Sociology Paper 1 Notes

Anshul Hindal
UPSC AIR 48
Sociology- The discipline
Modernity and social changes in Europe and emergence of sociology
Modernity is the departure from tradition. In order to understand modern one has to understand tradition. Tradition of different countries was
different . Questioning to the tradition different countries becomes modern in different ways . American, European , china , India became modern in
different way . Therefore there is different kind of modernity.
In Europe modernity developed in 3 stages
• 13-17th century
◦ Europe went for renaissance. It means rebirth , rethinking . Therefore it gave rise to ideological modernity.
• 18th century
◦ Europe experienced political transformation. It has given way for political modernity (French revolution), concept of liberty , freedom and
fraternity developed . Rule of law is important king is not important
• 19th century

◦ Technological or economic modernity

All these modernity combined together breakdown the tradition. Some people were enjoying modernity and developing hope that once people
become modern all human sufferings would be wiped out . ‘Modernity is the celebration of life of man’.These people are called modernists. Modernist
romance with modernity . They only look into positive aspects of modernity.
• Liberation of man
• Human wellbeing

• Material wealth
• Life rid of church , superstitions

• Freedom

Another group of people who considers past was beautiful while present is hopeless , directionless , meaningless therefore let us go back to past. In
past collectivity was there while in modernity individualism is present , ethics has disappeared , emotional support has disappeared. Modernity is a
form of madness , form of artificial exhibition , mechanical. Therefore condemn modernity and go for past. These are called skeptics or conservatist.

Above two groups of people are passing judgement about modernity.

Criticizing to the judgmental approach another group of people advocates that study modernity rather than giving judgement about modernity. When
modernity arrives different institution changes therefore study these institutions . They are divided into two groups
• study modernity using scientific methods.

• study modernity using interpretation methods.

Renaissance- Intellectual modernity

• During pre Christian Era great civilizations developed in different parts of the world. Roman , Greek , Indian , Chinese civilization.

• In roman societies and Greek societies great philosophers made appearance - Plato , Aristotle . Great intellectuals were present , modern cities
developed .
• City states were present. People are engaged in different kinds of economic activities , political consolidation has taken place . People are
electing there representatives so direct democracy was present.
• What we call modern today is present in pre Christian Era in European society.
• Over a period of time around 2-3rd century BC these city states started crumbling. When city states became prosperous people in the
neighboring areas started attacking these states. Political aggressions of the outsiders gave rise to the decline of city states and the conquerors
declared themselves as rulers.
• Ruthless rulers are making appearance in different parts of Europe who are self centric exploiting to the masses. Human freedom is absolutely
lost. This is known as beginning of dark age of Europe.
• People believing in mystical power are giving support to these rulers.
• In this period there is no expansion of literature , inventions blind belief are injected into the minds of the people. People are eagerly waiting for
someone to come to their rescue. At this point of time some religious leaders are making appearance- Ultimate goal of man life is to live a moral
life than a life coming out of bloodshed and greed. These religious leaders are get huge support from the masses.
• Rulers are coming forward to get support of these religious leaders. Religion developed to protect the people from aggression of ruthless rulers .
A centralized institution known as church developed. Pope become the head of Roman Catholic Church . A representative a pope is to be
appointed in every state to aid and advise the ruler. Many rulers started bribing to church and got endorsement from church to collect more
church. Therefore church evolved into a repressive institution. Book should be written in the glory of church. Therefore in the name of religion ,
blind belief were injected in the minds of people. Church accelerated the inter ethnic warfare and told the rulers to fight against non
believers.Therefore free thinking , innovation , trade declined during this period for which this period is known as dark age in European history.
• Many people realized that church and rulers are standing in the way of human freedom . They started writing books against rulers and church.
Many of them were killed.
• Intellectual foundation to renaissance - 13-14 century
◦ Thomas Moore - ‘Utopia ’
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 ▪ Priestly class that by visiting church one can get salvation. Salivation cannot be empirically established. Church speaks about life after
death. We should be giving importance on this life. Therefore church is diverting from this life to other life. One should fall in love with this
life.
◦ Dante -‘Divine comedy’
▪ Priestly class wear expensive clothes and engage in comedy in the front of common people. They are cheaters making the life of
commoners miserable.
◦ Erasmus - ‘In the praise of folly’
▪ Priest are fool and making the life of people miserable .
◦ Renaissance could not have been possible without the writers of that period who offered a new ideas to the people.
◦ Montague - Preist don’t have knowledge about their own religion . They have made this religion for the gratification of their needs . They
never compare their religion with other religion. Name of religion is different but ethics of all religions are same which priestly class failed to
accept. Let us make a society which is free of priestly class and let us make a religion which is humanistic and can be reformed .
◦ Rene Descartes- I think therefore i exist . My existence is driven by my thought.Mind is more powerful than everything in this world . When
mind is closed we accept to what other say. Truth cannot be only understood through observation rather mind should be applied to
understand the truth. Mind should enjoy freedom it should be free from dogmas , faith , beliefs otherwise one cannot look at reality in a
rational way.Mind is non material body is material , when mind gives direction to body then man will live perfected life. In some situations body
gives direction to mind life becomes imperfect . Ex- Rapist for bodily pleasures.
◦ David Hume - Every religion glorify a body of miracles.No religion is superior or inferior it is a matter of faith . Miracles are false but people
believe in them because they give strength. Those who benefit from miracles glorify these miracles - Priestly class . There are 2 ways of
understanding truth - Understand truth on basis of faith and other is to understand truth on the basis of facts.
• Philosophical foundation to renaissance emphasized on the liberation on man’s mind from religion and faith. It advocated that man should
explain reality through logic , rationality ,facts . Therefore ideological foundation to renaissance evolved from out of the contribution of great
philosopher of 14-15 th century like explained above 2-3 names in answer.
• Science offering foundation to renaissance In 14-15 th century a number of scientist made appearance. They gave a new kind of understanding
to life , social world which stands opposite to religious explanation
◦ Religion tells birth and death are determined by the will of god while science tells they are natural process .
◦ Religion tells god created the universe while science tell earth is created by astronomical processes.
◦ Nature is the creation of god and man should be surrendering to nature while science tells us how to control nature.
◦ Newton - God is the most rational being .
◦ Science is not a discipline it is body of knowledge driven by principle of rationality. Using this knowledge out understanding of ourselves and
world has gone a change.
• Religious reforms as a foundation to renaissance
◦ Martin Luther and John Calvin initiated religious reforms. God has created this earth and paradise ,therefore both are equally moral place .
One place is not superior of other. Man should be happy in his life in this world and not search for life after death. Therefore in this world
everything divine and sacred is present ,
◦ Man should fall in love with this world and make this world a better place to live - Advancement of technology , healthcare .
◦ Using knowledge and creativity make this world better than paradise so that god loves to live here.
◦ Earth is not profane and heaven is sacred , both are sacred. Devotion to duty is more important than rituals.
◦ God has written in everyone destiny to do well in life so life is predestined but one has to work for it .
◦ Restlessness is a good character.
◦ More the money you make more the money you spent in investment an manufacturing something new and contributing to the life of others .

There was a place in Istanbul called constantinopolis. Modern infrastructure was present , it was a gateway of trade between Europe and Asia.
Therefore trade was present in Europe before industrial revolution but limit to technology. People living their were highly progressive in every field. In
1493 constantinopolis was conquered by ottoman rulers and started attacking the Europeans living there therefore they started migrating to other
European countries like Italy. Once they are settling in these countries are getting exposure to writings of Europeans scholars before Christian Era .
These classical literature are now translated into English. Bible was translated into English and people find out no match between what priestly
speaks and directions given by bible. At this point of time printing press was invented . Banks have developed in Italy to secure the trade. Small
feudal rulers were present and church was appointing archbishop to advise the rulers. Most of these rulers have become weak and autocratic rulers
made appearance . Therefore feudalism was declining and centralized monarchical system is coming into prominence. They refuse to accept the
command of Roman Catholic Church and developed their own churches. Alternatives routes were searched by European to Asia. Growth of
navigation and banking system. During this period artist came forward keeping human beings in mind rather than god. Novels and literature are
written keeping social issues in mind. Humans are becoming centrality in art and architecture.
Modernity is an experience which comes out of ethos and values subsequently giving way to institutional practices and finally arrival of modernity
as a complete human experience. Hence thought modernity gives way to act modernity for the making of modern society. Renaissance during the
13-14 century Europe was instrumental for value modernity or the rise of rational consciousness. Renaissance means rebirth driven by new
thinking which could be so possible because of the powerful writings of great minds of the period who questioned to witch trials , blind beliefs,
superstition glorified by ruthless rulers and the corrupt priests. They wanted to divert man’s mind from speculative philosophy to rational
consciousness , other worldly beliefs to love for this world , moralism to rationality , explanation of truth on the basis of objectivity
experimentation than on the basis of faith. Philosophers like Descartes, Dante were critical to priestly class whereas the reform leaders like Martin
Luther and Calvin gave importance on self discipline , humanism , goal orientation , achievement are the new ethics that need to be followed by
human beings. The great scientist of the time advocated that truth must be explored through experimentation and logicality than on the basis of
assumption and presumptions. Mind of man was taken away from priestly proclamation to scientific explanation therefore thought modernity
offered a foundation to rise of modern society in Europe. Modernity is not only a system of values but also it is a way of life decline of
constantinopole gave importance on the search for sea route for practicing trade resulting in navigation, European access to new found lands and
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the change in their thinking about different cultures of the world. New thought developing during renaissance is bringing human emotions social
problems , individual anticipation as the central theme of art , literature and architecture . Therefore renaissance is introducing a silent revolution
in European society where modern thinking is contributing for mental progress but subsequently lead to technological progress , institutional
progress and social progress.
Political modernity
French Revolution was a revolution initiated by commoners. It speaks about the victory of commoners who destroyed centralized monarchical
system and church . It gave them democracy.By the year 1660 a powerful monarchy developed in France and rulers belonging to bourbon dynasty
whose ruler was Louis XIV who was known for expansion. People defeated will be enslaved .He had huge army made of slaves . He became so
powerful that he said ‘I am the state’ therefore ruthless , centralized government developed in France. He didn’t have much time for administration so
he created body of people with expertise in their field to guide in day to day matters. Therefore he was respecting to merit of people though he was
autocratic. He had also created provincial administrative setups because ruler cannot have control over territories located at far off places. After his
death Louis XV and XVI came into power who were best known for wine , women and wealth . Slowly when center is becoming weak provincial rulers
become more powerful . They never paid any respect to voice of wisdom.

France had 4 different classes present

• Monarchy and nobility

◦ Holding important administrative positions.

◦ Get huge money in return of their service , living in palace .
◦ Nobility was answerable to none because central rulers became weak .
• Priestly class / clergy

◦ Higher priest- Bishops ad archbishops . Operating in cities . Have direct connectivity with monarchy an nobility. They receive money from
people in form of tax on income.
◦ Lower priest - Operating in villages and local areas. They have actually seen the plight of farmers and were sympathetic to needs of the
commoners
• Middle class / bourgeoise [In today time definition of bourgeoise is different ]- Middle class always enjoys relative economic autonomy in relation
to upper class . If they questioned to the autonomy of the upper class they are not going to loose much like the commoners who are directly
dependent on upper class. Traders , professional of different types , small industrialist , lawyers. They were paying huge tax and were greatly
annoyed with the upper class. Without the contribution of middle class French Revolution would have not taken place .
• Commoners - 10 % of their income paid to church , 2 days of labor to be done in favor of landlords free of cost , the expenses of war should be
bear by them (war tax), road maintenance tax . Constituting 80% of the population
Therefore structure was conducive for a revolution , only a spike was required . Some people using their writings ignited the minds
• Voltaire
◦ His target was upper priest. He realized that monarchical system is present due to the legitimacy given by the church.He criticized to both
Protestant and Catholic Church.God is the making of priest .Priest is injecting the fear of god in the mind of commoners to benefit from god.
therefore god is the making of class for the furtherance of class interest. Religion has nothing to do with saving of the soul , salvation or good
behavior. Therefore priestly class and religion must go .
◦ Strongest advocate of freedom of speech. Voicelessness is the foundation to all possible forms of inequality. There is no resistance therefore
there is persistence of inequality. To convert it into an equalitarian society one must inject voice into the people.
◦ Liberate mind from the bondage of priestly class and their interpretation of religion. He is not critical to the true religion but critical to priestly
religion.
• Montesquieu

◦ Born into nobility. All Power should not be concerted into the hands of one individual or one institution. If absolute power in one power he
would become tyrant and thinks himself as the state.
◦ He is thinking of a society after revolution - a state where there is separation of power and each organ is keeping a check on other. Power of
different institutions should be clearly defined by the law. A constitutional state is one where individual holding the position has clearly
defined power.
• Diderot

◦ He was a historian and exposed how monarchical system developed in France and have nothing to do with divinity. They captured the land of
others. Since they are also ordinary people their rule can be questioned.By challenging and questioning their rule people are not committing
any immoral act. He published volumes about history , economics ,culture , polity of France. People started questioning to the authority of
nobility his books were banned and he was put in jail.
• Rousseau
◦ What is Marx and Lenin to great October revolution , what is mahatma Gandhi to nationalist movement , more than that is Rousseau for French
Revolution.
◦ He had a dialectical personality. Personal life was greatly different from he as an intellectual.
◦ He said primitive man who live in nature are simple , honest ,kind and selfless. Modern men an women are selfish ,concept of I is linked with
modernity while the concept of we is connected to primitive society .Modern man lives with limitless needs while primitive man lives in limited
needs. Man in the state of nature is moral savage while modern man is immoral .
◦ Human beings are born two different instincts - one is self love second is sympathy . Self love promotes individualism , falling in love with
everything you possess . Sympathy- cooperation , love for others .In different points of time we bring one of the instincts driven by the
situations.These instincts shape our behavior patterns.He called the first behavior as actual will driven by self love , second behavior is real
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 will driven by sympathy . Self love is not something bad - ‘My country , my victory ’.Self love can also stimulate to manifest selfish behavior .
Real will teaches the virtues of cooperation , to respect rules of law .
◦ When the real will and actual will are fused or assimilated together it brings something new known as general will. Ex- Self interest is gratified
at the same time meaning contribution to life of others. People in modern society should be guided by general will.Education institutions
should not be driven by actual will rather than by general will.
▪ When a society is driven by general will man would be converted into a citizen.India was never driven by general view though constitution
prescribes it actual will dominates over general will.
▪ Personal possession will be converted into legitimate wealth when general will predominates.
▪ Unbound freedom is converted into rule bound freedom.
▪ Role would be defined by position rather than by person.
◦ Modern society is one driven by general will , when driven by general will everybody is driven by rule of law, everybody enjoying equality and
citizenship, has access to private wealth conferring to rules of law, people enjoying rule bound freedom , entitlements would be define on the
basis of merit [In short].
French Revolution gave victory to commoners. It converted most of the church into secular institutions and priestly class was eliminated. Common
citizens should be politically articulative. It gave a kind of worthiness to common man. Common man realized that he can create a society on the
basis of his own choice through collective endeavor. People don't need a god to change his destiny. Therefore an control society and change the
destiny of the society. Other countries of Europe also went for democratization of the society. Monarchical system slowly closed all over the Europe.
Why democracy around the world are different ?
• Social structures are different .

• Individual behavior of the people are different.

• Political character is different.

• Institutional preparedness .

Macquaville - Man by nature is selfish , he had got lust for power. Best way to bring people in line is to threat them.Confiscate their property.

Industrial revolution
• Started during 1750s and the process almost got completed in 1850s.
• It is a silent revolution and spread from one country of Europe to another country. It transformed the quality of life of human being .
Foundation to industrial revolution
• Innovation to new technology offered foundation to industrial revolution.

◦ Steam engine and power looms revolutionized the industries .Power looms is giving surplus production which needs to be sold in the other
market thus technology came in handy for transportation. Global trade , navigation came into prominence.
◦ Raw materials needs to be Carried from distant places to these countries through transport.
◦ Those countries went for industrial revolution who had huge reserves of coal which was the industrial fuel at that time.
• Human input is that much important as the technology for industrial revolution.
◦ Geography of Britain forced people to get out their country due to huge population growth. They carried different products to different parts .
Decolonization of America was responsible for colonization of india .
◦ Large number of people were prepared to take risks .Indians generally are not risk taking people except punjabis and marwadis.
• Political culture as a foundation to industrial revolution
◦ Responsibility os the state is protecting to the merchant class - sending army , formulating policies which are favorable ,rational taxation
system.
• Psychological support as a foundation to industrial revolution

◦ Travelers are writings book on adventure injecting excitement in the people. More and more people coming forward to explore .
◦ People visiting new countries writing about the account of culture of other communities.
• God centric education to work centric / technological education .
◦ Occupational specialization in traditional society was given by family , school and family are got separated from each other due to IR.
Therefore role of these institutions changed.
• Industries changed the identify of the person on the basis of profession. Life is driven by the dictates of the industries. Industries give status and
money therefore large number of people migrated from the rural to urban areas. Urban places is becoming a land of inequality due to different
salaries and status. Therefore industries have contributed to urbanization and new form of DOL.
• Life is changed due to urbanization , therefore social transformation is the product of industrialization . Women education is given importance .
• In industrial society family becomes expensive therefore non expandable so size of the family becomes small and fertility behavior is changing .
Nuclear family is evolving as a paradise in the hopeless world .
• Industrialization is giving rise to growth of new form of capital and those who possess this kind of capital are identified as successful people
through in real life they don’t have ethics and values. Therefore money has become more important than ethics and values.
• To justify this kind of new life ideologies support is needed.

New ideologies to support capitalism and industrialization - can be used in ethics

• Mercantilist theory

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 ◦ Not a single inch of the territory of the country should be spared and be used for agriculture , industrial or mining purposes. That is optimum
utilization of the resources is a virtue.
◦ Everybody should be carrying skills to produce different kinds of goods and commodities to sell the product in market. No one should be
sitting idle .
◦ State should be keeping limits on imports. Imports should be imported from those countries which are ready to take finished exports .
◦ To promote industry and trade state should take measures - preferential trade policies , create domestic market for the indigenous
manufacturers.
◦ Making money is a zero sum game - Some countries are rich then other countries are bound to be poor. Exploit to colonies to become rich.
• Adam smith -Laissez-faire , Absolute advantage theory
◦ He challenged mercantilist theory and talks about wealth of nation is not the amount of gold and silver present in the treasury of the nation.
◦ Market should be free from the control of the state. If market is made open every individual using rational mind can understand the pulse of
the market and use his expertise , knowledge to produce quality goods.
◦ To sustain in the market one has to produce quality product at competitive price.
◦ Product and the producer become synonymous to each other. Every producer would try t dominate over the other. Therefore customer would
have an advantage.
◦ Employees would have bargaining power due to their skills as their would have other options.
◦ Therefore free market creates a win win situation for everybody.
◦ In order to become rich one country should not be exploiting to other countries. A country can become rich by establishing absolute
monopoly in the world market.
◦ Therefore globalization was reflected in the writing of Adam smith.
• Comparative advantage theory
◦ Absolute advantage theory is criticized by Ricardo.
◦ When we are producing something we must be concerned about opportunity cost involved - Time , money , raw material , people required for
absolute money in the particular product .
◦ Instead of putting all efforts in one kind of product it is better to put money and efforts in different kind of products where opportunity cost is
low . That is diversification .
◦ There is comparative advantage in one product and disadvantage in another product but the net profit is more.
◦ If there is recession is one kind of product still profit could be generated from the other products .
• Jeremy Bentham
◦ Two kinds of pleasure - one from the spirituality ,divine connectivity - moral ethical pleasure , second kind of pleasure comes out of
possession of material things .
◦ In modern society pleasure comes out from possession, modern man is searching for material pleasure abounding the spiritual pleasure.
◦ Therefore making money legitimately is good behavior .
◦ Poor man is poor due to his incapability , state should not provide them with free food and products rather than build capacity - skill
development.
◦ Therefore pleasure and pain is redefined in the modern society.
• John Stuart mill
◦ Political philosopher and economist .
◦ Distinction between quantitative and qualitative pleasure keeping industrial society at forefront .
◦ Quantitive pleasure temporary happiness , enjoyed by selected number of people .
▪ High growth with increasing inequality
◦ Qualitative pleasure gives permanent happiness , maximum happiness to maximum number of people for a long period of time .
▪ Free education , eradicating poverty
◦ ‘In the ocean of poverty islands of prosperity is not sustainable’.
◦ Good economy will be giving the qualitative pleasure .
◦ ‘Progressive taxation system is a mild form of slavery, it should be stopped to promote qualitative pleasure ‘
▪ Man who is making money is taking risks , appointing people .
▪ When loss is made it is not shared with the state .
▪ A large number of people are becoming dependent on the state rather it should be used for the development of infrastructure, furtherance
of business.
All of them emphasized on one ideology that making money in a legislate manner is a good behavior. Rational mind should be used for access to
wealth , material possession. While recruiting people importance should be on capabilities , merit , rational mind while making investment.This gives
rise to a new kind of ideology called utilitarianism -
• Gives importance on materialistic pleasure using rational behavior

• Rational behavior give importance on the detachment from emotions , attachment , adventure.
• New forms of ethics which are different from old ethics .

Sum up - Society of Europe has gone through a transformation through 3 different kinds of revolution. Impact of these were
• In past people were living in villages and experiencing community life while in modern societies were living in cities. People are lonely now
though they are surrounded by crowd. Therefore other name of modern society is the spirit of anonymity. Therefore in modern society
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 individualistic life .
• In early society economy was agrarian /feudal economy , land was controlled by family and all members of the family contributed their labor .
Therefore family and organization of work were strongly connected .MOP was family centric . In modern society nature and form of production
has changed , a large number of people are shareholders of the company making capital investment , managers are running the industries ,
some people are owners of the physical infrastructure therefore organization has become much more complex. Banks , insurance companies ,
share market have made appearance.
• In past monarchy / kings / village heads were present , after modernity a new state has made appearance driven by constitutionalism and
separation of power , political groups , pressure groups have made appearance . Therefore modern man is living is dignity and self respect .
• Social sphere - Gender equality has been established , traditional systems of inequalities like caste are slowly disappearing and equalitarian
society is making appearance. Marriage is no longer a sacrament , interpersonal relationships is becoming weak , friendship is redefined.
• Cultural sphere - Immensely affected by modernity. Traditional form of dance is disappearing and modern form of dance making appearance.
• Modernity has transformed our ideology - Theological ideology is replaced by secular ideology , pluralistic ideology . Utilitarianism is making
appearance , human freedom , equality and justice while hierarchy , other worldly values are disappearing .
1.Sociology was not a product of accident but it was the product of necessity. Old society was disintegrating and new social order was making
appearance. People who were witnessing this change are experiencing two types of values . There is a sense of fear for the unknown. To understand
this concern of man should be mapped in a systematic way to study the impact of modernity on the human. This has to be different from common
sense .

Saint Simon
Fundamental concern of sociology is to study social change. Term sociology is coined by august compte (1797-1857) though he was not the father of
sociology . He was working with the French philosopher saint simon who developed the concept of industrialization. To explain the social change
simon wrote a book ‘Industrial society ’. In this book he writes traditional society is converted into modern society due to technology .Industry is
bringing change in nature of production , volume of production .Change in the system of production is contributing to change in human relationship .
Industry gives rise to unethical behavior. Relationship in industry is profit centric and non humanistic therefore it is unethical . To sustain this
industrial society we have to inject ethics into the behavior of the people . Industry must be practicing ethical socialism . Ethical socialism will have
2 distinctive characters
• Industries must be controlled by cooperatives and members of the cooperatives should be all stakeholders so that labor is not exploited.
Everybody should be having right over the profit.
Saint Simon criticized to Adam smith. Adam smith is duty bound to consider market as god as he is an economist. It is the society that makes man so
it is the society that is primary and market is secondary. John Stuart mills did not follow the footsteps of Adam smith and talked about qualitative
pleasure .

Emile Durkheim
He finds out when old society is disintegrating and new society is making appearance, there is presence a transition stage. In the transition stage old
elements are present and new element are making appearance therefore people are confused. No uniform thought , institution . People practice
different ideologies , dress and food. In transitional stage major problem is values and rules never bind therefore there is crises , conflict. Ex to win
election in transitional society vote bank based on caste , religion etc. People are neither modern nor traditional . Transition would be giving temporal
happiness but permanent sorrow. Since nothing is binding together people can do whatever they want . All the victims of transition would be calling
for new law and order in the society .

Karl Marx
Problem of modernity - Known as capitalist society - exploitation of the workers by the capitalist . FOP are controlled by capitalist .Laborers are living
in the state of abject poverty. Solution of this exploitation is revolution . Through revolution we have to bring good modernity where everything would
be controlled by the people .

2.Sociology was using different kind of ideas , concepts and theories to understand a shift from traditional to modern society. Therefore sociology is
different from other branches

Evolutionary theory - It talks about how simple society are becoming complex society . Evolutionary theorist used different kinds of concepts to
understand evolution of society
• August compte - Human beings explain the world surrounding them on the basis of ideas, old ideas are replaced by new ideas . These ideas are
divided into 3 types
◦ Theological- Everybody is explained on the basis on theology .
◦ Metaphysical -Everything is explained on the basis of abstract ideas - philosophy , ideology and thought .
◦ Scientific - Explained on the basis of science and rational thought .
• Herbert Spencer- With reference to technology , institutions and mind can be used to study the organization of society

◦ Simple society - Technology is simple , simple consciousness - relation to cobra , social institutions are simple - Tribal society
◦ Doubly compound society -Feudal society - Numerous classes are present , people economic entitlements are different , technology is more
sophisticated like arms , multiple ethnic groups are present therefore human consciousness become more complex
T bl d i Md i T h l i hi hl l i i i h b l l b f l 6
 ◦ Trebly compound society - Modern society - Technology is highly complex , every institution has become complex , large number of classes ,
ideologies have also become numerous and complex - complex human consciousness .
• Lewis Henry morgan - Three different stages of social transformation
◦ Savagery - Tribal society
◦ Barbarism - Feudal society
◦ Civilization - Modern society
• Karl Marx - With reference to control over FOP
◦ Primitive communism
◦ Ancient society
◦ Feudal society
◦ Capitalism
◦ Socialism

Conflict approach - Social change is explained though conflict. Consensus is achieved through common values , rules, common goal , so long as
consensus is maintained change would never take place. When consensus is challenged or questioned there is conflict . Conflict brings social
change .Evolution is a voluntary process and they never talks about conflict . Karl Marx

Consensus Theory - Like human body having different and each parts engaged in different activities, each part of the body is working for their
survival and making contribution to the survival of other parts therefore each part is connected other part . Therefore every part of the society is
contributing to other part of the society. At times consensus may become weak Ex- parents not sending children to school rather allowing to work
therefore family and education become disconnect from each other , therefore school needs to be more attractive - mid day meals , vocational
education . To convert weak consensus into strong consensus reforms are needed . Therefore every society is experiencing change at the same time
continuity . Durkheim and Talcott Parsons

Idealism - Social change is a product of rational ideas. change come out of mind . Mind develops ideas , these ideas are translated into reality as a
result old reality is transformed into new reality therefore social change . Mind develops consciousness from out high develop science art technology
develops .People who are open to new ideas constitute the open society and those who are not constitute a close society . Therefore mind is the
master designer of social change. Kant and Hegel were idealist .

3.While studying modernity theories , suggestion are not just important which method is used is also important. Therefore sociologist are coming
forward with theories and method to study social change

Sociologist who study modern society

• Positivists/Scientific
Human behavior is rule bound , regularized and continuous in character . Example student in class , behavior in family .Therefore a
sociologist can explain this behavior using empirical data. Therefore human behavior can be subjected to scientific explanation. Therefore
sociology is a scientific discipline . Therefore invisible hand of law is regulating the behavior . Those who subscribes to scientific method are
called positivists . Ex- August compte and Durkheim

• Non Positivists/humanistic
Human behavior cannot be scientifically arrested due to influence from history and culture . Ex- American reaction to change is different
from Indian reaction due to difference in history and culture. Human behavior is also guided by moods and motivations. Therefore human
behavior should be studied in context. It is not specific which can be evaluated by scientific methods. Thus sociology deals with social life
which should be studied with empathy , sense of culture . Human behavior should be analyzed with interpretation. Human behavior is
dynamic therefore it is difficult to make generalizations , it is not scientifically predictable . Ex- Max weber , William dildhey

Therefore methods may be different , theories concepts may be different but the goal is same to understand social structure and change and the
problem attached to it

Sociologist engaged in celebration of modernity

• August compte Modernity is appreciated by august compte in host explanation of modern society is celebrating modern society, he tells human
stage is passing through theological to metaphysical to scientific. In scientific society everybody is driven by rational choice - goal is defined and
application of mind to achieve the goal rationally .As People manifest rational behavior everybody is doing is job diligently and society is
prosperous , every sphere of social life there is progress. Human happiness is present in society which was never before present in the past.
Makers of the modern society are the scientist and engineers . Spirit of science and creativity is celebrated in modern society . Therefore human
happiness is associated with human society.
• Herbert spencer - He talks about society from degree of complexity associated with technology , consciousness and institutions . Modern
society is one where technology is trebly compound . he makes a distinction between military society - simple society , doubly compound
society and industrial society - doubly compound .In military society is one where the principle of might is right is present i.e where the ruler is
ruling by the use of force , human freedom is absolutely absent , religion is controlled by the rulers to give justification to their rule , innovation is
meant for the rulers . Industrial society is a product of multiple complex form of technology which is not controlled by military rulers , thousands
of people are engaged in different forms of production freedom to individuals freedom of innovation One is a society of bondage other is the 7
 of people are engaged in different forms of production , freedom to individuals , freedom of innovation.One is a society of bondage other is the
society of freedom.
• Durkheim - In modern society there is present organic solidarity i.e different specialized groups present in society go for specialized production
and one specialized group cannot replace other specialized group , therefore are coordinated and integrated through invisible hand of the
society which is regulating everything. Therefore every individual must be engaged in society worship . Therefore one should celebrate modern
society as it is regulating our every day life through life through rules of law , customs , values .
• Talcott parsons - Modern society is known as meritocratic society , achieving society and no poverty society. Traditional society is based on
collective orientation and modern society is based on self orientation . In this society we can experience mobility , happiness therefore we must
celebrate modernity . Explain Pattern variable B.
Sociologist who are critical to modernity
• Life in the city is reduced to life of a machine . Cost benefit of modernity is low . There is no time for love , happiness . Contemporary sociologist
are not celebrating modernity because they have seen the evils of it . Some early sociologist who criticized modernity were [skeptics]
• Bonald and mastya [Check]- Rural society has life and nobody is having problem of time while in modern society we calculate the intensity to
time. Humanism , interpersonal relationship were present . Life of emotion , attachment was much better than life of money , segmentary life .
‘Let us go back to past ’. Culture of modernity is a culture of madness .
Sociology Evolved as reaction , reflection , celebration , dismissal and questioning of the European modernity. Therefore sociology is the product of
necessity.

Nature and scope of sociology

Subject matter of sociology
Synthetic tradition
When sociology evolved in France , sociologist advocated that sociology can study every aspect of social life i.e economic , cultural , social
, law, crime , politics than other discipline have no choice rather than to surrender to sociology . Therefore 19th century sociology is the
celebration of sociology . August compte the father of sociology said the sociology is the queen of all discipline . Therefore scope of
sociology is limitless . This theory is known as synthetic tradition in sociology . Founders of synthetic theory are French sociologist .

Scope of sociology
• When sociology originated it was based on philosophy of history/ narratives of history

• Sociology when originated was influenced by the logic of science - Evolution of human consciousness that everything can be explained

by scientific thought. Ex- collecting data on poverty , looking into distributions , root of poverty and providing solutions .
• Social philosophy - Sociology develops ideas , theories and concepts from the philosophy of history , economy and science .

