Functions

Dr. B. O. Bainson
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

February 27, 2019

 Introduction
• Much of calculus is concerned with investigating
behaviour of functions.
• Functions are mostly used to describe dependence
between quantities. Example
• Market price p of a car depends on time t.
• The speed s of a moving particle depends on time t.
• The volume V of a cylinder depends on the base radius
r.
• The population P of a specie depends on time t.
• The cost c of sending a parcel by DHL depends on the
weight w of the parcel.
• The dependence could be described either by words,
graphs, an equation or a tabulation.
Definition
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set A
exactly one element, called f (x), in a set B. The set of
elements x ∈ A where f is defined is called the domain of f
and the collection of elements f (x) ∈ B is called the range.
Definition
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set A
exactly one element, called f (x), in a set B. The set of
elements x ∈ A where f is defined is called the domain of f
and the collection of elements f (x) ∈ B is called the range.
In our case A and B are sets of real numbers.
Definition
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set A
exactly one element, called f (x), in a set B. The set of
elements x ∈ A where f is defined is called the domain of f
and the collection of elements f (x) ∈ B is called the range.
In our case A and B are sets of real numbers.
Notation
f
We write f : A → B or A → − B to denote a function f from
the set A to the set B and x 7→ f (x) to mean f (x) ∈ B is
assigned to x under f .
Usually a symbol that denotes an arbitrary number in the
domain (range) is called an independent (dependent) variable.
Example
Which of the following rules are functions
1. f : R → R, defined by x 7→ f (x) = 2x 2 + 2.
1
2. f : N → R, defined by x 7→ f (x) = .
x
2
3. h : R → R; h(x) = x
√
4. g : N → R; g (x) = x + 2
5. g (x) = |x|
 2
x −1 :x ≤0
6. f : R → R; f (x) =
x +1 :x >0

 x :0≤x ≤1
7. f : R → R; f (x) = x 3 + 1x : 1 < x ≤ 2
5 :2≤x ≤5


Find the domain and range of each of the functions

above.
• Given a physical phenomena such as population growth,
cost of items and the likes, we formulate a mathematical
model by identifying the dependent and independent
variables and examine the correspondence between the
variables.
• The overall model is not an accurate representation of the
phenomena but just an idealization.
• In the model, we may employ some basic (elementary)
correspondence (functions) as the following.
 1. Polynomial functions
Definition
A function f is a polynomial function if

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n , an 6= 0

where n is a nonnegative integer called the degree of f . The

ai ’s are constants called coefficients.
 1. Polynomial functions
Definition
A function f is a polynomial function if

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n , an 6= 0

where n is a nonnegative integer called the degree of f . The

ai ’s are constants called coefficients.
Example
Which of the following are polynomial functions?

1. f (x) = 2x 3 + x − 1 3. g (x) = x 59 − x −17 + x 6

√ √
2. h(x) = 5x 8 + 2x + 4 3 2
4. f (x) = x 5 + 1
7
 1. Polynomial functions
Definition
A function f is a polynomial function if

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n , an 6= 0

where n is a nonnegative integer called the degree of f . The

ai ’s are constants called coefficients.
Example
Which of the following are polynomial functions?

1. f (x) = 2x 3 + x − 1 3. g (x) = x 59 − x −17 + x 6

√ √
2. h(x) = 5x 8 + 2x + 4 3 2
4. f (x) = x 5 + 1
7
Polynomials of degree 1, 2 and 3 are called linear, quadratic
and cubic functions respectively.
 2. Power functions

Definition
A function of the form f (x) = x a , where a is a constant, is
called a power function.
 2. Power functions

Definition
A function of the form f (x) = x a , where a is a constant, is
called a power function.
Examine the power function for
1. a ∈ N
1
2. a = for n ∈ N.
n
3. a = −1.
 3. Rational functions

