Overcoming the Challenges of Teaching

Cybersecurity in UK Computer Science Degree

Programmes
Tom Crick∗ , James H. Davenport† , Paul Hanna‡ , Alastair Irons§ and Tom Prickett¶
∗ SwanseaUniversity, Swansea, UK; Email: thomas.crick@swansea.ac.uk
† University
of Bath, Bath, UK; Email: j.h.davenport@bath.ac.uk
† , Ulster University, Belfast, UK; Email: jrp.hanna@ulster.ac.uk
§ Sunderland University, Sunderland, UK; Email: alastair.irons@sunderland.ac.uk
¶ Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; Email: tom.prickett@northumbria.ac.uk

Abstract—This Innovative Practice Full Paper explores the Should Require a Course in Cybersecurity” [1]; in the UK, uni-
diversity of challenges relating to the teaching of cybersecurity versities — alongside government, industry and professional
in UK higher education degree programmes, through the lens of bodies – have been championing this over recent years, focus-
national policy, to the impact on pedagogy and practice.
There is a serious demand for cybersecurity specialists, both ing on computer science and cognate undergraduate degrees
in the UK and globally; there is thus significant and growing programmes. One professional body – BCS, The Chartered
higher education provision related to specialist undergraduate Institute for IT – has been mandating this in accredited
and postgraduate courses focusing on varying aspects of cyber- undergraduate degree programmes since 2015 [2]–[4]. Other
security. To make our digital systems and products more secure, authors have also made case for infusing cybersecurity in
all in IT need to know some cybersecurity – thus, there is a case
for depth as well as breadth; this is not a new concern, but it is a general education [5] and described their approach [6]. There
growing one. Delivering cybersecurity effectively across general is a serious demand for cybersecurity specialists, both in the
computer science programmes presents a number of challenges UK and globally (estimates vary, but are always large – and
related to pedagogy, resources, faculty and infrastructure, as well increasing); there is thus significant and growing higher educa-
as responding to industry requirements. tion provision related to specialist undergraduate and postgrad-
Computer science and cognate engineering disciplines are
evolving to meet these demands – both at school-level, as well as
uate courses focusing on varying aspects of cybersecurity (for
at university – however, doing so is not without challenges. This example, cryptography, computer security, networks, digital
paper explores the progress made to date in the UK, building forensics, ethical hacking, etc). Delivering cybersecurity effec-
on previous work in cybersecurity education and accreditation tively across general computer science programmes presents
by highlighting key challenges and opportunities, as well as a number of challenges related to pedagogy, underpinning
identifying a number of enhancement activities for use by the
international cybersecurity education community. It frames these
educational resources, available skills and technical resources.
challenges through concerns with the quality and availability This directly links to recent significant changes to com-
of underpinning educational resources, the competencies and puter science curricula, qualifications and practice across the
skills of faculty (especially focusing on pedagogy, progression and UK [7]–[14], as well as the emerging focus on the required
assessment), and articulating the necessary technical resources digital skills and infrastructure to support the UK’s post-
and infrastructure related to delivering rigorous cybersecurity
content in general computer science and cognate degrees.
COVID economic renewal [2], [15]–[17]. This paper explores
Though this critical evaluation of an emerging national case the progress to date, as well as a starting call to arms to
study of cybersecurity education in the UK, we also present the UK higher education sector (and other jurisdictions) by
a number of recommendations across policy and practice – highlighting a number of future challenges and opportunities.
from pedagogic principles and developing effective cybersecurity As part of its promotion of sustainability, the United Na-
teaching practice, challenges in the recruitment, retention and
tions (UN) defines ”UN Sustainability Goal 9: Build resilient
professional development of faculty, to supporting diverse routes
into post-compulsory cybersecurity education (and thus, diverse infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster
careers) – to provide the foundation for potential replicability and innovation” [18]. For our computing technology infrastructure
portability to other jurisdictions contemplating related education to be resilient we need to maintain and enhance cybersecurity.