——————Synthetic tradition ———————

• Early sociologist dreamed that sociology could study every aspect of life . Economic sociology can study whole economic life , political

sociology can understand all of the political life. Therefore sociology is all inclusive . It is the queen of all social science . Therefore
celebration of sociology was the other name of 19th century sociology .[Synthetic tradition]. There is no duplicate of sociology and no
substitution of sociology.
• Durkheim - There are 3 different parts of sociology [synthetic tradition]

◦ Social morphology- deals with the study of size of population , distribution of population , their habitation , interrelationship between
population , outcome of the relationship . Therefore no need of demography.
◦ Social physiology -Concern with the study of the bodily parts of the society like family , education , religion , kinship .
◦ General sociology -Concerned with the development of theories , concepts and ideas using which we should study social structures
.
• Hobbhouse ‘Man in search of freedom accepts to enslavement, therefore opposite to freedom is not bondage ’ [Ex- enslavement to

constitution granting freedom ]

◦ Sociology is the study of the entirety of the social life with man in his sphere. Man is operating in many sphere - education , political ,
domestic ,cultural .. . Therefore relationship between sociology and other social sciences is like ocean and tributaries . Therefore
scope of sociology is limitless.
• Morris Ginsberg - Fundamental concern of sociology is to study social pathology , social process , social morphology and general sociology
◦ Social pathology - All social problem can be study by sociology , using data find out roots of the problem and offer solutions.
◦ Social process - Any ism is a ideology , any ization is a process . Process has a start point and doesn’t have end point so they are subjected to
continuity - Globalization, secularization , democratization , radicalization
◦ Social morphology
◦ General sociology
◦ Therefore it is all inclusive
• Karl [Name] - There are two kinds of sociology
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 Karl [Name] There are two kinds of sociology
◦ General sociology - Area of concern is specific . Universal conditions/ common institutions present in every society. [Paper 1]
◦ Historical sociology - Concerned about the problem of comparison or social dynamics .Collecting data from different parts of the
history developing different social typology .[Ex- Karl Marx ]. Different elements present in different societies. They compare
societies in past with societies in present or compare 18th century feudalism in Europe and 21st century feudalism in india . Another
groups study social dynamics - Factors leading to change in the existential stage and outcome of change .
—————————-synthetic tradition ends ——————————
—————————-formalist tradition ends- critique to synthetic ——————————
Sociology is a branch of social science . There are present different branches of social sciences . Sociology is different from other social sciences
due to its method. So sociology is not the queen of all social sciences but different from other social science.
• {Name}- sociology is classifying human behavior into different types , on the basis of it typology must be constructed to understand the
behavior and through this classification we develop generalization . Ex- democracy , autocracy , monarchy , classification of social actions.... Our
nature of classification is different from their nature of classification
• George simmel - Sociology goes for generalized understanding about social life and for that we develop concepts and ideas by studying some
part of social life and every aspect of social life cannot be studied. Since social life is dynamic every aspect of social life cannot be studied.
Therefore sociological research is a continuous affair.
• {Leeorn wise}- In entire social life there are present processes

◦ Associative process is one which is bringing people close to each other. Cooperation , negotiations , communication , contract , adjustment
◦ Dissociative process -putting people apart from each other. War , conflict ,dispute
◦ Therefore sociology never studies facts as facts rather give generalized information about them. Therefore sociology is not science .
• Max weber - Social life is dynamic while life of matter is fixed. Human behavior is driven by state of mind ,culture , history . Therefore social
action is the subject matter of sociology.
Synthetic theory is more concerned to make science out of sociology and making sociology of its own kind is formalist theory. Therefore sociology is
the subjective understanding of he objective reality

Scope of sociology today

• Sociology is today context is looking into environmental movement. Movement of people who have access to livelihood who are standing against
the state.
• Today sociology is looking into the conflict over water , natural resources rather than industrial conflict

• Problems associated with women , atrocities , feminization of poverty .

• Reflecting on public policy - Sociological implication of mgnrega.

• Globalization
• To everything there is a sociological dimension , sociologist are exploring these dimension differently from other disciplines .

Time changes , corresponding with changing time the scope of sociology keeps changing . 21st century is a century of computer revolution where
face to face relationship is replaced by facebook relationship , cyber groups are replacing to intimate social groups , rich nations are selling
modern technology to poor nations in the process exploiting them and hence rich nation are becoming richer poor are becoming poorer . More
women are going for empowerment more they are victims of aggression , state is engaged in putting citizens under Surveillance , massive
development in the form of big dams , bullet trains , cyber cities leaving to people become landless , homeless and marginalized Globalization has
lead to rise of diaspora all over the world hence development studies , impact of globalization , gender aggression , aggression of state over
citizens , crises of democracy , technology encroaching into human freedom are revolving into new themes of sociological research .. Therefore
19th century sociology was studying the impact of industrialization on human life , 20 th century sociology studied sociology of world war
distinction between socialism and capitalism , rise of welfare states and 21 st century - globalization , computerization , growth of knowledge
society and their impact on human society . Therefore scope f sociology has changed through changing times, now sociologist are reflecting on
the life through books , movies

Common sense and sociology

Weber- routine knowledge we have of everyday world and activities .
Alfred Schultz - organized typified stocks of taken for granted knowledge and generally not questioned

Howard Becker - Labelling theory of deviance. It leads to image building

Knowledge people are holding in a society in common is common sense . It is largely inherited from culture and society .
• Therefore people living in different culture there common sense knowledge is bound to be different .

• Common sense knowledge is based upon faith and belief . So long as that belief is intact common sense would flourish .

• Common sense knowledge is not subjected to scientific enquiry since it is based upon belief .

• It is greatly coming from religion and culture . Therefore cultural society give emphasis on common sense knowledge . Ex- Tribal society

.
• Questioning to common sense science develops Therefore common science is the mother of science Ex Galileo
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• Questioning to common sense science develops . Therefore common science is the mother of science . Ex- Galileo
• Every individual mind is carrying common sense knowledge and through which we carry everyday activities. Ex- distancing oneself from
drunken stranger .
Common sense and sociology is a debate in sociology
Views on common sense
1. Positivist reject to the common sense as sociological non sense. Common sense should be discounted and sociologist should collect
facts and explain them. With the rise of science and objective methods one should reject to the common sense knowledge of primitive
society . Sociology should go for scientific explanation of the reality .
2. Non positivists/interpretation says unless we respect to the culture we cannot understand the behavior of the people.Culture is
present in every society .Every culture has a set of ideas and values specific to that culture. Therefore common sense is not the
sociological nonsense. A researcher must have to respect to the cultural common sense of the people. Therefore study people from
their cultural perspectives . While studying other culture researcher should disassociate themselves from their own culture .Respecting
to the common sense one can make sense of the other society .
3. Interactionist - Another view is that every Individual carry common sense and through this common sense we carry out every day
behavior . Everything we do in life is driven by common sense . Example applying for Civil service . Common sense and sociological
imagination cannot be separated from each other.
When sociology arrived a large number of people had written in length about social life applying common sense knowledge . Most of the
early writings of scholars were giving importance on origin of social institutions . Common sense was applied to trace the origin without
scientific evidence . Ex- Human sexuality was promiscuous in the starting , Animism is the most the ancient form of religion. Common sense
studies reality on the basis of assumption , presumption and suppositions . Therefore early sociologist tried to move away from origin and
speaks about the current institutions about which data was available . Ex - Family in America and Europe . Reject conjecture and common
sense knowledge , collect data and go for comparison and generalization. Durkheim - Sociology should not study origin of religion rather
should go for comparative study of religion in various societies.Therefore Durkheim rejected to common sense knowledge.Rise of sociology
comes out of the rejection of the common sense knowledge .
Common sense cannot be universally same. Developed by max weber advocates that different societies have its own culture which gives
common sense knowledge which guides their behavior. Ex - economic behavior is different in Hindu and Protestant society .A researcher
should be keeping his common sense knowledge apart . Study people in the context of their culture[Value relevance].
Interaction theory / Phenomenology- Common sense is a product of individual mind. Every conscious individual carry common sense ,
everyday life is mostly driven by common sense. Using common sense we define relationships with others. Applying common sense
knowledge we evaluate political leadership .

John Locke [Political philosopher ]- Common sense

Economics and sociology

• Early economist like Adam smith and Ricardo were philosopher . Both the disciple had philosophical orientation therefore they were

close to each other .

• Economics was the result of industrial revolution while sociology is the result of modernity . Therefore subject matter was different .

• Economics also use quantitative method while in sociology only one group of people use quantitative method.

• Economics only studies economic system while sociology studies the how economics behavior of the people is influenced by the

various institution of the society and socio culture factors . Ex- Protestant ethics and spirit of capitalism , Boys and girls
encouragement to make money may not be same.
• There is a complementary relationship between the two , task left incomplete by economics is completed by sociology

• Karl Marx- Economic structure influences the superstructure

◦ Primary need of man is to eat and to eat he has to produce.

◦ Production is an economic activity . Technology , human labor combined together leads to production.
◦ If productive resources are controlled by one class , for survivalism other class has to work for them. Owner of the productive
resources exploit to other class .
◦ Whatever is happening in economy its effect is observed in all other spheres .
◦ Therefore economy and society are inseparable from each other .
◦ Economy not influence to society but also human psychology - Alienation.
◦ Therefore Marx is neither a economist or a sociologist rather he is the revolutionary humanist .
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• Economics give one kind of understanding of the problem while sociology gives a holistic understanding .
• Society determines the destiny of the economy rather than economy determines the nature of society - Max Weber . Ex- Hindu rate of
growth.
• In 1940s and 1950 larger number of new nations made appearance , either went for socialistic planning or capitalists planning.
Economic growth didn’t take place in these nations despite having industries . A large number of sociologist made attempt to
understand this - Neil smelser , wilbert Moore found out that social structure plays a very significant role in determining the economic
destiny of the society
• Wilbert Moore - Upper class in India make saving in form of precious metals while lower class makes investment in food crops. For the
rise of capitalism saving habit plays a significant role. Indian habits are antithetical to capitalism . Therefore economy cannot be studied
in isolation to work culture , social culture , social institutions .
• Talcott parsons - Economics and sociology are inseparable from each other. Sociology deals with the study of economic behavior of
man. Man in every society is rational [even traditional man]. Rational man applying his rational minds use appropriate means to achieve
goals . Ex- hiding during a thunderstorm, investing in good companies .Once society changes economy is bound to change rather vice a
versa . Therefore study economy from socio culture perspective.
• Emile Durkheim -‘DOL in society’
◦ Adam smith - ‘Wealth of nation and study of DOL’- Market creates opportunities , people apply their rational minds to achieve big in
the market. DOL is a product of market.
◦ ED- Society defines DOL. Society gives opportunities and exploring to those opportunities we define our work.
• Nowadays the difference between economics and sociologist is becoming small
◦ Sociologist are developing concepts and ideas which are used by economics to have a better understanding of economic life
bringing these discipline together.
◦ All economic theory advocates making money is good using rational mind, a rational men is driven by spirit of accumulation. But
when capitalist have access to money they invest most of the money of leisure and not for reinvestment - Leisure class.
◦ Goldthrope - concept of affluent workers - in 1970s there was big demand for automobiles n Britain and assembly workers used to
work for longer times , therefore worker salary increased drastically . But Class behavior of these people did not change. Therefore
change in economic position doesn’t guarantee change in behavior . Therefore class is cultural and not economic . Therefore class is
a culture , value. Therefore sociology redefines economy .
◦ Dependency theory - Rich nation are becoming richer by making poor nation dependent on rich nation by using raw materials from
poor nations .
◦ Amartya sen - Ultimate goal of man life is happiness . Making money is a means to an end , not an end in itself .
◦ Welfare approach is a theory in economics which is bringing sociology closer to it.

Political science and sociology

• Political science is one of the oldest disciplines of the social science . Early political scientist were philosophers . Therefore it is a branch

of philosophy. Great political philosophers like Plato .

• Plato- people are born with 3 different qualities [Ethics]. Every society is the making of the character of the society.

◦ Men of gold - They are altruist , men of knowledge , no greed for wealth , no private family , men with foresight. Character of a
society is greatly defined by person with gold quality . This is the real wealth of the nation.
◦ Men of silver -Hardworking , role bound , committed to their vocation , try to achieve success in a legitimate way . Effective
leadership is given to them by men of gold. With only men of silver - stability may be there but not the collective wellbeing .
◦ Men of iron- indulged in self love , men of greed , intolerant to the success of others . Corruption , nepotism are greatly present in
such society .
• Plato- Primary role of a women is to give birth and to train a good citizen . Therefore making of a nation is done by women. Women
should be getting access to education then only children would be educated. A quality state can only be possible if men and women
take equal roles.
• Plato- Makes a distinction between corrective and distributive justice.State is distributing justice to everyone but when people are not

getting justice state should take corrective measures against the people who are hindering it . Therefore distributive justice is ideology
while corrective justice is experience .
• Plato - Root cause of inequality is private wealth due to family . To eliminate private wealth there should be communism of wives.😛

• When sociology was not there , the role of sociologist was taken by Plato .
• Aristotle -
◦ A man economically sound , educated , must have a political vision , hold public office , managing and collecting funds, forming public policy
is considered to be a citizen .
◦ Citizenship rights should not be guaranteed to 3 different kind of people
▪ Poor - They would be converting all public wealth into private wealth .
▪ Slaves - they don't have independent mind
▪ Women - They are emotionally imbalanced , objects of love
◦ Revolution takes place in society if in a society merit is not respected , mediocre people are promoted, worthy people are sidelined , outsiders
predominate over insiders .
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 ◦ Forms of government
▪ Monarchy - One ruler working for benefit of all , and tyranny - One ruler working for his benefit
▪ Aristocracy and oligarchy
▪ Polity and democracy - When polity declines democracy comes into prominence
• Therefore sociology got its foundation from political philosophy .
• During period of enlightenment a number of political philosopher made appearance and through their contribution political science made
appearance
◦ Thomas Hobbes and John Locke questioned to monarchical state and thought of a state where law is supreme , separation of power, people
to elect their representatives , extension of citizenship .
◦ Rousseau -formation of modern state driven by general will
◦ Hegel - Monarchy is a civil society. Civil society gives disciple but state would be giving collective well being . State is a march of god on this
earth.
• Sociology could not have been possible without boring ideas from political science or political philosophy .
• This the philosophical dimension of political science .
• After thanPolitical science went for description and describes different types of state and their fundamental features , comparison between
country .
• Third dimension to political science is understanding of political problem - corruption ,misgovernance ,crises of citizenship .
• Political behavior was ignored by political science which was studied by sociology .
• Power and politics cannot be studied in isolation to society - sociology
• Political relationship and political behavior are not only present in the political sphere of society . Power is not only present in the political sphere
of society but in every sphere of society - Sociology .
• Sociology develops theories which are now used by political science . Ex- behavioral theory ,post modern theory .
• Political behavior -Max weber - Power is present everywhere . Capacity of a person to exercise control over others even on their resistance is
known as power . There are present 3 kinds of power
◦ Traditional power
◦ Charismatic power
◦ Legal rational power
• Political science makes a distinction between different political system -Socialism , democracy, nazism and fascism . Sociology - Whatever may
be t he nature of government and state , in every state a handful of people[elites] rules over the masses. Political science absorbed elite theory
as a part of it .
• Talcott parson - system theory - Everybody has power.Using power people make demands on the state , state either fulfill or reject to their
demands .
• Theories of sociology are largely used by political science today .
◦ Gender theory in sociology indicates that patriarchy is prime source of domination in every society starting from the beginning of human
civilization to contemporary times , therefore state power , class power , mass power are rejected by feminists who offer a gender
connotation to power and politics .
◦ Critical theory rejects to distinction between democracy and socialism drawn by political scientist . Both the states control design education
in such a way that people are designed to accept the ideology of the state .
History and sociology
• Like political science history is also one of the most ancient social science discipline .

• Sources of history
◦ History was a product of curiosity - Travelers traveling in different countries .
◦ Colonial rulers try to understand the history and culture of the people they are ruling .
◦ History is also the product of excavation of the materials.
◦ Product of art and architecture .
◦ Documented evidence - Census by British they can make sense about people culture and life. Therefore history is factual and authentic .
◦ Biographies and autobiographies
• Using sources and collecting data historians developed a generalization - Human history is passing through different stages of development -
Paleolithic , Mesolithic , Neolithic , medieval , modern .
• Sociology is concerned with the study of social structures and social change . No society can exist without a historic root .To study social
change one has to go for comparison using historical data.
• Sociology studies the present of societies and history studies past.Sociology today is the history for future.

• Where there is no history a sociologist converts himself into his own historian to make sense of the people he is studying.
• Second kind of history is oral history which is the matter of faith rather than facts like myths , folk tails . Ex- people tracing their origin . It may
not be real but gives us understanding about collective belief and people stands United together , people distinguish themselves from others .
• Therefore history gives us data on the basis of which sociological generalization is possible.

◦ European modernity and rise of sociology - Historical data of dark age , religious reforms , entitlement , French Revolution , industrial
revolution
• History is narrative and factual while sociology is analytical .
• There are present texts which operate as the face of history and using this text one develops sociological generalization . Ex- Ramayana tells us
about joint family , patriarchal society , role of rulers , position of brahmins , polygamous marriage .
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 about joint family , patriarchal society , role of rulers , position of brahmins , polygamous marriage .
◦ Mahabharata by Iravati karwe - ‘Yugant’- Feminist perspective - One women is forced to marry 5 men , body of a women is meant for
reproduction and she must bear child , sexuality is commodified , subdued to patriarchy in every sphere of life .
• Relevance to history to sociology is discussed by Karl Marx
◦ History of human society is grounded on mode of production . MOP defines the structure of society .
◦ Economic history of the society explains the social structure of the society .
◦ Therefore history and sociology are complementary to each other.
• Max weber
◦ Fundamental concern of sociology is to understand social action .
◦ He gives more importance on cultural history. Culture history of Europe and india are different therefore industrialization didn’t happen in india.
◦ Subjective understanding of objective reality .
◦ Therefore sociology without history is rootless.
• Durkheim
◦ Sociology has nothing to do with history because sociology is a science .
◦ India is held together by the ideals of constitution , in ancient time India was held together by Manusmriti .
◦ Sociology goes for comparative study of two societies and developing generalization
• Modern Historiography is no longer descriptive like the analysis of ancient travelers and biographies .Modern historiographer are developing
typologies about historical societies , economy of the society - Savage , barbarism ,.. These typologies are greatly used in sociology.
• Nowadays a large number of theories developed by sociologist are used by historians . Therefore historical analysis today is not longer
descriptive but more structured. History is explained through theoretical framework .Feminist and Marxist theory is used bu historians .
• Therefore sociology is rootless without history , while history is fruitless without sociology .
Psychology and sociology
• Sociology deals with study of collective behavior , Psychology deals with study of individual mind. Thought of a persons , problems of a person
are subject matter of sociology .
• The relationship between the two is debated during the origin of sociology

No connection
• Durkheim

◦ Every society is hold by conscience collectives . These beliefs and ethos are shared by individuals . Therefore everything individual is
socialism l and nothing is individual. Therefore psychology has nothing to do with sociology .
◦ Subject matter of sociology is social fact while subject matter of psychology is individual behavior.
Sociology not possible without psychology
• John Stuart mills
◦ No general science of society is possible unless it gives importance on human motivations that directs to collective action - There is nothing
called as collective , everything collective is a product of individuals.
◦ Anything that gives utilitarian happiness is the most important. More the materialistic needs are gratified more the person is happy .
◦ Every individual gratify needs using his rational and independent mind. From out of this social life develops.
◦ Therefore Without psychology sociology is not possible .
• Phenomenology
◦ We explain everything through the application of mind. Therefore sociology is not possible without the psychology .
◦ Ex- Friend is friend because mind conveys the message , similarly enemy , brahmin -Dalit relationship , Teacher - student relationship of
respect .
◦ Psychology and sociology are inseparable .
• Interaction theory (social psychology ) - GH Mead

◦ Sociology is not possible without psychology.

◦ Human beings cannot be pushed into a vacuum because they carry mind . We have a society because we are minded.
◦ Ex- Primitive man hiding in cave to survive while animals die.
◦ Using this mind they survive they develop technology .
◦ There is a society because people carry mind therefore psychology is foundation to sociology .
Complementary to each other
• Max weber
◦ Subject matter to sociology is social action . Social actions are driven by culture , history , moods and motivations (Psychological stimulus).
Therefore sociology must have to interpret motive behind the social action. Therefore psychology offers direction to sociology
◦ Therefore sociology and psychology are not mutually exclusive.
• Karl Marx
◦ Subject matter of sociology is to study social structure and social change. Social structure need to be studied with reference to MOP.
◦ Dividing the laborers by giving them different wages , tiles . More the workers are divided more profit is going in the pockets of capitalist .
When the capitalism is extreme , a psychological consciousness would come into the mind of workers which he called as class for itself .
Therefore mind makes society.
◦ He is using a concept of alienation . It is a form of psychological dislocation of work from the capitalist system of production. Therefore
alienated labor which is a psychological condition present within the social system of capitalism . Other class has different psychological
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 orientation.
◦ He considers that in capitalist societies two different classes are present sharing contradictory psychological orientation , when laborers are
experiencing a sense of detachment because they feel alienated capitalist are sharing a sense of joy because of their expanding economic
control therefore Karl Marx considers that the laborers who feel alienated yet psychologically committed to each other consequently lead to
unity of working class essential for revolution . Therefore sociology cannot study social revolution , capitalist system of product without an
reference to alienated labor and affluent capitalist .
• Talcott Parsons
◦ All our actions are driven by motives. Motives are guided and disciplined by values. Motives are psychological while values are cultural , action
is social .
◦ Therefore culturalogy , psychology and sociology are inseparable from each other.
• Wilfred Pareto -
◦ Residues and derivations - Residues are a form of psychological predispositions. Some people are driven and guided by residue of power -
Leaders and. Politicians , psychic disposition of wealth - Always money in mind , some driven by sex residue - rapist .
◦ Therefore our psychology defines out social life .
• Robert K Merton
◦ Self fulfilling prophecy- A sense of accomplishment
◦ Self defeating prophecy - Not getting what was expected .
◦ Therefore life is the story of above two . Therefore sociology and psychology are connected with each other.
• Sigmund frued
◦ Human psychology defines human biology . Son is having sexual attraction towards his mother while daughter is attracted towards father.
This sexual attraction cannot be materialized because we live in a society which have social norms . This is translated into proximity .
◦ Some sociologist took this idea and established how
• Most of the critical theory is borrowing idea from Sigmund Freud - State and citizens are different types of personality . State a type of
personality wan to rule over other personality through ideological state apparatus or repressive state apparatus .
◦ Psychoanalytical theory is largely used by critical theorist to explain the dynamic relationship between state and citizens in every social
context.
• The dynamic interface between sociology and psychology is addressed by 3 schools 1) speaking about complete separation - Durkheim 2)
Psychology offers foundation to sociology 3) complementary relationship between the both.

Philosophy and sociology

• Sociology evolved as a discipline with strong philosophical orientation which includes
◦ Sociology and social philosophy are inseparable to each other .
◦ To understand the nature and form of social change - Early sociologist explain change using different philosophical ideas - August compte ,
Marx , Montesquieu
◦ Sociology was committed to the study of social problems and solutions to these problems - saint simon : ethical socialism , Durkheim :
reforms new consciousness, Karl Marx : Problem of alienated labor-> revolution
◦ Sociology developed concepts and ideas which are subjective in character (Philosphical) - Charismatic authority , legal rational authority ,
social fact , social action
◦ Sociology developed theories : Positivism , liberalism , phenomenology ”
• Social philosophers were celebrated in previous times and natural philosophy was overlooked . But in 19th century using scientific knowledge
people produced technology which transformed the life of man. People questioning to the natural philosophy started celebrating it. Therefore
every branch of science is coming out of philosophy .
• Early sociologist wanted to make a science out of sociology. It was a Positivistic aspiration. This aspiration resulted in a discipline close to
philosophy. As at every stage of researcher he is influenced by his ideology , values and mind explain facts according to the ideology. Ideology
and sociology are strongly connected. Dictation -“Positivism intends to make sociology a science , science is factual , unbiased,authentic and
value neutral . In the field of sociological research construction of hypothesis , interpretation of data and topic of research are guided by the
independent preference and ideas of researcher . Therefore ideology enters into sociology consciously or subconsciously . Hence sociology and
ideology are not completely separable .
• Sociology of knowledge contributes for epistemological understanding of truth. Sociology is adding to the existential form of knowledge , more
dimension to truth . Ex- religion explained by different people differently. Karl Marx , Durkheim ,weber . Therefore sociology and philosophy are
inseparable .
• Sociology is subjective understanding of objective reality .

◦ Durkheim - conscience collective (A concept ) , Weber - Protestant ethics (concept) , Therefore sociology without concepts and ideas is not
possible . Therefore sociology is close to ideology .
◦ Sociology is having large number of theory - critical theory , post modern , phenomenology . Theories are higher level ideologies . Therefore
philosophy and sociology are highly connected
• Sociology studies law , social movements , social change , state .... which are all driven by ideology. Ideology offers a guideline for sociological
enquiry. Social movements are driven by ideology , Globalization is studied through different perspectives each with different ideology.

Anthropology and sociology

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• Anthropology as a discipline evolved in 18th century , first branch of anthropology was physical anthropology was close to biology . Therefore
physical anthropology has nothing to do with sociology
• Subsequently new branch of anthropology developed in 19 century which was called cultural anthropology which was close to pre history and
archaeology. Cultural anthropologist making sense of civilization by studying artifacts. They made an attempt to reconstruct the history of
mankind.They were using evolutionary theory .
• EB Taylor -Human civilizations are passing through 3 stages [Suffering from Eurocentric bias]
◦ Lower culture - simple tools and technology
◦ Middle culture - pottery , pastoralism , concept of trade is known
◦ Upper culture- Modern tools and technology
• Lewis Henry Morgan - Already studied
• This theory[Evolutionary theory] was questioned by diffusion theory to cultural study.
◦ Cultures cannot be placed in hierarchy. Cultures are different .
◦ Every culture starts from a given point called center of culture. Then from center culture radiates to different places called cultural area. From
one cultural area elements of culture may radiate to other areas leading to mixup of culture.
◦ Dominant culture gives more element to other culture.
◦ This theory is provided by WHR Rivers and Ghurye
• Diffusion theory is contradicted by functional theory whose founder is malinowsky
◦ Instead of studying how culture spreads rather study the functionality of culture.
◦ If culture become dysfunctional people abandon it and change happens.
◦ There are two types of culture
▪ Ideal culture- What it ought to be
▪ Real Culture - What it is
▪ Ex- Marriage made in heaven - Ideal culture, marriage is a personal choice - real culture.
◦ Therefore functional theory of anthropology is close to sociology.
• AR Radcliff brown
◦ Culture is abstract but social structure is concrete because social structure is a product of social roles guided by rules, customs, norms and
values. Therefore social anthropology should study structures. Sociology also studies social structures. Therefore other name of comparative
sociology is social anthropology. Therefore there is no difference.
• Only difference is that sociology studies structure of modern society while anthropology studies tribal societies.
• In a simple society economic, religious roles cannot be separated while it can be in modern society.
• In case of India most of the sociologist call themselves as social anthropologist. Therefore in case of India there is no much difference.
• Sociologist of India advocates Andre beiteille go for village study method which is otherwise known as participant observation. On the basis of
data collected by them they reflect on social, economic, and political life of the village. Therefore in india there is not much difference between
sociology and social anthropology. In addition to that anthropologist are studying urban slums, communal conflict when sociologist are studying
developmental displacement, tribal poverty and tribal movement. Therefore anthropology and sociology use common methods and sociology is
not specializing in domain of study which is forbidden for anthropologist. Therefore in the context of india unlike America , France,Russia
sociology and anthropology cannot be completely separated.

15
Sociology as science
In 1790s John Locke -‘natural philosophy cannot be called as science while social philosophy is the
true science ’.
In 19th century scientific developed ideas through which our understanding of nature developed. It
gave us authentic knowledge about the world surrounding us . In 20th century science was engaged
in technology production which gave rise to industrial revolution. In 19th century every discipline
wanted to become science.
Technology was colonized by state to control over the masses and pass on its ideology , produce war
heads and nations become powerful in 20th century. Example - US in WWII. Basic purpose of science
was communal, science was meant for global usability, meant for the well being of community but it
was colonized and abused. Therefore state having power over science is proclaiming itself as
dominant. Scientific community is a knowledgeable group, they don’t belong to a state or class but
their product is colonized by state.

RK Merton
• Science is a knowledge coming out of a community meant for universal use.

• Science is converted into the private wealth of industrialists.

• Therefore the basic purpose of science is lost.

• Disinterestedness is the basic feature of science. But in contemporary times scientists are working
for the industrialists for money and power.
• Organized skepticism- Science starts with question, open for scrutiny by peer groups. through this
something universally acceptable comes.In contemporary time organized skepticism is declining
as every research is the extension of oil findings.
• Science has lost its ethos , it is being using for benefitting to industries.

Features of science
• It is an organized body of knowledge where facts are related to each other ultimately making
generalization .
• Science is self corrective in character while faith is not self corrective. Therefore it is not absolute
truth. Ex- Peer review. Therefore a scientist is not emotionally connected to his findings.
• Science is objective and factual in character.That is there is no scope for emotions or prejudices.
Presence of values is unacceptable.[Values are a body of abstract standard which influence our
behavior]
◦ Personal, cultural and mentor values should not influence research.
• In science there is no scope of testimonial evidence , speculative evidence , circumstantial
evidence.
• Science is rational i.e it involves specific rules which must be followed without any emotional
considerations.
• Science develops laws or theories on the basis of facts, reflexes and reasoning. Therefore it is
different from philosophical thoughts.
16
 • Scientific research is also known as logico deductive method.
• Science explore truth in absolute manner.
Types of science
• Pure science
◦ It gives knowledge, theories and ideas.
• Applied science
◦ Application of knowledge.

Another classification
• Natural science
◦ Physical science- Deals with objects
◦ Live science - Deals with plants and animals
• Social science

Some people considers social sciences are of two types . These concepts are used by neo kantians
scholars.
• Nomothetic

◦ Natural science is nomothetic

◦ It go by facts i.e is quantitative analysis , objectivity
◦ It constructs hypothesis and test hypothesis against facts and bring deductions out of it.
◦ They go for logic deductive method.
◦ Theory and facts are not standing opposite to each other.
◦ They go for specific analysis and do not generalize.
◦ Durkheim, AR Radcliff brown
• Ideographic

◦ Social philosophy is ideographic .It studies culture and human behavior.

◦ It goes for qualitative understanding.
◦ Subjectivity
◦ Theories on the basis of perception of the researching
◦ Conclusion on the basis of own interpretation.

This debate is no longer applicable to sociology. Like a nomothetic discipline conclusion are drawn
from facts but like ideographic it deals with theories, concepts and ideas. Therefore sociology is the
subjective understanding of the objective reality - Weber.

Scientific methods
• It is questioning to existential knowledge bringing forward new knowledge and establishing
connectivity between the both.
• It gives importance on empirically verifiable facts.

• Identification of the problem 17

 • Identification of the problem.
• It starts with construction of hypothesis.{It should not be any assumption before it review of
literature must be done}
• Think rationally , be alert at every stage of research.
• Scientific research is a continuous process and not a cooked recipe.
Steps for scientific method
• Identification of the problem of research.

• Review of literature.
• Research design.

• Construction of hypothesis
• Data collection

• Testing reliability and validities of data

• Testing data against hypothesis

• Presenting of data
• Peer group review

• Advancement of knowledge
Critique to scientific method
• Paul Freyerabend
◦ Book ‘Against method these’
◦ Scientific methods puts the researchers in the state of confinement and research becomes
mechanical, innovation and creativity should be there. Researcher should be liberated from the
bondage of methodology.
◦ Science came out of the creativity of mind and cannot be bounded because foundation to
science is free mind.
◦ Early scientist never followed any method Ex- Newton, Galileo . Better results are obtained
through mind independence.
• Karl popper

◦ Book -‘The logic of scientific enquiry’

◦ There is nothing unique in science. Be it any discipline a researcher develops an idea and test it
against reality. If idea matches with reality then it is accepted otherwise rejected.
◦ Example - A potter has an idea in mind and use clay to convert into reality. I’d disappointed he
remakes it.
◦ Science cannot study truth absolutely.Ex- Complete truth about universe . Over glorification of
science is not acceptable.
◦ Science is inductive and partial.That is out of the data in hand we make induction.
◦ Falsification and refutability - Any theory to called as scientific theory must have to go through
process of falsification.[It can be questioned it is not absolute truth, new findings can come]. In
today time science is used for the gratification of business interest.
◦ Problem of boundation or demarcation of science - There are present many theories which
gives an impression to be scientific which they are not. There need to be a distinction between
scientific and pseudo scientific theory until then scientific research is not possible.
◦ Book -‘open societies and its enemies ’ : Scientific society [Falsification and refutability ] is
18
 forgotten in modern society where every idea, policy is questioned leading to falsification. More
emphasis is on scientific conclusions, concepts and theories. China is not a scientific society
despite technology. Therefore open society is scientific society.
• Thomas Kuhn
◦ Book -‘Scientific revolution’
◦ Scientific method is prior to science therefore there is nothing great in science and scientific
methods. Even primitive man used scientific methods for his survival. Therefore dont over
glorify it.
◦ In primitive society man used scientific methods but there was no science, scientific revolution
takes places at collective level and due to refutability and falsification.
◦ Every scientific research starts with a paradigm, every scientist knows how the result would
look like. Therefore it is based on pre conceived knowledge.