Definition
A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomial functions
p(x)
f (x) = .
q(x)
 4. Algebraic functions
Definition
An algebraic function is a function constructed out of algebraic
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, roots, raising to fractional powers and many more.
 4. Algebraic functions
Definition
An algebraic function is a function constructed out of algebraic
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, roots, raising to fractional powers and many more.
Example
The following are examples of algebraic functions
√
5x 4 − 16x 3 5. f (x) = x x +3
1. f (x) = 2 √
√ x + x
6. g (x) = x
2. h(x) = 3 x 2 + 1 √
2/3 7. f (x) = 1 − x2
3. h(a) = a (a − 3)4
x m0
4. f (x) = 8. f (v ) = p
x +1 1 − v 2/c 2
 Transcendental Functions

Definition
A transcendental function is a function which is not an
algebraic function. These are mostly expressible as infinite sum
of polynomials.
The basic transcendental functions are the following
1. Exponential functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = ax where a is a positive constant.
The basic transcendental functions are the following
1. Exponential functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = ax where a is a positive constant.
2. Logarithmic functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = loga x where the base a is a positive constant.
The basic transcendental functions are the following
1. Exponential functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = ax where a is a positive constant.
2. Logarithmic functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = loga x where the base a is a positive constant.
3. Trigonometric functions: Functions such as
sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, csc x etc.
The basic transcendental functions are the following
1. Exponential functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = ax where a is a positive constant.
2. Logarithmic functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = loga x where the base a is a positive constant.
3. Trigonometric functions: Functions such as
sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, csc x etc.
4. Inverse trigonometric functions:These are the inverse
of the trigonometric functions. Examples include
cos−1 x, sin−1 x, tan−1 x etc
The basic transcendental functions are the following
1. Exponential functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = ax where a is a positive constant.
2. Logarithmic functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = loga x where the base a is a positive constant.
3. Trigonometric functions: Functions such as
sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, csc x etc.
4. Inverse trigonometric functions:These are the inverse
of the trigonometric functions. Examples include
cos−1 x, sin−1 x, tan−1 x etc
5. Hyperbolic functions: comprises the functions
sin x, cosh x, tanh x etc. These are mostly written in
terms of exponential functions eg.
1 1
sinh x = [e x − e −x ], cosh x = [e x + e −x ]
2 2
The basic transcendental functions are the following
1. Exponential functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = ax where a is a positive constant.
2. Logarithmic functions: Functions of the form
f (x) = loga x where the base a is a positive constant.
3. Trigonometric functions: Functions such as
sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, csc x etc.
4. Inverse trigonometric functions:These are the inverse
of the trigonometric functions. Examples include
cos−1 x, sin−1 x, tan−1 x etc
5. Hyperbolic functions: comprises the functions
sin x, cosh x, tanh x etc. These are mostly written in
terms of exponential functions eg.
1 1
sinh x = [e x − e −x ], cosh x = [e x + e −x ]
2 2
6. Inverse hyperbolic functions: These are the inverse of
the hyperbolic functions. Examples include
sinh−1 x, cosh−1 x, tanh−1 x.
 Graphs of functions

We notice that a function f determines ordered pairs (x, f (x))

which can be pictorially presented in the plane. Such a
pictorial presentation of a function is called a graph of the
function.
 Symmetry
Definition
A function f is said to be even if it satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for
all x in the domain of f . The graph of even functions are
symmetric about the y -axis.
 Symmetry
Definition
A function f is said to be even if it satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for
all x in the domain of f . The graph of even functions are
symmetric about the y -axis.
Definition
A function f is said to be odd if it satisfies f (−x) = −f (x)
for all x in the domain of f . The graph of odd functions are
symmetric about the origin.
 Symmetry
Definition
A function f is said to be even if it satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for
all x in the domain of f . The graph of even functions are
symmetric about the y -axis.
Definition
A function f is said to be odd if it satisfies f (−x) = −f (x)
for all x in the domain of f . The graph of odd functions are
symmetric about the origin.
Example
Determine which the following functions are even or odd.