and skills reform initiatives and interventions. To achieve that we need to grow cybersecurity knowledge. As
Index Terms—cybersecurity, computer science education, cur- such the enhancement of cybersecurity education contributes
ricula, pedagogy, assessment, accreditation, UK
directly to enhancing sustainability. The failure to maintain
software infrastructure has been brought home by the recent
I. I NTRODUCTION
U.S. shortage of COBOL programmers [19]. It is also possible
An article published in the Harvard Business Review in to demolish the “security through antiquity” argument often
August 2019 argued that “Every Computer Science Degree used to defend the COBOL systems [20], with reports that
the explanation why key data were not encrypted was “it is Maintain your technical edge; (8) Constantly improve
not feasible to implement on networks that are too old” [21]. your methodologies”.
These technical skills tend to be the ones that a Computer
II. P EDAGOGIC P RINCIPLES Science Department is best at teaching, though even here
Though it is generally thought of as part of computing, there are challenges — see section III. One specific
cybersecurity is actually a multidisciplinary “subject”, or a question is “how much cryptography need a security
meta-discipline [22]. This point has been made several times expert know?”. The classic answer is “enough not to be
e.g. integrating Criminal Justice and Political Science into the dangerously ignorant, and not enough to be dangerously
study of cybersecurity [23]. knowledgeable”, which is true but not helpful: see §VI-C.

A. Academic Skills
The academic skill sets that a good Chief Information B. Human Skills
Security Officer (CISO) should have, and therefore that a
cybersecurity student should acquire, can be broken into three Besides the subject-specific skills mentioned above, there
rough groupings. are also the human, or ‘soft’, skills. It could be argued (e.g.
• Psychology: While this paper would not necessarily go [33]) that these are underrated throughout computing educa-
as far as PurpleSec, who claim [24] that “98% of cyber tion, but they are certainly necessary in cybersecurity. [34]
attacks rely on social engineering”, it is quite clear stresses them for the CISO, but the same is true throughout
that a very large proportion do: not least the attacks the cybersecurity industry. See also [35] — a publication that
classified as “phishing”, “spear-phishing” and “whaling”. may have some bias, but the message resonates with much the
The technical skills required to go phishing are minimal: authors have heard, and agrees with the Wall Street Journals
being able to write Cybersecurity Executive Forum [36]. Their list of “top five
skills” is this:
<a href="bad url">good url</a>
generally suffices, and even that can be bought in or with 1) Problem-solving;
a little bit of technical knowledge one of the many open 2) Communication;
source penetration testing tools can be repurposed to help 3) Analytical thinking;
automate the process (for example [25], [26]). Forging e- 4) Collaboration/teamwork;
mail addresses is generally needed as well if the intent is 5) Attention to detail.
to go spear-phishing. But the real skill comes in knowing
A Computer Science Department would probably claim that
what will get under people’s radar.
it taught most of these. Certainly a BCS-accredited degree
To defend against phishing, to inculcate good password
has to evidence teaching and assessment of the first four of
habits1 and much more depends on understanding, or at
these. Collaboration/teamwork, is a long-standing requirement
least following the advice of those who understand, the
for accreditation, despite some student preferences for such
psychology of the user [29]. In particular it is important
work not to be included or assessed as part of their degree [37].
not to fall into the “users are the enemy” trap [30].
Generally, it can be challenging to engage students whole-
• Managerial: Clearly the CISO has to manage the team.
heartedly in the development of these skills, especially as they
But there is much more than that. The CISO has to
are hard to assess in the rigorous way computer scientists (staff
be a team player within top management. The CISO is
and students) are used to.
responsible for the Cybersecurity Incident Response Plan
(CIRP). But [31] lists among its major flaws in CIRPs These skills are all areas most people could always im-
that they are “lacking organisational support and buy-in: prove. The extent to which the depth graduates evidence these
skills, compared with industry’s demands is common point of
– Plan sponsor lacks appropriate authority (e.g., Exec-
discussion with industrialists informally or more formally as
utive Leadership Team, CIO, CTO, CISO);
department industry liaison committees/forums. These work
– Incident stakeholders do not know the plan exists;
ready skills have also been noted by employability reviews
– Was developed unilaterally by a single business unit;
conducted in the UK [38], [39]. Notably the collaboration
– Roles and responsibilities for non-technical teams are
required in cybersecurity is generally part of a multi-function
vague.”
