Data Science 2023-24

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 DATA SCIENCE
Data science is a multidisciplinary field that uses statistical and computational methods to
extract insights and knowledge from data. It involves a combination of skills and knowledge
from various fields such as statistics, computer science, mathematics, and domain expertise.
The process of data science involves several steps, including data collection, cleaning,
exploration, analysis, and interpretation. These steps are often iterative, and the process may
be refined based on the results obtained. Data science is used in a wide range of applications,
including business, healthcare, social science, engineering, and many others. Some examples
of data science applications include fraud detection, personalized marketing, medical
diagnosis, predictive maintenance, and recommendation systems.

Fig. 1.1 Components of Data Science

1.2 DATA SCIENCE SOFT SKILLS

1. Communication
A data scientist should have a knack for linking business orientation with the scientific,
analytical, and technical facets. They must communicate their findings to business users and
decision-makers and explain what value these insights can bring to the business. This
research must be conveyed effectively to both technical and non-technical audiences.

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 1

Data Science 2023-24

2. Curiosity
Intellectual curiosity inspires data scientists to look for answers to address business crises.
Professionals can go beyond initial assumptions and surface results. A data scientist must be
curious enough to unlock solutions to known problems and uncover hidden, overlooked
insights. As a result, they derive a higher quality of knowledge from their data sets.

3. Business Acumen
Data scientists have to deal with a massive amount of knowledge. If they don’t translate it
effectively, this priceless information goes down the drain because upper-level management
never gets to use it to make business decisions. Data scientists need to appreciate current and
upcoming industry trends and acquire basic business concepts and tools.

4. Storytelling
Storytelling aids data scientists in conveying their results logically and clearly. It takes data
visualization to another dimension, allowing decision-makers to see things from a new
perspective. A compelling storytelling approach builds a strong data narrative where
stakeholders attain a new sense of understanding about the data presented and use it to
support their decisions going forward.

5. Team Player
Data scientists don’t work inside a bubble, and they must recognize the importance of
teamwork and collaborate effectively with others. They need to listen to other team members
and use that input to their advantage.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF LINEAR ALGEBRA IN DATA

SCIENCE
Linear algebra in data science is important because of its crucial role in numerous sector
components.
 It forms the backbone of machine learning algorithms, enabling operations like matrix
multiplication, which are essential to model training and prediction.
 Linear algebra techniques facilitate dimensionality reduction, enhancing the performance of
data processing and interpretation.

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 2

Data Science 2023-24

 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors help understand data records variability, influencing clustering
and pattern recognition.
 Solving systems of equations is crucial for optimization tasks and parameter estimation.
 Furthermore, linear algebra supports image and signal processing strategies critical in data
analysis.
 Proficiency in linear algebra empowers data scientists to successfully represent, control, and
extract insights from data, in the end driving the development of accurate models and
informed decision-making.

1.4 ALGORITHMS FOR DATA SCIENCE

 Problem Overview: The first step is identifying the issue data scientists seek to tackle. This
could involve everything from identifying credit card theft to foreseeing client attrition.
 Data Gathering: After defining the issue, a data scientist must gather the information
needed to address it. This might entail gathering information from many sources, including
databases, APIs, and outside providers.
 Data Preprocessing: The data must be cleaned and transformed into a suitable format before
data scientists can train machine learning models. This might involve scaling the data,
addressing missing data, and encoding categorical variables.
 Model Selection: Data scientists must choose the best machine-learning approach to address
the issue after preprocessing the data. Choosing from various methods, such as decision
trees, logistic regression, or neural networks, may be required.
 Model Training: Once the best algorithm has been chosen, the model must be trained using
the pre-processed data. This requires supplying the algorithm with the data and modifying
the model’s parameters to enhance performance.