Positivism
It is a doctrine in sociology that considers that sociology is science. Sociology can use scientific
methods.
How is sociology is a science ?
• Science goes for the study of structure (matter,chemical compounds , living beings) sociology also
goes for the study of social structure.
• Structures are subjected to persistence and continuity. Elements of social structure also subjected
to continuity. [Caste as a structural part of India is still persistent , race in America ]
• In the field of science every structure can be segmented into parts , sub parts and sub sub parts.
Similarly social structure can be dissected. [India - family- Joint family - medium , large , small-
head of the family ] Reductional analysis
• Science goes for cause effect relationship. Sociology also goes for cause effect relationship. Ex-
Durkheim study of suicide.
• Science is objective , factual and value neutral. Sociologist only speaks through facts and there is
no space for speculations or transcendental knowledge, imagination , judge mental.Sociological
research maintains value neutrality .
• Positivism talks about unity of science- different branch of sciences giving knowledge about
different world. Sociology gives knowledge about social world therefore all these science
discipline should be integrated.
• Science and sociology both goes for inductive and deductive methodology.

Some positivists in sociology

August compte
• Compares rituals, exchange relationships and smallest possible unit in the society with units of
that of human body.
• Structures are subjected to continuity, similarly social structures are subjected to continuity
because they are driven by rules, laws and norms. Same scientific methods can be applied to
these social structures.
• Till 1600 century structure of society was theological
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 Till 1600 century structure of society was theological
• 1600-1800 metaphysical
• After 1800 scientific society
• He never collected data and not using Positivistic methods rather he tells how scientific methods
can be used therefore he is a Positivistic philosopher.
• Behavior of the people is like a fact which one can see and feel. Therefore human behavior is not
dynamic it is regularized.
• Sociology is a science of highest order therefore regressive training is required for the researcher
to keep emotions away from research. While for other sciences it is easy to use scientific
methods, therefore sociology is the queen of all sciences.
• On the basis of data we can develop scientific laws. There are present 2 things in every society -
Human intent and social structure. Human intent - love, intimacy, food, care, power, knowledge
..To gratify these internet we have marriage , political parties , schools , rituals (social structures).
If social structures gratify to human intent then society is subjected to continuity then it is called
social statics. If needs are there but institutions fails to fulfill the needs then society needs to
change is called social dynamics. Sociology can study both.
• Every society is driven by law of statistics and law of dynamics.
Emile Durkheim
• Subject matter of sociology is social facts i.e realities present in every sphere of society. Non
social fact are not the subject matter of sociology. Social life is highly organized by rules, norms,
customs. If behavior is confirming to the prescription of the society that is normal social behavior
and if not conforming is abnormal/pathological behavior , if behavior has nothing to do with
collective prescription it is non social. These facts can be presented in a scientific way hence
sociology is a science.
• Therefore he is a methodological Positivistic sociologist .

• Study of social facts observation, verification , classification , experimentation , hypothesis and

then developing generalizations.
Karl Marx
• He is a part positivist.
• While talking till capitalism his explanation is based on facts. On the basis of data , he developed
generalizations.
• While taking about slave society he collected data from German France Italy from 12-16 th
century. Slavery was present in these countries. Therefore facts speaks in this case therefore he
is a positivists scholar.
• 16-18th century he found out in Britain France and Germany feudal system, collected data from
archives, his data sources are authentic and making generalizations .
• While taking about capitalism he closely observed the labor camps in Britain . Therefore his
writings are factual.
Critiques to positivism
• Peter Berger - Facts do not fall from the sky and the researchers is not supposed to carry a basket
to collect them. Positivistic sociology is a kind of fishing in the pond for facts, but they fails to
20
 understand that facts occurs in context , therefore context is more important.Context are created,
recreated and dismantled to create facts.Every social situation is dynamic ,Therefore very
premise of positivism is baseless.
• Jurgan Habermas
◦ Positivism intends to establish cognitive monopoly over truth which is not acceptable.[Every
aspect of human behavior can be scientifically understood].
◦ In social life many things are present which cannot be explained from scientific perspective. Ex-
love, happiness , emotions, nationalism cannot be quantified.
◦ Therefore positivism is a mechanical study of human behavior.
• Horkheimer
◦ Positivism ignores inter subjectivity , therefore it speaks about complete separation between
facts and values which is not acceptable.[Every social situation is a product of 2 minds
interacting with each other therefore role relations are not driven by rules, laws, customs.].
◦ Human behavior is always driven by values which influences the facts. [Ex- respecting father
always even If fighting ]
◦ Positivism is not respecting to the values therefore it is a mechanical pursuit.
• Adorno
◦ Positivism is a form of negative dialectics that gives rise to regression of knowledge. It should
respect to emotions, values of the human mind.
◦ Positivism is the mechanical explanation of the truth and the real truth is hidden by positivist
leading to regression of knowledge.
◦ Dialectics is the concept introduced in the sociology by Hegel which means to debate or
discuss to arrive at a conclusion. Hegel speaks about positive dialectics indicating dialectics
of human thought give rise to technological progress, however adorno a critical theorist
criticizes positivism as a doctrine in sociology that constraint truth emphasis on mechanical
truth ignoring the factors that influence to human behavior that may be emotions, prejudices,
culture and other related factors. Therefore Positivistic explanation of truth is a mechanistic
pursuit thus sociology should liberate itself from bondage of positivism to understand
essence of reality which is known as positive dialectics.
• Anthony Giddens
◦ Science goes for single hermeneutics , sociology goes for double hermeneutics therefore
sociology cannot be a science . Hermeneutics means interpretation. Therefore both are poles
apart.
◦ Hermeneutics otherwise meaning interpretation is essential for exploring the truth. In the
field of science a scientist observe the facts then interprets the facts applying his rational
mind therefore science goes for single interpretation. In the field of sociology human beings
manifest their behavior which is culturally appropriate therefore every human behavior is
evaluated through cultural appropriateness or interpretation. A researcher evaluates people
behavior first by using his theory secondly by interpreting people’s culture , therefore
sociology goes for double hermeneutics. Hence proclamation of sociology as a science is
highly unacceptable
• Positivism is criticized on the ground that it is engaged in making sociology a science than making
sociology a sociology. It talks about unity of science , critics to positivism considers that sociology
is distinctive from science both in terms of subject matter also in term of methodology. When
positivism talks about structure study the critics to positivism emphasize on actions study , critics
found out subjectivity in human behavior , positivism talks about complete separation of facts and21
 found out subjectivity in human behavior , positivism talks about complete separation of facts and
values while critics considers that values have influence on human relationship. therefore
centrality to sociology and methods is a debate involving positivist and critics.

Non Positivism
One which is not positivism. It is divided into 2 fundamental types
• Revision to positivism

◦ Interpretation theory
▪ Founded by German sociologist.
• Rejection to positivism

◦ Critical theory
◦ Phenomenology
▪ Ethnomethodology (Branch of Phenomenology)

Interpretation theory
• George simmel

◦ Knowledge is subjective and infinite [More you know there is something more to know].
◦ To have some understanding about knowledge we are using some concepts and ideas
like conflict , war , capitalism ..., Through these subjective terms we understand the
reality. Therefore positivism needs to be revised. It must go for subjective understanding
of objective reality .
• Wilhem Ditthey

◦ Positivism tells that we get to know about reality from observation and facts , experience
. Ditthey says truth can be understood in different ways-
◦ Reality can be studied through expression -of history , biographies , autobiographies.
Therefore positivism should be supplemented by the text to make sense of reality.
[Foundation to historical understanding which was rejected by positivism]
◦ Second way of knowing truth is through experience
◦ Third way is through comprehension i.e combination of both expression and experiences.
◦ Therefore positivist methods when combined with interpretative methodology produces
best result.
• Max Weber

◦ Collection of data through observation is extremely mechanical, most of the time the
data is not factual because the situation is controlled therefore facts do not speaks for
themselves. Truth is always hidden and only known to the person and the fact is shared.
Therefore sociology should be committed to truth rather than fact.
◦ Behind every objective action there is present motives and meanings. A researchers must
interpret the motives first as actions may be same but the motives may be different.
22
Rejection of positivism - Critical theory
Nazism , fascism , communism and democracies developed in different parts if the world by mid
20th century. A group of philosophers from Germany influenced by philosophy of Karl Marx and
Sigmund Freud and made a new theory called critical theory (Neo Marxist). This is also called
Frankfurt school. Name of the state may be different but all of them are colonizing over science
and scientific methods. Therefore science is used by the state to kill the freedom and choice of
the people. Therefore positivists methods is used by the state to glorify their achievements.
• In democratic societies state has created space for the expansion of market - by

introducing liberal economic policies , by training man power , giving tax benefits to startups
, land given at subsidized rate. When market expands volume of production increases,
domestic market needs to be created by inducing consumerism into the minds of the people
through advertisement. Therefore circulation of the money happens. Therefore there is no
difference between democratic state and totalitarian state.
• Jurgen Habermas -Truth exists in three different forms

◦ Material/physical truth - Ex- height of the Mount Everest . To know this kind of truth
which cannot be altered we have to go for scientific method/Positivistic method.
◦ Practical knowledge- Ex- Art and architecture of Mughal India in books , monuments,
inscription to get to know about culture of that period. Therefore interpretation method is
used to understand the way of culture ,their history .
◦ Emancipatory knowledge-Not visible commonly and only men with knowledge and
criticality can make sense of it. Ex- there is no difference between democracy and other
totalitarian state. Role of sociology is to tell the people the real truth and not study the
facts and liberate them from the bondage of corporate and state.
• A sociologist must not study superficial facts , must study the hidden truth therefore

masses should develop critical and skeptical minds and come together to question
corporate and state. Ex - Narmada bachao Andolan . Therefore liberates sociology from the
bondage of positivism. Using positivists knowledge state is justifying its rule and celebrating
its achievements.
• Feminist theory- Ex- Facts speaks about the achievement of girls in CBSE board
examinations but at the end of the day she has to listen to her husband, their primary role is
to look after the family. Emancipatory knowledge is needed for the empowerment of the
women. Therefore feminist movement is reflexive movement which finds patriarchy is
present in every sphere of life . A women should be putting herself at the center and look at
the reality rom her standpoint to make sense of reality. Therefore positivist method is more
than useless. Therefore women is not born she is made.
Rejection to positivism- Phenomenology
Evolved in 1960s by
• Husserl

• Schultz

• Geertz
23
It developed at the same time when critical theory was developing. Phenomenology is an
offshoot of interaction theory.
Interaction theory
• Social life is not grounded on structure while it is grounded on the interaction between the
individuals who are minded and through this interaction social life develops. Interaction is
not driven by rules , laws , customs. It is a more matter of perception about the person.
• Nothing in social life is fixed everything is made , questioned and changed by

mind.Therefore everything in social life is dynamic .

Phenomenology tells
• Structure is a myth while positivism give emphasis on structure. Structure gives emphasis

on parts and role performed by the people which is regularized, observable and
scientifically arrestable. Foundation to social life is action and interaction.When people are
interacting with each other it makes social life possible.
• Our life world [the world in which we are living as a lively person] eg friends circle , family

are created, destroyed and remade by us everyday in different ways. These are not driven
by rules , customs and norms but by likes and unlikes and it is our making. Therefore no fact
is not present in reality which researcher can catch.
• A researcher should not go for hypothesis construction , laws and theory. A researcher

should stay friendly to the researched so that one can narrate the real truth rather than
constructed truth. Researcher should be emotionally connected to the researched.
• Sociology should be guided by subjectivity while positivism advocates for objectivity.

• Mind independence is not possible in sociology , Positivism tells mind independence is

possible in sociology.
• Positivism - Sociology should study only facts and common sense is sociological nonsense.

Phenomenology-Commons sense is the essence of sociology. Using common sense we

make sense of other behavior. A researcher must use his common sense to make sense of
reality.
• Eg - death can be interpreted in different way - martyred , suicide , accident using

application of mind. Eg- Tomato example

Alfred Schultz
• We all born into a social context i.e family , culture , caste , class. Driven by the context

where we are born we are socialized. Socialization is a process by which we learn our own
culture , this knowledge is stored in our mind. Using this knowledge we choose our behavior
, lifestyle , give meaning to objects . Therefore mind is a storehouse of shared cultural
common sense.
• On the basis of this common sense knowledge we develop typologies - Good and bad
behavior , Girls and Boys work . Life world is created through negotiations , reciprocation.
Life world is questioned when we get new body of knowledge [School education]. Ex- River
ganga water sacred or polluted.
24
Sociological methods given by sociologist
• Positivism

• Non Positivism
◦ Interpretation
◦ Reflexive methods
▪ Critical - Reflect adversity of state
▪ Feminist - Reflect on patriarchy
▪ Phenomenology - Reflect using common sense

Ethnomethodology
It is an offshoot of phenomenology. It advocates use of people methods rather than methods
developed by sociologists. People use their own concept , ideas and values to explain reality.
Louis Dumont is explains india from purity , pollution perspective using ethnomethodology.

Facts, values and Objectivity

• Facts exist in their absolute and original form , facts speaks for themselves , cannot change
through human intervention , subjected to continuity therefore facts can be studied through
scientific method. Facts do not have life of their own.
• Values are based upon perception , belief , moralism , ethics , speculations , culture , religion ,
opinions .... They operate at 3 levels
◦ Individual values- like ,dislikes
◦ Institutional values - caste , class , religion , school , family , state
◦ Society and cultural values

Value relevance and value neutrality

• Values are a body of abstract standards that influences our thought and everyday behavior.
Sources of these values are - culture, state , personal ideology. These values in one form of
the other may influence to our research. Goal of the sociology is to attain objectivity. Values
stand in the way of this objectivity. A researcher must be neutral to these values. Sociology
maintains objectivity when researcher goes for value neutrality.This is the position of
positivist sociologist .
• Interpretation theory considers that if means are correct i.e if a researcher is able to
maintain value neutrality then sociology can be objective.Motives are more important than
the actions which are guided by culture. People actions are guided by their cultural values,
Therefore as a researcher respect for the other person values this is called as value
relevance .
◦ Therefore a researcher must respect for value relevance and value neutrality. Therefore
l d il tb ltl td 25
 value and sociology cannot be completely separated.
◦ Max weber makes a distinction between researcher values and researched values. Ex-
Protestant ethics and capitalism. This is a prescription which may not be followed by all
the researcher therefore objectivity is the goal of sociology which is not guaranteed.
◦ One could still come close to objectivity if researcher mentions it in the beginning so that
reader can distinguish between facts colored by value
• Objectivity is impossibility in sociology because in every stage of social life values play a
very important role. Foundation to interaction between the persons is assumptions ,
presumptions and suppositions . Relationship , institutions and in every spheres of life there
is presence of values. A researcher must come close to researched to make sense of the
reality. Without values sociology is not possible. Therefore objectivity is sociological
nonsense.Therefore every researcher must study the problem using his values , therefore
sociology should study same problem from different value stand point .Structure , cause
effect relationship , reductional analysis is useless.
Contemporary sociologist
• Alvin gouldner and Gunner Myrdal Considers that there are 2 major important theories in
sociology
◦ Realism (Positivism)- Objectivity and value neutrality
◦ Relativism (Non Positivism)- subjectivity and importance of value guiding human
behavior and social life.
◦ Holding a middle position they advocate that techniques of research are objective and
value neutral but conclusion of research is influenced by values in different proportion.
So the problem of value a researcher must have to negotiate with when he is conducting
sociological research, hence value freedom in sociological research is just a speculation.
◦ Example - Srinivas was a trained researcher but was a brahmin, methodology was free
from values as he used participant observation method but while choosing the topic of
research, interpretation of data , conclusion the value come .

26
Sociological Thinkers-Durkheim
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
He gave stability to the discipline. DOL is the first sociology book contributing to the entry of Durkheim
in sociology.
Opportunities and rules are created by the society. DOL is a making of society therefore it is a social
fact. Driven by conscience collective we take up a role which leads to DOL.
Since DOL is present in every sphere of society it is also called total social fact.
He addressed to three questions
• Consequences of social change - when simple society is becoming complex ?

• How Sociology can explain DOL in every sphere of life ? It is just not economic fact
• When society is passing through transition what are the problem and how these problems can be
taken care of ?
France was experiencing revolutionary politics and regular war between Prussia and France. A large
number of Jews migrated from Germany to France. Leaders of the France advocated that Jews were
outsiders therefore anti Semitic ideology was prevailing . Industrialists were exploiting to laborers,
corrupt industrialist were present who are not paying tax and bribing sphere. Individualism and self
orientation was at its peak. Durkheim was not very much happy about the existential condition, being
a philosopher he had a vision for France to be secular, free , democratic , collectivism.

One of the teacher of Durkheim was Albert schoffle

• Animals are hold together on the basis of their common physical needs or they are hold together
mechanically. To its contrast Human beings are hold together by holding common ideas called
common conscience. It is foundation to our stability, continuity and harmony .If we follow these
ideas and ethics then institution would achieve their goals.
• Ideas holding together people in simple societies are different from modern ideas. When ideas
hold the society together that society is called normal society. When old ideas are disappearing
and new ideas are making appearance then their is conflict.
Collective conscience is the body of ethics values and ideas which is holding the society together.

DOL of Durkheim v/s Economists

• Durkheim DOL is a reaction to Adam smith DOL theory.

• Adam Smith DOL

◦ It is becoming more complex because of expansion of market , Therefore centrality to it is
market.
◦ Market is taking different forms in modern society. It is not restricted to physical space .Eg
Labor market is invisible , capital market.
◦ DOL is the market making Everyone sells their skills and labor and get the return Eg -
27
 ◦ DOL is the market making. Everyone sells their skills and labor and get the return.Eg
Bureaucrat selling skills and getting wage.
▪ DOL is the organizational character of the society making .
◦ It is the utilitarian values that is pushing one to market.Sociology tells that they may be driven
by moral, ethical or psychic satisfaction. Example : People leaving bureaucracy to join NGO.
◦ DOL satisfy materialistic needs which helps him to lead a happy , satisfied life.
▪ Sociologist - Society creates, regulates and end market. Existence of society is primary and
market is secondary.
◦ Source of happiness is money.
▪ Sociology - Money is not the sole source of happiness. Example Bill gates and Melinda
foundation to help poor. Make society happy then individual happiness would automatically
come.
• Sociology gives all inclusive view while economics give myopic view.
Karl Marx
• In a classless society
◦ it is the individual chooses his occupation driven by society. Driven by capability and choice
one chooses the work. Freedom to work is both individual choice and society prescription. This
is socialistic society. DOL never promote economic inequalities .
◦ In primitive communism , limited technology , limited productive resources and limit to skills.
Everybody is engaged in same kind of activity. DOL is driven by different kinds of
limitations.DOL does not promote inequalities.
• In class society - slave, feudal and capitalist

◦ FOP- land, tools , productive knowledge is controlled by one group. Other group provide labour.
In this type of society those who control FOP dictates DOL, dictates terms. Class defines DOL.
Durkheim
• Normal Form of DOL
◦ DOL that is defined by conscience collective , committed to collective well being, determined
by social choice, impartial in character.
◦ Everybody is committed to work , nobody carry antagonism towards other in such society.
Through work people are connecting to society.
• Pathological Form of DOL

◦ That which is not normal. Where one is forced to do something, man is not enjoying , lacks
commitment to work. Marx overemphasize on this form of DOL.
◦ It never gives happiness to anybody. Everybody would be working to convert it into normal
form through reforms and new conscience collective would come.
Thus Durkheim explains DOL from societal perspective and criticizing to both Adam smith and Marx.

• He is influenced by writings of Alfred Schaffle -‘Society is not the making of individuals who are a
part of it. It existed before their birth and after their death ans would continue. We only imbibe its
values , customs and norms.(conscience collective ).Therefore it defines our behavior, actions. ’
28
• Normal DOL is endorsed by society and Pathological DOL is punished by it.
• He is looking into demographics while explaining DOL
◦ Hilberg and Spencer (Demographers)
▪ When size of population increase in society -> Increase human needs->mandatory for
people to participate in different occupations. DOL become complex.
▪ size of population small -> simple DOL
▪ Size of population or population is material density.
▪ Therefore material density defines DOL
• Durkheim goes beyond the demographic theory and explains that as the population
increase(material density) and people are forced to migrate. When people from different cultures
come to a common place they develop interrelationships with each other which he called as
dynamic density. These people not sharing the common culture are guided by the new rules and
norms. Therefore sociological understanding starts where demographic understanding ends.
• He studied different societies and classified them into 3 types
◦ Simple poly segmental society
▪ Tribal societies
▪ Poly Segmented based on age , sex , kinship.
▪ Elderly people carry wisdom and not supposed to work. They give socialization to adults.
▪ Young people are not supposed to work.
▪ Women collecting fish and men catching fish.(Gender)
▪ Privileges to the tribal chief family (Kinship)
▪ Simple because they use simple technology , simple livelihood ...
▪ Everyone is related to every other person on the basis of kinship which may be real or
imaginative ,food and religion is similar , common dress, common thinking - collective
conscience.
▪ Example - among Andamanese people after cyclone confines themselves to their huts for 2
days and on 3 rd day with fires in hand they abuse the cyclone. They get a self of
satisfaction when wind speeds reduce after that .
◦ Poly segmental simple compound society
▪ When societies settled down, people developed new technology , identifying new source of
livelihood (agriculture , horticulture..)
▪ People go for specialization - potters , carpenters , weavers . It is inherited from one
generation to another.
▪ People reciprocate with each other. Occupation are different but no class develops.
▪ Reciprocation of good and services is promoting unity among them.
▪ Occupations may be different but core values , ethics, norms are same. Eg - Village deity
worship.
▪ He called the above two societies as simple society as they share maximal commonness. He
compared the structures of the above societies and found it almost same.
◦ Poly segmental doubly compound society
▪ He is comparing simple society with this.
▪ Influenced by Ferdinand tonnis who made a distinction between gemeschaft (Traditional
Society) and Gesellschaft (Modern society)
G h ft it 29
 • Gemeschaft-community
◦ Centrality to traditional society is communitarian life (sameness in every aspect)
◦ population is small
◦ emotional linkage is strong
◦ interrelationships is strong.
◦ common character
◦ Relationship is personal
• Gesselschaft- Associations
◦ People coming together for the gratification of their interest. People may belong to
different associations and may enter or exit on the basis of choice unlike community.
◦ Relationship between people is impersonal.
◦ Population is large in size.
▪ Durkheim - Society developed into 3 stages - Simple societies -> Transition -> Modern
Society (Poly segmental doubly compound society.
• Modern societies

◦ Respect for differences.

◦ When men is gratifying to the needs of others automatically ones needs is gratified .
◦ Large population (High Material density)
◦ Dynamic density is High.
◦ People highly specialized
◦ Everybody is a part producer and full consumers.
◦ Reciprocation is legitimate - Laws
◦ DOL is complex due to complex nature of structure.
◦ DOL is driven by Organic solidarity.
◦ Focus of attention is multiple.
◦ Degree of emotion- low and rational
◦ Reaction to outsiders is friendly.
◦ Norm Violation-Restitutive Punishment
◦ Unity based on differences - Organic solidarity (Just like organic parts integrate the
parts of body together) due to above conditions.
• Simple societies

◦ Population is low. (Material Density)

◦ Dynamic density is low or moderate. Interpersonal relationship is accidental , not
purposive.
◦ Specialization is low.
◦ Technology is simple
◦ DOL is simple due to simple structure of society.
◦ Everybody is full producer and full consumer.
◦ DOL is driven by principle of Mechanical solidarity
◦ Focus of attention is one.
◦ Degree of emotion- High
◦ Reaction to outsider is violent.
30
 ◦ Norm violation - Repressive Punishment
◦ Unity based on sameness- Mechanical solidarity due to above conditions.
• Therefore Durkheim explains the DOL on the basis of organizational character of the
society and form of solidarity (Moral density)
Normal form of DOL vs Pathological form of DOL
• Normal Form
◦ If in every society people are playing their roles following the conscience collective then it is
called normal form of DOL. In every normal society some people drift away from conscience
collective.
• Pathological Form
◦ When people drift from collective conscience then it is called pathological DOL.
◦ Not complying to the will of conscience collective they are deviant.
• In every society there is deviance but it doesn’t guarantee that they are always punished because
as long as it is not challenging to the conformity it is ignored. When more number of people
manifest deviant behavior then there is threat to conformity, then punishment is given . Example
Some crime are ignored while other which questioned to the continuity of the society then
punishment becomes inevitable.
• Crime and Punishment
◦ Punishment cannot put an end to crime. When somebody is committing crime , conformists
faith in rule of law weakens, conscience collective in injured and that need to be repaired ,
strengthened. Punishment repairs to injured conscience collective. Punishment has nothing to
ending crime.
◦ Every violation gives rise to negative solidarity. Punishment converts it into positive solidarity.
◦ When one person deviating - ignored , When many person - Punishment , When everybody
deviates - new normal. Example Corruption in India .
◦ Deviance is both functional and dysfunction. When deviance brings change it is functional.
When challenging to continuity it is dysfunctional.
◦ In simple and modern society both deviance is present.
◦ Nature and form of punishment is defined by Organizational structure of society.
▪ In simple society - Size of population is small , if one is deviant others may immediately
deviate if not punished. Repressive punishment - Killed, thrown outside, capital punishment.
People are same society would continue.
▪ Modern Society - Depending on the crime punishment is given and after that they become
part of society again. Restitution Punishment.
Transition Stage
Both the simple and complex societies manifest normal form of DOL. In Transition stage there is no
collective conscience , no normal , no pathological behavior. Individualism and anomie is present.
Society is engulfed in crises, tension.This is a situation of anomie . Anomie is a condition where old
conscience collective is dead and new conscience collective is yet to made appearance. Everybody is
doing something just for self interest ethical commitment to work is missing. Anomie is a form of
parasite it starts from one place and spreads to all parts of the society.
• Rulelessness , normlessness situation.

• Anomie is a product of rapid social change

31
 Anomie is a product of rapid social change .
• Anomie gives immediate benefit to some individuals
• To make a great social order people must be behaving in moralistic manner but people would not
behave if social order is not great. To make great social order a new conscience collective is
required from all sections of the society and they should go for different form of reforms-
Durkheim call this Professional Ethics . Example To remove corruption in India whole nation needs
to come together only law would not serve the purpose, if administrators become professional
bureaucracy would become efficient.
• Once anomie disappear a society guided by organic solidarity would make appearance.
When Durkheim was writing his theory in France , anomie was present
• Laborers exploitation

• Political turnmoil and corruption.

• In this context he defined the Transition phase and his dream of France to be a society based on
organic solidarity.
• When taking about simple and transitional phase he is using empirical data (positivists ) and the
organic solidarity (acting like a Philosopher). Thus DOL is not purely a positivists work. (Criticism)
In every society people divide work among themselves associated with different institutions and
manifest behavior driven by the collective conscience is called DOL.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————-
Rules of Sociological Methods
• This book was written by him 1895. He is addressing to three fundamental questions
◦ What is the subject matter of sociology ?
◦ Procedures or the rules a researchers must have to follow while conducting sociological
research .
◦ How is sociology different from psychology ?

Sociology and Psychology

• Prior to Durkheim John Stuart mills wrote that nothing is social because every individual manifest
behavior driven by his personal utilitarian needs and out of this behavior marriage , family , market
develops.
• Durkheim-

◦ Individuals development of self is a product of society. Eg- Identification through family,

society,institutions. Therefore society is prior to individuals. Individual behavior is always the
manifestation of conscience collective.
◦ Society gives opportunity to individual to gratify his need.
• Gabriel Trade - Customs are the regular repetitive way of doing things generation after generation
, one imitating to the work of other , values of other over a period of time. Therefore there is
nothing as collective , everything social everything collective starts with individual.
• Durkheim- Imitation is not selective it is not individual rather imitation is collective therefore
imitation is social. Example - First day in school one cries but imitates others and doesn’t cry on
32
 the subsequent day. People imitate those behavior which is socially approved. Therefore
everything individual is guided by social.
• Therefore sociology look how the individual behavior is shaped by collective prescription while
psychology studies individual behavior independent of collective prescription.
Subject Matter of Sociology
• Subject matter of sociology is to study social fact. Social facts are those human behavior,
relationships which are present in every sphere of society. If confirming to the will of the society it
is called normal social fact.
◦ Example socialization role of family is a normal social fact
◦ In economic sphere - Consumption behavior(Not eating meat) , investment pattern is a normal
social fact .
◦ In sphere of law - people conception of justice , collective mobilization
◦ Religious sphere- Way of performance of rituals
• Since social facts are present in every sphere of society and one can study them using scientific
methods. While studying it one is making different branches of sociology.
• In every society two social facts are present

◦ Normal social fact -

▪ Confirming to conscience collective.
▪ Product of collective thinking , feeling and acting.
• Nationalism , Patriotism - collective thinking

• How women feel in Delhi - collective feeling

• Parents acting identically to their young children, social movements - collective acting.
Collective acting gives life to social structures.
• Social structure , collective acting is visible and empirically verifiable are material social
facts.
• Collective thinking is Non material social facts though not observable, not tangible but
still they can be studied . Eg caste consciousness , Nationalism can be studied by
collecting data.
• Science studies material facts applying scientific facts while sociology can study both
material and not material facts using empirical data. Sociology is a superior form of
science than natural science.
• Collective feeling is based on experience which can be concretized and hence it is
material social fact.
◦ Pathological social fact - Not confirming to conscience collective
• In transitional societies ‘General social facts’ are present. Nothing is normal nothing is pathological.
• There are certain realities present which are supposed to be studied in totality and that reality is
called morphological social fact. Example settlement pattern of village should be studied in terms
of caste, religion, income inequality.
Features of social fact
• Social facts are absolutely different from psychological fact and biological fact. Example
Pretending to cry at a funeral whether it is not voluntarily but situations demands and everyone is
i T ki f d i bi l i l f t b t th ti i i l f t 33
 crying.Taking food is biological fact but the way we are eating is social fact.
• Social facts are external to individuals. They are driven by external forces. Example If one person
doesn’t marry the system of marriage is not going to collapse.
• Social facts makes demands on individuals. Example Caste system demands brahmins to maintain
distance from untouchables.
• Social facts are coercive in character or constraining character . If one comply to social facts no
appreciation but if one deviates from it then subject to punishment .
• Social facts are internal to society and people inherit them through birth and socialization in
society.
• Social facts are emergent in character i.e it is a product of other social facts. Example Farmer
suicide -> Debt trap, Crop failure , cyclic poverty, segmentary land holdings, less MSP. [Cause
Effect Relationship]
Procedures to be followed to study social facts
• Treat social facts as things.
◦ Things are tangible , visible ,observable and continuous in character. Example caste practice in
India.
◦ Social facts are the products of collective thinking , collective feeling and acting.They are
recurrent in character.
◦ Individual likes/dislikes is not going to change them. Example despite criticism caste continues
in India.
◦ Since they are recurrent one can collect data , build hypothesis and scrutinize it and go for
generalization.
**Counter view ‘social facts are not things’ - Explain Non positivists**
• When studying social facts use comparative methods. - It is the heart and soul of sociology
◦ Sociological research is not possible without comparison. Example in his DOL simple society v/s
modern society -> generalization(solidarity), Normal and pathological societies.
◦ Same structure at different places. Example Family in India.
◦ One structure at different times. Example - Caste system in India.
• Sociological research cannot wishfully ignore causal analysis.

◦ Cause effect relationship s foundation to sociological research.