1. f (x) = x 2 3. f (x) = x 3
2. f (x) = 1 − x 4 4. f (x) = x 5 + x
 Periodic

Definition
A function f is said to be periodic with period t if it satisfies
f (x + t) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f .
 Bounded
Definition
A function is said to be bounded above if there is u ∈ R
such that f (x) ≤ u for all x in the domain of f .
 Bounded
Definition
A function is said to be bounded above if there is u ∈ R
such that f (x) ≤ u for all x in the domain of f .
Example
The function f (x) = x 2 + 1 defined on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is bounded
above by 2 since f (x) ≤ 2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
 Bounded
Definition
A function is said to be bounded above if there is u ∈ R
such that f (x) ≤ u for all x in the domain of f .
Example
The function f (x) = x 2 + 1 defined on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is bounded
above by 2 since f (x) ≤ 2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Example
1
The function f (x) =
x
 Bounded
Definition
A function is said to be bounded above if there is u ∈ R
such that f (x) ≤ u for all x in the domain of f .
Example
The function f (x) = x 2 + 1 defined on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is bounded
above by 2 since f (x) ≤ 2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Example
1
The function f (x) = is not bounded above since one can not
x
find U such that f (x) ≤ U. For values close to 0, we have
that f (x) gets larger and larger.
Example
The function f (x) = sin x is bounded above by 1 for x ∈ R.
Definition
A function, f , is said to be bounded below if there is ` ∈ R
such that f (x) ≥ ` for all x in the domain of f .
Example
The function f (x) = x − 1 defined in [0, 1] is bounded below
by −1 since −1 ≤ f (x) for x ∈ [0, 1].
Example
√
The function g (x) = | x + 1| is bounded below by 0 on the
interval [0, 4] since 0 ≤ g (x) for x ∈ [0, 4].
 Monotonic

Definition
A function f , is said to be monotonic increasing in an
interval if f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) whenever x1 ≤ x2 in the interval.
Example
The function f (x) = e x is monotonic increasing on R+ .
Example
The function f (x) = x 2 + 1 is strictly increasing for x ≥ 0.
Definition
A function f , is said to be monotonic decreasing in an
interval if there is f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) whenever x1 ≤ x2 in the
interval.
Example
The function f (x) = −x 2 is monotonic decreasing on R+ .
 Maxima and Minima

Definition
Let c be in the domain of f and f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x in the
domain of f , then f (c) is called the absolute maxima of f .
On the other hand if f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x ∈ (a, b, ) and
c ∈ (a, b), then f (c) is called a relative maximum.
Definition
Let c be in the domain of f and f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in the
domain of f , then f (c) is called the absolute minima of f .
On the other hand if f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x ∈ (a, b, ) and
c ∈ (a, b), then f (c) is called a relative minimum.
 Limit of functions

• A key concept in calculus is limit of functions.

• Here we consider the nature of functions in the
neighbourhood (possibly deleted) of a given point.
 Limit of functions

• A key concept in calculus is limit of functions.

• Here we consider the nature of functions in the
neighbourhood (possibly deleted) of a given point.
• Notice f (x) = x 2 approaches 4 as we choose values of x
near a = 2.
 Limit of functions

• A key concept in calculus is limit of functions.

• Here we consider the nature of functions in the
neighbourhood (possibly deleted) of a given point.
• Notice f (x) = x 2 approaches 4 as we choose values of x
near a = 2.
x2 − 1
• Similarly g (x) = approaches 2 as we choose
x −1
values of x near a = 1.
• Notice that we do not consider what happens at the given
points.
• The values approached by the function is called the limit
` of the function as x nears a given point a.
The key question is

How close should x get to the given value so that f (x)

gets close to the limit?
The key question is

How close should x get to the given value so that f (x)

gets close to the limit?

Using the neighbourhood description discussed earlier, we

rephrase the question as

what δ-neighbourhood of a should x be so that f (x)