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 3

Data Science 2023-24

CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO DATA
2.1 WHAT IS DATA?
Data is different types of information usually formatted in a particular manner. All software
is divided into two major categories: programs and data. We already know what data is now,
and programs are collections of instructions used to manipulate data.
We use data science to make it easier to work with data. Data science is defined as a field that
combines knowledge of mathematics, programming skills, domain expertise, scientific
methods, algorithms, processes, and systems to extract actionable knowledge and insights
from both structured and unstructured data, then apply the knowledge gleaned from that data
to a wide range of uses and domains.
Computers represent data (e.g., text, images, sound, video), as binary values that employ two
numbers: 1 and 0. The smallest unit of data is called a “bit,” and it represents a single value.
Additionally, a byte is eight bits long. Memory and storage are measured in units such as
megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes, petabytes, and exabytes. Data scientists keep coming up
with newer, larger data measurements as the amount of data our society generates continues
to grow.
Data can be stored in file formats using mainframe systems such as ISAM and VSAM,
though there are other file formats for data conversion, processing, and storage, like comma-
separated values. These data formats are currently used across a wide range of machine types,
despite more structured-data-oriented approaches gaining a greater foothold in today’s IT
world.
The field of data storage has seen greater specialization develop as the database, the database
management system, and more recently, relational database technology, each made their
debut and provided new ways to organize information.

2.2 DATA TYPES

1. Structured data
Structured data adheres to a pre-defined data model. This model describes how data is
recorded, and it defines the attributes and provides information about the data type (e.g.

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 4

Data Science 2023-24

name, date, number) and restrictions on their values (e.g. number of characters). This level of
organisation means that data can be entered, stored, queried, or analysed by machines.
Structured data includes:

 Names
 Dates
 Phone numbers
 Currency or Prices
 Heights or Weights
 Latitude and Longitude
 Word count or File size of a document

2. Unstructured and semi-structured data

 Images (human- and machine-generated)
 Video files
 Audio files
 Social-media posts
 Product reviews
 Messages sent by SMS or through online services

3. Big data
 Volume: Data sets contain vast quantities of information that put high demands on systems
used for storing, manipulating, and processing the information.
 Variety: It’s common for systems to process data from many sources, including emails,
images, video, audio, readings from IoT devices, and even scanned PDF documents.
 Velocity: Vast quantities of data are being generated faster than ever, presenting challenges
for analysts as more industries use this information. The ability to make instant decisions
based on up-to-date information can make or break a business.

2.3 DATA HANDLING

1. Data Collection and Acquisition
This step involves sourcing data from diverse channels such as databases, APIs, web
scraping, sensor networks, and more. It’s imperative to identify relevant data sources and
ensure data is collected in a consistent and structured manner

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 5

Data Science 2023-24

2. Data Cleaning and Preprocessing

Raw data is rarely clean and ready for analysis. Data cleaning is a crucial step to identify and
rectify errors, inconsistencies, missing values, and outliers. Techniques such as imputation,

outlier detection, and data validation help refine the dataset. Data preprocessing involves
tasks like standardization, normalization, and feature scaling, ensuring that data is prepared
for downstream analysis.

3. Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)

Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) is a cornerstone of data handling. EDA involves
visualizing and summarizing data to gain insights and identify patterns. Techniques like
histograms, scatter plots, box plots, and correlation matrices aid in understanding the
distribution of variables and potential relationships. EDA helps data scientists make informed
decisions about data transformations and feature engineering.

4. Feature Engineering
Feature engineering is the art of creating new features from existing ones to enhance the
performance of machine learning models. Techniques include dimensionality reduction,
creating interaction terms, and generating domain-specific features. Thoughtful feature
engineering can significantly impact model accuracy and interpretability.

5. Data Integration
Data integration involves combining data from different sources to create a unified dataset.
Techniques range from simple concatenation to more complex merging and joining
operations. Ensuring data consistency and resolving conflicts are essential aspects of
successful integration.

2.4 DATA MINING

Data mining is most commonly defined as the process of using computers and automation to
search large sets of data for patterns and trends, turning those findings into business insights
and predictions.
It is the process of extracting knowledge or insights from large amounts of data using various
statistical and computational techniques. Data mining goes beyond the search process, as it

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 6

Data Science 2023-24

uses data to evaluate future probabilities and develop actionable analyses. The data can be
structures, semi-structures or unstructured, and can be stored in various forms such as
databases, data warehouses, and data lakes.