◦ Example poverty due to landlessness , skillness , ... i.e one social fact emerge from other social
facts.Collect data and research about these social facts also.
◦ Series of causes give rise to a consequence.
◦ DOL is a social fact product of dynamic density , technology, ........ .
◦ Where causes are similar consequences would be similar.
Therefore sociology is the science of highest order
————————————————————————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————
Durkheim on Religion
-Book ‘Elementary forms of religious life’
34
Prior to Durkheim people talked about religion in varied ways
• Evolutionary/Idealistic Theory
◦ More concerned about origin of religion, how it progressed , how it will decline ?
◦ Animism Theory - EB Taylor
▪ Worshipping to the spirit of dead ancestors is the first form of religion ever known to
mankind.
▪ Every living things carry spirit. During sleep spirit goes out of body temporarily and enters
in minds creating dreams.
▪ During death spirit leaves the body permanently. Hence ancestor worships .
◦ Naturism- Max Muller
▪ Most ancient form of religion is nature worship practiced by Aryans(Hinduism). It contradicts
animism theory.
▪ It didn’t have deities but worship of 5 forces of nature.
▪ Man personified the god presence in nature.
◦ Durkheim is rejecting to this theory due to lack of empirical evidence.
• Modernist Theory
◦ Rousseau
▪ Religion is a body of superstitions coming out of the tyrannical mind of the priest.
▪ Religion is questioned with the rise of modern though.
▪ With the arrival of science and rationality , religion is bound to disappear.
◦ August Comte
▪ He divide society into 3 stages
• Theological stage- Religion fully present

• Metaphysical Stage- Religion partially present

• Modern society- Religion absent

◦ Durkheim- Religion is universally present because it has universal functionality. Structures may
be different. Where there is society there is religion present.
• Marxian view
◦ Religion is the hope of hopeless situations, soul of the soulless individual , it is the sigh of
the oppressed creature , it is an illusion , it is opium of the masses.
◦ Where there is religion revolution is not possible. It creates a sense of false
consciousness.
◦ Durkheim - Religion cannot be an illusion, had it been an illusion it could not have sustain
for so long. Rather than giving opinion one must collect data and study it
• Liberal View
◦ Robertson smith
▪ Religion should not be studied in terms of what people think rather it should be
studied with reference to what people do. That is religious consciousness is not the
subject matter of sociology , study it through rituals which are tangible, observable .
▪ Religion has 2 different kinds of role to play (Durkheim borrowed this)
• Regulatory role- regulate egoism

35
 • Stimulatory role - To be a part of a group/community/society
◦ Durkheim- There are two kind of two social facts material and non material social
facts(collective imagination). Therefore ritual are material social fact and religious
consciousness is non material social fact. Both can be studied by sociology using
scientific methodology.
• Symbolic Theory
◦ Tocquavalli
▪ Religion is a body of beliefs and a form of experience that converts external chaos into
regularity.
▪ Religion is present in every sphere of life economic,political and social.
▪ World meaning of religion centers around the idea of sacred that is different from
profane (which is utilitarian)
▪ Religion deals with rights and rituals but centrality to religion is much more beyond
them. Therefore it is a totalistic experience universally present.
• Fustel Decoulange - French Philosopher
◦ Religion is not external to man. Religion is this worldly affair. God is human
conceptualization about social life.
◦ When man didn’t have knowledge of language he was communicating with other through
symbols ,also didn’t know to make fire.
◦ When animals are killed in fire , man is tasting the flesh. Hence they started storing fire.
Everyday they would come to fire and share experience and hence fire became a symbol
of solidarity - sacred.
◦ When people settled down by clearing a patch of land which ensured their survival -(
Baisakhi , onam ). Through rituals they shared a sense of unity.
◦ Therefore it is conscience collective that drive religion and subject to continuity.

He is rejecting to the 4 theory and borrowing ideas from symbolic theory and Fustel he
developed positivistic view of religion .
• Religion is not a false belief because if it is illusion it would not continue for long period of
time.
• Religion is a knowledge giving experience through which human existence is defined , it is
nothing to with saving our soul or giving us salvation. From religion we get knowledge about
space, time , unity among people , society. Therefore sociology of knowledge and sociology
of religion is strongly connected.
• Religion is a body of beliefs and set of practices related to sacred things , i.e the things
which are forbidden and kept apart, beliefs and practices that unite people to constitute a
single , moral community called as as church.
◦ Family, nation , school can constitute a church.
◦ Wider definition to religion than the myopic view given by the predecessors.
• Distinction between sacred and profane
◦ People conception of sacred is always a matter of belief or faith.
36
 People conception of sacred is always a matter of belief or faith.
▪ Sacred can be people , place, object , relationships based on the belief.
◦ Sacred has strength giving character.
▪ Example - Living in ones nation one can do anything but in foreign country a sense of
fear develops.
◦ Sacred is non utilitarian in character.
▪ Even if it is not benefitting you sacred remains sacred.
▪ Example : Family is sacred to one even if it not benefiting
◦ Sacred makes demands on followers.
▪ National flag - Pay respect
◦ When profane enters into the world of sacred it sacrilising itself and vice a versa.
▪ Nothing fixed is sacred , nothing fixed is profane.
▪ Example - Statue of Ganesh made from clay, chemicals , POP.. . These materials
become sacred. On immersion , Ganesh has moved away from sacred to profane .
◦ Man relationship with sacred is not always fixed but respect for sacred is always fixed.
▪ Example - Farmers criticizes the country for low prices of produce but will never leave
the country, people may love god , criticizes god but always respect him.
◦ Sacred is universal in character
◦ Sacred binds people together.
Totemism- ARUNTA Tribes
He is using the data on religion collected by Spencer and Collins on ARUNTA tribe present in
Australia. These people practice totemism.
• Totem can be plants , animals , objects where from people believe that have been originated

from. Hence people carry totem name.

• ARUNTA are divided into 4 different clans

◦ Clan A- People descended from crocodile

▪ Responsible for fertility in soil for ARUNTA
◦ Clan B - Rabbit
▪ Responsible for children health in ARUNTA
◦ Clan C- snake
▪ Responsible for winning a war.
◦ Clan D- lizard
▪ Responsible for Climate .
• Hence religion is a knowledge giving experience as it gives different knowledge to ARUNTA
tribes.
• Totem distinguish between insiders and outsiders. [Religion gives identity]

• Totem is a living symbol of kinship and society. Trough totem one can view and feel society

which is not tangible [Totem is a symbolic manifestation of society].

• Totem is bridging the gap between Real world(Human) and ideal world(God)
37
 Totem is bridging the gap between Real world(Human) and ideal world(God).
• People put totem tattoos on their body, Image of totem on main gate to avoid spirits [It
gives them strength]
• Totem regulates marriage. Clan is a exogamous group. This brings clans close to each other.
• Totem worship in case of problem. Totem may not listen , people keep on going until
problem is cured and all credits goes to totem.
• Once in a year people come together and perform rituals to totem. [Collective glorification
of the society, people see society as totem]
◦ They are defined by collective conscience and hence one individual cannot change the
modalities of rituals.
• People perform totemic rituals in two situations
◦ Individual Problem Rituals
◦ Collective Rituals- Durkheim gives more importance on this.
▪ Physical co-presence [material fact]
▪ Share common mood ,motivation despite interpersonal differences.[Negative solidarity
to positive solidarity]
▪ Last day of ritual - glorifying the totem and seeking permission to kill the totem.
Conscience collective tells them to increase the population of totem , totem must be
killed. Sociologically problem - How can creation kill the creator ? This will lead to
disbelief in religion. This is guided by the conscience collective and hence egoism or
negative solidarity is wiped out. They share the totemic flesh and hence solidarity is
strengthened.[It promotes social cohesion]
What is totem to tribal society that is national flag, national anthem to modern society. Through
this totem we forget interpersonal differences and promote unity and harmony. Therefore
religion has nothing to do with salvation , soul it is the symbolic manifestation of the society .
Religion will not disappear with modern society the essence of religion [sacred] is same in all
societies. In modern society religion is not going to disappear.

Conclusion
• Religion is a social necessity. - Explain through all above facts

• Religion is a form of social control.

◦ It defines what is moral

◦ It makes demand on the followers.
◦ It regulates conflict.
◦ Regulates egoism and promotes unity/ altruism.
• Religion is a source of revitalization.

◦ Rituals promotes strength, energy.

• Religion is not just creed and faith. It is far more than that.

38
Criticism
• Durkheim is selectively picking up the data to confirm to his ideology.

• Malinowsky finds out 3 kinds of totemism in Australia

◦ Clan Totemism - promotes unity

◦ Sex totemism - Man and women born to different totem
◦ Personal Totemism - hierarchy of magicians - top magicians - Largest number of
personal totemism.
◦ Durkheim is looking only to clan totemism which unities to confirm his ideology and
ignores rest two totemism which divides. It is not only promoting solidarity but also
source of division among people.
• Robert Bellah (appreciated)

◦ More than American flag , national anthem and constitution- People in army , music
bands, sports are holding people together.Hence a civil religion is making appearance.
[Just like Amitabh Bachhan is for India].
• Runciman

◦ Durkheim theory of religion is a product of its time and also highly idealistic in character.
During that time France was in transition and Durkheim appeared as a priest.
• Peter Burger

◦ He is a phenomenologist. Religion is individual quest for meaning than collective

endeavor for society worship. [Why a poor will worship the society if one is victim of the
society] . Speak about religion from individual perspective.
◦ When collective religion fails people , they go for individualsation of religion [sects and
cults]
• Rodney stark

◦ Religion not only promotes unity among people it also divides them.

—————————————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————————
Durkheim on Suicide
• Only work of where he is using Positivistic methodology fully. *Always explain suicide if

asked*
• Why study suicide ?

◦ He wanted to prove that suicide is a product of society [social fact].

◦ Large data was available to study suicide.
◦ Personal reason - France and Prussia (Germany) used to fight wars against each other.
People were trained to fight war and in need they should go for war. His only child went
to fight and declared missing. Durkheim went into state of depression.
◦ His close friend Sandurai who was a philosopher and known for creative writing. He
committed suicide. He could not figure out why a man socially established , wealthy
committed suicide.
39
Any direct or indirect act of a person of which the victim is sure of the expected result is death
is suicide .
Before Durkheim many people studied suicide [Review of Literature]
• Gabriel Trade- Psychologist

◦ Suicide is an act of one imitating to others.

◦ Durkheim
▪ If it is an act of imitation then the family of victim must also commit suicide . But data
says 97% case family criticizes the person rather than following the footsteps
▪ Imitation is selective and collective. It is not arbitrary or personal.
• Michell Bravo - Psychologist

◦ People who carry a weak mind commit suicide. That is person suffering from aggression ,
low self esteem , addiction, health hazards, joblessness, broken heart, emotionally
instability (women, blacks, Protestant, young people).
◦ Durkheim- Data says men commits more suicide than women. No correlation between
alcoholism , drug addiction,joblessness and suicide.
• Robert Selvin- Demographer

◦ Strong correspondence between age and suicide, sex and suicide , climate and suicide,
religious community and suicide , ethnicity and suicide.
◦ Age-Two groups of people are more prone to suicide
▪ Teenagers
▪ Elderly people
▪ Durkheim-
• Unmarried people are more prone to suicide than married people. It is not the age
that matters . People belonging to that age integration with the society is less
(Teenagers)
• Elderly people are least prone to suicide according to data. Life becomes more

precious to them.
◦ Ethnicity -Protestants commit suicide more a against Catholics.
▪ Durkheim - Important question should be why Protestants are more prone to suicide.
In Protestants religion is giving them space to for achievement orientation,
individualism. Work is worship to them and less social interaction. Sense of self doubt
and anger if something is not achieved. While Catholics attend church regularly, social
bondage , emotional stability is high. Individual is connected to the group.Hence
ethnicity has noting to do with suicide.It is due to social factors.
◦ Climate- From Dec to June (Winter) rate of suicide declines . From June- Dec(Summer)
suicide rate increase
▪ Durkheim- Winter season is the season of festivity.Rituals revitalizes the individual,
social solidarity increases. In summer there is negative solidarity due to less rituals.
• Robert Beard- Anti Modernist
40
 ◦ In traditional societies people commits less societies as against modern society. In
modern society people carry limitless aspirations but limited means it that leads to
frustration.
◦ Durkheim- Rate of suicide is universally same. In a tribal society people commits as much
suicide as in modern suicide.
▪ Less suicide are reported in tribal society than actually happened.
▪ In tribal society there is collective suicide [wars]
▪ Form of suicide is different in every society.It is present in every society.

Hypothesis-
1. Suicide is universal in character, it is a social fact . Since it is a social fact we can understand
it by studying the organizational character of the society .
2.Sociology is not interested in incidence of suicide rather than rate of suicide.
• He is collecting data to find out that the decadal rate of suicide is constant.Incidence of
suicide is a psychological fact while rate of suicide is sociological fact.
3. Rate of suicide declines when there is natural calamity or when there is war.
4.Suicide rate and forms are defined by organizational character of society.
Suicide comes to all of us, takes us away without ourselves. There are suicidal currents present
in every society. People coming close to suicidal currents are goers. Suicide is caused by
society it is not an individual. It’s organizational character describes suicidal current.
Organizational character of the society [cause effect relationship]
• Every society is hold together because in society there is present regularity i.e an external
force that is binding us together. In some society regularity is high while in other it is low.
◦ A society where regularity is high will radiate fatalistic current .It will result in Fatalistic
suicide
◦ where regulation is low [individual is independent and can do anything ] will radiate
anomic current. Result is anomic suicide
• The extent to which individual is committed to conscience collective is integration. It can be
high or low.
◦ When integration is high then altruistic current[selflessness] will radiate. Where altruistic
current is high then altruistic suicide.
◦ When integration is low then egoistic current will radiate.Therefore egoistic suicide.

Types of suicide
• Fatalistic suicide

◦ Example very orthodox society and no freedom given to individual.

• Anomic suicide 41
• Anomic suicide
◦ No rules and regulation. People may become highly prosperous but also anomie also
takes away everything.
◦ He divides anomic suicide into two types
▪ Domestic anomic suicide
• Chronic DAS - Prolonged

◦ Family stability , attachment is not there.

◦ No purpose to live then people commit suicide
• Acute DAS - All of sudden

◦ Example all members of the family died except one all of sudden
▪ Economic anomic suicide
• Chronic EAS

◦ Landlessness , skillessness, no access to capital

◦ Primary affect to migrant population.
◦ Cannot meet the basic needs of family.
◦ Example - Whole family committing suicide because they are not able to survive.
◦ It is a product of churning poverty. People cannot escape from it. Example
farmers committing suicide.
• Acute EAS

◦ Financial crises all of sudden, loss of fortune.

• Altruistic suicide
◦ Individual integration to society is absolute , individualism is dead or become paralyzed.
◦ One can sacrifice life for the society ,caste, ethnic group,tribe.
◦ Example ISIS , Bhagat singh.
◦ Altruism can be voluntaristic or it can be enforced.Once it is enforced one forgets its
individuality, rationality ..
◦ Example soldiers killing themselves for nation, fire fighters risking their life for saving
others.
• Egoistic suicide
◦ Individualism is at highest , people have no time for others. People become self focussed
to get success and recognized. At the later stage the realized that what they have lost ,
self defeat .
◦ Highly successful people with no meaning in life committing suicide.

Problem
• Durkheim outrightly rejects the psychological aspects of suicide because he doesn’t study
incidence of suicide.
—————————————————————————————————————————————
42
Sociological Thinkers -Karl Marx
He is not a person but an institution. Individuals may come and go but institutions remains.He never
wrote for sociology, economy , political science but for humanity. He borrowed ideology from French
Revolution of 18th century reflecting on the conditions which were coming out of industrialization in
19th century and instrumental for communist revolution in 20th century. Marx may be dead but
Marxism is not.
Background
• Born in Germany, 5th child of his parents, his father was a lawyer . Jews were subjected to
discrimination.
• Before the birth of Marx his father converted to Christianity.Mother was Dutch.

• Marx in school developed interest in philosophy and literature. He excelled in Latin and Greek
language.
• He was sent to university of Bonn. His neighbor of West Phane who highly appreciated Saint
Simon. During his stay he developed interest in philosophy.
• West Phane was impressed by Marx due to his intellect. His daughter was Jenny.
• He got into fights and drug addiction and rusticated from the University. Then he went to Berlin
University. Hegel was teaching there. People constituted a discussion forum called discussion club.
• Hegel was a celebrity at that time , Marx as an undergraduate criticized an article of Hegel. He got
recognition.
• After thesis he started his first article criticizing the country. He was banned from all university of
germany.
• Back at home he sold his property and started a journal , which was highly critical to state.
German government banned the magazine.
• He then shifted to Belgium. In Belgium he started criticizing the government , bureaucrats. He was
thrown out.
• He then went to France and settled there. He started supporting to industrial laborers, criticizing
capitalist and he was thrown out. He met Fredrick Engels who arranged for house in England and
encouraged him to write against industrialist. He was living in labour camp. Laborers used to work
for 16-18 hours and paid very little.
• He died at his study table while writing.

• He never wrote for academic purpose , his purpose was to change the world.

Contributions of Karl Marx

• Writings of Young Marx

◦ He is evolutionary, humanistic.
◦ Theory of Alienation.
W iti f Old M Whil li i i L b 43
• Writings of Old Marx - While living in Labor camp
◦ He is revolutionary.
◦ Theory of class conflict , revolution.

Hegel
The scholars who debated on the works of Hegel were divided into 2 groups
• One was appreciating the work of Hegel and were known as Hegelians. No difference between
Hegel and Hegelians.
◦ They were idealist.
• Those who criticized were Young Hegelians. Marx borrowed ideas from them and developing his
own ideas and on the basis of his own theory criticizing Hegel.
◦ Ludwig and Bavier were young hegelians.
◦ Young hegelians were realist.
◦ Marx made his own after refining realist -materialistic theory.

Hegel was an idealist .

• He tells everything comes from human consciousness i.e human mind is the mother of all things
surrounding ourselves , our existence is also the product of thought. I exist because i think , i think
because i carry a mind. [Example - Thinking the women is object therefore he becomes a rapist]
• Mind develop consciousness from out of which develops science ,architecture... . Therefore mind
is the engine of civilization.
• Our thoughts are not fixed, every thought is questioned by another thought to give rise to a new
thought. Therefore human consciousness is driven by dialectics. [Dialectics of Ideas]
• He applies idealist theory to explain evolution of society. Societies are evolving in 3 stages
according to ideas
◦ Driven by universal reflexivity [Tribal societies/ Simple society]
▪ Every mind reflecting on everything in identical manner.
▪ What is mechanical solidarity to Durkheim that is universal reflexivity to Hegel.
◦ Driven by universal egoism [Civil society - rule bound society, industrial society, ] *Today civil
society is different*
▪ Mind is concerned only about the self interest of the individual.
▪ Example autocratic rulers, feudal lords, priestly class , early industrial society.
◦ Driven by universal altruism [State]
▪ Deficiencies of CS can be addressed if a new society make appearance called State. State
is the march of mind on this earth.
▪ State is the product of mutual faith , humanism, mutual cooperation. State is march of god
on this earth.
▪ When speaking about state a concrete political state should not be kept in mind. State is an
ideal creation of mind. When this state makes appearance it will not be coming with all 44
 ideal creation of mind. When this state makes appearance it will not be coming with all
perfected elements. Therefore making of state is a continuous process. It is going through
process of dialectics.
▪ A human being is a human being despite the fact he is carrying deformity of body and mind.
Young hegelians says state is nice to think, such kind of state has never ever appeared in the history
of mankind. It is a mere ideal romanticism. State is not just the product of mind but also the act of
people. Man may act for the gratification for class interest rather than mass interest.Since i exist i have
a mind. Real experience of life determine your consciousness.[Realist View of State]

Marx tells the those who are dominating in modes of production determine the destiny of state.
Capitalist will have indirect influence on the state. Feudal state is catering to the needs of feudal lords
, capitalist state is catering to the need of industrialist. State is not he voice of voiceless. [Materialistic
View of state]

State is guided patriarchal mindset [Feminist View of state]

*It is the consciousness that determine beings or the being determines consciousness . Comment
* Explain Hegel View and realist view
*How hegelians concept of state is being questioned by subsequent scholars?*
Hegel on Religion
• Religion is a product of human consciousness. Man thinks there is a god therefore god exist. For
those who think god is not there , god doesn’t exist.
• Once we believe there is god then one make distinction between human and god , giving him all
the powers.
• On the basis of belief in god one defines what is moral and immoral.
• Therefore god is a product of human consciousness that regulates our everyday life, behavior.

• God is not person specific , non tangible , it is a form of faith. God is a form of creative , protective
and integrative spirit. Omnipotent , omniscient , Omnipresent.
• With the arrival of modernity , rationality and science man questions to the very existence of god.
• What man has done to God[Alienation] , that technology would do to Man.

Young Hegelians on Religion

• Religion is not a product of Human consciousness. Therefore God is not creator man is not
creation . Man is instrumental in making of god.
• All living human beings carry extra ordinary qualities but they are dispersed.When someone carry
some of these qualities we identity the person as God. [Ram was not born God but people made
hi G d] 45
 him God]
• Over a period of time God is colonized by a class and inject false beliefs in the mind of common
people. This give rise to priestly class. Once god is colonized he become the private property and
exploit the mass. Hence God is used to justify class interest.
• Therefore religion never promotes social control , its justifies the exploitation [opposition to Hegel]
• God is not alienated he is used as private property. True religion is humanism.
Marx on religion
• Religion is the hope of hopeless situation , soul of the soulless individuals , illusion , sigh of the
oppressed classes , it is the opium of the masses.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————-
Historical Materialism

• It means materialistic interpretation of history. History means society. Therefore it is materialistic

interpretation of human society.
• A society where FOP is controlled by everybody is normal society for Marx. Otherwise it is
pathological society for Marx. Extreme form of pathological society is capitalist society. [compare
it with Durkheim Normal and pathological society]
• Marx is developing an evolutionary approach to show how human society is developing from one
stage to another. Technological progress lead to human progress ultimately to social progress.
Foundation to social progress is technological progress.
• Human beings to survive , exist and to continue their survivalism must be engaged in production
and reproduction of material life .
◦ Primary need of man is survival need. Man in order to think must have to eat (produce).
• When people are engaged in production , they have to exploit nature. When we are exploiting to
nature people are not doing same kind of work. This is called Division of Labor.
◦ When people are exploiting the nature they are engaged in different types of jobs.
◦ Division is labour is the differential involvement of people in the exploitation of nature for the
gratification of their needs. Therefore Division of labour is an economic phenomenon and not a
social phenomenon. [Compare with Durkheim]
• Production is impossible without factors of production (Instruments of production/ means of
production/force of production)
◦ Land
◦ Technology
◦ Capital
◦ Labour, skills .. ...
• With the advancement of society FOP keeps changing. When FOP is controlled by everybody,
everybody is using them to produce the material goods which becomes property of everybody.
Such society is a classless society 46
 Such society is a classless society.
• Destiny of society is determined by who controls over FOP.
◦ When FOP is controlled by everybody - Normal society/ Classless society
◦ When FOP is controlled by one group- Pathological society/ Class society. People who are
controlling over FOP don't use their labour.
• Production relation is form of property relations coming out of control or lack of control over FOP.
That production relations defines DOL in society.
◦ It is the choice of dominant class who are deciding what one needs to do. Hence it is not a
voluntaristic act. One has no other choice.
◦ Production relationship is guided driven by economic interest and not a social relationship.
◦ DOL is not a society choice, it is driven by dominant class. DOL is external to individual choice
and internal to class choice.
◦ DOL is the product of survivalist needs of the individual [Compare with Durkheim]
• Materialistic base is a foundation to society. Conditions in the materialistic base would be
determining the nature and form of society.
• All the relationship in the world are based on materialistic relationship.
• Everything is founded and grounded on Materialistic base. Example- State, religion , relationships.
• Every society has two parts
◦ Economic Base -Every society is standing on it.
◦ Superstructure- All institution in the superstructure are influenced by the base.
▪ State - Gratifying the needs of those who control FOP.
▪ education [more engineer and medical colleges today],
▪ Religion [appropriate kinds of values are given by religion according to the mode of
production],
▪ Family [It kills the creativity , innovation of the child and compels him to do what he never
want to do]- Study something that is salable in the market .Therefore it supplies manpower
to the market. When production system changes role of family also changes.
▪ Law- property , labor , Tax law is favoring to people dominant in groups in the economic
base.
• When FOP -> Economic relations -> economic base - Superstructure is changing.
Mode of production is the factors of production and Production relationship combined together
[Economic base= FOP+ Production relation]
There are present 5 different modes of production

1.Primitive mode of production

• Human history starts with this MOP.
• FOP is forest land elementary tools human labour 47
 • FOP is forest land, elementary tools, human labour.
◦ Land is the product of nature meant for human production. Land is community property meant
for livelihood and not for profit.
◦ Tools and technology are the extension of labour that facilitates production , never determines
production. Example Bows and arrow. Everybody knows how to make tools, use tools and
repair tools.
◦ Labour- Everybody is using his labour for the production. Labour is not exploited. Collective
use of labour is prevalent.
• DOL- Every kind of work is known to everybody. DOL is not based on specialization. On the basis
of convenience they distribute work among themselves .
• Nature and form of exchange-Exchange doesn’t give profit .It is only expanding the consumption
pattern.
• Education, law are driven by equality[superstructure]. This is classless society.
• It is present in tribal societies. He. Is collecting data from different types of tribal societies of the
world.
2.Ancient mode of production
• When there is population expansion - more mouths to feed, natural resources are limited ->wars
for sustenance. Winning tribes would gain the control over productive resource and defeated
tribes are converted into slaves. Then using slaves to win more wars and labour. Therefore two
classes masters and slaves are making appearance.
• FOP- Land, tools and labour that was a collective property now became the property of masters.
Production relationship is unequal now , Therefore superstructure would also change reflecting on
economic base.
• Defaulters on land are also converted into slaves , slaves are also purchased from market.
Therefore status of master is defined by number of slaves.
• Few winning tribes are developing agreements to stop warfare and because of agreement peace
prevails. Therefore security of the tribes should be guaranteed. Hence tiny kingdoms are
established. Masters living in fortified building and slave living near to them as warriors. Different
type of weapons , pottery , goods and commodities came into prominence. Hence trade
developed.
• Therefore class structure is developing in a big way. Masters and slaves.
• Technological advancement has not taken place , trade and commerce was restricted , profit was
restricted to masters.
3.Feudal mode of production
• New construction material came into prominence - timber and teak market was sinking. Masters
realized keeping so many of slaves was a liability. Then gradually benefits to slaves are cutted.
Conflict between masters and slave. Slaves are free (social freedom) but FOP is still controlled by
masters.
Land is now used for agriculture New technology come into prominence (plough) irrigation These48
• Land is now used for agriculture.New technology come into prominence (plough), irrigation. These
masters are converted into feudal lords. Tenants for their survival would be coming to feudal lords
for land in terms of lease, tools and technology and accepting to the dictated terms of feudal lords.
• Feudal lords would be appointing tax collectors. If some tenants refuse to pay tax , feudal lords
would be recruiting private army [Rajakhs by Nizam].
• Vassal is a holder of land by feudal tenure on conditions of homage and allegiance. Vassal will
decide who will get land grants. He would be sending army in case of non payments for collection.
This land is subjected to hereditary transmission. Feudal lord would be only speaking to the vassal.
• Landlords would also be lending money for making money, expanding the size of land. Therefore
more land more status. Therefore land has become a mercantile property. Ultimately few landlords
would be left out , each equally powerful with huge army . Hence these landlords declare
themselves as rulers of their territory. The most powerful landlord would be nominated a monarch.
Every ruler would be giving tax to him and he would be giving protection to them.
• Monarchy needs to get ideological justification. To give ideological justification to supremacy and
persistence of monarch. They create church. Law is made by monarch in consultation with feudal
lords and getting sanction from church.
• Nobility will be surviving on the wealth of serfs. Serfs will be working on the land but will be giving
more tax for the luxury of the elites who are nobility .
◦

• Large number of producers will be making appearance in the countryside who would be engaged
in activities for the comfort of leisure class. Eg artisans , builders ,weapon making. Therefore all
skilled people , laborers are being exploited by the leisure class. Leisure class(Monarch, Lords,
Army) would be living in quality buildings. Hence city has make appearance. Cities are the product
of economic needs and not the culture.
49
• Leisure class is expanding in feudalism and hence more and more tax is extracted from serfs. Best
choice left to them is to come together and fight against feudal lords because even if working for
them survival is not guaranteed. [Example teebagh movement].
• Landlords would be suppressing these movements.
• Overseas trade is making appearance. Slowly landlords made investments in the capital goods.
Landlords gave this responsibility to middlemen. When navigation came into prominence it
become safe for trade , middlemen were removed and emergence of formative capitalist class
made appearance. Monarch would be giving them patronage. Therefore agricultural land would
now be converted into industrial space. Serfs have to survive and agriculture is no longer an
profitable activity and hence they started working as industrial workers.
• *Similarly capitalist of India are born out of land.Landed people went for diversification of income
sources- Commercial agriculture exploiting to the labour of others.*
• Looking at the demands of goods feudal lords would be investing in technology, transportation.
State would be supporting these traders.
• Land hungry people who are not skilled would be migrating to urban center -> cheap labour
become easily available. Therefore capitalist would become richer and laborers would be exploited.
[New market came into prominence where capitalist and middlemen can sell their produce].
• From out of the ruins of feudalism , capitalism is developing .
4.Capitalist mode of production

Features
• Capitalism evolves out of guild system [Guild system-Different artisans are producing varieties of
good and services staying at their own place].
◦ Commodities are purchased by middlemen [traders] exploiting to the labour of artisans and
sold for a profit.Middlemen would be encouraging all the artisans to settle at one place,
providing them with raw materials , transportation , selling. [Example Kanpur famous for
shoes/leather]
◦ Unless and until antagonistic class are coming together then mode of production is not
possible.[Middleman and workers ]
◦ This system would continue for some time. This is formative capitalism.
◦ Traders/middlemen would be trying their best to multiply profit with the volume of production is
more -> Introducing new technology . Looting the profit of artisans middlemen is generating his
own wealth. Trader is becoming a manufacturer.
◦ Once he become a manufacture he would be retaining only those artisans who can adapt and
others would be driven away. These artisans would become landless labourers. Jobless people
number would be increasing.
• Capitalism is engaged in commodity production
◦ [Through the application of human labour when one is transforming natural resources into
marketable goods and resources is called production]
50
 ◦ Converting human labour labour into objects is called commodity production.
◦ With the rise of capitalism what is to be produce, how much to be produce , for whom to be
produce , volume of production , price are all becoming external to labour. [FOP is controlled by
capitalist] unlike feudalism.
◦ commodities are sold in the name of capitalist unlike feudalism.
• Capitalism is an exploitative system.
◦ Exploiting to the labour capitalist generate huge wealth. State call this legitimate wealth.
• Appropriation of surplus value of labour. [Essence of capitalism]
◦ The difference between use value and exchange value of labour is surplus.
◦ In the formative stage of capitalism a large number of labour force striped out of agriculture are
prepared to migrate to urban centers and ready to work as wage labour. Opportunities are
limited and the employers made them work extensively. This cannot continue for a long period
of time otherwise labour revolt.
◦ In the second stage , the capital generated by exploiting the labour , this capital will be
investing in up gradation of technology. His margin of profit would be less in initial years but
once it starts operating dependency on labour would be minimized.
◦ Large number of the people would be loosing their jobs and only few people would be required
to operate the machines [skilled]. When laborers are few but supply is more , then more and
more numbers of people would be going for skill attainment. For one post thousands would be
competing and capitalist would get access to cheap labour.
◦ Three kinds of laborers will be available when capitalism matures
▪ Floating laborers - Living in and around industrial space trying their luck in different
factories. They are not bothered about wage.
▪ Latent Laborers- People living in villages, always ready to learn and work at cheap price at
urban areas. Prepared to take any risk. [Example conductors becoming driver by learning],
[Latent because they are hidden in villages ]
▪ Static Laborers- Not interested in work, don’t enjoy work but without work they cannot
survive. Working for a day or a two for not to work for a week. They are ready to sell their
labour at any price.
◦ Value of constant capital increases while the value of variable capital decreases.More the
labour is becoming productive more the laborer is becoming worthless.
▪ When the laborers is carrying his wage at the end of the month , goes to the market where
products of different capitalist is available. Profit is going to different capitalist.
• Capitalism is a money centric system
◦ Those who have money they are the hero those who don’t are marginalized.
◦ Prosperity of the few is coming from the suffering of the masses.
◦ In pre capitalists system [CMC], commodity is exchanged for money , using that money to buy
something which one want. Money is transitory. It is not meant for accumulation.
◦ Capitalism is driven by [MCM]. Using money people buy commodity and sell this commodity
with profit. Money defines success , capability , worth in society.
51
 ◦ Everything is evaluated in terms of money.
• Competition between capitalist.
◦ When capitalism matures , the people having money they will be using the money to create
constant capital.[Since they have lots of money they can invest - Example Jio]. They will be
going for diversification to maximize the profit.
◦ Market is open to everybody having money. Small capitalists would also be trying their luck.
There are some people who have already skill , capital advantage [monopoly]. Small capitalist
would be wiped out. Petty Bourgeoise would be squeezed out from the market and big
bourgeoise monopoly would be established.
◦ When capitalism matures only few capitalists would be left in the market. Small traders would
become jobless. Pauperization[mass poverty] of the masses would take place.
• Competition between Capitalists and Laborers[Class and class conflict in capitalist society]
◦ Wherever there is class, class conflict is inevitable. When capitalism matures are large body of
hungry , jobless proletariats will make appearance these include laborers, petty bourgeoise,
small traders ..
◦ Capitalism is an exploitative system when it matures where priest , poets and performers all
are reduced into soldiers of the private army.
◦ Once they realize that their poverty is not their making , false class consciousness is replaced
by true class consciousness. False class consciousness[Class in itself] divides true class
consciousness[class for itself] unites. In the name of DOL capitalism is dividing the laborers so
that they may not come together. DOL is the manifest Division of laborers is latent. Example
Designations are different , work and demands are different therefore people maintain
difference .
◦ But when capitalism matures false class consciousness is replaced by true class consciousness
,[objective class experience will be merging with the subjective class consciousness]-True
class consciousness . When all of us are objectively experience poverty then true class
consciousness develop.
◦ Homogenization of the working class would take place. Society is polarized into 2 groups haves
and haves not [Bourgeoise , proletariats]
◦ So far in other societies dominant class benefitted from class conflict but in capitalist society
due to true class consciousness revolution would take place and proletariat would win for the
first time. This will lead to revolution and ultimate rise of socialism.
Why conflict in capitalism ?
constant capital is increasing and variable capital decreasing.

