a remedy
amount of secretion they excite): Aloe
which suits various types of diseased states, e.g.,
soc.; Colocynthis; Croton tig.; Euony-
Arsenicum album, Belladonna, Bryonia alba,
mus; Gummi guttae; Helleborus; Podo-
Calcarea phos., Natrium sulph., Nux vomica,
phyllum; Jalapa.
Kalium carb., Lycopodium, Phosphorus, Silicea,
Sulphur, etc. − Others: Colchicum; Elaterium; Helo-
Posology: It is the study of doses. It is an nias; Iris vers.; Kreosotum; Leptandra;
important division of pharmacology. Paracelsus Momordica, Mercurius dulc.; Pinus
declared, “Poison is everything and nothing is lamb.; Rheum; Tabacum.
without poison. The dosage makes it a poison or • Laxatives: Drugs which slightly increase the
a remedy”. action of bowels by stimulating their muscu-
Doses vary with individual tolerance and lar coat, e.g., Magnesium carb.; Natrium
susceptibility. Generally speaking, a dose of a sulph.; Sulphur.
drug may be considered that quantity which is • Saline purgatives like Magnesium sulph.
required to elicit the desired therapeutic response Radicle (Radicle or Group): It is a group
in the individual. of atoms present in a series of compounds; which
In homoeopathy it includes the amount of maintains its identity through chemicals charges
the drugs and the potency because they are and which affects the rest of the molecule, e.g.,
interlinked together. Ammonium radicle, NH4; Ethyl, C2H5; Hydroxyl
Precipitation and Precipites: It is the - OH. etc.
process by which when a solution of a substance Refractive Index: The refractive index of a
in a liquid vehicle is mixed with that of another substance is the ratio of the velocity of light in a
substance in solution, whereby a new insoluble vacuum to its velocity in the substance. It varies
solid is formed, and separates out of the mixed with the wave-length of the light used in its
solution. The solid thus formed is called the measurement.
precipitate. Remedy: If a medicine is administered to a
Preventive Medicine: It includes everything patient according to the symptom similarity to
that physiology, public hygiene, bacteriology and perform a cure, it is called a remedy.
antiseptic medication teaches to lessen or prevent Aphorism 3 of Hahnemann’s Organon of
the development of disease. In homoeopathy, it Medicine said that, “An indicated medicine is
includes the use of homoeopathic remedies in remedy”.
preventing development of epidemic and
hereditary diseases and some individual diseases Residue: Take a solution of some sugar and
by application of remedies by symptoms water in a porcelain basin and boil it on a
similarity (i.e. application of Arnica, Hypericum waterbath till all the water is driven off as steam.
in injury).
A deposit of the dissolved sugar will be left in Salt: A compound of acid and base, e.g.,
the basin; this deposit is called residue. It is said Kalium phos.
that the solution has been evaporated to dryness Saturated solutions: To a test tube half-full
and the process is known as evaporation. of water, gradually add solid common salt while
Resinoids: They came chiefly from the constantly shaking, till no more common salt will
eclectic school and are the dried residues of dissolve. The solution which is formed at this
essence and tinctures of remedies from the stage, is said to be a saturated solution. In case
vegetable kingdom. of such a solution, where it is possible to dissolve
They contain the alkaloids, glucorids, resins, further amount of a solute, then it is known as an
etc. of the plant mixed together i.e., Apocynin, unsaturated solution.
Hydrastin, Podophyllin, Baptisin. Sedimentation: It is the process of allowing
Resinoids (Electric Preparations): The the insoluble heavy solid substances, held in a
resinoids consist of precipitates in powder form; liquid or solution to settle at the bottom of the
derived by mixing a strong alcohol tinctures of container vessel.
plants or parts thereof, with 3 or 4 its bulk of Short Acting Remedy: A remedy whose
water, by which method all alcohol-soluble action lasts for a comparatively short period, e.g.,
constituents are precipitated. They are derived Aconitum napellus, Aethusa cynapium, Allium
from dried materials. It is claimed that these cepa, Avena sativa, Belladonna, Chamomilla,
‘resinoids’ embody and represent the ‘active Colocynthis, Ipecacuanha, etc.
principles’ of the respective plants. No definite Sialogogues: Drugs which increase the
directions not generally adopted rules for these amount of saliva, e.g., Arum triph.; Calcarea carb;
preparations are there, and every manufacturer Digitalis; Helleborus; Iodine; Iris vers.;
seems to be guided by his individual experience. Jaborandi; Ipecacuanha; Kalium chlor.;
It has been observed that well prepared Kreosotum; Mercurius; Muscarine; Natrium