2.4.1 PHASES OF DATA MINING

1. Data Understanding
The data must be relevant to subject matter and usually comes from a variety of sources such
as sales records, customer surveys, and geolocation data. This phase’s goal is to ensure the
data correctly encompasses all necessary data sets to address the objective.

2. Data Preparation
The most time-consuming phase, the preparation phase, consists of three steps: extraction,
transformation, and loading — also referred to as ETL. First, data is extracted from various
sources and deposited into a staging area. Next, during the transformation step: the data is
cleaned, null sets are populated, duplicative data is removed, errors are resolved, and all data
is allocated into tables. In the final step, loading, the formated data is loaded into the database
for use.

3. Modeling
Data modeling addresses the relevant data set and considers the best statistical and
mathematical approach to answering the objective question(s). There are a variety of
modeling techniques available, such as classification, clustering, and regression analysis
(more on them later). It’s also not uncommon to use different models on the same data to
address specific objectives.

4. Evaluation
After the models are built and tested, it’s time to evaluate their efficiency in answering the
question identified during the business understanding phase. This is a human-driven phase, as
the individual running the project must determine whether the model output sufficiently
meets their objectives. If not, a different model can be created, or different data can be
prepared.

2.5 DATA ANALYTICS

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 7

Data Science 2023-24

Data analytics is the science of analyzing raw data to make conclusions about information.
Many of the techniques and processes of data analytics have been automated into mechanical
processes and algorithms that work over raw data for human consumption.
 Data analytics is the science of analyzing raw data to make conclusions about that
information.

 Data analytics help a business optimize its performance, perform more efficiently, maximize
profit, or make more strategically-guided decisions.
 The techniques and processes of data analytics have been automated into mechanical
processes and algorithms that work over raw data for human consumption.
 Various approaches to data analytics include looking at what happened (descriptive
analytics), why something happened (diagnostic analytics), what is going to happen
(predictive analytics), or what should be done next (prescriptive analytics).
 Data analytics relies on a variety of software tools including spreadsheets, data visualization,
reporting tools, data mining programs, and open-source languages for the greatest data
manipulation.

2.6 DATA ANALYSIS

 Identify: The identification is the stage in which you establish the questions you will need
to answer. For example, what is the customer's perception of our brand? Or what type of
packaging is more engaging to our potential customers? Once the questions are outlined you
are ready for the next step.
 Collect: Here, you define which sources of data you will use and how you will use them.
The collection of data can come in different forms such as internal or external sources,
surveys, interviews, questionnaires, and focus groups, among others
 Clean: Once you have the necessary data it is time to clean it and leave it ready for analysis.
Not all the data you collect will be useful, when collecting big amounts of data in different
formats it is very likely that you will find yourself with duplicate or badly formatted data. To
avoid this, before you start working with your data you need to make sure to erase any white
spaces, duplicate records, or formatting errors. This way you avoid hurting your analysis
with bad-quality data.
 Analyze: With the help of various techniques such as statistical analysis, regressions, neural
networks, text analysis, and more, you can start analyzing and manipulating your data to
extract relevant conclusions. At this stage, you find trends, correlations, variations, and
patterns that can help you answer the questions you first thought of in the identify stage.

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 8

Data Science 2023-24

Some of them include business intelligence and visualization software, predictive analytics,
and data mining, among others.
 Interpret: This stage is where the researcher comes up with courses of action based on the
findings. For example, here you would understand if your clients prefer packaging that is red
or green, plastic or paper, etc. Additionally, at this stage, you can also find some limitations
and work on them.

2.6.1 DATA ANALYSIS STEPS

1. The first step is to determine the data requirements or how the data is grouped. Data
may be separated by age, demographic, income, or gender. Data values may be
numerical or divided by category.
2. The second step in data analytics is the process of collecting it. This can be done
through a variety of sources such as computers, online sources, cameras,
environmental sources, or through personnel.
3. The data must be organized after it's collected so it can be analyzed. This may take
place on a spreadsheet or other form of software that can take statistical data.
4. The data is then cleaned up before analysis. It's scrubbed and checked to ensure that
there's no duplication or error and that it is not incomplete. This step helps correct any
errors before it goes on to a data analyst to be analyzed.