#[Sociology is questioning to capitalism while economics is celebrating to capitalism]#

#Capitalism is not just about making money , it is a spirit which makes us always busy to exploit the
others.Capitalism started with colonialism and now showing its face in form of globalization and one
doesn’t know the ending point of capitalism. Capitalism has infected every sphere, every relationship
f lif C it li i t h k tb i it bl t f lif # #Si Id # 52
of life.Capitalism is a system where market become inevitable part of your life.#. #Sir Ideas#

Socialist mode of production

• Conflict in capitalism is conflict of wealth.Once revolution take place working class would take all
the wealth.They will be bringing the industries under the control of state or will constitute a
cooperative.
• Production will be taking place for people consumption and not for market.
• More importance would be given on quality to distribute among people living in the society .

• Everybody would be working and no one would be living on the labour of other. Nobody could sit
idle.
• Depending on the capability work would be assigned. No private wealth would be present.
• If there is surplus it will be distributed among the people.

• Economic fluctuations would not be there unlike capitalism.

• In socialistic societies economic inequalities would disappear.

• Socialism is a transitory stage between exploitative capitalism and equalitarian communism.

◦ To encourage workers to give their best to production socialism give them incentives not in
terms of money but in terms of kind.[Employee of the month]
◦ Therefore differences is present in socialism which can be minimized by working hard.
Therefore revolution would not take place.
Communist Societies
• Everybody would be participating in economic planning at local, regional and national level.

• Everybody would be participating in decision making process[Unitary Party- Communist Party]

• No class , no inequality .[equalitarian society]

• Human history starts with classless character and end with classless character but in the first
case it is the gift of nature while in the second it is the human endeavor.
• Socialism is driven by the principle of one according to its capacity [there are differences] while
communism is driven by one according to his needs.
• All that is needed will be provided by the state.
• No where in the world communism had made appearance, it is an utopian ideology.

• When communism comes there would be no class , class conflict , therefore human history would
end here.
• No country in the world is communist and socialist , element of capitalism is always present.

Criticism
• We cannot predict the future or end of history because data is not present. Till capitalism he is
using facts and historical evidence.
• History is a product of accident which Marx fails to recognize [Lenin was accidentally released by
53
 Germany who brought October revolution in Russia ]
• Individuals can make history , they can remake history which Marx fails to recognize. He is
overemphasizing on materialistic determination of history.
• Marxian theory of history is partial ,deterministic , it never takes into consideration accident
,individuals .
• How is base is influencing to superstructure is missing in the writings of Marx.
• Marxian theory can be applicable to Europe and not to all parts of the world.
• Facts are pulled to fit into the ideology of Marx. Therefore it cannot be called scientific theory.
• It overemphasizes on conflict neglecting cooperation. Therefore he is known as founder of conflict
theory.
*To what extent Marxian theory of feudal mode of production applicable to India / universally applied ?
*
• European feudalism was an economic construct but Indian feudalism is a colonial construct. before
colonial rulers came to India there were no feudal lords present.
• India base is feudal with a capitalist superstructure. Both capitalism and feudalism mutually
coexist in India.
• War against feudalism in case of Europe gave rise to capitalism but in India war against feudalism
gave rise to nationalist movement.
• In case of India landlords may go for self cultivation in Punjab , Haryana .

• Increase in wages may continue the persistence of feudalism .[Bardoli , champaran Satyagraha]
• Capitalism developed in agriculture in India while it developed in industries in west. Rural capitalist
, rural bourgeoise are making appearance in India.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————-
Relevance of Marxism to contemporary times

Marx reflected on the formative capitalism

• In the formative stage , capitalist doesn’t have huge wealth , limited technology exploiting to the
labour.
• This capitalism is different from what we see today.[Structural change in form of capitalism].
Today capitalism can be called as knowledge based capitalism while Marx reflected on commodity
based capitalism.
• Capitalism is becoming a global phenomenon while Marx wrote it was society specific
phenomenon.
• Capitalism in today world is invincible institution and the limitations of capitalism are sufficiently
addressed.
◦ Capitalism was generating profit only for capitalist-Industry has got large number of
54
 Capitalism was generating profit only for capitalist Industry has got large number of
shareholders today where public invest. Profit is shared among themselves. Therefore
monopoly over industry has reduced.
◦ Unless expertise and management is efficient industries cannot compete. In contemporary
society top level managers are getting good perks and share over profits.
◦ There is a shift from monopolistic capitalism to cooperative capitalism.
**There is a qualitative difference between capitalism and socialism **
• Explain from above points.- Marx
• Contemporary sociologist are looking at real socialism at work. Their finding tell that difference
between socialism and capitalism is not so great
◦ Raymond Aron-‘18 lectures on industrial societies’
▪ Industrial societies can be divided into capitalist and socialist. Industries is FOP in both of
them.
▪ Industry unites while ideology divides.
▪ In both societies industries are making production but the only difference is that in
socialistic societies only one agent is controlling all industry while in capitalist there are
numerous industrialist. Therefore state is super industrialist. Therefore there is structural
similarity between both.
▪ Industries makes production , labour is being exploiting the labour for defense ,
maintenance . Hence labour is being exploited by state in socialistic societies.
▪ In capitalism there is also welfare policies present [Progressive taxation, CSR]
▪ Therefore not much difference between socialism and capitalism today.
◦ Scandinavian countries are the brilliant examples of combination of best of capitalism and
socialism.
▪ State is giving unemployment allowance.
▪ Once job is given major part of income is given to state as tax.
◦ Ralf Dahrendroff-‘Class and class conflict in industrial society’
▪ Class cannot be explain only in economic sense. More than economic class , political class
matter in modern society. Political conflict is as much intensive in socialist societies as much
it is in capitalist societies. Therefore class conflict is universal while economical inequality is
society specific. Socialistic societies cannot be called as classless societies.
◦ Critical Theory
▪ State is evolving into repressing institution in socialistic societies.[In socialistic country state
is engaged in repression over its citizens by controlling wishes and choices] through army,
bureaucracy.
▪ In capitalistic societies man is enslaved by market. Wishes and choices are restricted by the
availability in the market.
**Who controls capitalism? How they control capitalism?**
55
 • Bourgeoise , control over FOP- Marx
• Louis Althusser- ‘For Marx’. [ as a Critical Theorist]
◦ Source of control in capitalism is not money unlike Marx said. Primary source of domination is
ideology.
◦ State is controlled by ruling class. When they come to power they try to inject the ideology in
the masses. This ideology is also transported to family through ideological state apparatus
[mass media, education], repressive state apparatus - [Police , laws] .
• P Bourdieu
◦ Capital is not always meaning money. It exist in multiple forms. It has exchange value [Anything
that can be exchanged in search of benefit is capital]. He talks about 3 kinds of capital
▪ Cultural capital- Knowledge [Teacher, intellectuals]
▪ Economic Capital - Material Wealth [Ambani, Industrialists]
▪ Symbolic capital - Power [Example collector, Ministers]
◦ They constitute dominant class.There is competition between three. Each type of capital is
passed through generation[reproduction]. Ruling class is reproducing itself and hence
difference between them and masses is always maintained.Therefore multiple forms of
domination persists
• Gramsci
◦ Wrote against Mussolini poisoned and died in jail.
◦ He belongs to critical theorist who considers socialistic societies persisting now are not
classless societies whether it is democracy or it is socialism hegemonistic rule of a group of
people prevails. In democracy promising employment for the masses , public welfare, waiving
of loans they live in the heart of masses but once in power they forget their promises to people.
Similarly in socialism in the name of people rule a handful of elites rule over the masses ,
therefore collective mobilization of the conscious citizens driven by public welfare can bring
forward counter hegemony for the making of people rule in socialism and inclusive democracy
in capitalism.
“Polarization and proliferation “
• Marx- In matured capitalism there is polarization.
• Weber - In capitalism many rich are falling from virtues due to internal or external risks. Therefore
no guarantee that capitalist will be retaining his wealth. Therefore upper class can experience
downward mobility. Similarly people from lower strata are migrating and making fortunes.
Therefore upper and lower class is shrinking and there is proliferation of middle class. [Migrant
population in India]. Therefore capitalism is becoming a global phenomenon.
• Gold Thrope
◦ Embourgeoisement [feeling like rich], polarization is a myth while proliferation is a myth.

”Alternatives to revolution”
What laborers actually do when they are unhappy Marx does not take this it into consideration but56
 • What laborers actually do when they are unhappy Marx does not take this it into consideration but
what people should do he takes about.[Bloody revolution]
• They can switch from one company to another.
• People use their mind depending on the gravity of the situation, Protest is not always
collective,revolutionary , ideologically charged.
• Marx speaks about only one form of capitalism. In reality capitalism exist in multiple forms.
Problem are different. It has evolved from monopolistic capitalism to collaborative capitalism to
welfare capitalism[workers welfare is more important, school , paternity leave,CSR]. Capitalism is
replaced by capitalism than experiencing proletariat revolution.
• Breverman - 'Labor monopoly and capitalism' and John scott - 'managerial capitalism'
◦ Capitalist make investment in industries , employing labor , exploiting labour generating surplus
then investing that to constant capital , going for diversification . Hence monopolistic capitalism
develops. But numerous people are making investment in industries hence required
professionals to run the industries. Once does not know the owner but the manager of the
industry. They can always change the company. Hence they would never be homogenizing
with the unskilled workers. Hence today industry is manager focussed , labour focussed and
not the industrialist focussed. During the time of Marx the capitalism we had is different from
the today’s capitalism.
”Class in itself and class for itself ”
• Write Marx first.
• George Lucas
◦ Reification is an idea or thing people want to change for better. It is not just wishful thinking it
the actual effort people putting together to make it work. Therefore reification is different from
revolution. It is not indulged in violence. [Example Environmental movements - Chipko
Movement, Ban on crackers].[Women movement - All Indian women coming together ]. Class
for itself can promote unity among anyone not just proletariat. It means common ideas,
common course of action. Therefore Marxian idea of class for itself is myopic idea.
◦ Marxian understanding of true class consciousness is myopic.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Alienation
It is a form psychic dislocation or detachment of the workers in modern capitalism. -Marx
It is forwarded by young Marx, theory of revolution is developed by old Marx. Young Marx talks about
problem of capitalism while old Marx talks about the solution.
[Durkheim also talks about problem of anomie in modern capitalism]
• Anomie is the only problem of capitalism for Durkheim while for Marx commodity production,
market centric production exploitation of labor are the problem of capitalism 57
 market centric production , exploitation of labor ... are the problem of capitalism.
Q*Compare between anomie and alienation*
• Anomie is a mass experience while alienation is a class experience.
• Rapid social change leads to anomie while exploitative production in capitalism leads to alienation.

• Anomie gives temporal happiness and permanent suffering while alienation gives permanent
dissatisfaction,detachment and disconnect.
• Social reforms and social reconstruction are solution to anomie while revolution is solution to
alienation.
• Anomie is a transitional problem while alienation is a problem of exploitative capitalism.
• Both are instruments of social progress and social change.[Without anomie organic solidarity wont
come while without alienation revolution is not possible]
*Why no alienation in pre capitalist societies *
Marx talked about 4 types of alienation associated with capitalism.
• Alienation from product
◦ Product is a finished good when human labor is attached to property of nature.
◦ Behind every production there is productive labour.
◦ Labor produces everything , capital produces nothing because capital is itself a product of
labour.
◦ Every commodity by labour has social usefulness. Therefore life is given to the commodity.
◦ Irony of capitalism is that product is detached from the labour.
◦ People do not produce because they want to produce but they produce they are force to
produce. Works never produce what they want to and leads to alienation.
• Alienation from process of production

◦ If there are no other compulsions , man would be running from the work just like people running
from plague.
◦ Process of production is routinized , non satisfying , psychologically unsatisfied , monotonous .
Then labour feels alienated.
◦ [This alienation is not universally applicable. Work may be routinized and continuous but
alienation varies from one work to another. Example teacher teaching same subject every year
but audience is different which is not leading to alienation , scientific research]
◦ Therefore Marx is giving a generalized understanding of alienation
• Alienation from production environment
◦ In production environment raw materials , profit , transportation ,health of the machines
,outputs ,wage , increment is discussed.
◦ No ethics , humanism , emotional connectivity in production environment.[Calling sir,team
leader]
◦ In production environment nothing is discussed but money , brave is one who can purchase
58
 p g y, p
bravery in the market. [Example manager is brave due to his more salary].
◦ Work environment is mechanistic , everything related to money is discussed. Therefore man
feels alienated.
◦ In today environment work environment is changed -{People working as team , calling others
by name , money is not discussed,work from home}. Therefore the kind of work Marx saw is
different from today work. Man today is less alienated.
• Alienation from self and society
◦ Self is always developed by the opinion of others. When born as child there is no self.[Example
being born as a women is different but being a women a different experience].
◦ Self comes from the opinion of others.
◦ Self is lost in the process of production. Mechanical or technical name is given to the labor {Roll
no , designation}
◦ In industrial society and in capitalism we are loosing our self and identity.
◦ Man in case of capitalism is spending is majority of the time at work which he is supposed to
spend in religion , children , neighbor ,family,kinship,social relationship .In the whole process
man is alienated from society.
◦ Every human being is born creative , carry sensuality is lost because person become a victim of
capitalism. [Creativity is butchered ,emotions are ignored]. Born as a human being but reduced
to object.
Criticism
Marxian theory of alienation is revisited by contemporary scholar
• Ollman
◦ It is very difficult to distinguish between alienation and job dissatisfaction. When a person is
not satisfied from the job because it is alienated. He doesn’t revolt against the system rather
they go for something meaningful , which gives them happiness.
• Seeman
◦ Alienation is a form of psychic deprivation that we can measure in a scale. All are not identically
alienated , forms of alienation are different , cause for alienation are different. Marx gives
uniform theory of alienation while multiple explanations is given by seeman.
◦ Alienation comes in form of
▪ Powerlessness - {Cannot stand for an honest person}- would wait for the right time rather
than revolting.
▪ Meaninglessness-[When corrupt people are promoted while other demotivated]- People
would be more focused so that system would change rather than destroying the system.
▪ Isolation- It is temporal . People try to break ice and recover from isolation
▪ Self entrenchment-[Not psychologically satisfying ]- People try to change the system rather
than revolting.
◦ Hence he looks at the positive aspect of alienation
C W i h Mill 59
• C Wright Mills
◦ White collar alienation [Managers]
▪ Salesperson are carrying a projected smile. Hidden within this personality is a woman/man
with lot of problems.
▪ Everyone is alienated by trading their self with their projected self.
• Robert Blumer
◦ We feel alienated at the place at work. Robotic human beings are mechanically doing their work
in everyday life feeling stressed out and alienated. To kill that alienation people go for
recreational tours and coming back with artificial happiness. Therefore life is a story of
alienation , it has no solution to alienation.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
——————
Q Changing nature of industry compels sociology to revisits Marx . Comment
A. Knowledge based industries getting a momentum
Relevance is there in contemporary times but not complete relevance.

60
Sociological Thinkers-Max Weber
Background
• 1864-1920. Born in Erfurt in Prussia. Father was a senior bureaucrat working for Prussian
government. Father was a catholic German and proud about racial superiority and was a patriarch.
• Weber inherited lots of cultural and symbolic capital from his father.His mother was from France
and was Protestant.
• His father sat with great minds but never respected his wife.
• Weber had a great interest in economics history and law. He did his graduation from hiddelburg
university. Then PHD from university of Berlin and there he met goldschimdt and his PHD
‘Economic history of roman history’. Then he wrote a book ‘History of constantinipolis’ and
‘medivial roman history and its impact on public and private law ’. He was never a sociologist.
• His intellectual exposure to work of Marx made him a sociologist. He never looks economics alone
but with reference to culture and history
• He went into depression after his father death and after than he again began writing after 1905.

Major works of Weber

• Weber on sociological methods
• Weber on subject matter of sociology

• Weber on types of authority

• Weber on economy and religion

Weber on Methodology
Prior to weber two sets of thoughts
• Empiricist (Positivists)

◦ Truth is empirical in character and it is out their (Facts)

◦ Sociology is a science.
• Realist (Idealist)
◦ Truth is subjective - mind is the carrier of truth.
◦ Truth is cooked in the kitchen of human mind. Mind develops consciousness out which science
,art .. manifests
◦ Sociology is close to philosophy.
Therefore Neo kantians classified human knowledge into two types
• Nomothetic
◦ Physics , chemistry ...
• Ideographic
61
 Ideographic
◦ History, cultural study

Weber tells that sociology can bridge gap between subjectivity and objectivity. Empiricist and realist
are not opposite to each other. Therefore sociology is not a branch of science neither it is philosophy.
Therefore sociology is the subjective understanding of objective reality. He rejects the nomothetic and
ideographic debate.Mind imposes a pattern on the sense based on which mind imposes meaning to
reality.

Subject matter of sociology is not social fact, production relations it is social action.
• Behavior of a person driven by meanings is known as social action. These meanings and motives
are directed by mind , society ,culture,history , heredity.
• Action is visible, to understand the meaning behind the action a researcher must go for
interpretation of history , mood , culture ... while the positivism only advocates for the study of
action. Interpretation supplements to observation. Therefore this methods doesn’t rejects the
positivist methods(Anti positivists) but only supplements it .
• Therefore sociology should be going for interpretation at the same time respecting observation.

Universal laws cannot be applicable to sociology[Law of dialectics-Marx , Law of statics and dynamics
-August Comte, Durkheim]. Weber differs from them, he says every social situation is a product of
meaningful social action.
• Motives are different action are same. [becoming IAS for different reasons]

• Motives are same action are different [Taking notes or not taking notes for IAS]
• Motives are different actions are different.

• Motives are same and action are same.

Motives are dynamic and not static , hence universal laws cannot be applied to them.
[Marx says the bourgeoise action is fixed , Durkheim behavior is fixed , hence they both developed
universal laws to study human behvaiour]

Sociology cannot go for complete objectivity. Researcher should be sensitive to the people, people
culture and value (value relevance), must stay away from one’s own values. Only then research can be
value be unbiased.

Sociology should follow the spirit of science than methodology of science.

• Spirit of science tells that quantitative explanation is not sufficient.Reality exist in the context in
historical , cultural context.
• Unbiased , empathetic and participatory observation.

62
Weber tells Sociology can be a science but not like natural science. Hence he is a non positivists and
not anti positivists. Interpretation method tells that sociology is a science of its own [It is a unique form
of science]
• Science study structures and sociology also study structures.

◦ Sociology structure are product of social action.They are driven by motives. Therefore this
structure is dynamic. Therefore sociology goes for understanding of structure rather than
explanation of structure like science.
◦ Science studies matter while sociology studies structure of bureaucracy , capitalism
• Science studies specific out of infinity so also sociology
◦ Studying only solar system out of infinite solar system , out of many capitalism we study legal
rational capitalism.
• Science explains how causal connection between the phenomenon gives result, sociology explains
why causal connection between phenomenon gives result.
◦ Why capitalism didn’t developed in India ?, How Rain happens ?
• Both are duty bound to go for subjective understanding of objective reality.
◦ science is explaining empirical reality , facts(objectivity) through laws and theory (subjective),
similarly for sociology.
Weber on researcher study
• Weber considers every reality is a product of social action. From out of people action structures
evolve. People actions are driven by motives. Reality is never good or bad it is the making of
people . [Example Indian bureaucracy is neither good or bad but shaped by Indian bureaucrats
action]. Researcher should understand the motives . Since motives is changing regularly then
action are also changing. Therefore reality is not fixed. Therefore sociological research is
continuous process.
• Secondly the interpretation of the context of the action. Reality should be interpreted in the
context of social and cultural context.
• [Dowry is reality in India. Giving and receiving dowry is for different reasons.Therefore reality is
dynamic. Only some aspect of it can be understood. Sociology should understand why dowry
persists in India.] First interpret then develop understanding .
• Positivism go for observation to understand the reality while non positivist go for the
interpretation of that reality.
Verstehen Method
• Versethen is a German word which means understanding the truth. Weber criticizes to positivism
that believes that facts exists as things which is rule bound , continuous , empirically arrestable ,
therefore scientifically explainable.
• Weber considers that every social reality is a product of social action which is guided by
subjective meanings and motives.
• Without interpretation one cannot make sense about action.
63
 p
• The products of action are conflict present in society,family structure ,working of bureaucracy,
crises in capitalism , political parties which exist in social , cultural and historical context.
• To understand how they are operating it is essential to interpret the context of their operation.
Hence whether it is social action or it is social structure both are objective reality guided by
subjective orientation.
• Hence sociology must have to go for subjective understanding of objective reality facilitating
researcher to go fo interpretation to develop understanding about reality.
Verteshen - understanding
Hermonetics - interpretation

Weber speaks about two kinds of verstehen

• Direct observational verstehen
◦ Sociological common sense . Using common sense to make sense of reality. Example people
standing in temple -> They are standing for prayers.
• Indirect explanatory verstehen

◦ Using census reports, texts , historical documents to develop an understanding . Example to

understand the caste system in India in 19th century.
Scientific explanation(Positivistic) must be supplemented by these methods. [Example Polling
behavior based on caste in Election 2019- Data collection (Positivistic Methods) + Verstehen methods ]

Relevance of Theory in sociological research

Durkheim and Marx developed theories which are unchangeable and facts fits into these theory.
These are universally applicable. Through these theories they are selling their ideology.Whether it is
Durkheim or Marx in the name of theory they give ideology still they tell that sociology is a nomothetic
discipline.
• Weber tells sociological research should be free from ideology.

• Theory is a means ,conducting research and obtaining result is the end. One should not over-
glorify theory.
• Research is the focus of sociology and not the theory.
• Theory is just for guiding the research , developed by the research and abandoned at the end.
[People should not become Marxist rather they should develop their own theory and abandoned
at the end.]
Ideal Type
Theories developing as a researcher to guide the research , after research is complete one is
abandoning the theory is otherwise known as ideal type 64
abandoning the theory is otherwise known as ideal type
• Ideal Type is a conceptual framework purposively developed by a researcher to guide his
research.[Sociology should not develop universal theory]
◦ It should not be morally loaded.
◦ It must not be universal.
◦ It should not have any value attached.
• Reality is vast , dichotomous and chaotic. Every aspect of reality cannot be studied. Identity the
important aspect of reality which is the essence of reality which is the ideal type.
• Ideal type is not actual type, average type rather it is approximate type.

◦ Ideal type is not mirroring the reality because reality is vast , dichotomous and chaotic .
◦ Ideal type is only relevant to the research and doesn’t necessarily represent the average.
◦ It is approximate to the researcher. How much approximate to the truth only data can tell.
• Ideal type is not ideal in terminological sense[best,perfect] of the term rather it is ideal in logical
sense[It is pure type ]
◦ It is pure because nobody has constructed this framework before, it becomes redundant. Same
problem would be studied using different ideal types.
• Selection of elements of ideal type is an arbitrary affair[Any number and any type of elements can
be picked or deleted ]
◦ Researcher is having freedom to develop his theory , make changes to the theory. Therefor
research is important not the theory.
• Ideal type is a means to an end than being an end in itself

◦ Theory should be a means and research should be end [Unlike Marx]

• Loosely defined concepts in the field of history , economics and political science can be used by
sociologist as the topic for construction of ideal type.
◦ Example capitalism in economics , state in political science , nationalism in history.
• Ideal type is helping sociology for comparison and generalization. [Protestant ethics and spirit of
capitalism]
Subject matter of sociology
Behavior of a person driven by meaning taken into consideration the expectation of others is social
action. There are two kinds of social action
• Explicit social action
◦ Visible , can make sense of it through observation.
• Implicit social action
◦ It is more important to sociology.
◦ It has hidden meaning and motives.

Weber[Interpretation] is liberating sociology from methodological positivism[Durkheim] and economic

determinism [Marx] 65
determinism [Marx]

There are numerous social action in real life. Weber is making Ideal type of social action [Implicit social
action ]
• Traditional action.

◦ It also exists in numerous forms. Therefore we have to make an ideal type.

◦ Initially it is guided by traditional values , customs and norms.
◦ Later on it becomes a habit, spontaneous action.
◦ Not a planned action , not a goal.
◦ It manifest a form of obligation or duty.
◦ Even in modern society people manifest traditional action. Therefore no society is purely
modern.
◦ Tradional action is a borderline case of social action [Since meaning is not every time attached
to it as it may be habitual , spontaneous ,not planned]
• Emotional/affectional action.

◦ It is a product when rational mind is blocked and manifest anger.

◦ Joy, success , suffering ,love.
◦ It appears to be emotional but hidden within it is rational calculation.
◦ It is not planned , goal oriented.
• Value rational/ wert rational action.
◦ Driven by sense of duty , honor,dignity, pride , self respect manifest value rational action.
◦ [An honest officer obliged to duty would never sacrifice his values he will manifest value
rational action]
◦ [bureaucratic ethics are more important than personal gains.]
• Goal rational/ Zweck rational action.

◦ [Politicians of the country sacrificing their values for their personal gains]
◦ It is the hallmark of modernity. Fundamental feature of modern society.
◦ It is one where the actor plans, makes rational choice .
◦ Businessman -> goal -> planning -> rational decisions
◦ Goals and means are not emotionally selected.
◦ Most of us manifest this type of action.
Depending on the type of situation an actor may manifest emotional, goal orientation , value rational
reaction.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————

Power, legitimacy and authority

66
Domination is a special form of social action present in every sphere of society. Alternate word for
domination is authority.Weber makes a distinction between 2 kinds of domination/authority
Types of domination
• Legitimate domination
◦ Where there is domination present there are two groups of people are present. Rulers and
subjects.
◦ When people dominated (subjects) accepts to the domination of dominants then their authority
is legitimate.
• Illegitimate domination

◦ If subjects questions to the rule then it become illegitimate domination.

◦ [Women are questioning to the authority of men and dalits to the brahmins - Movements in
today time]
Every ruler will try to convert the illegitimate domination to legitimate domination.[After every military
coup , benefits re given to military, landed people and other important people would give legitimacy to
him][Military dictator organized elections and tampering with votes - Pravez Musharraf ]

Legitimate domination continues for longer period

There can be two other forms of legitimate domination
• Direct domination
◦ Political domination and administrative domination is primary [State and government]
• Indirect domination
◦ Industrialist have indirect domination over our life . They provide goods in the market without
which we could not survive. [critique to Marx -Economic domination is not the direct
domination]
Power is the capacity of a person to exercise control over others even against their
resistance.Legitimate power is authority. Without coercion power will not be exercised.
Legitimate direct domination(Legitimate authority) is present in many form. So he is making ideal type.
He is dividing it into 3 types

• Traditional Domination (Traditional authority)

◦ Getting legitimacy from norms, values ,customs.{normative values}
◦ In traditional Indian society - Brahmin domination over non brahmins.
◦ When people refuse to accept these norms, customs and values then this domination would
become illegitimate.
67
◦ Traditional authority is present in different forms. Therefore we should construct an ideal type.
Dividing it into three types
▪ Patriarchalism
• It is present in joint family.

• Most simplest form of traditional authority.

• Eldest male member of the family is enjoying the authority.

• Age and sex are the source of his authority.

• He expects unquestionable loyalty from the family.

• He is allocating roles to the different members of the family on the basis of his choice
and not necessarily capabilities.
• His orders are not evaluated in logical and rational terms.
• Any non obligation will be subject to cultural punishment.

▪ Patrimonaisation [In Asian societies ]

• When this(patriarchal authority) is extended to a small kingdom/tribe then it is known as
patrimonaisation.[King rule over its subjects]
• Extension of man authority from a mainly to a territory.

• He would be appointing warriors , tax collectors , different officials on the basis of his
own choice and loyalty. Capability cannot be absolutely ignored.
• These officials may not be his family members. Public get a chance to recruitment.
• Example Akbar- Birbal, Krishna devaraya - Tenali Raman.

• Customs , norms, values and ethics gives legitimacy to dominate over their subjects.
• If a patrimonial ruler becomes autocratic , selfish then people would be choosing another
ruler.He would suffer from crises of legitimacy.
• Therefore a patrimonial ruler has to always follow customs, norms, ideals , non
discrimination, dispense justice for public support.
• After winning a war , showing disinterest in their property and give the kingdom to them
[Ram to Ravan brother]- Alliance
• If property inherited then the warrior is made king of the kingdom inherited [Duryodhan
to Karn]
• Therefore a patrimonial bureaucracy appointed primarily for their loyalty , efficiency.
They are paid through land grants , precious metals .
▪ Feudalism [In European societies]
• Authority of landlord is defined by traditional customs, norms ,values ethics to rule over
his subjects.
• Feudal lords develops contractual agreements with vassals. Vassals give advise from
time to time.Lord- Vassal relationship is hereditary relationship.
• Feudal lord is giving more importance on capability of the people when appointing
vassals, tax collectors, private army.
• Monarchy authority over landlords is specific . Church authority is specific.
68
 • Salary is being regularized.
• Therefore in case of feudalism an organized bureaucracy is present- Traditional
Bureaucracy .
• Charismatic domination
◦ Getting legitimacy from instrumental values [faith in me , change of destiny of people]
◦ People considers that there are some leaders present born with extraordinary qualities and
these leaders can produce miracles , can transform their life in big positive manner.
◦ Charisma is the matter of belief or faith.
◦ A charismatic leader must has to exhibit his charisma from time to time otherwise people faith
in him would be diluted.
◦ A charismatic leader doesn’t have a fix income.Source of income is collecting gifts and tributes
from people. He is always concerned about expanding his support base.
◦ These leaders make appearance in every society when there is crises in the society.
◦ They make appearance in political and religious structure.
◦ Charisma has wings it can enter into the iron cage of bureaucracy , therefore within the strict
rules bound structure of bureaucracy we can find charismatic leaders. [Kiran bedi]
◦ Routinization of charisma - When charisma is transmitted from one generation to another
generation. It may give rise to traditional authority or legal rational authority.[Charisma of Nehru
to Indira - Traditional authority , Charisma of Atal Bihari Vajpayee to the next generation of
political party - Legal rational authority]
• Legal rational domination
◦ It is the law which is giving it legitimacy.{Legal rational values}
◦ Example - collector order for encroachment of land.
◦ Weber give more importance to this considering it as the hallmark of modern society.
◦ It is present in every sphere of modern society. It’s another name is bureaucracy. Therefore
other name of modern society is bureaucratic society.[He is talking about modernity in political
sphere , Marx talked about in economic sphere ,Durkheim talked about in social sphere]
◦ It is present in industry , university , politics.
◦ Features of bureaucracy (Ideal type)
▪ Recruitment
• Recruitment is driven by the principle of equality of opportunity.

• Bureaucratic recruitment is given on basis of merit and capability.

• Recruitment is guided by rules of law.

▪ Training
• Trained to work for a long period of time.

• To work without any prejudices and emotional attachments.

• To work with complete compliance with law
69
 p p
• Problem of error should be unfound.
▪ Authority
• It is vested in the position and not in the person [unlike kings]
• Bureaucrat is not the supreme ruler. He is supposed to carry forward the order from the
top.[Limited Authority]
• Authority is clearly spelled out in the rule of law.

• Bureaucrat is supposed to operate as a part of the system rather than an autonomous

entity.
▪ Functioning of Bureaucracy
• Every problem, decision should be put up in file by the lowest ranking official then the
files moves up.
• All the officers above give opinions about the issue and filed up.Every bureaucrat has
complete information about the issue.
• Bureaucratic decision are collective decision , time taking but chance of error is low.

• A bureaucrat is a good Protestant. [Protestant are known for hard work and goal oriented]
• There should not be egoistic tendency in bureaucrat.

• Bureaucracy is known for unity, continuity .