homoeopathic tinctures give far better mur.; Muriaticum acicum; Podophyllum;
satisfaction than these resinoids; so of late they Sanguinaria; Sulphuricum acidum.
are in less use. Examples are” Aletrin (Aletris Solution, Solvent, Solute: At a particular
fat.), Alnuin (Alnus rub.), Baptisin (Baptisia temperature, let some cane-sugar be dissolved
tinctoria), Chelomin (Chelone), Geranin in water forming a clear mixture, then the
(Geranium mac., Irisin (Iris vers.), Macrotin resulting mixture will be called a solution of
(Cimicifuga rac.), Sanguinarin (Sanguinaria sugar in water. Here sugar is called the solute
can.), Trillin (Trillium pend.) etc. and water as solvent. If any substance is dissolved
Resins: Usually they are oxidised turpins or in water, the resulting solution is called the
volatile oils of plants; solid, brittle; in pure state, watery or aqueous solution of that substance.
they are transparent, but on containing water Similarly, an alcoholic solution or any other kind
become opaque generallythey are soluble in ether of solution is named according to the name of
or alcohol and insoluble in water, e.g., Asa foetida the solvent, in which the substance is dissolved.
(40-64%); Podophyllum (rhizome (8%). A solution may be of a solid in a liquid or a liquid
Rubefacients: Drugs which produce in a liquid.
congestion and redness of the skin, e.g., Specific Gravity (or Sp. gr.) Better
Chaulmoogra oil; Croton tig. Relative Density: Specific gravity of a substance
Glossary 669
indicates how many times a given volume of that poisonous substances on living organisms. There
substance is heavier or lighter than an equal are certain important phases of toxicology:
volume if water. • The amount ingested.
Specific Rotation: • Detection of the poisonous substances.
Specific Rotation = • Environmental reactions, i.e. the toxicity of
Angular rotation per dm. of solution industrial dust, smogs and vapors, etc.
Gm. of optically active substance per ml of solution Vesicants: Drugs which produces vesicles
Stomachics: Drugs which increase the over the skin, e.g., Croton tig.; Mezereum; Rhus
activity of secreted gastric juice e.g., tox.
Chamomilla; Aloe; Jaborandi; Tabacum. Volatile Oils: They are found in several plant
Straining: It means pressing or drawing out organs and tissues, and obtained through the
with force or passing through a filter. In our following methods:
laboratory we generally utilise the method • Expression.
straining for pressing or passing mother tinctures • Extraction.
derived from the drugs of vegetable kingdom,
• Distillation with steam, etc.
through a linen cloth, flannel or some porous
materials in order to separate out the tinctures They are pleasant smelling, volatile, soluble
from the insoluble solid substances. For straining in water, and on dissolving impart to it their tastes
purposes, the requisite tincture presses also are and odors. Examples are Cajuputi oil (Oleum
in use. cajupudi), Clove, Eucalyptus, Lemon, orange,
Rose, Sandalwood (Oleum santali), Turpentine
Subjective Symptom: A symptom which
oil (Terebinthinae oleum), etc.
either the prover or the patient experiences and
can express in language. Many drugs contain volatile oils, a few of
them are Apium graveolens (fruits 2-3%, yellow);
Sublimation: It is the process of converting
Arnica (flowers 0.1%, roots 0.5% to 1.5%);
a solid directly into its vaporous state and next
Asafoetida (6.17 %); Azadirachta ind. (blossoms
condensing its vapor back into the solid state,
0.5%); Cheiranthes flowers (0.16%); Zingiber
having the same composition. The product of a
(rhizome 1 to 3%) etc.
sublimation is known as the sublimate.
Water of Crystallization: Many solids
Some solids, like Camphor, Iodine,
while crystallizing out of the aqueous solutions,
Naphthalene, Sulphur, etc. directly pass into their
give crystals containing combined water, taken
vapor state and then by cooling, they again come
up from those solutions. When the water so
to their exact former solid state.
combined with crystals forms an essential part
Therapeutics: It is the application of drugs of their constitutions, is known as water of crysta-
to diseases for their relief or cure, besides this, it llization; the substances are known as a hydrate.
includes all the relates to the science and art of
Weight per Millilitre: the weight per ml of
healing by other remedial measures. Or it deals
a liquid is the weight expressed in gm of 1 ml of
with the application of drugs and medicines in
a liquid, when weighed in air at the specified
diseased condition.
temperature.
Toxicology: It is the science of poisons. It is
concerned with the mechanism of action of ■
Bibliography 671
Bibliography
1. John Gage Allee: Webster’s Dictionary, Ottenheimer Publishers, Inc.