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 9

Data Science 2023-24

CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE LEARNING
3.1 OVERVIEW
Machine learning (ML) is a branch of artificial intelligence (AI) that enables computers to
“self-learn” from training data and improve over time, without being explicitly programmed.
Machine learning algorithms are able to detect patterns in data and learn from them, in order
to make their own predictions. In short, machine learning algorithms and models learn
through experience. While artificial intelligence and machine learning are often used
interchangeably, they are two different concepts. AI is the broader concept – machines
making decisions, learning new skills, and solving problems in a similar way to humans –
whereas machine learning is a subset of AI that enables intelligent systems to autonomously
learn new things from data

3.2 QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data
1. Qualitative data uses methods like 1. Quantitative data uses methods as
interviews, participant observation, focus on questionnaires, surveys, and structural
a grouping to gain collective information. observations to gain collective
information.
2. Data format used in it is textual. 2. Data format used in it is numerical.
Datasheets are contained of audio or video Datasheets are obtained in the form
recordings and notes. of numerical values.

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 10

Data Science 2023-24

3. Qualitative data talks about the 3. Quantitative data talks about the quantity
experience or quality and explains the and explains the questions like ‘how much’,
questions like ‘why’ and ‘how’ ‘how many .
4. The data is analyzed by grouping it into 4. The data is analyzed by statistical
different categories. methods.
5.Qualitative data are subjective and can be 5. Quantitative data are fixed and universal.
further open for interpretation.

Table. 3.1 Qualitative vs Quantitative data

CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION TO R PROGRAMMING
4.1 R PROGRAMMING OVERVIEW
R is a statistical computing and graphics system. This system is comprised of two parts: the R
language itself (which is what most people mean when they talk about R) and a run-time
environment. R is an interpreted language, which means that users access its functions
through a command-line interpreter.

Unlike languages such as Python and Java, R is not a general-purpose programming

language. Instead, it’s considered a domain-specific language (DSL), meaning its functions
and use are designed for a specific area of use or domain. In R’s case, that’s statistical
computing and analysis. By extension, R is commonly used for all manner of data science
tasks.

4.1.1 R VARIABLES
Variables are used to store the information to be manipulated and referenced in the R
program. The R variable can store an atomic vector, a group of atomic vectors, or a
combination of many R objects. There are two functions which are used to print the value of
the variable i.e., print() and cat(). The cat() function combines multiples values into a
continuous print output.

# Assignment using equal operator

variable.1 = 124

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 11

Data Science 2023-24

# Assignment using leftward operator

variable.2 <- "Learn R Programming"
# Assignment using rightward operator
133L -> variable.3

# Print the values of the variables

print(variable.1)
cat("variable.1 is", variable.1, "\n")
cat("variable.2 is", variable.2, "\n")
cat("variable.3 is", variable.3, "\n")

4.1.2 R DATA TYPES

R programming is a dynamically typed language, which means that we can change the data
type of the same variable again and again in our program. Because of its dynamic nature, a
variable is not declared of any data type. It gets the data type from the R-object, which is to
be assigned to the variable. We can check the data type of the variable with the help of the
class() function. Let's see an example:

variable_y <- 124

cat("The data type of variable_y is ", class(variable_y), "\n")

variable_y <- "Learn R Programming"

cat("Now the data type of variable_y is ", class(variable_y), "\n")

variable_y <- 133L

cat("Next the data type of variable_y becomes ", class(variable_y), "\n")

4.1.3 R FUNCTIONS
A set of statements which are organized together to perform a specific task is known as a
function. R provides a series of in-built functions, and it allows the user to create their own
functions. Functions are used to perform tasks in the modular approach. Creating functions in
R involves using the function keyword. Functions are useful for encapsulating code that