▪ Therefore bureaucratic system is the perfect system.
◦ After that weber talks about Red Tapeism in bureaucracy.
▪ Every bureaucrat is carrying a mechanical face and no value for human emotions.
▪ Every decision is a perfect decision therefore delayed decisions.
▪ It is such a rational system that it never takes into considerations the problems who are a
part of it.[They cannot take time for family]
▪ Bureaucratic immunity is given to the bureaucrat as the decisions are collective. One
cannot be held responsible.
◦ Bureaucratic system is a better decision making system than charismatic authority and
traditional authority.
Post Weberian scholar on Bureaucracy
It was an ideal type hence we cannot criticize it because he is not giving a theory. Below are not the
criticism
• Robert K Merton [struture-functionalist]

◦ ’Bureaucratic structure and personality’ - Based on American Bureaucracy research in 1960.

◦ During that period American bureaucracy was similar to Indian bureaucracy where bureaucrat
takes decision under the political masters. It was also known for corruption. Top bureaucrats
were carrying personality cult.
◦ Dysfunctions
▪ Bureaucracy cannot fulfill organizational goals. [Bureaucrats are engaged in fighting with
h th b th bi ] 70
 each-other because they carry big egos]
▪ Other name of bureaucracy is indecisiveness.
▪ No bureaucrat is trained to take initiatives.
▪ It is not meant for welfare of people it is meant for creating a rule bound society.
▪ Bureaucraic system doesn’t value time , Human Resources
▪ Rules are important not the demand of the situation.
▪ Bureaucrats always create a vicious circle of power. [Members of the staff who are loyal to
them goes wherever the bureaucrat gets transferred]
▪ Bureaucracy is a top heavy system.[Decisions are taken by top ranking officials and binding
on low ranking official and hence not collective decision] - Weber[collective decision]
• Michell Crozier- Marxist
◦ ’Bureaucratic Phenomenon’
◦ Dominant class creates bureaucracy to rule over the masses.
◦ It has nothing to do with public welfare,administration.
◦ It is a system where service conditions are so defined that upper level bureaucracy lose control
over lower level bureaucracy leading to confusion an anomie.Therefore it is not an organized
system. Other name is system of crises and confusion.[senior officers cannot influence junior
officers- diversified opinions -confusions]
◦ Bureaucracy is a misfit to changing nature of modern society.[Waiting for the laws to come and
speak , not innovative , not proactive]- Old bureaucracy is carrying its old values to fit in new
system.
◦ It is most of time engaged in addressing to its internal turmoil than addressing than addressing
to needs of the people.[No promotion , Transfers , loans ,punitive actions]. Therefore it is
ineffective , inefficient system.
◦ Bureaucracy fails or refuse to learn from its own mistakes.[making committees for everything
again and again]
• Alvin gouldner
◦ He is studying gypsum mines and corporate office in America.
◦ Bureaucracy cannot be universally functional. For some organization it may work well and other
de bureaucratization will work.
◦ Inside the mines , when whole team is available only then they enter the mines. Inside the
mines no hierarchy is followed, no strict rules are followed , addressed to each other in kinship
teams. Human relationship is strong. Productivity is high.
◦ When strict rules are applied to them [specialization of duties , fix timings]. In first 3 months
productivity declined by 30 % and by the end of the year it declined by 60%.
◦ In corporate office bureaucracy will be working fine. Right kind of people playing right roles.
• Burns and Stalker
◦ Studied 20 industries of Scotland and Britain.
◦ They divide the industries into 2 types
▪ Mechanistic industries
71
 • Work is greatly repetitive in character , disciplined in character. Everybody is trained to
do work.
• Hierarchy is established.
• Example Automobile Industry

• Bureaucracy is useful as there is hierarchy of commands.

▪ Organic industries
• People have to sit together and collectively apply their mind to complete the work.
• Example IT Industry

• Bureaucracy is not useful as it would be affecting to production.

Q.*Do you consider Weberian system of bureaucracy is universally functional*
• Jerry Powell
◦ Those who are working in bureaucracy for the accomplishment of the organizational goal,
these people are sidelined.
◦ Those who are working for the gratification of self interest they control bureaucracy.
• Theodore loni
◦ America is not a democracy because in America there is present iron triangle.
◦ Bureaucracy is not answerable to the public but responsible for making laws.

• Amitai Etzonie
◦ Bureaucrats don't confirm to rules of law because they are rational and rule bound rather they
confirm to rules of law to get rewards and to avoid punishment.
◦ Bureaucrats at the end of the day are human beings and every human beings is driven out of
self interest.
• Latif chaudhary
◦ Higher level bureaucrats are policy makers, lower level bureaucrats are rent seekers. There is a
lack of coordination between the two for which the price of essential goods keep increasing 72
 lack of coordination between the two for which the price of essential goods keep increasing
giving rise to inflation.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————
Protestant ethics and spirit of capitalism
• Link between economic development and ethics, values

• Same kind of technology would not produce same development in every society.
• Unless and until appropriate work ethics is there technology would be useless.

• To make economic development or capitalism in society raw materials are not adequate , work
ethics are also required.
• He compares different religions of the world because different religion gives different values.
◦ Islam, Protestantism , Hinduism, Catholics ,Judaism ,Taoism and Confucianism were studied by
him
• He classified religion into 3 types

◦ Religion carrying weak linkage with capitalism

▪ Catholicism , Judaism and Islam
▪ They tell people to make money but not for reinvestment and saving.
◦ Religion with no linkage with capitalism
▪ Hinduism, Buddhism , Taoism and Confucianism
◦ Religion with strong linkage to capitalism
▪ Protestantism

Weber is rejecting to Marxian theory and Adam smith of capitalism

• Capitalism exist in multiple forms. Marx gives only one image of capitalism.Sociology cannot study
all the forms of capitalism therefore ideal type [Non deterministic approach]
◦ When a tribal chief is fighting war against another chief to loot property
• Primary source of happiness is material possession. Market is evolving as new form of god in
capitalist -Adam Smith
◦ Capitalism is not something that evolved in 19th century Europe. It is a spirit and it is present in
every society. It is as old as human evolution.
◦ Spirit of capitalism is the desire to make money and to multiply it.

Ideal type of Capitalism

He develops ideal type of capitalism by dividing capitalism into 4 types
• Booty capitalism
◦ Spoils of war.
◦ Fight war and defeating them for their wealth.
73
 g g
◦ Present in tribal societies.
• Pariah capitalism
◦ A group of traders and mercantilist buy and sells products and in between they make profit.
Some traders were so greedy of this profit that they never spent the even on them, live in
isolated places. These people were subjected to genocide due to their greedy nature.
◦ Example Jews in Europe contributed to pariah capitalism
• Traditional capitalism
◦ Collecting tax from the people from exploitation of peasants , moneylending . Accumulating
huge wealth. This type of capitalism is traditional capitalism.
• Legal rational capitalism
◦ Developed in 19th century Europe and different from the above three.
◦ Since capitalism exist in numerous forms and one cannot study all. Weber studied legal rational
capitalism. He developed an ideal type of legal rational capitalism [compare this with Marx
capitalism]
▪ In legal rational capitalism people make profit using rules of law.
▪ Industrial bureaucracy is at work. [to implement rules and protect rights of everybody]
▪ Both labour and capital are committed to work.
▪ Both entrepreneurs and laborers enjoy freedom.[Nobody is forced to work in an
organization]
▪ It is a product of agreement among people and not of class division.
▪ Respecting to merit and capability people are given roles
▪ Labour is enjoying freedom of where to work, how to work ,law is protecting them
▪ Within industry there is present bureaucratic system where everybody has a fixed
responsibility and protecting everybody interest.
▪ Entrepreneur is making legitimate money.[Tax,taking risks , also making loss]

While Marx is selling ideology weber is telling how to conduct research.

For the rise of capitalism two things are required

• Value
◦ Rationality(Logic) , prudence , calculations , devotion to work.
◦ Culture give values
• Infrastructure

◦ raw materials, scientific innovation , skill , market , political stability.

◦ Society gives it.

Types of societies and capitalism

I t ib l i ti th i i f t t d l th f it li i b t 74
 • In tribal societies there is no infrastructure and values therefore capitalism is absent.
• In oriental societies (Japan, china , Sri Lanka , India) have large infrastructure , value is absent.
Since the culture is anti capitalist the money made from the capitalism is spent on the glorification
of culture.Therefore if capitalism takes one step forward then 5 steps backward. Capitalism is
absent due to absence of values.
• In America one could not find out a black capitalists because of lack of infrastructure with them.
• Protestantism - Those who protested against the orthodoxy of church
◦ They radiated values which matched with the needs of capitalism

Values of Protestantism
It developed in 16th century.
• It gives importance on materialistic asceticism.

◦ Live normal life, don’t spend on comfort and luxury. Making legitimate money is a kind of duty ,
it is an achievement.
◦ Making money is not intended to spend money on oneself , kinship and family.
◦ Simple living economic thinking. Limit to needs , consolidation of money which would be
benefitting others.
• Good Behavior

◦ Culture defines good behavior. It is not something universal.

◦ For Protestant -
▪ working hard with purpose,
▪ minding time (managing time and respect for time)
▪ Selecting means and goals without emotional attachment but on rational basis.
▪ Learn from previous mistakes.
• Concept of calling
◦ Devotion to work is calling , goal is calling , health is calling ,rules should be calling (every work
should be legitimate)
◦ Restlessness is considered a good behavior.
• Pre destination
◦ Catholicism tells that destiny will change if one regularly visits church, moral obligation to god
will change the fortune.
◦ Protestantism tells that every individual , every human being is given life as a gift by god. God
has written our density and that destiny will never ever change. Therefore life is pre destined
[No amount of prayers, pilgrims visit change it] . People have to work to acheive the destiny.
Those who work hard come close to achieve their destiny.
• This worldly Religion

◦ Protestantism is this worldly religion.

◦ Most religion make distinction between where god is living and where human being is living.
God world is superior. Priestly class became the mediator between this world and god world.
75
 Therefore man prays for life after death.[salvation]
◦ Protestantism says god has created both the world and both are similar. Earth is a much divine
as the paradise. God created it for human happiness. Every human being carries divine
capacity and with this one can make this wold a better place to live.
Demands of capitalism
• Making money is a virtue

◦ Protestantism - Making money in a legitimate way is good behavior

• Money begets Money

◦ P- Make money , make investment

• Work in a disciplined manner

◦ Work in a disciplined manner

• Adherence to time

◦ P-Time is money don't waste because life is one time gift

• If you are not able to do something rethink about it then work harder to achieve it.

◦ P-restlessness is a good character. More people is cornered about more harder they will work.
• Nobody should be discriminated in capitalism and everybody must be rewarded on the basis of
their merit.
◦ P- All are child of god and carry merit
• Work hard , work with discipline , work with purpose so much good would be produced that
maximum happiness to maximum people
◦ P-Man can change this world through his effort and dedication better than paradise.God will
love to here
Therefore there is a strong connectivity between Protestant ethics and spirit of capitalism

Religion with no linkage to capitalism

• Hinduism

◦ Life is sinful [denounced the life ]- a chance given by god to wipe out the sin of previous birth.
Enjoyment and happiness is not the goal of life. Detachment is the goal of life. Goal of life is to
get out of the vicious cycle and attain salvation.
◦ Life is an ashram/hermitage - 4 ashram
▪ Brahmacharya ashram - quest for knowledge
▪ Grishta ashram - Kids and Family
▪ Vanprasth ashram -slowly detachment from family
▪ Sanyas ashram
▪ Only few people are working to feed everybody. Rest others are involved in other activities.
◦ People quest for modernity and values are in dialectics with other .
◦ More people are getting detached from this religion more gurus are making appearance.
76
 p p g g g g g pp
◦ God has created people differently from different parts of the body - all are not equal , all are
not equal unlike Protestantism.
◦ caste system is an obstruction to capitalism.
◦ In case of west Protestant ethics gave rise to capitalism while in case of India capitalism
induced Protestant ethics.
◦ Globalization has contributed for globalization for work ethics.[Globalization of Values]
• Chinese Religion
◦ By the year 2000bc centralized rulers made appearance in china.Therefore there was no
problem of political instability.
◦ Fertile land was present. One of the oldest communities who went for foreign trade. Had
fortified kingdoms.
◦ Therefore infrastructure conditions were developed for economic growth.[What was not
present in Europe at that time].
◦ China didn’t have a centralized priestly class and religion as in Europe and India.But they had
great belief in spirits. They divide the spirit into 2 types
▪ The great spirit-
• responsible for promoting internal peace, maximize production. [Animals names are given
to these spirits Dragon]
• Emperor evoke these spirit once in a year. Period of celebration.

• After these spirit years were named.

• Emperor is not only the political head but also perform rituals for the kingdom.

▪ Ancestral spirit-
• To preserve the memories of the dead ancestors.

• Strong belief that peace must be maintained with these spirts.

• Therefore regularly they go for this worship.

◦ Besides spirits Chinese have great belief in mysticism and magic[Taoism]. They consider that
luck can be changed through magical intervention.Therefore magicians are greatly respected.
Belief that destiny can be changed by them.
◦ Sobriety (politeness ) is the manifestation of good behavior. What is earned should be spend
on the family. Self discipline,service to members of the family , sacrifice ,limit to needs is a
good behavior. Therefore young people work and elderly people sat at home.
◦ Literary classes in china (Confucianism) were more about metaphysical entities rather than
money. Abstract though is given more importance.
◦ Pictorial writings - Language is not known to others. Chinese refuse to learn the language of
others.
◦ Economic growth in the case of china is the result of enforced values by the communist
government , coercion of the state.
• Buddhism
◦ Salvation is the ultimate goal of life , reason for all suffering of the man is desires.
F d ti t it li i t i li ti d i 77
 ◦ Foundation to capitalism is materialistic desires.
◦ Buddhism is the quest of Kshtriyas to attain supraBrahminic status
◦ In terms of sacrifice Buddhism is more in comparison to Brahminic values.
◦ Japanese abandoned the Buddhist values and went for rational values for capitalism
Religion with weak linkage to capitalism
• Judaism
◦ Most ancient religion which gave importance on trade , mercantilism [Pariah capitalism]
◦ They had appropriate values for the promotion of capitalism. But they always go for face-block
[hide] so that other become suspicious. They are so conservative that they don’t accept water
and clothes from others , orthodox in commitment to church and considers Judaism is the
most superior religion in the world.
◦ Their intellect is very strong, excel in the field of trade of commerce but they were thrown out
of one country to another because of their orthodoxy.
• Catholicism
◦ One can live a meaningful life only through industry and hard work. Economic success is always
subjected to divine appreciation. One should not spend time on leisure rather should be
creative and innovative. Innovation and creativity is appreciated by the god . Life of the man
should be dedicated to the service of mankind.
◦ Most of the early countries which went for capitalism were Catholics [England and France]
◦ Problem is Catholicism is that it is other worldly religion. Unless one manifest moral behavior
people may go to hell. Therefore other world is given more importance ,therefore they go to
church ,charity. As a result of which reinvestment is not taking place in a big way.
• Islam

◦ Two fundamental principles

▪ Conquest- Fighting war against other and promoting their religion
▪ Trade - One should be making money. It is considered good behavior.
◦ Major problem with Islam is that the money made is due to blessing of god therefore part of the
money should be spend on charity, visits to pilgrims and never prohibits people for
spontaneous enjoyment. Therefore less investment.
◦ Women are not permitted to work therefore half the population is deprived of work , polygamy
is practiced.
Introspection (Post Weberian Scholars)
• Ayel and Bellah
◦ Rise of capitalism in Japan.
◦ Capitalism developed in Japan during 20th century despite Buddhism.
◦ In japan an entrepreneurial class is not present. Most of the enterprises are started by family i.e
all starts at small scale. People discuss work at dinning table.
78
 ◦ Major religion was Buddhism but families adopted rational values . And following the success of
one family other followed.
◦ Binding force of the religion on economic behavior of people is found to be weak in Japan.
Therefore it is the capitalism which gave rise to Protestantism ethics. [Reverse]
◦ No work is considered high or low
• Alexander gram Ian chrome [Name not correct]
◦ Economic growth in case of Russia is not a product of religious values rather it is a product of
political program/ initiates taken by the state.
• Gunnar Myrdal
◦ Asian Drama’
◦ 150 years of colonial rule devastated Indian economy. Then Indian middle class came forward
to make India progressive and developed.
◦ National disgrace may motivate people to come together and give their best to profession
contributing to the economic growth of nation .
• Veena das and JP Obeorio [Name not correct ]
◦ Weber understanding of Hinduism is myopic. There are contradictory philosophy in Hinduism.
◦ Money making is not abandoned in India but is also respected [Vaishyas]
◦ Community affinity and modesty is the teaching of Sikhism but they venture into industries,
risk takings
◦ Similarly marwadis and Sindhis are money making communities.
◦ Therefore there are some Hindus who are going for capitalism
• For the development of capitalism different institution also make contribution in addition to role of
religion
◦ Role of family
◦ Political stability
◦ Role of education
◦ Cross culture contact - open society can borrow technology from others.
◦ Role of state
◦ Therefore study capitalism from the multiple dimensional perspective - Neil smelser.
• Robertson
◦ Capitalism developed in Europe during 16-17 century before industrial revolution took place and
that capitalism was the product of trade and commerce by European traders. Dutch ,
Portuguese and Spanish m French and Italian went for trade and subsequently navigation came
into prominence.
◦ Therefore it is illogical to say that capitalism developed with advent of industry. It is the
rationality that offered foundation to prudent economic behavior.
◦ During 16-17 century it is both Catholics and Protestant church emphasized on rational values
[making money , best use of time , judicious use of resource ].Therefore both Protestant and
Catholics emerged as successful .
Therefore it was the climate of values that evolved in Europe which were foundation to 79
 ◦ Therefore it was the climate of values that evolved in Europe which were foundation to
enlightenment that gave rise to capitalism rather than a specific religion.
• RH Towney
◦ A professor of economic of LSE introspects weberian theory of Protestant ethics and spirit of
capitalism. He advocates that it is not Protestant ethics that give rise to growth of capitalism
rather inventions , discoveries , colonialism contributed for the rise of capitalism in Europe that
demanded from the people appropriate behavior like emotion to work, thrift , investment ,
accumulation and logical connectivity between means and goals.
◦ Even the leaders of calvinists faith indicated that absolute commitment to money is not a good
behavior therefore what weber call as Calvinist ethics that is not spelled out by the founder of
the religion.
◦ Hence it can be concluded that rise of capitalism was a product of economic history of Europe
that demanded from the people rational behavior hence rationalization of society demanded
from the people rational behavior and it is not Protestant ethics that gave rise to capitalism
rather it was other way round.

80
Sociological Thinkers- Talcott Parsons
Background
• He was an American sociologist and his father was a professor and was against the ideology of
Karl Marx
• He fell in love with ideology of Max weber.
• In school he studied biology along with philosophy at father college.

• When he didn’t qualify medicine then he opted for economics.

• For masters he came to LSE and met with anthropologists like Malinowski, Evans Pritchard.
Therefore in his sociology there is influence of social and cultural anthropology.
• He pursued his PHD at hiddleberg university after the death of weber. Weber was a great name in
the university and his wife was organizing the weekly seminar of max weber. He joined the club.
He translated the work of Weber in English.
• After that he became professor of economics and after 1932 he became famous for his grand
theories.
• During that time pitrin sorokins was head of the department of economic and sociology
department of Harvard university. Parson joined the department and criticized the works of
sorokins. Like a mandate people are attracted to parsons.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————
Sociology of Parson
• Parson on social action
• Parson on social system

• Parson on pattern variable

————————————————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————
Structure of social action
Parsons theory of social action- Voluntaristic theory of action
• Human beings are rational in character and being rational they want most of their needs are
gratified and few of their needs stays unsatisfied.Rationality is the ingredient quality of human
being.
• Every rational being is fulfilling his rational goals by rationally choosing the means.[A rickshaw
puller wanting to eat should work hard]
• When a rational actor is using means to achieve his goal he is guided by 2 kinds of constrains

◦ normative constraints
▪ ideals norms values [Orthodox Brahman not engaging in leather industry] 81
 ▪ ideals,norms,values [Orthodox Brahman not engaging in leather industry]
◦ situational constraints
▪ race,heredity,poverty,physical handicap. [The hindu not available in village therefore goal
would not be civil service but opportunities available ]
• Voluntaristic Social Action is action of the actor when it negotiates with normative and situational
constraints to achieve the goal.[Parson]
• Social action is Behavior of the person driven by meaning and motives and taking into
consideration the the behavior of other [Weber]
• Social action is the behavior of individual guided by conscience collective.[Durkheim]

• Social action is the behavior of the individual guided by access to FOP and MOP [Marx]
**‘Social action is the heart and soul of sociology ’- Explain all above **
• Parsons doesn’t talk about types of actions unlike weber but develop a theory of actions which he
considers is absolute type and not just ideal type.[Grand Theory of social action- Every action
would fit in it]
All human actions can broadly be classified into 3 types driven by motives which need the support of
values

First come the cognitive motive then cathetic motive then Evaluative motive.

Motive/Needs Value Action

Cognitive motive Cognitive value Instrumental action
Motive for the Cognitive value is the Action oriented towards
gratification of evaluation on the basis gratification of
materialistic and social of rational and objective materialistic and social
needs. standard. needs in rational or
Example Buying a pen objective manner.
(action) driven by
materialistic motive

Cathetic needs Appreciative Value Expressive action

Need for emotional and Evaluation on the basis Action driven by the
aesthetic gratification. of subjective standard. gratification of emotional
Example - Daughter and aesthetic need on
calling to meet, going to subjective standard.
temple for self 82
 temple for self
satisfaction (motive)
Evaluative need Moral Value Moral Action
Need for appreciation Evaluation on the basis Action oriented for the
Example- Wanting of absolute standard. gratification of self
absolute appreciation Example- I expect from appreciation in absolute
from Friends. you evaluation of me. standard.

Every society(Grand social system) across time and space has three inevitable part
• Social system is a product of institutionalization, legitimization of instrumental action of all people
in the society supported by cognitive motives and values.
• Cultural system is a product of institutionalization , legitimization of all expressive action of all
people in a society guided by cathetic motive and appreciative values.
• Personality system is a product of institutionalization legitimization of moral action of all people in
a given society guided by evaluative need and moral value.
Integration of systems
Every society continues because these three parts coordinate and cooperate to each other.[Analogy
to body]
Integration takes place through
• Mechanism of socialization

◦ It is process by which one learn own culture.

◦ Socialization can be divided into 3 types
▪ Social socialization
• Social socialization is giving knowledge about social institution, social groups , social
positions.[LBSNAA gives socialization about bureaucracy]
• It teaches how to play role in different social context.

• It teaches which kinds of roles to avoid.

• One gets it from social system.

▪ Cultural socialization
• It gives norms ,values , etiquettes , ethics ,language ,symbols. [Example sitting silently in
the class respecting teacher ]
• One gets it from cultural system.

▪ Psychic socialization
• It is guiding one pertaining to control of anxiety , mental calmness ,tensions while playing
roles. [Example angry at a situation where not necessary]
• Mechanism of social control 83
 • Mechanism of social control
◦ Formal method of social control
▪ Rules and law.
▪ It tells us who you are , where we are located and what roles are allocated to you and
whether we are diligently performing roles or not.
▪ Any violation would amount to punishment.
▪ [Example time given to a teacher to teach a specific subject by law]
◦ Informal method of social control
▪ counseling , friendly gestures , exchange of gifts ,encouragement , appreciation.
▪ [Motivating a worker to do a hard task]
◦ coercive method of social control
▪ Army , policei
Talcott parsons in his theory of structure of social action advocates that there are present three
different action structures like personality s ystem , cultural system , social system what combined
together give rise to grand social system . Different action structures stay connected to each other
through mechanism of socialization and mechanism of social control. Therefore personality system
obtains formal and coercive control from social system and informal control from cultural system.
Similarly it obtains socialization from social system and cultural system to perform right kind of role at
the right place avoiding confusion what gives rise to the continuity of a normal society. Therefore
parsonian sociology is more concerned about social cohesion and social continuity challenging to
Marxian theory that considers conflict is endemic to social structure.

————————————————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————
Social System
Society and social system are two different concepts. [system is something which is organized ].
System is a kind of framework or idea which can be applied to different societies.
A society in order to be converted into a system must be having self sufficiency within itself in relation
to its environment.[A family with no earning members there will be no persistence , continuity of the
family ]. Therefore all societies are not system.
[Analogy to biology - A body with defective body parts is not a system]

Parsons make a comparison between biological system and social system.

• Both live in space. Space in case of biological system is fixed while in case of social system can be
expanded.
• Species have a limited life span while society is subjected to persistence and continuity.
• Human body is subjected to limited growth and society is subjected to limitless growth.

• Body has different parts and same for society .If there is problem in one part of the society then
other part comes to its rescue unlike body Hence a social system is subjected to continuity 84
 other part comes to its rescue unlike body. Hence a social system is subjected to continuity .
[Example Problem in religion , political system to its rescue ]
System is something which is organized , self sufficient in relation to its environment ,made of
different parts , each part is allocated a role , each part perform its role , therefore there is continuity
and harmony in the system.

Malinowski - Primary needs of the man are the biopsy-chic needs. Biological and psychic needs
somehow are connected to each other. Body needs food , sexual gratification cultural prescribes
growth, marriage for it. Therefore biological needs are primary. When these need are fulfilled then
derivative needs like love , worship ,power... .

Parson introduced a fourth system called organismic system influenced from Malinowski. Unless
organismic system is present other system cannot evolve. Therefore organismic system is primary on
which other system developed. In his book social system parsons is introducing organismic system to
the three other system which he introduced in the book structure of social system.

Need to put on masks (Biological system negotiating with the environment),people don't want to die
out of starvation therefore they migrate. Organismic system is also negotiating with environment for
resources for the survival.

Functional pre requisite for the system [AGIL Model]

A Social system in order to survive and sustain must have to have four subsystem present in it
• organismic system
• personality system

• social system
• cultural system

On the basis of the role they play function is defined.Therefore function is the sum total of the roles.
Function is specific ,roles are diversified. Roles allocated to one function is not alterable or changeable
or transferable i.e they are specific to subsystem

Roles of Organismic system

• Identification of resources
• Using appropriate technology to extract these resources.

• Inviting trained skill manpower to exploit the resources

• Passing these resources to higher subs systems

Function - adaptation to the environment 85

Function adaptation to the environment

Roles of personality system

• Identification of the series of goals.

• Elimination of goals which are not achievable.

• Putting the goals in priority.

• Selection of appropriate means

• Elimination of means which are not result oriented.

Function- Goal attainment

Roles of Social system

• There are different institution within social system.

• Promote integration and unity within institution

• Direct institution on how to play roles

• Establishing integration between individual and institution.

Function- Integration

Role of Cultural system

• Most important social system.
• Conformity to the social system [Maintain the patterns of the society] -Pattern maintenance [work
for the continuity ]
• Tension management

Function- Latency [Pattern maintenance + Tension management]

AGIL roles are functional pre requires for the making of a system.
Integration and goal attainment are internal to the social system while the other two are external.
Therefore every social system need help from other social system.

Sectorisation Theory
AGIL is helping an institution to sustain itself and play its role for the larger system. Every smallest unit
of the society we find AGIL.
Example- State bank of India Greater Noida- AGIL -> SBI North India (AGIL)->SBI (AGIL)
Therefore for every small part of the society there is AGIL present.Every smallest sector of the society
has the AGIL.

Working of social system/ Hierarchy of control 86

 g y / y
Organismic system is collecting information from environment (environment may be physical or
cultural). [Ex went to USA and saw living relationship.] This information was forwarded to personality
system [Decided to live in]. Then discussion or information shared with social system [family].Then
social system negotiates with cultural system [Not ethical in India].Then control in the reverse way.

Input means information.Output is the decision taken based on information. Input goes from lower
strata to higher strata and decision is taken from higher strata to lower strata.
Information moving from lower system to higher system is input.
Control moving from higher system to lower system is output.
Cultural system is giving values ideas norms to social system . Keeping these in mind social system
make laws [monogamy is cultural , hindu marriage act is social]
Most of the time culture give guidelines to social system. Personality system wont take a decision
unless prescribed by social and cultural system even if organismic system say so . Therefore
personality system filters information from organismic system and continuity in society is maintained .

L Cultural system Input last ,output first

I Social system
G Personality system
A Organismic system Input first , output last

Change in society [Challenge to Marxian theory of revolutionary change]

• Usually change happens like above. [Regular change]

◦ Every change is contributing to novelty(some newness) in society than changing old society to
new society through negotiations , deliberations. Change brings continuity rather than
breakdown [unlike Marx] .Society is a story of moving equilibrium.
• Change can also be initiated by any subsystem of the society. Personality system can bring
change in social system [Ram mohan roy -sati]. Then deliberations and negotiations take place
ultimately change is accepted . This is called cybernetic control
When personality system makes demands which social system cannot fulfill , social system wanted
cultural system to change and it objected. Every subsystem will change or adjust itself and thus a
deliberative change would occur through negotiations . Therefore change bring continuity rather than
change bringing breakdown (unlike Marx) [Moving equilibrium/ Dynamic equilibrium]
Change can be initiated by any subsystem of the society.

Cultural system is pinnacle of social system.Cultural system give direction to social system
87
,personality system .In America society culture gives importance on rationality , go getters
,individualism and self orientation, don’t follow stereotypes, successful people are recognized.These
values are present in every individual and respected by every institution.The values spelled out y
culture are the values cherished by institution.Therefore cultural values are holding the society
together.
These values are also clear in tribal societies -> Equilibrium is there.
In India we have contradictory values as there is contestation and conflict between alum given by
culture[Modesty , giving character..] and rational values. Parson is an American sociologist and
institutions and institutions are cherishing these values. India is passing through transition. Therefore
equilibrium is present in American society while it is yet to arrive in India. Traditional values is slowly
getting replaced by modern society.

While studying social system we have to take into account [Easy language- Essence]
• The smallest unit of the system - People play their Role befitting to expectations , status , norms ,
values.
• How one part contributes to other.- Integration , persistence and continuity

• System will not survive without resources . How resources are available to system

How system works [Easy language - Essence]

• System is working because we are getting lots of information from environment . Then needs
develop. Then demands develop. These demands are negotiated within the system some are
fulfilled(Integration is promoted ) while some not (counseling-> integration is promoted). [AGIL]
Theory of convergence
Concretizing to abstract theory of social system.
Economy is the real institution which is playing the adaptive role. [What theoretically organismic
system does ].Organismic system is converged into economy.
• Whatever is present in the environment , economy is adapting to the environment.

Political system(Government) is the real institution in the society which is playing goal attainment
role.Personality system is converged into government.
• Example HRD ministry goal specification of reaching optimum literacy rate and planning to achieve
it.
• Planning, allocation of urgent, defining target, achieving the target
Law, Education are playing role of integration . Social system is converged into Law and education.
Family and kinship groups play the role of tension management and pattern maintenance.

A society in order to be made , and once developed to sustain must have to have economy ,
government law education family [Pre requisite ] 88
government ,law, education , family.[Pre requisite ].
Therefore society is converted into a system using these pre requisite.

Parsonian theory of social system is a narrative about how social actors are playing their roles driven
by motives guided by values and norms befitting to their status for which right kind of roles are played
by right kind of actors in right situation giving way to equilibrium maintained within the smallest unit of
social system.
A social system [smallest unit] is
• addressing to the needs of actors.

• Eliminating contradictory roles in time and space.

• Encourage actors for effective role performance

• Stimulate into their mind conformity to norms and values

• Promoting integration between different actors through mutual dialogues , understanding and
reciprocation
When smallest unit of social system goes for effective role performance it sustains itself and
contributes for other smaller sub systems and harmony between them makes larger social system.
Therefore a social system to survive and sustain must have to have functional pre requisite present
within itself. Therefore a society is converted into a social system when it is attaining self sufficiency in
relation to its environment.

Criticism
• The other name of parsonian sociology is sociology of confusion. Example social structure of
action he spoke about 3 system and added 4th later. Which action give rise to organismic system
89
 ? He never mentioned it. System is there but roots are missing. Inconsistency is the essence of
parsonian sociology.
• Parsonian theory is overemphasizing on continuity, equilibrium. It is veiled status quoist theory
[Conservative] . Change is deliberated , regular change which brings forward continuity.He never
talks about revolutionary change , organized change because he is a functionalist
• C wright Mills

◦ Parsonain theory is teleological (end defines means)

▪ Teleology - World exist (fact) , God made world , Therefore God exist.
• end defines means
▪ the explanation of phenomena in terms of the purpose they serve rather than of the cause
by which they arise.
◦ It is tautological
▪ Explaining same concepts with different meanings
• Jurgen Habermas

◦ Integration , order is not maintained in the society through consensus. People are schooled to
remain in discipline and confirm to the norms and values. To promote harmony children are
schooled , exposed to media - fear. People become conformist. People who still refuses to
confirm are send to jails, rehabilitation center.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
——————————————————————————
Pattern Variables
Pattern variable is a paradigm (framework or model) using which parsons make an attempt
• To understand how the value system of a traditional society is different from modern society.