will be in an ε-neighbourhood of `.
Definition
Let f (x) be a function defined near the point a. Then ` is
called the limit of f (x) as x approaches a if for any ε > 0, we
can find δ(ε) > 0 such that |f (x) − `| < ε whenever
0 < |x − a| < δ.
Definition
Let f (x) be a function defined near the point a. Then ` is
called the limit of f (x) as x approaches a if for any ε > 0, we
can find δ(ε) > 0 such that |f (x) − `| < ε whenever
0 < |x − a| < δ.
We write
lim f (x) = `
x→a
Definition
Let f (x) be a function defined near the point a. Then ` is
called the limit of f (x) as x approaches a if for any ε > 0, we
can find δ(ε) > 0 such that |f (x) − `| < ε whenever
0 < |x − a| < δ.
We write
lim f (x) = `
x→a
or
f (x) → ` as x → a
Example
Show that limx→3 4x − 5 = 7.
Example
Show that limx→3 4x − 5 = 7.
Solution
For any ε > 0 we want to find δ(ε) > 0 such that
|(4x − 5) − 7| < ε whenever |x − 3| < δ.
Example
Show that limx→3 4x − 5 = 7.
Solution
For any ε > 0 we want to find δ(ε) > 0 such that
|(4x − 5) − 7| < ε whenever |x − 3| < δ.But

|4x − 5 − 7| = |4x − 12| = 4|x − 3| < ε

Example
Show that limx→3 4x − 5 = 7.
Solution
For any ε > 0 we want to find δ(ε) > 0 such that
|(4x − 5) − 7| < ε whenever |x − 3| < δ.But

|4x − 5 − 7| = |4x − 12| = 4|x − 3| < ε

1 1
Hence |x − 3| < ε. We can choose δ(ε) = ε so that
4 4
|(4x − 5) − 7| < ε whenever |x − 3| < δ.
Example
Show that
 limx→3 f (x) = 5 given that
2x − 1 : x 6= 0
f (x) =
6 :x =0
Example
Show that limx→3 f (x) = 5 given that
2x − 1 : x 6= 0
f (x) =
6 :x =0
Solution
Recall that the concept of limits considers what happens to
the function as we get closer to a given point. Hence we have
the following. For any ε > 0 we want to find δ(ε) > 0 such
that |(2x − 1) − 5| < ε whenever |x − 3| < δ. But

|2x − 1 − 5| = |2x − 6| = 2|x − 3| < ε

1 1
Hence |x − 3| < ε. We can choose δ(ε) = ε so that
2 2
|(2x − 1) − 5| < ε whenever |x − 3| < δ.
Example
Show that limx→4 x 2 = 16.
Example
Show that limx→4 x 2 = 16.
Solution
For any ε > 0 we want to find δ(ε) > 0 such that
|x 2 − 16| < ε whenever |x − 4| < δ. But
|x 2 − 16| = |(x − 4)(x + 4)| = |x − 4||x + 4| < ε
Hence if |x + 4| is some positive constant, then
1
|x − 4| < ε.
|x + 4|
Example
Show that limx→4 x 2 = 16.
Solution
For any ε > 0 we want to find δ(ε) > 0 such that
|x 2 − 16| < ε whenever |x − 4| < δ. But
|x 2 − 16| = |(x − 4)(x + 4)| = |x − 4||x + 4| < ε
Hence if |x + 4| is some positive constant, then
1
|x − 4| < ε. To determine a candidate for such a
|x + 4|
positive constant, recall that we want x to be close to 4. Thus
we choose |x − 4| < 1 so that −1 < x − 4 < 1.
Example
Show that limx→4 x 2 = 16.
Solution
For any ε > 0 we want to find δ(ε) > 0 such that
|x 2 − 16| < ε whenever |x − 4| < δ. But
|x 2 − 16| = |(x − 4)(x + 4)| = |x − 4||x + 4| < ε
Hence if |x + 4| is some positive constant, then
1
|x − 4| < ε. To determine a candidate for such a
|x + 4|
positive constant, recall that we want x to be close to 4. Thus
we choose |x − 4| < 1 so that −1 < x − 4 < 1.This implies
3 < x < 5 and hence 7 < x + 4 < 9.
Example
Show that limx→4 x 2 = 16.
Solution
For any ε > 0 we want to find δ(ε) > 0 such that
|x 2 − 16| < ε whenever |x − 4| < δ. But
|x 2 − 16| = |(x − 4)(x + 4)| = |x − 4||x + 4| < ε
Hence if |x + 4| is some positive constant, then
1
|x − 4| < ε. To determine a candidate for such a
|x + 4|
positive constant, recall that we want x to be close to 4. Thus
we choose |x − 4| < 1 so that −1 < x − 4 < 1.This implies
3 < x < 5 and hence 7 < x + 4 < 9.We have the candidate 9
1
for the positive constant. We have that δ(ε) = ε. Finally, we
9
1 2
can choose δ(ε) = min{1, ε} so that |x − 16| < ε whenever
9
|x − 4| < δ.
 Laws of limits

1. limx→a (αf (x) ± βg (x)) = α limx→a f (x) ± β limx→a g (x).