team, rather than the group software engineering activity that
All of these are managerial failings. commonly is the response to the requirement to teach group
• Technical: there are of course many technical things that
working. Similarly the problem-solving required is that of
a CISO needs to be on top of. They feature in the list [32] being faced with an underspecified problem: “it looks like
of “10 Essential Elements for Success as an Information we’ve been hacked”, but with a vast amount of information,
Security Professional” as “(6) Find your speciality; (7) most of it irrelevant.
1 Whatever those might be: opinions vary and well-known pundits (e.g. [27]) Some alternative approaches to this are described in Sec-
will disagree with NIST’s advice [28]. tion VI.
III. D EVELOPING E FFECTIVE C YBERSECURITY T EACHING are also examples of cybersecurity research groups moving en
P RACTICE masse from one university to another.
What is the most appropriate way to teach cybersecurity? In industry, research into the state of IT conducted annually
It is clear there are benefits from teaching this in a practical by Enterprise Strategy Group (ESG) has revealed that the
manner [40]. Real world case studies and authentic assessment skills gap in information security continues to widen and has
can be employed [41], [42, e.g.]. Use can be made of guest doubled in the past five years; in 2014, 23% of respondents
lectures by industrialists to share practical insights and hence to the survey stated that their organisation had a problematic
providing students with micro-exposure to the world of work: shortage of information security skills – this had climbed to
another positive contribution. One further approach is the 51% at the beginning of 2018 [50]. The 2020 ESG report,
inclusion of appropriate cybersecurity standards within the does not quantify the skills gap in the same way, however
curricula. does highlight the continued global cybersecurity shortage and
The PCI DSS [43] is one such standard that has been used that ”most organizations will increase cybersecurity spending
in precisely this manner. PCI DSS underpins all processing of in 2020...CISOs will spread budget dollars around in many
credit/debit cards. Nevertheless, it is very rarely mentioned in areas.” [51, p.1]. Clearly, cybersecurity is an issue which
generalist computer scientist courses. This would not matter is being felt across many industries and organisations, and
so much if everyone handling payments data were sent by is a concern which extends beyond IT leadership into the
their employers on an effective PCI DSS course. However, the boardroom [47].
payments business is now so spread across websites, often run The ESG survey is international, but ESG have confirmed
by small and medium enterprises (SME), or non-specialists. that the UK figures are very similar. In the UK, there has
Even larger enterprises are not immune: [41] reports that the been a resurgence of job adverts to recruit academic staff with
recent British Airways breach was caused by a failure to specialisms in cybersecurity over the past three years.
adhere to PCI DSS in website maintenance. Section VI-C Cybersecurity is not a static field, and it is vital that the
describes one way to bring PCI DSS to life in an assignment. teacher keeps up-to-date. This is not necessarily easy, as
Another way of adopting a more practical pedagogy is developments such as the attacks on Zoom [52, etc.] show.
by teaching cybersecurity through the lens of hacking or the Although [52] is largely technical, and the lawsuits [53, etc.]
hacker curriculum [44]. Such an approach facilitates students have been about this or managerial failings over privacy
to be more experimental and creative in their exploration management, the problems in practice [54], [55] have largely
of the discipline and can have corresponding benefits for been about user education and practices, and the human end
their engagement. This approach is most commonly employed of the interface. Hence the teacher, when asked, or marking
within specialist cybersecurity education rather than more the question, “what do you make of the recent Zoom fuss”
mainstream computer science. As indicated previously in the has to be capable of responding across all the academic areas
context of ’phishing’ the technical skills required to engage (§II-A).
in penetration testing (or indeed ”hacking”) are not that It cannot be emphasised too strongly (not least to Heads of
sophisticated with the use of the available tools (e.g. [45], Departments!) that this is not just a “check the notes at the
[46])2 . However to fully understand the tool set and use it start of the year” exercise: during the writing of this paper,
ethically would typically require more time and assessment one author got an e-mail at 21:00 that caused him to rewrite
than many computing departments wish to commit to the the slides for the following morning’s 09:00 lecture.