2. J. Mendham, R.C. Denney, J.D. Barnes, M. Thomas: Vogel’s Textbook of Quantitative Chemical
Analysis, Pearson Education Limited.
3. Richard Hughes: A Manual of Pharmacodynamics, B. Jain Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
4. Samuel Hahnemann: Organon of Medicine, B. Jain Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
5. Herbert, A. Roberts, M.D.: The Principles and Art of Cure by Homoeopathy, B. Jain Publishers
Pvt. Ltd.
6. K. Park’s: Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine, M/s Banarsi Das Bhanot Publishers.
7. John Henry Clarke, A Dictionary of Practical Materia Medica, B. Jain Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
8. Carroll Dunham, A.M., M.D., Homoeopathy—The Science of Therapeutics.
9. Richard Hughes: The Principles and Practice of Homoeopathy.
10. W.A. Dewey, M.D.: Essentials of Homoeopathic Materia Medica and Homoeopathic Pharmacy,
B. Jain Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
11. Dr. Samuel Hahnemann: The Chronic Diseases, Their Peculiar Nature and Their Homoeopathic
Cure.
12. R.E. Dudgeon, M.D.: Lectures on the Theory and Practice of Homoeopathy.
13. Samuel Hahnemann: Materia Medica Pura Vols. I & II.
14. Stuart Close, M.D.: The Genius of Homoeopathy.
15. Dr. P.N. Varma & Dr. (Mrs.) Indu Vaid: Encyclopaedia of Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia, B.
Jain Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
16. Research, Reference and Training Division. India 2004, Publications Division, Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting Government of India.
17. Dr. S.P. Gupta: Statistical Methods.
18. Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Homoeopathy, Yoga, Naturopathy Systems of Medicine in India;
Department of Indian Systems of Medicine & Homoeopathy, Ministry of Health & Family
Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi.
19. Monographs: Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy, New Delhi.
20. Dr. D.D. Banerjee: Textbook of Homoeopathic Pharmacy, B. Jain Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
21. Hutchinson: Pocket Dictionary of Physics, Goyal Saab Publishers & Distributors.
22. Dr. K.P. Muzumdar, Pharmaceutical Science in Homoeopathy and Pharmacodynamics, B.
Jain Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
23. Central Council of Homoeopathy, Homoeopathic Practitioners (Professional Conduct, Etiquette
& Code of Ethics) Regulations.
Homeopathy | Pharmacy
This is an augmented work of Dr. Banerjee and is complete in all aspects - starting from basic concepts,
illustrations, mechanism, development, scope and research in pharmacy.
The work is divided into sections for easy reference and all the chapters have been rearranged in a
systematic manner under the respective sections.
The information in each chapter has been updated and elaborated.
The chapter on "Vehicles" is now a complete revised section with 5 chapters in this topic namely :
l Vehicles - in general l Solid vehicles l Liquid vehicles
l Semisold vehicles l Standardization of vehicles
The section "Laboratory" is complete with information on :
l Laboratory premises l Homeopathic laboratory l Laboratory methods
l Instruments l Hazardous instruments l Cleaning of utensils
Each section in this edition provides complete knowledge on the respective subject without any need to
look further. Several new sections & chapters have also been introduced like :
Section on :
l Principles of pharmacy l Analysis of drug
Chapters :
l Methods of preparation - G.H.P. l Methods of preparation - H.P.U.S.
l Preparation of sarcodes and nosodes l Posology and homeopathy
l Table of drugs l Relationship of remedies with duration of action, etc.
Also this edition has explanation with tables, illustrations and examples.
All in all, it a complete textbook for all associated with the field of homeopathy, be it students; graduate or
post graduate, doctors, professors, pharmacists or manufacturer.
Reviews :
I went through the entire book and found some important additions in this edition. These would be quite
useful to the pharmacy students and seem very much user friendly.
Dr. Pravas K. Pal
H.O.D. Dept. of Pharmacy,
Father Muller Homoeopathic Medical College, Manglore
The newly introduced 'Augmented Textbook of Homeopathic Pharmacy' by Dr. D.D. Banerjee (2nd
Edition) is an excellent augmented work, which covers and fulfills most of the important topics in the
subject of Pharmacy. We wish to thank Dr. D.D. Banerjee & appreciate all the work done by him into such a
wonderful book as a 'Text' for the students.
Dr. R.V. Ghanekar
Principle Medical Foundation
Lokmanya Homoeopathic Medical College, Chinchwad, Pune-33
ISBN: 978-81-319-0291-2
B. Jain Large Print
An Imprint of
9 788131 902912
Rs. 299.00