• Through this pattern variable paradigm one can explain how an actor in action situation is facing
dilemma and how he is resolving it.
• How an actor is negotiating with counter actors in an action situation.
• Pattern variable can explain behavioral change, social change and social continuity.

Parsons is borrowing idea from Ferdinand tonnies [Gemeschaft- community and Gesselschaft-
Association]. He is also influenced by the typology Durkheim has developed to distinguish between
modern and traditional society - Mechanical and organic solidarity. Also classification given by Ralph
linton - ascriptive value and achievement.

Traditional society is driven by pattern variable A and modern society by Pattern variables B
Criteria Pattern Variable A Pattern Variable B
90
 Type of action It is guided by expressive It is a product of
action defined by instrumental action
cathetic orientation. guided by cognitive
Connected to each other orientation.
on the basis on Actor should be non
emotional, community emotional , rational , rule
behavior oriented
Identification of the actor Based on ascription- Based on achievement
who the counter actor is . orientation - What the
counter actor is capable
of doing.
Degree of emotion Affectivity - Degree of Affective neutrality
possible in relationship emotion is high
Range of obligation Diffusion- Diffusive Specificity- Specific
relationship with the relationship with the
people people
Mode of attachment Particularism- My caste , Universalism
my city , my family .
Universal commitment to
rules and law is lacking
Form of goal orientation Collective orientation Self orientation
Actor facing dilemma
Mother relationship with child - Diffusive but working mothers find difficult to play Diffusive roles
therefore on weekend they spend more time with them to relive of tension.
Example When mother is going to office leaving child alone is facing a dilemma. Making a video call.

How actor is negotiating with counter actor

On the basis of values

91
Sociological Thinkers-Robert K Merton
Background
• 1910-2003
• He was a Jew born in America.His father was a migrant from Russia . He never experienced
equality whole through his life.
• He performed street magic to earn livelihood.

• He did his graduation from temple university.

• He is the only one which we have studied who pursued sociology from the beginning and hence
least philosophical .
• He joined Columbia university where he met parson. He joined the parsons group and became a
bitter critique of parsons.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
Syllabus
• Robert Merton as a critique to Parsons.
• Study of reference group behavior.

◦ Largely used by Indian sociologist - MN Srinivas

◦ Can be applied where there is scope of social mobility
• Theory of deviance and anomie.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
Merton as a critique to Parson
• He advocates that parson theory is highly ambitious because parson theory of social system want
to study every aspect of social life [Biological ,social, psychological ,cultural]
◦ Sociology can only study the outcomes of human behavior [Outcome of behavior in India is
caste system]
◦ When human beings are communicating with each other , structure develops and that
structures should be the subject methods of sociology. Something which is actually present
that imagining a grand theory.
• Parsonian sociology is overemphasizing on integration.(Every smallest unit carry capacity to
sustain itself and make functional contribution to the continuity to the counterparts- Parsons)
◦ Merton says that this integration theory is Functional deterministic approach. That is every part
of the society is function specific and every part is functional to other part according to parson.
It is trying to replace economic deterministic theory of Karl Marx putting sociology in the
bondage of determinism.
• Parsonian theory is giving more importance on continuity. Continuity is maintained in the system
92
 because of input and output. Personality is filtering out the demands which cannot be fulfilled
through social control hence continuity.
◦ Merton says parsonian sociology is a misplaced analysis. Subject matter of sociology should be
how different sphere of life there is a threat to continuity. Don’t assume continuity.
• Parsonian sociology is more concerned about manifest role of the institution. Manifest function
can be explained by anybody.This makes sociology no different from common sense.
◦ Sociology should study the latent role which cannot be explained by common sense. Behind
anything manifest there is a serious of latent . To explain latent we require a creative
sociological mind.
Robert Merton looks into 3 important postulates that Parsonian theory is emphasizing on
• Functional unity

◦ Unity between parts , integration between parts , integration between part and the whole.
Therefore society is subjected to smooth continuity.
◦ Parsons borrowed its idea from
▪ Biology
▪ Malinowski [In a tribal society every part is connected to every other part. A tribal chief
initiates rituals before they start the harvest playing the religious role, people offer first
product to tribal chief representing political structure . Therefore religious Structure and
political and economic structure are interconnected . But in a complex structure one can
distinguish between different structure.]
◦ One structure may be functional to another structure but this is not absolute . In a modern
society / complex unity functional unity is not present everywhere. We should test the idea of
this functional unity rather than blindly accepting this as a fact.It may be a act in simple
societies.
◦ Example : Industry not generating job opportunities due to automation , unemployment is high
,become dysfunctional to the family.Engineers not matching the demands of the market.
◦ Functional unity is a superficial conclusion about social life. Sociology should study that within
every society there are present different structures ,norms , values , roles.[Example within
industries there are different values - Tata and Ambani ]Values adopted by the different groups
are different questioning to the unity. Therefore functional unity should studied empirically
rather than accepting it as a fact.Example {Had their been unity in caste system Gautama
Buddha , reformist movement would have not taken place}
◦ Within every structure there are present groups , within groups there are individuals with
different values. Therefore unity should not be taken for granted it should be empirically
established.
• Functional universality
◦ Parsonian sociology is functional deterministic. Over emphasizing on functions.
◦ But Every structure to other structure can be functional, dysfunctional and non functional.
◦ Individuals, structures , relationships can be functional , dysfunctional and non functional .
E l P l b fitti f ti f th it i f ti t b fiti it i 93
 ▪ Example People benefitting from reservation for them it is function , not benefiting it is
dysfunctional
◦ Functions and dysfunction can be manifest and latent.
▪ Behind a manifest function there may be dysfunctional latent [Wasting time in study group]
◦ Sociology should not be taking function for granted , taking their manifest and latest form by
collecting data and facts. Therefore functionalism need to be revisited
• Functional indispensability
◦ Every structure is having a specific function that is indispensability [It cannot be changed].
◦ Merton says that structure is function specific is an assumption made by parsons. Structural
alternatives and functional similarities are present .
◦ Many structure one function
▪ If social control is the function maintained by family , law , peer groups , kinship .
◦ One structure , multiple functions
▪ Example Football club
◦ One structure, manifest function and a different latent function
▪ Example -Industry - Manifest function - owners making profit , workers are happing ,
contribution to GDP. Latent - Informal discussion at office influencing voting behavior.
◦ From the above 3 points we can say that functional indispensability is a myth.

Latent and manifest

This concept is not original to Merton. These concept are used in different branches before
• Sigmund Freud - Psychologist

◦ A son is sexually attraction towards mother and daughter attraction towards father is latent.
Manifest is the closeness of daughter to father and son to mother.
• Francis Bacon
◦ Beneath the superficial configurations there is present latent component. Petroleum is
extracted from water, mud .
◦ Therefore every scientific exploration search for latent elements present in an object extracting
the manifest .
• GH Mead

◦ Punishment ceremony is having latent roles to play despite having one manifest goals.
◦ Latent - bringing people together , social control , individualism is suppressed.
• WG Summner
◦ A given kind of act is manifested by the actor with a meaning. When that act is continuing over
a period of time not guided by same meaning it become custom.
◦ Therefore custom is the unintended consequence of human behavior that is repetitive.
• WI Thomas and Zanaincki
◦ Studied peasant cooperatives.in 1968 government of Poland encouraged cooperatives.
◦ Manifest intent to eliminate agrarian poverty profitable agriculture contribution to GDP 94
 ◦ Manifest intent- to eliminate agrarian poverty , profitable agriculture , contribution to GDP
◦ Members of the cooperatives are meeting together and discussing the agrarian policies of the
government and becoming politically conscious. They are developing network of relationship.
Peasants become organized , Mobilized and evolved as peasants associations.These
associations are making demands on government. Over a period of time these peasants
association started constituting the political parties and contest national elections- Latent
• Merton
◦ He gave example of Hopi Indians [Native Americans] rain dance. They strongly believe rain is
not a natural process , it is not possible without ritual performance. They regularly need rain for
agriculture and survival. They wait for clouds in the sky , they paint their body in dark and
brown color and dance. Rain dance is a sacred affair. People are given training for this dance.
When it rains they attribute it to rain dance
◦ Manifest function of rain dance - Rainfall
◦ Latent function -
▪ It keeps specialist busy for dance preparation -they get social respectability
▪ Young boys and girls get a chance to eat other.
▪ Social cohesion and social solidarity
▪ continuity of culture
Therefore behind everything manifest there is a series of latent. Sociology should study these
latent.
••For every question
Try to divide into functional, non functional , dysfunctional and latent and manifest.
Status consistency and status inconsistency
• Status consistency give happiness.Status inconsistency brings tensions.People try to maintain the
status consistency.
• Example An actor not being recognized and respected by shopkeeper leads to status
inconsistency
Role set
• Every actor is playing roles befitting to status in different conditions. All roles combined(role set)
define the personality.If role are not performed then actor suffers from role conflict, role strain.
• Role conflict is the conflict between the roles.

• Roles strain happens when actor is not able to perform role effectively.

Middle Range theory

• Merton is introducing the concept of middle range theories in his sociological analysis.

• Middle range theory is developed on non controversy things to facilitate research.

• When ideal type is constriction on historical phenomenon to its contrast middle range theories is
constructed on real problems present in the social structures It is establishing balance between 95
 constructed on real problems present in the social structures. It is establishing balance between
theory and facts.
• It considers that the best theory is one that comes out of the fact and carries capacity to explain
the facts in an effective manner.
• Therefore middle range theory is rejecting to grand theory and mega theory , revisions to weber
ideal type and preparing a road map for empirical research in sociology.
Thus reference group , anomie , role set , status consistency are the middle range theories
constructed by Robert Merton to explain different structural problems present in social life. Therefore
Merton is rejecting to mega functional theory of parson and introducing structure functional a always
is at its place.

Theory Example Degree of abstraction

Mega Theory Parsons theory Highest level of
abstraction
Grand theory Marxian theory and Lower degree of
consensus theory of abstraction than above
Durkheim
- Weberian Ideal type Lower degree of
theory abstraction than above
Middle range theory Role set, status Lower degree of
inconsistency and status abstraction than above
inconsistency , latent
and manifest , reference
group
— Hypothesis Little abstraction
- Facts
Example
Poverty
Latent
• It makes government visible. [Mgnrega]
• Administration functional

J li h i il 96
 • Journalist to get themes to write articles.
• Intellectuals get research grants.
• Jobs to NGO.
• Due to it we get people to work [maid and helpers]
————————————————————————————————————————————————
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Reference group Theory
A person belonging to one group is identifying another group better off than his own group imbibing
the values, behaviors of other group and striving for mobility.Once you become a part of reference
group they find another reference group.
This theory is not original to Merton
• CH Cooley
◦ ’Looking glass self’
◦ Each person to other person is a looking glass.In every interaction all situation every person is
presenting his role to get appreciation from counter actors.Therefore the counter actors are the
point of reference to the actor. [Teacher - student example smile -good lecture]. Evaluation is
made through gesture , actions , symbols .
◦ Therefore through the appreciation and devaluation of other we modify our personality
• Abbe Dubois

◦ ‘Double self of Black’

◦ Balck child in America carry two identities of colored American and citizen of America. Within
this black man there are two self present. He tries to speak in American English , putting
sophisticated clothes like white American (Reference point ). Still he finds out that his identity
barrier has still not been removed. There are two souls in him Black self and Black achiever .
Black is not able to reach the position of whites. Therefore ideology of equality is contesting
with persistence of inequality.
• Hyman

◦ Formalizing the inception of reference group behavior and explaining group dynamics.
◦ Within every group somebody would be present who would not be happy in the group and
having affiliation to other group. He would be giving advise to group members how to modify
the behavior of the group. Members of the group considers he is a rebellion
◦ Neither he belong to group a nor to group b and thus marginalized.
Use this theory to explain alcoholics , drug addicts. At every point of time we make somebody as
a point of reference.
• David New comb

◦ The concept of reference group behavior is put to empirical test by him.

◦ He conducts a research on student behavior in the community colleges[People living in same
residence area putting money together and starting a school Members of the community
97
 decide the curriculum ] of America.
◦ People of the community would teach the subjects. These colleges are open to all age groups.
◦ Successful members of the community regularly visits the school and colleges and tell the
student about their life story. Student treat them as point of reference.
◦ Behaviors, attitude of the children are different as role models are different.
◦ The way we are choosing our point of reference our attitudes , behavior can be spelled out.
• Stouffer
◦ He used the concept of relative deprivation.People feel relatively deprived from others.
[Absolute deprived theory is given by Marx and feminist - destroy the system]
◦ Relative deprivation tells to use different ways and means to minimize , wipe out this
deprivation.Therefore it is temporal.
◦ Relative deprivation give rise to competitive inequality while absolute deprivation gave rise to
complete inequality.
◦ Study was done by him on American soldiers to find out whether soldiers were happy with the
service or not after WWII. It is famously known as study of American soldiers. They divided
American soldiers into 4 distinctive groups
▪ Combat veterans
• Social recognition is high. leading the army . Enjoy unquestionable power , salary.
• They become point of reference for everybody.

• They will be replaced by those who treat them as point of reference after their
retirement. They feel relatively deprived in comparison to combat veterans waiting for
them to retire.
• Vacancies at the top are few and getters are many.

▪ Replacement to combat veterans

• They keep combat veterans as the point of reference. Those who don’t get chance feels
relatively deprived.
▪ Officers posted overseas
• Peace keeping forces under the banner of UN. More salary , more authority in
comparison to the soldier posted at border
• But they feel deprived because they are in foreign place and not in their homeland.
• He would always be eager to join replacement to combat veterans.

▪ Officers still at home

• Army cantonment with their family, posted at headquarters.

• They feel deprived from the above the people. Motivation is high among these people for
an opportunity.
◦ Relative deprivation can be curtailed by job rotation.
• Merton and Kitt
◦ They introduced a new concept called as anticipatory socialization close to the concept of
reference group.
Anticipatory socialization is a psychic process by which an individual gets emotionally 98
 ◦ Anticipatory socialization is a psychic process by which an individual gets emotionally
connected to another social group because of higher power, visibility , status of other group.
Therefore at the subconscious level we try to become part of that group by following their
customs norms behavioral pattern and way of life.It take place before one become a part of the
other group.
◦ Example - Sanskritisation theory of MN Srinivas.
◦ They restudied American soldiers using anticipatory socialization
Types of reference groups
• While talking about reference group, one can consider membership group as the reference group
if the own grown has the visibility , power, status. Example Gujjars on cars
• Normative reference group

◦ Sometime people consider the other group is good enough but don't want to leave own group.
Example: Appreciating the Hardworking characters of the punjabis , weber on Protestantism
but never converted to it. Therefore the other group is normative reference group. One
appreciates the norm of the group but never become a part of it.
• Comparative reference group
◦ One can have comparative reference group. Example America , Britain and Russia as reference
groups. Comparing them to get the jobs which suits one the most [Pick one out of others ]
• Multiple reference groups.

◦ Example [Pick something out of multiples ] food like Indians , dress like Americans
• Referent power

◦ Example caste surname giving power so people dropping their surname , profession giving
power (IAS), distant relations converting to primary kinship relations if powerful.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
Merton on deviance or anomie
Merton is not the first to study deviance
• First discipline to study deviance is biology . Lomborso a biologist says our biological
characteristics is strongly connected to the deviant behavior , on the basis of biological traits
deviants can be divided into
◦ Mesomorphic
▪ Tall, strong, athletic body , kinky/curly hair , erected forehead , oversized ears i.e Blacks are
deviants
◦ Ectomorphic
▪ Skinny , bonny , depressed eyes - mongoloids [Chinese, Japanese ...]
◦ Endomorphic
▪ Average height, rounded body , colored skin - Asians are also deviants
• Psychological theory to deviance
99
 ◦ Sigmund Freud
▪ Our personality is having three different components
• ID-Criminal part of the personality

• Ego
• Superego-Always moralist part of personality

▪ Struggle between ID and superego . Ego tries to balance.

▪ If ID component dominant over superego and ego people become deviant.
▪ If superego dominates then altruistic person /moralistic person - Nationalist leaders
▪ If ID and superego is balance then commoners.
◦ Dinitiz
▪ Deviance is a personality trait , those who cannot control their emotions , frustrations ,
those who are egoist , irrational , carry emotionally charged Mind or those who carry
abnormal personality are deviants.
• Cultural theory to deviants
◦ Labelling theory - Harvard Becker
▪ Labelling somebody as deviant make them deviant.
◦ Sutherland - sub cultural theory of deviance
▪ The way conformist learn their culture in the same way deviants are also learning their sub
culture.
▪ So an individual is not deviants it is the sub culture which make one deviant .
▪ White collar crime - People holding public offices and using them for the gratification of
their needs.
◦ William Forte Whyte
▪ ‘Street corner society’
▪ Within a cultural space there are always present sub cultural space. They have their own
values , customs and norms. These values and ideals are transmitting by seniors to juniors.
If anybody not confirming to the values then he is subjected to punishment. [Within caste
system there is brahmin subculture, Dalit subculture]
▪ If the culture of subgroup is contradictory to the mainstream culture then it is called contra
culture.
▪ Criminals at the street gathering at night when everybody is sleeping for committing crime.
They take pride in their actions , go for regularly recruitment and provide training. He
studied the Chicago study.
▪ Therefore a person in order to be deviant needs a subculture. Therefore deviance is not the
manifestation of individual behavior.
▪ Criminalization of politics.
• Sociological Theory of deviance
◦ Durkheim
▪ Deviance is not conforming to the will of conscious collective. Deviance is a form of
i di id l b h i Th t 100
 individual behavior.Three types
• Minor deviance - It cannot derail the continuity of society . Therefore in many society
deviance is tolerated or ignored.
• Majority people deviant will lead to change.

• Significant deviant leading to punishment. It enforces the will of conscience collective,

Merton is rejecting to all these theories of deviance

• Deviance is the product of mismatch between institutionalized means endorsed by the people to
achieve culturally approved goals. Deviance should be studied in reference to social structure.
[contrast to Durkheim]
• Deviance is present is social structure. We cannot say that individuals is deviant . Within every
structure actors are present, some may not confirm to means to achieve their goals .Look at the
means and goals to study deviance in social structure.
• Every structure of the society is glorifying certain kinds of values and the actors contributing to
social structure are confirming to these values to achieve their goals. If confirming to these values
one is achieving the goals then he is a conformist.
• There are some despite confirming to values they know goal is not easy to achieve but still chase
their goals
• He speaks about deviance keeping two things in mind
◦ Large body of people from different parts of the world migrate to America to test their fortune
because American society proclaimed itself as meritocratic society , no poverty society. But
when they come to America they found out they are discriminated despite hard work and
talent. They keep on confirming to means but the goal is never achieved. Though he is
conformist but he is committing a crime against himself. These people are committing deviance
against their own life.All conformist are not necessarily conformist. Within them there are
hidden deviant. [Example Indian farmers going for commercial crops regularly but not achieving
desired returns] [UPSC aspirants]
• Conformist are divided into two type of people one , who use appropriate means and achieve
goals (there number is small), other who never achieve their goal [explained above- Deviants]
• Ritualist considers means itself as the goal. Meticulously confirm to rules , values , customs in
such a manner that the goal is displaced. Example [Studying madly for 15 hours, bureaucrats
confirming to rules ]they are deviants.
• For innovators goal achievement is important and means is not important. Their population is more
in America. Example sale of alcohols and drugs to become billionaires.They are deviants
• For retreatist there is no significance for means and goals for them.They drift from mainstream
society.Example Sadhu sanyasi, naxalities , terrorist. Hence they are deviants.
• Rebellion partially confirm the means and find new means , similarly they partially confirm to
goals and partially find new goals. Example Anna Hazare , Activists. They are also deviants.
• Therefore deviance is present in every social structure. One cannot label individual as deviants

Culturally approved Socially legitimized 101

 Culturally approved Socially legitimized
means goals
Conformist (+) (+)
Ritualist (+) (-)
Innovators (-) (+)
Retreatist (-) (-)
Rebellion (+/-) (+/-)
*How Merton theory of deviation is different from Marxian theory of alienation*
• Alienation is present in capitalist society while deviance is universal.

• Alienation is a product of exploitation of workers while anomie is a product of means not

connected to goals.
• Revolution is solution to alienation while solution to anomie means connected to goals .
• Alienation is a product of class relationship while anomie is a product of social structure.

Durkheim anomie and Merton anomie

• For Durkheim Anomie is individual behavior not confirming to conscience collective while Merton
says anomie is product of social structure.

102
Sociological thinkers -GH Mead
Background
• 1863-1931
• He is the founder of interaction theory in sociology. Major contributor to microsociological
tradition. Social interaction theory is instrumental for rise of phenomenology.
• His contribution is offering a foundation to social psychology.

• He father was a powerful leader of Congress. Before he became a law maker he was a professor.
• Mead has a interest in studying different language Latin Greek , German , French and English. He
had interest in field of psychology and philosophy.
• He went for graduation in Harvard university. He met John Dave who was known for romantic
philosophy. He also studied idealistic philosophy of Hegel.He realized that none of the philosophy
have connected with ground realities and subsequently los interest
• He went to Germany and did PhD under Wilhem Wundt who was an expert in the field of
physiological psychology[chemical process taking place in the brain which guide our thought]. He
did not complete his PhD.
• He never wrote a book but after he died his lectures was published by his students in the book
‘mind self and society’
————————————————————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
Self
• Human beings do have a self because of which they cannot be pushed into the corner by the
natural force.
◦ Example Man carrying a self would survive from flood , rain and other natural forces.
• Human beings have self therefore they can connect themselves with other human beings
developing interactional relationships. From this groups , institution and organizations develops.
Here he make a distinction between human and animal self
• Human self is reflexive while animal self is not. On everything human reflect be it food , dress ,
relationships .
◦ This reflexive self tell us what to do and when. Therefore human self is dynamic self while
animal self is static.
◦ How difficult a situation may be human beings can convert it into happy condition because of
reflexive self.
◦ It is reflexive because it has seen, listen to others how to encounter a similar situation
◦ It is reflexive because it has signs, symbols and language to diffuse the situation
◦ It is reflexive because it is a subject of its own act
• Self cannot be developed in a vacuum. For the development of self it needs a social context
[Example mogwli developed a animal self] Therefore self would be developing only in a society 103
 [Example mogwli developed a animal self]. Therefore self would be developing only in a society.
◦ If born in a deviant subculture self would develop according to them. Our self is a product of
context.
• Self is a product of society responsible for making the society.

• Self is both a subject and object of its own act

◦ Self is imagining a goal for itself and finding out merit in that goal. Subject because it is thinking
about a goal, planning for the goal,self is thinking about the appropriate means to achieve
goals, power to select goals , give judgement about others . Self is object because we
immediately evaluate our role , rectify our roles , redefine roles befitting to the expectations of
others.[Writing an essay is subject but correcting , rectifying it is the object ]
• There are two different components present in our self
◦ I
▪ I is innovative , creative ,speculative, thoughtful , dynamic , expressive and articulating part
of the self
◦ ME
▪ It is law bound , judicious , conscious , rational and logical part of the self
• No human being manifest action without deliberation between I and ME. No action is spontaneous
◦ It is because of I people come out or diffuse from the most difficult situations in life.[Saying
sorry to mother after stealing]
◦ I and ME may be engaged in prolonged dialogue and a clear direction is not given and that is
known as delayed decision. Delayed decision is not confusion it is delayed rational dialogue
between I and ME
• There are two types of people around us
◦ Significant others
▪ People who are important to us and affect our behavior. People develop self of others.
▪ Example - Developing the role of mother while playing kitchen kitchen.
▪ Before our own self develop we borrow self of others. Therefore for the growth of our self ,
other self are important.
◦ Generalized others
• Self develops through the process of socialization. Example - A child action is same (crying) for
different stimulus , he has an unsocialized self.
• When a child is born he is surrounded by the object. He cannot make sense of the object unless
knowing the language. His mind is socialized as he grows according to his culture and starts
identifying the objects.Socialization not only gives values norms it first tells us about the objects
around us as a child, understand mood of the people , relate yourself with other. Out of this
develop self . Therefore human society is a society of selfs. Relationship between self and society
is of reciprocation.
• Foundation to society is the presentation of self.

————————————————————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
Mi d 104
Mind
• We have self because we are minded.

• Mind is a
◦ Storehouse of information about present , past , event , experience , rules [About past good
and bad, ethical and unethical ]
◦ It is also a storehouse of significant symbols i.e language , gestures , signs
• This information is given to self. On the basis of information I negotiates with ME and course of
action is given.
• Since we are minded we put appropriate self in the right context . Hence we are conscious our
place , time , others therefore presenting right kind of role . This make social institutions and
society possible .
• Therefore society is the representation of the minded people who carry a reflexive self.

• Interaction is a process of communication between two reflexive self guided by their mind through
significant symbols.
• Therefore mind self and society are strongly connected to each other.
• Therefore biology defines psychology to define sociology.

————————————————————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
Society
• Things exist before they are being converted into objects.

◦ An ideology can be a thing, physical object can be a thing , something non existent can be a
thing.
◦ Applying mind into things they are converted into objects.
◦ [Example - Purchasing a book is think , but reading and finding it good or bad is object,
abstract ideas are things when research is done something objective comes into prominence]
◦ Mind self and society are connected to each other.
• Mind is developing through the process of socialization
◦ Socialization is a process by which we understand ourselves , facilitates for self formation ,
presentation of self , developing self awareness , understanding the expectation of others ,
establishing connectivity between mind and self and appropriate role presentation for the
making of society.
◦ Socialization is keeping significant others as the point of reference , one take their roles [role of
mother , teachers], put ourselves into their role. This is only a play or game stage.
◦ We take the role of significant other and present it to generalized others to get appreciation .
Example [Dressing like Katrina kaif ]
• Child Socialization happens in 2 stages

◦ Play stage
▪ Till 5 years
▪ When child is born his mind is black.
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 ▪ First identification of person happens
▪ Second identification of objects, Place
▪ Thirdly language and symbols.
▪ Out of the whole lot child would be picking one and become point of reference. Child will be
picking role of a single person.
◦ Game stage
▪ From 5-8 years
▪ More people are made point of reference in this stage.
————————————————————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
Self and identity
• We get identity through the presentation of our self. As self is dynamic we are getting different
identity in different situations. Overall personality is more or less same.
• Example [obedient to parents , excellent student to teacher , introvert to friends -> different roles
defines the personality together] . Basic personality doesn’t change but we present our self
differently in the different situations.

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Social Stratification
• It is a branch of sociology that takes interest in the study of inequality present in different society.
Inequality may be based on income , gender ,political ,social. Therefore inequality is universal but
the forms of inequalities are different in different societies . Where there is inequality people may
tolerate to inequality or rebel against inequality.
• It involves comparative study of inequality in different societies.
• Within one structure inequality is studied differently by sociologist [Louis Dumont , Srinivas on
caste]
• Two types of inequality
◦ Absolute inequality [Karl Marx on class, Louis Dumont on caste]
▪ Non amendable , unchangeable
▪ Based on ascription
▪ Closed societies
◦ Relative inequality [Max Weber on class]
▪ Open society
▪ amendable , changeable
▪ Achievement oriented
• Stratification make difference between closed society and open society.
• Inequalities exist in two forms
◦ Natural inequality
▪ Inequality that nature has guaranteed to human beings.
▪ Example- Inequalities on the basis of sex , height and color
◦ Social inequality
▪ Inequality which are created, legitimized and institutionalized in the society therefore
persists in society.
▪ One view is that there is inequality in the society because there is present dominant class in
every society. They make law, rules , customs [Manusmriti- women are equivalent to slaves,
Plato - Women are emotionally weak and Aristotle - Women should not be given citizenship
rights- Men dominance] to get access to privileges. When dominant class disappear ,
inequality would also disappear. Revolution would end the social inequality - Marx , Feminist
, Dalit sociologist .
▪ Other view - Inequality is present in society because it is good for society. No system will
survive if it guarantees complete equality to the people.What is to be and what not to be
equally distributed should be spelled out by the society. [Equal share of cake is acceptable
in class while equal marks are not ]. Therefore it is rational and legitimate choice of society.
Degree, form, nature,intensity of inequality is a rational choice of the society. If this
inequality is not present society cannot continue.
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 • Therefore social stratification studies different views on inequality [Previous point]
• Stratification studies foundation to inequalities
◦ Some social inequalities are the products of difference. [Getting into police due to height]
◦ Natural inequality can be converted into social inequality .[Sex converted to gender]
◦ Some are neither due to difference or natural inequality but created by the society.
[Bureaucracy]
• Social stratification studies people reaction to inequality
◦ Resistance , collective mobilization , movement [Self respect movement , satya sodhak samaj].
Old form of inequality or unacceptable form of inequality is replaced by new form of inequality
[caste to class]
• Distinction between practical and perfected inequality.
Rousseau - Society based on generalized will , respect for mutual difference. Opposite of inequality is
not equality but respect for mutual difference which are legitimized [Private wealth according to laws]
Durkheim- Modern society is respecting to differences among the people [specialized Division of
labour]. Opposite to inequality is difference.
Weber- Traditional authority produces inequality on the basis of choice of ruler , while in modern
society it is the law which defines inequality. It is functional to society. Complete equality is a myth.
Marx-Inequality is bad because it produces evil , equality should come from revolution. Opposite to
inequality is equality.

Q. Opposite to inequality is not necessarily equality. Comment

• Practical equality - Degree of equality possible for a society to carry.

◦ Equality of opportunity to the people , public policy

• Perfected equality - Marx talks about this, Gandhian idea of ram rajya. It is an ideology but difficult
to practice .
◦ Equal distribution of benefits.
Discuss Rousseau and Durkheim, weber to counter

Stratification and hierarchy

There are some sociologist who make a distinction between a stratified system and hierarchical system
• Stratified system is one where people are ranked differently placed one above the other on the
basis of different criteria [power, status, education..]
• Within every stratification system there is present hierarchical gradation. Hierarchical positions
which are dynamic are the inbuilt part of stratification system [Bureaucracy system is stratified
system in which hierarchical position are present]
• Hierarchical system is one where social position of the people are fixed, mobility is absent.
Therefore caste is a hierarchical system while class is a stratified system in which hierarchical 108
 Therefore caste is a hierarchical system while class is a stratified system in which hierarchical
position are present.
• Stratifies system is present in open society[Modern society] while hierarchical [traditional society ]
are closed society.
Reality
Stratification system is not always dynamic. [Transgenders , single mothers , blacks in America are
occupying bottom strata ]. Therefore bottom strata is fixed. At top in America generally industrialist ,
founders of MNC are sitting and it is not easy to get there. People at the top most position go for
voluntaristic exclusion while those at bottom are forcefully excluded(Hierarchy enters into a stratified
system). Therefore the above explanation suffers from Eurocentric bias.

Approaches to study social stratification

Social stratification is a 20th century concept forwarded by Talcott parsons and other American
sociologist. 19th century sociologist (Weber and Marx) never used the concept of social stratification
rather they used the concept of social inequality.18th century - Natural inequality. Today time - Social
exclusion

Marxian approach
Marx has never used the concept of social stratification rather he used the concept of social
inequality. Therefore for him they are synonymous to each other.
• Human society starts with the gift of equality from nature to mankind [Primitive communism].

• Equality or inequality in the society should be studied through organizational character of the
society. Organizational character of the society should be studied on the basis of economic
structure on which superstructure has developed .
• Economic inequality give rise to other form of social inequality.

• When productive technology is advanced and one group of people control over FOP , productive
relationship become unequal. Therefore in equalitarian society is replaced by in equalitarian
society in ancient society , feudal lords and capitalism. Private property come in prominence. All
superstructure institutions reflect the economic base.
• Revolution is not possible before capitalism because people are divided and class consciousness
cannot develop. In capitalism labour is heavily exploited and condition become so grave that
livelihood is not guaranteed . This leads to homogenization , polarization and finally revolution.
• Inequality is minimized through intervention of state in socialism and finally a completely
equalitarian stage called communism would come.
• It is a deterministic approach and mono causal approach.

• Marxian theory of stratification considers that social inequality is a product of economic history
and has nothing to do with difference in occupation or difference in income.
• Marxian theory of stratification considers that social inequality become intensive with the
advancement of technology and rise of private wealth Therefore more is wealth higher is 109
 advancement of technology and rise of private wealth. Therefore more is wealth higher is
inequality unless it is effectively distributed by the intervention of the state.
• Social inequality is grounded on economic inequality founded on exploitation of the productive
potential of the labour that leads to alienated labour. Therefore social inequality has a
psychological consequence.
• Rate of inequality cannot be minimized through formulation of public policy because inequality is a
product of exploitative system , unless system is destroyed [capitalism is destroyed] equality
cannot be promoted in the society. Therefore Marx offers an ideologically charged materialistic
deterministic revolutionary explanation to social inequality highlighting the dysfunction of social
inequality in different human society .
• As a reaction to dysfunctional theory of social inequality American sociologist [Parsons] offer a
functional theory to stratification to justify how social inequality is legitimate , genuine , just ,
proper therefore functional to society.
Then write criticism- Dharendroff and others from Marx chapter.