inclusion of cybersecurity in a mainstream computer science
programme. V. Q UALITY OF R ESOURCES TO S UPPORT
C YBERSECURITY E DUCATION
IV. R ECRUITMENT, R ETENTION AND P ROFESSIONAL
Effective teaching requires appropriate supporting re-
D EVELOPMENT OF DACULTY
sources. The extent to which appropriate resources are avail-
It is well known that cybersecurity skills are in short supply, able and suitable will be evaluated next. This evaluation
in both industry [47] and academia [48], [49]. The demand for highlights a number of occasions when underpinning resources
cybersecurity skills in industry makes it difficult for academia could be improved.
to attract academics with knowledge, practical experience,
research background and academic aspirations. As universities A. Underpinning Resources
expand their cybersecurity provision it is not uncommon
The formal resources for cybersecurity education are in
to find multiple jobs advertised at the same time. Recent
reasonable shape given the inevitable fast-moving nature of
example have included a professor of cybersecurity, two senior
the subject. The authors see [56] as a major work, though
academic positions and two junior academic positions in one
probably daunting as a textbook. It is dated, but a new
advert. There are other examples in the UK of cybersecurity
edition is in preparation, and largely on the author’s website.
lecturing jobs remaining unfilled for longer than a year; there
More recently a UK-funded project has produced CyBOK,
2 The tools are intended for penetration testing but can be readily repur- the “Cyber Security Body of Knowledge” [57]. This is not
posed. intended as a textbook, but is a useful reference.
 One gap in the educational resources is the absence, as VI. T EACHING I NNOVATIONS
far as the authors know, of a good answer to “how much As introduced in section I, teaching cybersecurity well for
cryptography need a security expert know”. the workplace is more than about academic skills. However,
More worrying is the problem described in [2, §IV.B] — it is very hard to motivate computer scientists to study pure
the state of general computer science educational resources human skills. This is far from being a feature of students, as
with respect to cybersecurity. In particular [58] describes the [62] observes.
poor state of database textbooks with respect to SQL injection.
“Still, technical knowledge seems to trump every-
Despite the fact that SQL injection is theoretically well-
thing. I’ve attended national and regional infor-
understood, it is still a real problem today, twenty years after
mation security conferences that have sessions on
it was first described:
security careers and the essential soft skills for
“Overall, SQL Injection (SQLi) accounted for more cybersecurity success. They’re not nearly as well
than 72% of all attacks when looking at all verti- attended as the sessions on cool and sexy topics like
cals during this period [December 2017–November threat hunting, cryptocurrency and ransomware.”
2019].” [59] Hence the ideal assignment in cybersecurity mixes the aca-
demic and human skills, preferably inseparably.
How cybersecurity is being taught in university departments
B. Provision of Laboratories is evolving rapidly. A number of alternative approaches exist.
In this section, examples are provided of teaching innovations
Delivering a practical take upon cybersecurity often requires that have been effective. The examples are far from an
specialist computing resources, certainly if any form of pene- exhaustive list, instead are illustrative of some opportunities
tration testing/ethical hacking is to be taught. The traditional and alternative approaches with the intention of surfacing
solution to this was a dedicated laboratory, generally not innovations that could be considered for wider exploitation.