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 12

Data Science 2023-24

performs a specific task and can be reused throughout your script. Here's the syntax and an
example to illustrate how to define and use a function in R:

func_name <- function(arg_1, arg_2, ...) {

# Function body
}

add_numbers <- function(num1, num2) {

result <- num1 + num2
return(result)
}

4.1.4 R PROGRAMMING MODULES

1. Scoping of modules
We can create a module using the modules::module function. A module is similar to a
function definition.
x <- "hey"
m <- module(
{ someFunction <- function() x
})
m$someFunction()

2. Imports
Import acts as a substitute for library with an important difference: library has the side effect
of changing the search path of the complete R session.
# Define the function
functionWithDep <- function(x) {
median(x)
}
# Call the function with a numeric vector
result <- functionWithDep(1:10)
print(result)

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 13

Data Science 2023-24

3. Importing modules
To import other modules, the function use can be called. use really just means import module.
m <- module({
import("stats")
functionWithDep <- function(x) median(x)
})
mm <- module({
muse(m)
anotherFunction <- function(x) m$functionWithDep(x)
})
mm$anotherFunction(1:10)

4. Exports
Exports can be defined as regular expressions which is indicated by a leading ‘^’. In this case
only one export declaration should be used.
# Load the modules package
library(modules)
# Define the module
m <- module({
export("fun") # Export the public function
fun <- identity # Define the public function
privateFunction <- identity # Define a private function
-privateFunction <- identity # This line is unnecessary
})
# Use the public function from the module
result <- m$fun(1:10)
print(result)

4.1.5 R Programming Practical 1

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 14

Data Science 2023-24

Fig. 4.1 R Program to print Hello, world!!!

4.1.6 R Programming Practical 2

Fig. 4.2 Basic R Operation Demonstration

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 15

Data Science 2023-24

CHAPTER 5
INTRODUCTION TO PYTHON
Python is a widely used general-purpose, high level programming language. It was created by
Guido van Rossum in 1991 and further developed by the Python Software Foundation. It was
designed with an emphasis on code readability, and its syntax allows programmers to express
their concepts in fewer lines of code. Python is a programming language that lets you work
quickly and integrate systems more efficiently. There are two major Python versions: Python
2 and Python 3. Both are quite different.

5.1 PYTHON DATA TYPES

Python Data types are the classification or categorization of data items. It represents the kind
of value that tells what operations can be performed on a particular data. Since everything is
an object in Python programming, Python data types are classes and variables are instances
(objects) of these classes. The following are the standard or built-in data types in Python:
1. Numeric Data Type
The numeric data type in Python represents the data that has a numeric value. A numeric
value can be an integer, a floating number, or even a complex number. These values are
defined as Python int, Python float, and Python complex classes in Python.

2. Sequence Data Type

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 16

Data Science 2023-24

The sequence Data Type in Python is the ordered collection of similar or different Python
data types. Sequences allow storing of multiple values in an organized and efficient fashion.
There are several sequence data types of Python:
 Python String
 Python List
 Python Tuple

3. Boolean Data Type

Python Data type with one of the two built-in values, True or False. Boolean objects that are
equal to True are truthy (true), and those equal to False are falsy (false). However
nonBoolean

objects can be evaluated in a Boolean context as well and determined to be true or false. It is
denoted by the class bool.

4. Set Data Type

In Python Data Types, a Set is an unordered collection of data types that is iterable, mutable,
and has no duplicate elements. The order of elements in a set is undefined though it may
consist of various elements.

5. Dictionary Data Type

A dictionary in Python is an unordered collection of data values, used to store data values like
a map, unlike other Python Data Types that hold only a single value as an element, a
Dictionary holds a key: value pair. Key-value is provided in the dictionary to make it more
optimized. Each key-value pair in a Dictionary is separated by a colon: , whereas each key is
separated by a ‘comma’.