 Laws of limits

1. limx→a (αf (x) ± βg (x)) = α limx→a f (x) ± β limx→a g (x).

2. limx→a f (x)g (x) = limx→a f (x) limx→a g (x).
 Laws of limits

1. limx→a (αf (x) ± βg (x)) = α limx→a f (x) ± β limx→a g (x).

2. limx→a f (x)g (x) = limx→a f (x) limx→a g (x).
 
f (x) limx→a f (x)
3. limx→a = .
g (x) limx→a g (x)
 Laws of limits

1. limx→a (αf (x) ± βg (x)) = α limx→a f (x) ± β limx→a g (x).

2. limx→a f (x)g (x) = limx→a f (x) limx→a g (x).
 
f (x) limx→a f (x)
3. limx→a = .
g (x) limx→a g (x)
 n
n
4. limx→a [f (x)] = limx→a f (x) .
 Laws of limits

1. limx→a (αf (x) ± βg (x)) = α limx→a f (x) ± β limx→a g (x).

2. limx→a f (x)g (x) = limx→a f (x) limx→a g (x).
 
f (x) limx→a f (x)
3. limx→a = .
g (x) limx→a g (x)
 n
n
4. limx→a [f (x)] = limx→a f (x) .
5. limx→a x n = an where n is a positive integer
 Laws of limits

1. limx→a (αf (x) ± βg (x)) = α limx→a f (x) ± β limx→a g (x).

2. limx→a f (x)g (x) = limx→a f (x) limx→a g (x).
 
f (x) limx→a f (x)
3. limx→a = .
g (x) limx→a g (x)
 n
n
4. limx→a [f (x)] = limx→a f (x) .
5. limx→a x n = an where n is a positive integer
p p
6. limx→a n f (x) = n limx→a f (x)
Example
Evaluate the following limits
1. limx→2 (2x 2 − x + 2)
x −1
2. limx→1 2
x√ − 1
x2 + 9 − 3
3. limx→0
x2
x + 2x 2 − 1
3
4. limx→−2
5 − 3x 
6 2
2x + 1 : x =
5. limx→2 f (x) given that f (x) =
π :x =2
Solution
1. limx→2 (2x 2 − x + 2) =
2 limx→2 x 2 − limx→2 x + limx→2 2 = 2 · 22 − 2 + 2 = 8.
Solution
1. limx→2 (2x 2 − x + 2) =
2 limx→2 x 2 − limx→2 x + limx→2 2 = 2 · 22 − 2 + 2 = 8.
x −1 x −1
2. limx→1 2 = limx→1 =
x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
1 1
limx→1 = .
(x + 1) 2
Solution
1. limx→2 (2x 2 − x + 2) =
2 limx→2 x 2 − limx→2 x + limx→2 2 = 2 · 22 − 2 + 2 = 8.
x −1 x −1
2. limx→1 2 = limx→1 =
x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
1 1
limx→1 = .
(x + 1) 2
3.
√ √ √
x2 + 9 − 3 x2 + 9 − 3 x2 + 9 + 3
lim = lim · √
x→0 x2 x→0 x2 x2 + 9 + 3
2
x
= lim √
x→0 x 2 ( x 2 + 9 + 3)

1 1 1
= lim √ = =
x→0 ( x 2 + 9 + 3) 3+3 6
Solution
1. limx→2 (2x 2 − x + 2) =
2 limx→2 x 2 − limx→2 x + limx→2 2 = 2 · 22 − 2 + 2 = 8.
x −1 x −1
2. limx→1 2 = limx→1 =
x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
1 1
limx→1 = .
(x + 1) 2
3.
√ √ √
x2 + 9 − 3 x2 + 9 − 3 x2 + 9 + 3
lim = lim · √
x→0 x2 x→0 x2 x2 + 9 + 3
2
x
= lim √
x→0 x 2 ( x 2 + 9 + 3)