connected to the outside world (in the case of the UK,
the JANET network) in order not to breach the operating A. Inspiring Potential Cybersecurity Students
conditions of the network. In practice it will probably not even Steganography is the art of hiding information in full view
be directly connected to the university’s internal network for but its use pre-dates computers. For example, the ancient
the same reasons. An upmarket version of such a laboratory Greeks used to shave a slave’s head, write a message on their
is described in [60], though an adequate one can be build skull and then allow the hair to grow before sending them on
for roughly £10,000 in capital costs. The real problem, which a journey to the receiver’s location [63]. Bringing this “secure
many computer science departments in the UK will struggle transmission of data” into the modern era, it is possible use
with, is the staffing to support the maintenance of such a steganography approaches to, for example, hide data within an
facility. This in itself requires specialist cybersecurity skills, image and transmit the modified image to a receiver without
which are in short supply and universities in the UK at anyone noticing that the image has been altered. It works by
least are hardly renown for paying technical support staff replacing the least significant bits of the colour of each pixel
high wages! Specialist teaching laboratories are challenging with the data you wish to transmit. Whilst this does change the
and time consuming to maintain: lost passwords, trashed colour of individual pixels, in say a full 24-bit image (where
machines if the hacking escapes, etc., and the problems of there is 1 byte for each of the red, green and blue components),
keeping the underlying infrastructure up-to-date with security the change is almost imperceptible, even when viewed side
patches while not changing the target machines the students by side with the original image. Taking an image of 800x600
are practising against. pixels, it is possible to “secretly” transmit 800*600 pixels * 3
An interesting alternative is to host such a laboratory “in bits of data or 180000 bytes.
the cloud”, as recommended by, for example, [61]. This would This topic has been delivered as a “Masterclass” falling
eliminate the capital expenditure (in favour of recurrent cloud under promotion and recruitment activity for both local and
costs, but these should be significantly less). The impact on international students. Given this activity occurs prior to en-
technician/support time is less clear. Ideally it ought to be less, rolment, it has the benefit of raising the importance of security
but a lot depends on the extent to which the cloud provider’s issues among potential computer science students at the outset
authentication structure can be interfaced with the host uni- of their careers, as well as raising awareness of those who
versity’s: the second author is currently having problems here show some interest in computing but who ultimately take up
with an unrelated piece of teaching outsourcing. other career paths. It also allows the topic to be introduced
Outsourcing to the cloud means that the students’ “hacking” in the context of fundamental computer science topics such as
commands traverse the university’s and the external networks, binary, programming (as an encoder and decoder are required)
even though then are not “commands” until they reach the and how an image and indeed characters are represented within
laboratory in the cloud. Different universities in the UK, even a computer. The talk also covers broader aspects such as what
reading the same external network’s (JANET’s) policies, have type of information needs to be transmitted securely, why it
different views on whether this is permissible. is important to be able to transmit information securely, the
risks associated with people other than the intended recipient evidence at [35], [36], [62] with the student community.
gaining access to the information and hence the need to Industrial speakers are also asked to stress these points.
consider cybersecurity issues when designing and developing • 50%: The students have to analyse three different (i.e.
computer systems. Introducing security issues in the context of different vendors and style) on-line purchases (or mock-
these traditional topics, “mainstreams” them, and hence raises purchases, they are allowed to use an invalid credit
their perceived importance among “tomorrow’s students”. card) made subject to PCI DSS, looking at the screen
as the ordinary customer would see it, but also at the
B. Including Cybersecurity in General Computer Science browser logs (HAR files) and network logs (Wireshark
In general terms two alternatives approaches can be effec- or equivalent). For each, they are asked the following.
tively adopted to the challenge of embedding cybersecurity 1) With which websites does your browser commu-
in a general computer science degree: i) Cybersecurity can nicate during the transaction? Are there any that
be primarily delivered in a single course / module / subject worry you, or whose function you do not under-
and then referred to in other courses / modules/ subjects stand?
as appropriate; or ii) The teaching and assessment can be * Last year two different students, purchasing from
distributed across the curricula; the next two examples provide two different UK-based sites, found yandex.ru
an example of each of these approaches. appearing here.