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Homeopathy | Pharmacy

Dr. D.D. Banerjee, M.B.S. (Hom.)

B. Jain Publishers (P) Ltd.

First Edition: 1986

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted,

© All rights are reserved with the publisher.

Price: Rs. 299.00

HISTORY OF HOMOEOPATHIC PHARMACY

Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 671

PHARMACY legal and professional aspects, and regulates the

b. During drug proving, subjective symp- Branches of Homoeopathic Pharmacy

and biological assessments, as well as descriptions, collections and identification of

Uses of Studying Homoeopathic The pharmacopoeia which is published by

Caspari of Leipzig, Germany. In 1872, Von Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of

DEFINITION In homoeopathy, human proving is the most

From the homoeopathic therapeutical angle, a. Mechanically.

physical symptoms produced by the primary • Drugs administered in ‘infinitesimal doses’

“The true physician must be provided with • Imponderabilia.

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta

Algae Fungi Lichens Hepaticae Musci

Equisentinae Lycopodinae Filcinae

I. Whole Plant Including Root:

10. Euphrasia officinalis Eyebright Second year growth.

II. Whole Plant Minus the Root

VI. Stem and Leaves S. Name of Common Type of

VII. Modified Stem (Rhizome)

XIII. Inner Bark XV. Inner Bark of Root

S. Name of Common Along With S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name

8. Kalmia latifolia Mountain Gathered in XX. Flower Buds and Leaves

XVIII. Flowers and Leaves XXIV. Spores

XXVI. Berries with Fresh Leaves XXXI. Seeds

S. No. Name of Medicine Common Name 4. Cocculus indica Indian cockle

1. Aesculus hippocastanum Horse chestnut 5. Coffea cruda Unroasted coffee

S. Name of Common Condition for 1. Cetraria islandica Iceland moss

1. Cubeba Cubebs Unripe. XXXV. Fungi (Berries)

1. Ignatia amara St. Ignatius bean

XXXVI. Algae XLII. Balsamam

• Chelidonium Hahnemann’s Materia coelenteron. It is the gastrovascular cavity.

ANIMAL KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION (HEILERS)

Subkingdom: Protozoa Subkingdom: Metazoa

Phylum Protozoa Phylum: Porifera

DRUGS FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

A. Whole Living Animals:

Tarentula cubensis Hairy spider; Cuban spider

c. Different Parts, Secretions of Animals:

Bungarus fasciatus Banded krait (south-east Asia; Reptilia Chordata

E. Milk and Milk Products :

SOURCE AND AUTHORITY OF SOME MEDICINES

Medicine Source of Pathogenesis

substance economically valuable for mining III. Metalloids

II. Non-metals Lithium carbonicum.

f. Potassium/Kalium (K.) Mercurius sulphuricus.

c. Organic Compounds From Dry Distillation - Lapis.

VII. Mineral Spring Water Phosphorus Hahnemann’s Chronic

GENERAL RULE FOR COLLECTION OF SARCODES

II. Sarcodes From Extracts

III. Sarcodes From Whole Endocrine Glands

IV. Other Sarcodes Nosodes are medicines produced from

Source Disease Product Medicine