1 1 1
= lim √ = =
x→0 ( x 2 + 9 + 3) 3+3 6
x 3 + 2x 2 − 1 (−2)3 + 2 · (−2)2 − 1 1
4. limx→−2 = =−
5 − 3x 5 − 3 · (−2) 11
Solution
1. limx→2 (2x 2 − x + 2) =
2 limx→2 x 2 − limx→2 x + limx→2 2 = 2 · 22 − 2 + 2 = 8.
x −1 x −1
2. limx→1 2 = limx→1 =
x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
1 1
limx→1 = .
(x + 1) 2
3.
√ √ √
x2 + 9 − 3 x2 + 9 − 3 x2 + 9 + 3
lim = lim · √
x→0 x2 x→0 x2 x2 + 9 + 3
2
x
= lim √
x→0 x 2 ( x 2 + 9 + 3)

1 1 1
= lim √ = =
x→0 ( x 2 + 9 + 3) 3+3 6
x 3 + 2x 2 − 1 (−2)3 + 2 · (−2)2 − 1 1
4. limx→−2 = =−
5 − 3x 5 − 3 · (−2) 11
5. lim f (x) = lim (2x + 1) = 2 · 2 + 1 = 5
Some functions are defined differently while approaching a
value from the left and from the right. Hence one needs to be
cautious in describing the limit as we approach such points.
This leads to left-sided and right-sided limits. We write
limx→a− f (x) = `1 and limx→a+ f (x) = `2 for the left- and
right-sided limits respectively and limx→a f (x) = ` if
`1 = ` = `2 .
Example
Evaluate the following limits.
 √
x −4 :x >4
1. limx→4 f (x) if f (x) =
8 − 2x : x < 4
2. limx→0 |x|

0 :t<0
3. limt→0 h(t) if h(t) =
1 :t≥0
Solution
8 − 2x = 8√− 2 · 4 = 0. Also
1. limx→4− f (x) = limx→4− √
limx→4 f (x) = limx→4 x − 4 = 0 = 0. Since
+ +

limx→4− f (x) = limx→4+ f (x) = 0, limx→4 f (x) = 0.

Solution
8 − 2x = 8√− 2 · 4 = 0. Also
1. limx→4− f (x) = limx→4− √
limx→4 f (x) = limx→4 x − 4 = 0 = 0. Since
+ +

limx→4− f (x) = limx→4+ f (x) = 0, limx→4 f (x) = 0.

2. limx→0− |x| = limx→0− −(0) = 0 and
limx→0+ |x| = limx→0+ 0 = 0. Since
limx→0− |x| = limx→0+ |x| = 0, limx→0 |x| = 0
Solution
1. limx→4− f (x) = limx→4− √8 − 2x = 8√− 2 · 4 = 0. Also
limx→4 f (x) = limx→4 x − 4 = 0 = 0. Since
+ +

limx→4− f (x) = limx→4+ f (x) = 0, limx→4 f (x) = 0.

2. limx→0− |x| = limx→0− −(0) = 0 and
limx→0+ |x| = limx→0+ 0 = 0. Since
limx→0− |x| = limx→0+ |x| = 0, limx→0 |x| = 0
3. limt→0− h(t) = limt→0− 0 = 0. Also
limt→0+ h(t) = limt→0+ 1 = 1. Since
limt→0− h(t) 6= limt→0+ h(t), limt→0 h(t) does not exist.
Theorem
If f (x) ≤ g (x) when x is near a and if the limits of f and g
exist as x approaches a, then

lim f (x) ≤ lim g (x) .

x→a x→a

Theorem (Squeeze theorem)