2) Looking at the logs, to which sites does your pay-
C. Embedding Cybersecurity into a Single Module ment card number get sent, and how is it pro-
This example refers to, what in the UK is a medium sized tected in transit? You should quote the relevant part
computer science programme with an intake that has grown of the logs, but should replace the card number
in recent years to between 100-120 students. In this example and any other identifying/sensitive data, e.g. by
the approach adopted is to primarily deliver the cybersecurity NNNN NNNN NNNN NNNN, before quoting.
content within a single subject / module and then signpost 3) Looking at the HTML (+JavaScript, etc) you have
relevant cybersecurity issues in other subjects / modules as saved, do you feel confident you know what it is
appropriate. The advantage of this is, cybersecurity becomes doing with your data?
a significant curricula component, the importance of which is 4) How dependent is the HTML you have on the
very visible to learners. However the downside, is that learners correct functioning of the DNS? In particular, could
may be tempted to consider cybersecurity as a specialism, bad DNS results result in a security problem?
rather than something that should always be considered [64]. 5) What makes you think that the sum of money dis-
This Cybersecurity module is part of a general computing played to you is the sum that will be transmitted to
degree. As such there is a wide range of backgrounds on the your bank?
course. In section II-A the question “how much cryptography Question 4 is meant to help students realise the in-
need a security expert know” was posed. The answer for this terconnected nature of today’s Internet, and the hidden
course is “about 90 minutes worth”, which seems to cover dependencies. A lecture related to DNS has always been
the bases well enough: for example enough time to enable part of this course, but this year the recent wave of
cryptographic hashing to underpin the lecture on password home router attacks [67, and others] was included. This
management (which is not part of the 90 minutes). illustrates the fact that cybersecurity is always throwing
Since cybersecurity is a practical subject, much of the up new examples and illustrations, which can be good
learning takes place through the coursework. The assessment for student motivation, but sets a real challenge for the
for the module is structured with these weightings. teacher in terms of keeping up to date.
• 20%: Class test, essentially a traditional examination. In addition, they are asked these overall questions.
Normally a closed-book test, but this year, due to COVID-
1) What have you learned about the security of your
19, it will be sat by students who have dispersed, so will
card data?
have to be open-book.
2) In particular, what did you learn from the
• 30%: Group presentation. The class divide themselves
logs/HTML that you could not have reasonably
into groups of 4–5, and each group picks a topic from
deduced as a shopper with no access to these?
either the “OWASP Top 10” [65] or the “OWASP Mobile
3) How obvious is the security of the websites to the
Top 10” [66] and does a presentation on it to the rest
shopper?
of the class. In terms of the human skills identified in
4) How might the system be more transparent to the
section II-B, this is meant to help with the communication
shopper?
and team-working skills. Indeed, COVID-19 and the
consequent dispersal of the students has meant that they Questions 3 and 4 are really open-ended “problem-
are also learning remote team working: an unexpected solving” questions, to which the authors do not have a
bonus. During the delivery, it has been found that it neat solution. This really frustrates students, who want to
is extremely important to share this rationale, and the know “the right answer”, but is much closer to reality.
D. Embedding Cybersecurity Across Curricula engagement with their studies. Projects possible are limited
by an appropriate set of constraints. In the context of the first
This example relates to teaching cybersecurity to general year Systems Analysis module, teams of students engage in a
computer science undergraduate students at university in the research activities to establish the scope of a system of their
UK. The programme has an intake of about 240 students. The choosing. All projects are subject to university ethical approval
students upon the programme study a foundation of computer which constrains the projects to those which are appropriate
science for the first two years of their study before specialising and achievable. A wide variety of systems are explored in-
in Internet of Things, Web Development, Games Development cluding games, web applications, mobile applications and so
or Artificial Intelligence. This generic structure is fairly typical on. As part of this process students are required to explore
of Computer Science degree programmes delivered in the UK. and document the personal, organisation and legal/regulatory
Rather than have a module dedicated to cybersecurity the framework in which the system selected can be used, including
teaching and assessment of the cybersecurity is embedded risks and constraints related to its cybersecurity. The Industrial
across the curricula as shown in Table I, this results in the Professor assists in briefing students and provides guidance
principles and practices related to cybersecurity being infused on the general personal, organisation and legal/regulatory
across the undergraduate curricula in a manner similar to framework. Additionally, the Industrial Professor is available
that proposed by [6]. The rationale for this is, cybersecurity to discuss the specific context of cybersecurity within the
becomes integral and learners are encouraged to consider chosen projects. This is an important curricula area, however
cybersecurity as something that should always be considered one in which it is challenging to gain high student engagement.