5.2 PYTHON DATA ANALYTICS

Data Analysis is the technique of collecting, transforming, and organizing data to make future
predictions and informed data-driven decisions. It also helps to find possible solutions for a
business problem. There are six steps for Data Analysis. They are:

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 17

Data Science 2023-24

 Ask or Specify Data Requirements

 Prepare or Collect Data
 Clean and Process
 Analyze
 Share
 Act or Report Python Functions

5.3 PYTHON FUNCTIONS

Python Functions is a block of statements that return the specific task. The idea is to put some
commonly or repeatedly done tasks together and make a function so that instead of writing
the same code again and again for different inputs, we can do the function calls to reuse code
contained in it over and over again.

Here are simple rules to define a function in Python:

 Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the function name and
parentheses ( ).
 Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these parentheses.
 The first statement of a function can be an optional statement - the documentation
string of the function or docstring.
 The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is indented.
 The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an
expression to the caller.
 A return statement with no arguments is the same as return none.
def functionname (parameters):
"""function_docstring"""
function_suite return
[expression]

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 18

Data Science 2023-24

5.4 PYTHON MODULE

A Python module is a file containing Python definitions and statements. A module can define
functions, classes, and variables. A module can also include runnable code. Grouping related
code into a module makes the code easier to understand and use.
1. Create a Python Module
To create a Python module, write the desired code and save that in a file with .py
extension.
def greeting(name):
print(“Hello, “ + name)

2. Use a Module
Now we can use the module we just created, by using the import statement:
import mymodule
mymodule.greeting(“Jonathan”)

3. Variables in Module
The module can contain functions, as already described, but also variables of all types
(arrays, dictionaries, objects etc):

4. Naming a Module
You can name the module file whatever you like, but it must have the file extension .py.

5. Re-naming a Module
You can create an alias when you import a module, by using the ‘as’ keyword.
import mymodule as mx
a = mx.person1[“age”]
print(a)

6. Built-in Modules
There are several built-in modules in Python, which you can import whenever you like.
import platform
x = platform.system()
print(x)

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 19

Data Science 2023-24

5.5 PYTHON PRACTICAL ON DATA ANALYSIS

Fig. 5.1 Python Practical on Data Analysis

CHAPTER 6
PROJECT
6.1 ANALYSING A DATASET OF BEST-SELLING BOOKS
Source Code
import pandas as pd
book_data = pd.read_csv(r"C:\Users\91966\Desktop\BestSellingBooks.csv")
print("\nNumber of books by each author:")
print(book_data['Author'].value_counts())
print("\nUnique genres in the dataset:")
print(book_data['Genre'].unique())
print("\nDuplicate book names:")
print(book_data['Name'].duplicated())

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 20

Data Science 2023-24

This code reads a CSV file into a Data Frame and performs three main tasks:
1. Counts the number of books by each author.
2. Lists the unique genres in the dataset.
3. Identifies duplicate book names.

Output

Fig. 6.1 Output

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
Data Science internship using Python has been an invaluable learning experience. I gained
proficiency in essential libraries like NumPy, pandas, Matplotlib, and Scikit-learn, and
developed skills in data cleaning, exploratory analysis, and machine learning. Working on
real-world projects taught me the importance of data preprocessing and effective
communication of results. Collaborating with a professional team highlighted the value of
teamwork. This internship solidified my passion for data science and prepared me for future
opportunities in this dynamic field.

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 21

Data Science 2023-24

REFERENCES

1. VanderPlas, J. (2016). Python Data Science Handbook: Essential Tools for Working
with Data. O'Reilly Media.
2. McKinney, W. (2017). Python for Data Analysis: Data Wrangling with Pandas,
NumPy, and IPython. O'Reilly Media.
3. Géron, A. (2019). Hands-On Machine Learning with Scikit-Learn, Keras, and
TensorFlow: Concepts, Tools, and Techniques to Build Intelligent Systems. O'Reilly
Media.
4. https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_intro.asp
5. https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_datatypes.asp

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 22

Data Science 2023-24

6. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/loops-in-python/?ref=lbp
7. https://www.programiz.com/python-programming/function

Dept. of CSE, RRIT Page | 23