If f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a and
limx→a f (x) = limx→a h(x) = ` then

lim g (x) = ` .
x→a
Example
1
Evaluate limx→0 x 2 sin .
x
Example
1
Evaluate limx→0 x 2 sin .
x
Solution
1 1
We have that limx→0 x 2 sin = limx→0 x 2 · limx→0 sin . It is
x x
1 1
noted that limx→0 sin does not exist. But −1 ≤ sin ≤ 1
x x
and so
1
−x 2 ≤ x 2 sin ≤ x 2 .
x
and so since limx→0 −x = 0 = limx→0 x 2 , by the squeeze
2

theorem,
1
lim x 2 sin = 0 .
x→0 x
 Continuity

So far we have been describing the nature of a function near a

given point. Now we seek to examine the nature of a function
at a given point.
 Continuity

So far we have been describing the nature of a function near a

given point. Now we seek to examine the nature of a function
at a given point.
Definition
A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a if

lim f (x) = f (a) .

x→a

This means the limit exist, f (x) is defined at a i.e f (a) exist
and the limit equals the function value at a.
If any of the conditions above fails we say that f is
discontinuous at a or has a discontinuity at a.
Example
Determine whether the following are continuous at the given
points.
x2 − x − 2
1. f (x) = at x = 2
x −2
1
2. f (x) = 2 at x = 0
x
x 3 + 2x 2 − 1
3. f (x) = at x = −2
5 − 3x
Solution
1. The function f (x) is not defined at x = 2, hence the
function is discontinuous at x = 2.
Solution
1. The function f (x) is not defined at x = 2, hence the
function is discontinuous at x = 2.
2. The limit of function does not exist as x approaches 0
hence the function is discontinuous at x = 0.
Solution
1. The function f (x) is not defined at x = 2, hence the
function is discontinuous at x = 2.
2. The limit of function does not exist as x approaches 0
hence the function is discontinuous at x = 0.
1
3. We have that f (−2) = − and
11
x 3 + 2x 2 − 1 1
limx→−2 f (x) = limx→−2 = − . Hence
5 − 3x 11
limx→−2 f (x) = f (−2) and so the function the function is
continuous at x = −2.
Theorem
Every polynomial, rational, root and trigonometric function is
continuous on its domain
Definition
A function is continuous in an interval if it is continuous at
every number in the interval.
Theorem
Suppose f and g are continuous at a and α is a constant.
Then the following are continuous at a.
1. f ± g
2. fg
f
3.
g
4. αf
Example
Determine whether the following functions are continuous at
the given points.

 x2 − x − 2
: x 6= 2
1. h(x) = at x = 2
 1 x −2 :x =2
1
(
: x 6= 0
2. f (x) = x2 at x = 0
1 :x =0

1 + x2 : x < 1
3. g (x) = at x = 1
4−x :x ≥1
Solution
1. We have that
x2 − x − 2
limx→2 h(x) = limx→2 = 3 6= h(2). Hence the
x −2
function is discontinuous at x = 2.
1
2. We have limx→2 f (x) = limx→0 2 = ∞ and so the
x
function is not continuous at x = 0.
3. Now limx→1− g (x) = limx→1− 1 + x 2 = 2 and
limx→1+ g (x) = limx→1+ 4 − x = 3. Since
limx→1− 1 + x 2 = 2 and
limx→1− g (x) 6= limx→1− 1 + x 2 = 2 and limx→1+ g (x), the
limit does not exist and the function is not continuous at
x = 1.
If the limit exist but it not equal to the function value at the
given point, we can redefine the function value to be the value
of the limit so that the new function is continuous there. Such
kind of discontinuity is called removable discontinuity. On
the other hand if the limit does not exist i.e it is infinity, then
we say that we have infinite discontinuity.
Theorem
Suppose f is continuous on [a, b] and let f (a) < m < f (b).
Then there exist a number c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = m.
Example
Show that there is a root of 4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0 in [1, 2].
Solution
Let f (x) = 4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x − 2. Then f (1) = −1 and
f (2) = 12. Thus −1 < 0 < 12 and so there is some x ∈ [1, 2]
such that f (x) = 0.
Definition
A function f (x) is said to be piecewise continuous [a, b] if
[a, b] can be written as a union of subintervals each of which f
is continuous.
Definition
A function f (x) is said to be uniformly continuous [a, b] if
the continuity in [a, b] does not depend on any x ∈ [a, b].