as part of normal practice. The consequence is that none of However this approach of mixing creativity with industry
the individual modules/subjects or their related assessments insights does appear to motivate learning.
are entirely related to cybersecurity (e.g. In an exam, a few In the final year of their studies, all the students complete
questions will be cybersecurity related rather than the whole a team project with the Team Project and Professionalism
examination). If this is evaluated pessimistically, then learners subject. In this subject teams of students develop a software
could consider cybersecurity as a peripheral issue, however product of their own choosing. This is typically related to their
experience of the approach indicates this has not been the chosen specialism. These projects must be “live”, normally
case. addressing the needs of a real client but always address-
Additionally, the approach taken is to emphasise the prac- ing a real problem3 . A variety of products are developed
tical dimension of cybersecurity for the benefits advocated for example games, web applications, mobile applications,
by [40]. To this end a Visiting Industrial Professor has been wearable applications, computational intelligence solutions,
employed to support the viewpoint of industry in the design, IoT prototypes and so on. Teams of students are required
delivery and assessment of the programme of study. The Vis- to develop and then demonstrate a prototype application.
iting Industrial Professor is a senior industrialist specialising This work forms a capstone to students studies and student
in cybersecurity and supports the department for 12 days of are required to share their development via GitHub. They
the academic year. During this time, the Visiting Industrial are encouraged to consider the work as a career portfolio
Professor advises upon context, develops and delivers classes, element which in turn helps to evidence their capabilities
mentors students with interests in security careers and pro- to future employers. The produced prototype and its future
vides developmental support to academic colleagues. Student potential commercial exploitation are evaluated. The produced
satisfaction questionnaires have been employed related to each prototype, is expected to address personal, organisation and
of the interactions with students delivered by the Visiting legal/regulatory framework in which the system they have
Industrial Professor and whilst the completion rate remains selected can be used, including risks and constraints related
low (less than 10 % of the cohort), responses remain univer- to its cybersecurity. If there are limitations in this regard
sally positive. So not only is the use of a Visiting Industrial the students are expected to be abreast of them. Also, as
Professor ensuring the cybersecurity content is industrially part of this evaluation students are expected to evaluate the
relevant, it is also popular with students. A third benefit of this personal, organisation and legal/regulatory framework of the
approach, is the inclusion of cybersecurity has a very visible potential future exploitation of the project, including risks and
champion who raises awareness within the academic staff constraints related to its cybersecurity. Similar guidance and
base, supports Continuing Professional Development (CPD) of support is provided by the visiting Industry Professor for the
academics and helps ensures the cybersecurity is appropriately Team Project and Professionalism subject that was provided
taught and assessed within the syllabus. to System Analysis student, although it is in more depth and
As can be seen from Table I, cybersecurity is integrated sophisticated insights are expected (as well as evidence from
across the syllabus. The large cohort of students studying the the practical development work).
programme has quite a diverse range of interests. Significant As indicated, part of the rationale of this approach is to
use of project work is made within the curricula. When project
3 A minority of students use the project to prototype a product they are
work is completed,as much as possible students choose the
considering using in a future business venture and a small number of other
subject/area of the project they undertake. The rationale is to students address a research problem in collaboration with a university research
harness learner creativity [68] and hence enhance the students’ group. However all projects involved the creation of a software product.
 TABLE I
C YBER S ECURITY C URRICULA C OVERAGE C ASE S TUDY §VI-D

Subject / Module Year Taught How Assessed

Web Technologies 1 Confidentiality, integrity and availability. Threats and Attacks, Web page providing user training related to cybersecurity.
how they materialise and how those attacks exploit website
vulnerabilities.
Systems Analysis 1 Personal, organisation and legal/regulatory framework in Self selected team Design Project
which a system can be used, including risks and constraints.
Databases 1 Threats and Attacks, how they materialise and how those Examination questions
attacks exploit database vulnerabilities.
Web Programming 2 Threats and Attacks, how they materialise, how those attacks A web application, secured again OWASP top ten vul-
exploit web vulnerabilities and approaches to mitigate. nerabilities
Programming Design 2 Design, defensive programming and testing Programming project and related report
and Development
Networks, Operating 2 Cybersecurity architecture and operations: physical and pro- Practical work and related report
Systems and cess controls that can be implemented across an organisation
Cybersecurity to reduce information and systems risk, identify, and mitigate
the vulnerability, and ensure organisational compliance
Team Project and 3 Personal, organisation and legal/regulatory framework in Design and construction of a software component as part
Professionalism which a system can be used, including risks and constraints. of a self selected team project and the evaluation of the
project and its potential future exploitation. The projects
are ’live’ addressing the needs of a real client or problem.

harness student creativity and hence raise engagement with security were developed to improve student engagement and
the studies. As the assessment is divergent [69] (students are progression [70].
all completing different projects), the assessment reduces the The use of scenarios to encourage students to think both
opportunity to engage in academic misconduct as there would as attackers and defenders has been particularly helpful in
be little to be gained from fellow students work. The integra- enabling students to understand the cybersecurity environment.
tive manner in which cybersecurity is consider and considering As an overall assessment strategy in cybersecurity attempts
as part of the capstone also raises the importance that students should be made to:
view cybersecurity. The rationale is to promote cybersecurity • get students to identify and critically evaluate threats –
as something that needs to be always considered, not an ranging from nuisance threats to “advanced persistent
optional extra. Feedback from students indicates, this emphasis threats”;
upon building secure systems is of interest to employers and • design, develop and implement strategies to counter the
a common discussion point during employment interviews. threats;
Hence the appointment of the Visiting Industrial Professor is of • identify when breaches or attacks have taken place and
benefit to academic staff, students and their future employers. critically evaluate the impact of those;
It is also of benefit to the Visiting Professor as enables them • design, develop and implement approaches to recover
to participate as an equal partner in an academic environment from attack;
and hence gain valuable CPD. • give students the opportunity to evaluate attacks and
The team project based nature of both these modules has develop more robust cybersecurity defences as a result.
been adopted to facilitate the development of the students The above can be done in the context of specific cyberse-
Human Skills (§II-B). As in §VI-C, this year COVID-19 and curity scenarios or case studies, but can also be utilised to
the consequent dispersal of the students has meant that they encourage students to think about and present policies and
are also learning remote team working: an unexpected bonus. procedures for cybersecurity environments. One particularly
Appropriate academic skills (§II-A) are evidenced partly in the effective assessment which helps pull together many of the
manner the practical work is completed but also in the case cybersecurity threads and complexities is the use of “info-
of the final year Team Project and Professionalism module by graphs”. An extract from an assessment using infographs is
the quality and content of the evaluative report. given below.
“The cybersecurity environment is a wide and com-
E. Delivering Specialist Cybersecurity Degrees plex one. For the first part of this assignment you
This example refers to the delivery on dedicated BSc and are required to produce an infograph (1 page) out-
MSc courses in Cybersecurity. The insights shared have been lining the typical threats that either a) individuals
gained in experience of delivering specialist cybersecurity in society or b) organisations face from breaches
degree programmes since 2005 at several universities. During of cybersecurity. The design of your infograph and
this time a number of new assessment instruments in cyber- the content of the infograph is left to you to decide
 but you should consider visual impact, key mes- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
sages, data to support, examples and underpinning
The first, second, fourth and fifth authors’ institutions are
research. You will have the chance to present your
members of the Institute of Coding, an initiative funded by
infograph to your peers, academics and guests from
the Office for Students (England) and the Higher Education
industry. You should be able to discuss the points
Funding Council for Wales.
raised on your infograph, explaining the detail and
The authors would like to thank Dr Phil Brooke of Green
answering any questions asked. ”
Pike Ltd, and the Royal Academy of Engineering for funding
As well as allowing the student to analyse and evaluate a his position at Northumbria University for three academic
particular issue or concern the assessment enables the devel- years through the Visiting Professor Scheme.
opment and assessment of a series of professional competen-
cies (see section II-B), including communication, presentation R EFERENCES
skills, and the summarising of complex cybersecurity issues.
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