Weberian Approach
• It is a critic to Marxian theory of social stratification.

• Social inequality is present in every society , we cannot say some society are classless while other
are class based. Inequalities exist in multiple forms [educational , power, status ..]. Therefore he
develops an ideal type.
• Out of all forms of inequalities three different forms of inequalities are found everywhere

◦ Class
◦ Status
◦ Power
• Class as a form of inequality

◦ It refers to a group of people having identical position in the market situation. He looks class
from the market perspective while Marx looks from production perspective.[All teachers of the
university cannot be considered a class because their market position is different ]
◦ Income define class , occupations may be different class may be same.
◦ Class is dynamic [unlike Marx]
◦ Weber is developing ideal type on class dividing them into 4 types
▪ Propertied upper class
▪ Propertyless white collar workers
▪ Petty bourgeoisie
▪ Manual Laborers
◦ There is large body of propertyless people present who are not always antagonist to propertied
class.(Managerial class). They have skills knowledge and expertise which they are selling in
market. There is a harmony present between white collar workers and propertied class. They
have relationship of dependency , negotiation , driven by cooperation. Therefore class
relationship varies from one point of time to other.[Salary is increased regularly otherwise these
[ 110
 people will quit]. They have dynamic relationship which varies from one situation to other [It
may be harmonic and antagonistic- then negotiations take place]
◦ Managers are often the shareholders of the company in today time. Relationship between
propertied upper class and propertyless white collar workers is becoming strong. Therefore
capitalism is replaced by new form of capitalism than by revolution.
◦ Relationship between propertied upper class and petty bourgeoise- They are developing
contractual relationship between each other. It is not a hostile relationship , it is also a dynamic
relationship. Only in some cases petty bourgeoise may be wiped out by big bourgeoise.
[Example in India petty bourgeoise still exist along with large MNC].
◦ Managers are the intermediaries between propertied upper class and manual laborers. There is
conflict between white collar workers and manual labour. They are given upward mobility from
time to time , Hence polarization is not taking place rather managerial class (middle class) is
expanding.
**Q-Do you think class produces hierarchy ?
Yes- Marx , No- Weber [Explain above]
◦ Classes do not constitute community.
▪ Therefore class action cannot be communal action [While for Marx class action is communal
action]. Most fundamental feature of community is the shared feeling , beliefs. In class
people develop aspirations to move up in the ladder rather than mingling with the members
of the same class.
◦ People belonging to a class follow distinctive life chance.
▪ Life chance is a chance of procuring material goods and services because one has power to
purchase it. [Different food , clothes for poor and rich]
◦ In modern capitalist society people use class position to obtain status . Example showing off
collection of antiques to people, contacts to person. Rise in wealth increase in status , fall in
wealth - decrease in status
• Weber on Status

◦ Example - In tribal societies , chief v/s others - status based inequalities is present. In a
communist society economic inequality may not be present but political inequality may be
present. Brahmins constitute social class whether he has wealth or not. Therefore classes are
universal but forms may be different.
◦ He is more concerned about status groups present in different societies.
▪ Status is prestige , esteem , respectability associated with the person or the position he is
holding. Every occupation is carries a status. He is not concerned about the status of
occupations rather he finds out in the status structure there are group of people holding
apex position which he called status group.Example in 19th century India brahmins , tribal
chiefs and warriors in tribal society, In medieval Europe - priest , monarch , feudal lords,
modern society -top most bureaucrats , truthful politicians , Tata.
◦ Class may be same but status may be different.
◦ He makes a distinction between traditional rich and new rich.
▪ New rich are not status conscious while traditional rich are. New rich use slangs . No value
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 g
for morality , ethics . Old rich has manners , social standing , respectability.
▪ New rich always go for exhibition.
▪ New rich believe in class while old rich believe in status.
◦ People belonging to a status group follow distinctive lifestyle.
▪ Lifestyle is something which needs to be procured without which status could not be
established whether one has money or not.
▪ Example - A brahmin must put tilak and wear sacred thread.
◦ Status group can constitute a community.
▪ Members of the status group follow distinctive lifestyle , same behavior and same kind of
disciple , favorite past time are similar.
▪ They monopolize over exclusive cultural values.
▪ They can easily be distinguished from outsiders.
▪ They marry from within, communicate with each other, develop emotional affiliation with
each other , constituting each other as in group.
◦ He gives example of brahmins in India as status group
▪ They go for exclusive form of dress, language , behavior , rituals
▪ They are endogamous in character.
◦ In modern capitalist societies traditional status group will decline.
▪ New status groups - industrialists , top bureaucrats, philanthropist are making appearance .
▪ Therefore old status groups is replaced by new status groups but status as a form of
inequality still persist .
• Power/Party as an inequality
◦ Ability of a person to exercise control over other even against resistance is power.
◦ Party is the organized group action intended to capture power.
◦ Party is present in every sphere of life
▪ It is present in family , schools
◦ There are two groups present in party
▪ Those who are winning power.[leaders]
▪ Those who loose power.[followers]
◦ Explicit goal of the political party my be different but implicit goals are similar. It is to capture
power.
◦ Parties manifest communal action. [Whatever leader say followers listen]
◦ Parties capture power in different societies differently driven by their history , culture.
◦ Unequal distribution of power is the most fundamental inequality present in every society.[Men
women relationships , political leaders - Pm most powerful]
Functional approach to stratification
It developed in 1960s by American sociologist and the architect is Talcott parsons followed by
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Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore . It is challenging to dysfunctional theory of inequality forwarded by
Karl Marx. This developed in defense of capitalism.

Talcott Parsons
• He advocates that inequality in every society is the product of value system present in that
society. It defines the intensity , pattern of inequality. Hence it is not arbitrary in character
◦ He give example of Sioux tribal society
▪ In tribal societies (sioux Indians - American ) the hunters , warriors are responsible for the
protection of life and property of the people therefore they are highly respected.[Respected
due to their functional role]
▪ Hunters are respected because they give food and other people are functionally dependent
on them.
◦ Indian society - Sacrifice
▪ Sacrifice is the manifestation of character. People who sacrifice most are given highest
status.
▪ Hence inequality in this society is different as value system is different
◦ American society - Merit, capability, hard work , making money
• Stratification is functional to society therefore there is no alternative to stratification

◦ In different institutions different opportunities are available , to get access to these

opportunities society guarantees people equality of opportunity.
◦ Applying merit and capability people compete with others in legitimate way [fair competition]
◦ Instead of engaged in conflict people cooperative with other and makes the organization works.
• Stratification is a conscious decision of society.
◦ Capitalism demand elimination of poverty , affluence set up both of which is possible only
through economic development.There are some people who are entrepreneurial and go getters
, take leadership roles and guide others to maximize best of others , profit finally to economic
development and thus elimination of poverty. Giving them better perks and benefits is justified
and not arbitrary. It is accepted inequality.
• If inequality is deliberated by one structural part of the system [CSPO system] and not acceptable
to other system. It becomes illegitimate inequality
◦ Example Culture defined caste system and questioned by Gandhi and ambedkar[Personality
system] and Indian educated middle class [social system] , Dalit literature [Organismic system]
◦ Therefore this is illegitimate inequality as opposed to legitimate inequality as explained above.
Therefore inequality has 2 different dimension.
Davis and Moore
• They published an article ‘Towards a functional theory of social stratification’ in American
sociological journal in 1960. Explained stratification from where parsons left. It is an extension of
parsons theory.
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 • They advocate that highly meritorious people in American society[capitalist] are obtaining higher
rewards, therefore stratification system is legitimate and functional.
◦ Top executives , top administrators getting higher wage and job security. They are arriving at
these positions by proving their merit time and again on continuous basis. [Example proving
merit again and again in college, UPSC]
◦ Therefore inequality is becoming acceptable and not leading to revolution.
• Stratification system in modern capitalist society is a source of motivation.
◦ Most efficient people getting higher rewards feels motivated to think out of the box,
organization makes profit
• Stratification system in modern industrial society is respecting to the principle of equality of
opportunity.
◦ Example UPSC is open to all.
◦ Therefore principle of stratification is acceptable to both winners and losers . They are
developing harmonic relationship rather than users going for revolution.
• Stratification system registers economic growth , consolidate tax base , facilitates state to initiate
welfare policies bringing different strata close to each other.
◦ It puts the right people , at the right place at right time.
◦ Class relationship will be competitive rather than being polarized.
◦ Class origin is different from class destination.
• Functionally efficient people and functionally important positions are more rewarded in
comparison to others.
◦ Functionally important position- Example secretaries in department vs clerk. They have more
responsibility towards the organization.
◦ They are getting higher rewards and others are not objecting to it , therefore inequality is
legitimate
• Degree of inequality in society is the decision of the society and not the individual .
*Q-How is functionalist challenging to Marxian theory of stratification *

Critique to Functionalist

Melvin tumin
• Book - ‘Social stratification’ -1963

• Which occupation are functionally more important than which other occupation is difficult to
establish.
◦ Example can IT industry survive without computer repair person ?
◦ Every role is important at its place.
• There is no universal measuring rod [mechanism] to evaluate merit.
◦ Example - A tribal understanding of merit is different from other societies
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 Example A tribal understanding of merit is different from other societies.
• People from the lower class go to low grade school and then settle for low class job and
reproduce themselves , children from middle class go to school for achieving aspirations , upper
class for different purpose. Therefore there is no equality of opportunity.
• Functionalist considers giving somebody better rewards and benefits people stay motivated.
Money is not always a necessary condition for the motivation for work.It is driven by multiple
factors.
◦ Example philanthropists giving donations
• It is not true that lower class is always coming close to upper class and they share a cooperative
and competitive relationships in stratified society. It is not a harmonic system as propounded by
functionalist.
• Economic growth which is a product of efficiency may not have similar social consequence for all.
◦ Two societies registering same growth , inequalities present in the society may be different.
◦ 1% of he people controlling 64% of the resources.
◦ Growth is not an indicator of different classes coming close to each other.
• Functional approach is deterministic , ideologically charged approach to stratification which is
opposing another deterministic , ideologically charged approach of Marx.
• Stratification should be empirically studied.
Forms of stratification
Class
• Concept of class is used, abused , misused , overused in the field of sociology.

• There is no universal definition of class by sociologist.

• Different sociologist look at class from different stand points.

• Marx explains class from economic perspective giving importance on control over FOP.
• Weber explains class from economic perspective giving importance on position in market.[Income
defines class]
• Duncan michel and Peter Blough

◦ We cannot explain class on the basis of FOP and on the basis of income.
◦ Explain class on the basis of occupational prestige.
• Anthony Giddens
◦ In modern society classes should be defined in terms of properties present in the disposal of
the people.
◦ He divides classes into 3 categories
▪ Upper Class - control over productive resources . Resource is the property
▪ Middle class - control over productive process. Skill is the property
▪ Working class- control over labor.Labor is the property.
◦ These classes are interdependent on each other.
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 p
◦ They don not stick to there position. Classes are fixed but the members of the class keeps
changing.
▪ Example labor training to acquire new skills .
• Economic explanation to class is coming from 4 different people explained above
• Ralph Dahendroff
◦ Book -‘Class and class conflict in industrial society’
◦ He makes a distinction between economic class and political class.
▪ Political class determine the destiny of economic class. Therefore political class is more
important.
▪ Conflict between political class gets highlighted but conflict in economic class is not.
▪ Universally the conflict which matters is political conflict as political classes are present in
every society.
◦ Therefore study class from political perspective
• Critical Theory
◦ It talks about ruling class which is dominant class , they rule over masses not by controlling
wealth but by controlling ideological state apparatus and repressive state apparatus.
◦ Therefore they give more importance on political class.
◦ Example -Robert blumer
• Feminist theory
◦ It talks about gender class.
◦ Foundation to class is sexual inequality . Therefore economic class is secondary and gender
class is primary. It is present in hunting gathering society to post modern society.
• Elite theory
◦ Group of people capturing power constitute elite. It speaks about political class.
• Above are the political perspective
• Multi dimensional theory of class - Boudreau
◦ Owners of cultural capital , owners of symbolic capital , owners of economic capital defines
class
• Sorokins - cultural perspective
◦ Class refers to a closed or semi closed group where people share common emotions and
sharing common cultural characteristics.
▪ Russians migrating to America , transgenders can constitute a class.
• Nowadays class is fined on the basis of identity . Example transgender , Blacks constitute a class
Class as a form of stratification

1.One group of sociologist considers class position is fixed because it is determined by others. It will
change by revolution.
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• It cannot change through access to wealth , political power. They are just instruments of false
happiness given by dominant people.
• For them class is much more beyond income , occupation.
• Dominants write the destiny of the subordinate class. They always maintain the gap.
• Class is not a form of stratification it is form of hierarchy.[Class produces hierarchy]
• Feminist , Marx and critical theory.
2.Another group advocates that class produces stratification.
• They define class on the basis of family income , occupation .
• Max weber was the first person to say that class produces stratification [Though he didn’t use this
term]
◦ Class do not constitute community.
◦ There is mobility among the class. Proliferation of middle class is taking place. Lower class is
coming up and upper class is going down.
• Goldthrope and Lockwood -Theory of weber is put to empirical test by
◦ They are two oxford university sociologist.
◦ They are studying class mobility in Britain in 1976.
◦ They find out that in Britain embourgeoument [Feeling of being economically well off , affluent]
has taken place than proliterisation.
◦ Quality education is available to everybody in Britain and after completing school children of
lower class are getting into managerial class.Income of the family is increasing and therefore
they are feeling embourgeoised. Education is giving rise to mobility.
◦ Purchasing power increased giving rise to embourgeoument.
◦ Embourgeoment is not a class it is a feeling.People are not competing with the bourgeoise but
with the immediate class .
▪ More number of people sending their children to schools , going to beauty parlors,
expensive clothes ..
◦ Thus there is no polarized class conflict in modern society.
• Ralph dahrendroff - Weber theory put to test in America.
◦ Three class in modern society
▪ Upper class
▪ middle class
▪ working class
◦ Conventional working class is non existent today. They were the people who illiterate , didn’t
have skills and were manual labor.
◦ But today they are skilled , semi skilled and non skilled people are declining. They economic
position are different based on skills.
◦ Now working class have a bargaining power and have a choice to decide where to work.
Therefore nature of class is changing 117
 Therefore nature of class is changing .
◦ Within a class subclass are evolving. Within class structure mobility is taking place.
• Anthony Giddens
◦ Three class [see explanation from above]
▪ Upper class
▪ middle class
▪ working class
◦ None of the classes are exploiters and none of the classes is exploited.
◦ Labor is as much important as the skills and the resources. They are interdependent.
◦ Every class bargains with every other class. Therefore class is a form of stratification.
• Frank Parkin
◦ Book - ‘Class matters ’
◦ Three classes in modern capitalism
▪ Upper class
▪ middle class
▪ working class
◦ He gives more importance on class relationships than class positions.
◦ Upper class is not a homogeneous community there are
▪ Controllers of physical means of productions
▪ Owners of capital [Investors]
▪ Owners of skills and knowledge [Managers]
◦ He doesn’t put top ranking managers in the middle class but in the upper class due to their skill
importance . Size of the upper class is expanding because people excelling in different field of
life. [cinema stars , industrialists , investors ...]
◦ Upper class go for voluntaristic closure , maintain boundary . Therefore they are a community.
◦ Middle class is numerous. It is not a composite class. It is expandable class
▪ Middle upper- top level scientist , academicians , administrators .
▪ Middle middle -middle level managers , middle level bureaucrats ..
▪ Middle lower - incumbents [Just got the jobs ], shop keeps , teachers .
◦ Upper middle class always live with dreams. They considers the distance between them and
lower strata of upper class is small. They are not eager to join them and they cannot join the
upper upper class. Therefore they are happy with the apex position in the middle class.
◦ Lower class go for Usurpation - snatch the property and resources from others.
◦ Middle class go for dual closure - Stay away from upper and lower class.
◦ Therefore different class are pursuing different types of values. They are not going for conflict
with each other but stay away from other. Therefore when one moves from one class to
another they change the values. Therefore class relationship is a value relationship and not a
money relationship.
• Eric Olin wright - Marxist sociologist
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 ◦ Marx talked about three classes in modern capitalism
▪ Bourgeoise
▪ petty bourgeoise
▪ Proletariat
◦ Polarization would take place and 2 classes would develop and finally revolution . Pauperization
-> Homogenization ->revolution.
◦ He says in modern capitalism a Polarized class conflict is not taking place because of the fact
that between bourgeoise and petty bourgeoise a large number of new classes have made
appearance .[CEO, media groups, top level administrators , cinema stars , sports person ,
scientist , legal experts ]. They cannot be called bourgeoise or petty bourgeoise. Both the
groups need them and hence they are not enemies to either of them
◦ Similarly between petty bourgeoise and proletariat a large number of class have made
appearance. [Lower level managers, teachers , consultants , sales experts]
◦ A Marxist considers that there is a change in the form of capitalism of 19th century to 21st
century . In 19th century capitalism class positions were contradictory and class relationship
had a chance for polarization because bourgeoise were generating wealth by squeezing out
petty bourgeoise and exploiting to laborers but in 21st century capitalism a large body of
professionals have made appearance who are placed in between the traditional class positions
therefore they are not exploiting to each other , hence they operate from their own space ,
carry their own interest , sharing contradictory class locations. Therefore transformation of
capitalism has changed class structure and class relationship for which polarized class conflict
is not seen in modern capitalist system .
• Paulski and rainwater
◦ Society has changed in Europe and corresponding to that class structure has also changed.
Foundation to the formation of class is also changing.
◦ When class structure is changing , class as a form of stratification is also changing .
◦ 19th century - economic class society
▪ Marx and weber
◦ 20th century - Political class determined the destiny of economic class
▪ communist societies came into prominence .
▪ Democratic societies came into prominence .
▪ Where there is a state there is a ruling class and others are masses. Dominant class control
the masses through ideological state apparatus and repressive state apparatus.
▪ Ralph Dahrendroff , critical approach , elite theory and feminist theory
◦ 21st century
▪ Class is not dead but new kind of classes have made appearance.
▪ Classes on the basis of culture and lifestyle of people . Social exclusion as the basis of
stratification [sex workers , transgenders ]
▪ Therefore humanistic empathetic approach to stratification is developing .
▪ Therefore class produces hierarchy .
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Status group/ Caste as a form of stratification
• Concept of caste has come from Portuguese word casta which means ‘to be born into’.

• Varna means color which developed between aryans and indigenous people. Hinduism talks about
4 Varnas originating from 4 different part of the body of god.
• Caste is real while varna is textual. Caste divides while varna unites.

One groups of people considers caste is a fixed system.

1. Birth defines the entitlements.
2. No possibility of mobility in caste system.
3. Caste receives ideological support from culture , religion for its continuity , any violation is
subjected to punishment.
4. Caste values regulate food, marriage , lifestyle.
5. Therefore caste produces hierarchical society.
6. Max weber , Louis Dumont
7. Mostly colonial view of caste.
8. Race theory to caste-Developed by sir Herbert Risley
• Caste is a product of race.
• Aryans were white while indigenous people (dasyus) were dark. Intermixing between race took
place because of this different colors combination made appearance.On the basis of color
caste made appearance.
• Color founded caste and occupation stabilized it. Since color cannot be changed therefore
caste cannot be changed.
• It is a useless theory
9. Occupation theory- Nesfield
a. Caste is a product of occupation. Occupation of the people in the caste society cannot be
changed as it is determined by birth. Therefore caste produces hierarchy.
b. Critic - There are occupation neutral caste groups present. Jaat , Yadavas. All brahmins are not
priest and teachers.
10. Max weber
a. Dipankar Gupta- Andre Beiteille got max weber to India. Weber never visited India , his
understanding is greatly based on colonial text.
b. Brahmins are a status groups. They constitute close communities, monopolize over highly
valued skills and occupation, maintain social distance from others. Nobody can ever become
brahmins. Merit is never recognized and mobility is never possible.
c. Therefore caste produces hierarchy.
11. Louis Dumont
a. Caste is not a product of practice. There is a disjunction between caste and occupation due to
Mughal and British rule History of India has changed but caste has not 120
 Mughal and British rule.History of India has changed but caste has not.
b. Caste is ideological it does not change by occupation.
c. Everything pure is associated with brahmins and everything impure with untouchables.
Therefore mind makes a distinction between caste. Therefore caste is written in stone and
produces hierarchy.
12. Marxist
a. They see caste as a form of class.
b. AR Desai , IP Desai , Ram Krishna mookhejee.
c. Upper caste belong to upper class. Around 60% of agriculture land is controlled by 2% upper
caste. Political leadership in India after independence were mostly upper caste which led to
failure of land reforms.
d. Middle caste benefitted from the land reforms and subsequently got access to power. AJGAR-
Benefitted immensely from commercial agriculture. They assumed upper caste position and
change their caste names [Yaduvanshis Kshtriyas]. Therefore upper caste and middle caste
stands coordinated to each other.
e. Lower class is lower caste. They can never become upper caste. Hence it is hierarchy.
13. Dalit approach to caste
a. Caste is not a system of coherent values or consensual values .
b. Those who adhere to values of brahmins are placed upper in the ladder and those who refuse
to accept the culture are labeled as impure.
c. Indian was a product of 2 dialectical culture - Brahminic culture and Dalit culture.
d. Brahminic culture is other worldly and Dalit culture is this worldly
e. Moral culture v/s materialistic culture
f. Caste is a exploitative , hierarchical system where brahminic values is leading to social
exclusion of Dalits
14. Gender approach to caste
a. Study caste from men women perspective.
b. Caste is a patriarchal system. Every caste exploits the women.
c. Brahminic patriarchy- It starts with child marriage, pre puberty marriage. It gives importance to
‘Pativrata’. Motherhood is more important for women than equality.
• Less educated due to early marriage.

• She is underfed , malnutrition , exploited due to rituals activities.

• Kulvadhu- Responsibility for the entire lineage group.

d. Rajput Patriarchy
• Man of valor is supposed to marry many women

• If husband dies - Johar

e. Vaishya Patriarchy
• Girl is given education so that they can educate children, not encouraged to work.
• Women life is confined to household.

f Sh d P i h 121
 f. Shudra Patriarchy
• Husband works and wife works . Money that wife makes , she hands over to husband.

• Where there is poverty there is bigger family size. Body of women is a source of pleasure.
g. Untouchables Patriarchy
• Landlessness , skill-less.
• Both men and women work hard to survive. They are also worst victims of any disaster.
They work beyond their capacity.
• Untouchables women are worst victims of the domestic violence. Fertility behavior is not
controlled.
h. Therefore within manifest structure of caste where there is present latent gender structure.
Caste as a stratification system
1. Structural functional theory of MN Srinivas
• Understanding of caste as a hierarchy is a colonial blunder.

• From historical period to contemporary times people have regularly changed their caste. But
the mobility present in caste system is relative mobility than absolute mobility because no
amount of wealth , no amount of power can ever improve the ritual position of untouchables in
the caste hierarchy .
• Caste has dual hierarchy - ritual hierarchy and secular hierarchy. Position in ritual hierarchy is
determined by birth, food , manner , deities. Position in secular hierarchy is feigned by wealth ,
education and power. First secular position changes then ritual position
• Therefore caste is a dynamic system. Untouchables cannot experience this kind of mobility so
they develop a caste system within themselves.
2. Andre Beiteille
• One should not understand caste in isolation to stratification system in India. Therefore caste is
a dimension to social stratification.
• In India three different forms of inequalities is present
◦ Class
◦ Caste
◦ Power
• Till the beginning of 19th century , higher caste ->high class-> power absolute. This was a
harmonic system. After that dislinkage between class , caste and power came into prominence.
[They may be poor brahmin with no political power].
• India in the past was hierarchy and India now become a stratified system.

3. Modernization theory by yogendra singh

• Caste is driven by pattern variables A. Slowly society is modernizing driven by pattern variables
B. People in different caste are mixing up with each other , people marrying based on class.
Dress, food and occupation is not following caste rules. India is slowing moving towards
casteless society. Therefore caste is a dynamic system.
• Critic - More India is going for modernization more caste is making appearance Caste and 122
 • Critic - More India is going for modernization more caste is making appearance. Caste and
class exist in different domains. Eg marriage
Race as a form of stratification
Hierarchy
• When we speak about Germans , French it means ethnicity. When speaking about blacks , race
means color. Race may be meaning whole human society [Human race]. Hence race is used in
different ways.
• Initially race was a subject matter of physical anthropology. They take 2 factors into
considerations
◦ Phonological criteria
◦ genotypical criteria
• According to them race is of 4 types
◦ Cocansides
◦ Austroids
◦ Mangoloids
◦ Nigroids
• A group of anthropologist made appearance who made linkages between physiology of race[color
, hair , shape] and their psychology and social characteristics. Therefore sociology of race gain
importance . This school is called Philadelphia School. It was founded by Robert Knox , Gobineau.
They indicated there is a strong nexus between biology and social attributes and intelligence. This
is a racist theory of inequality.They are giving justification to social inequality by natural inequality.
[Blacks are less intelligence to whites, whites are psychologically stable ].
• Sociologist indicates race is not something biological , it is social and cultural.[Black and white in
South Africa have dialectical relationship- hierarchy , while in America it is a competitive
relationship , color doesn’t matter in India in economic and political relationships but in marriage- It
is just a difference, accommodative relationship in France]
• Robert Park and bourgess

◦ Cultural historic view of race to understand how racism developed.

◦ Around 15-17 the century slavery system came into prominence in Europe.People defined
themselves as master race and others as slaves race. Productive labor of slaves is sold to the
master. Masters developed a kind of ideology[racism] of superiority of their race due to their
economic and political well being. Negative stereotypes[irrational , lacking confidence and
personality ] was developed about blacks because of their economic dependency , political
inferiority. Therefore biology of race is guided by sociology of race. Therefore study race on the
basis of society.
◦ Colonialism and race
▪ Colonizers carried military might and therefore they colonized people in different parts of
the world. Then they enforced law, redefine institutions and conception of justice. In key
d i i t ti iti th t th i l 123
 administrative position they put their own people.
▪ They become masters. Therefore political subordination of the indigenous people gave rise
to race.
▪ People started to consider them as superior accepting to the culture of colonizers [Indian
middle class]. Therefore racism is a child of coloniasm.
◦ Race is a form of contemporary reality
▪ People from different parts of the world migrate to progressive , rich countries [voluntaristic
migration]. These people settle for dead end job and jobs reserved for them.Second
generation of these migrants are educated and well off and when they compete with their
counterparts then race come into prominence. Therefore competitive race relationship
comes out of hierarchical race relationship [First generation].
• Racism in America
◦ JIMS CROW LAW- It continued in America till 1910. It legitimized that blacks cannot inherit
private wealth , therefore cannot transmit property from one generation to another generation .
Their children were not entitled to go to school, racial profiling was allowed. It allowed public to
lynch the minority in violation of law.
◦ If there is crime then ethnic minority is always suspect able [George Floyd]
◦ With civil rights movements this draconian law was repealed.
◦ Therefore till 1910 race in America was hierarchy.
• Colored sociologist [Black] - Marxist
◦ Race existed in wet for a long period of time not due to color but because of economic of race.
Race developed an idea that people carrying a specific color are inferior and their productive
capabilities are low and don't have decision making ability. Therefore racial minority are not
aspiring for high profile jobs.[They accept to their inherent inferiority].White control over FOP ,
managerial positions by developing a false consciousness in the mind of minority.As a result
racism continued for long period of time as it meet the demand of capitalism [cheap labor is
greatly available]
◦ White injected into the minds of masses that racial inequality between the people is not a
social construct , it is created by god. If one tampers with this inequality they misfortunes
would fall upon them. Therefore it is an ideology standing in obstruction to true class
consciousness. [Same thing with religion]. Therefore racism has nothing to do with color it is a
support base to capitalism.
◦ Strong relationship between race and class structure. Therefore race produces hierarchy and it
doesn’t produces stratified system.
• Gerdner and Davis
◦ Book - ‘Deep south’ [Southern part of America]
◦ Race is a value loaded concept. Both caste system and race share number of similarities .
Therefore it is also called colored caste system.
◦ Caste and race both are endogamous, both go for occupation specificity, food rules and social
interrelationships are guided by norms, both are hierarchical system till the beginning of 20th
century.
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 ◦ Legislations and mobilizations started after 20th century , racial prejudices were questioned .
Despite all the interventions equality on the basis race has not been established in America
which can be seen by mobility patterns.
◦ Mobility available to blacks is much less as compared to white other actors remained constant.
Though it is competitive inequality there is still present hierarchy. Strong hierarchy is converged
into weak hierarchy and not to complete stratification.
Race as a form of stratification
• Parsons considers that modernization is driven by body of values which are professed by modern
societies [Pattern variable B]. These values need to uphold by all citizens of the society. Upholding
to these values one can experience mobility. Americans whether blacks or whites who are
cherishing these values are successful. Therefore inequality is a product of adherence to these
values and colors is not a determinant.
• Van den Berghe

◦ Book -‘Race and race relationship’

◦ Paternalist race relationship - White behaving as father to blacks and guiding them from time to
time. Father is matured , disciplined and rule bound. This relationship continued for long time till
civil rights movement.
◦ Competitive race relationship - Blacks refused to accept to the advice of whites .
◦ Therefore race is moving from hierarchical to stratification
• Julius Wilson
◦ Social compatibility theory of race. [This theory will be applicable to communalism in India,
reservation policy]
◦ If a system is hierarchical , to bring dynamism in the system legislations , rights , human
intervention were introduced then hierarchical positions starts opening up for all the
people.Occupational mobility may take place but social compatibility may not because race is
the obstacle. Therefore don’t study stratification just on the basis of occupational mobility but
also on the basis of human relationships.[Whether whites accept blacks as equal?]
• Gunnar Myrdal - ‘American dilemma’
◦ Biggest America dilemma is that racial minority confirm to culturally perspective norms [hard
work , self discipline , commitment to work] in America. Despite confirming to norms they are
not able to achieve goals. Race in past was a system of hierarchy but today also racial
discrimination is prevalent. Race as a form of identity is still present in the class structure of the
society.
Manningnace
• American society is a democratic society which cherishes equalitarian values . Societal values and
race as an identity are dialectical to each other. Therefore race is a misplaced identity.Race and
democracy should not have survived together in America. It survived because race has not
outlived its functionality. Race is determinant for the supply of cheap labor in capitalism. Therefore
capitalism needs race. Race has dysfunctions to democracy but functions to capitalism.
• Therefore study race on the basis of functions dysfunctions and non functional instead of
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 Therefore study race on the basis of functions , dysfunctions and non functional instead of
stratification.

Ethnicity as a form of stratification

• Ethni means people , therefore ethnicity means a group of people having common history ,
heredity , language , culture , religion ,territory either in combination or in separation.Therefore
ethnicity is the most important identity of the people.
• Hindus constitute a ethnic group on the basis of religion. NRC in Assam due to fear of migration in
their territory.
• Ethnicity is the source of identity holding which we distinguish one from others.
• On the basis of ethnicity one may highlight his exploitation, injustice , marginalization.
• Ethnicity can give strength .
• In Africa we find tribal ethnicities , in Middle East religious ethnicities , in America race has been
converted into form of ethnicity , in India multiple types of ethnicities are present.
• Ethnicity was foundation to formation of political state in different parts of Europe.
Theories to ethnicity
• Modernization theory - Parsons
◦ Ethnicity has no impact on stratification system in modern society because it gives importance
on citizenship and right of the citizens are non discriminatory. Political and occupational
positions are driven by merit. Therefore ethnic identity is not important rather than
achievement is important.
• Primordial Approach - Borris and Richmond

◦ Ethnic identity is a primordial identity [historic] and this historical identity would never die out.
If there is a threat to this identity this identity would bounce back in a stronger way. More one
becomes modern more will be quest for primordial identity.
◦ Therefore ethnic revivalism is taking place in modern society.
• Symbolic theory
◦ Ethnicity has psychological functions in modern society. It gives them psychic pleasure.
Modernity want to completely destroy the tradition , speaks about uniformity but man by
nature loves diversity. Therefore people becomes possessive of their ethnic identities.
Dominant ethnic groups always create a negative stereotypes about minority ethnic group so that the
competition between them is wiped out. These negative stereotypes are legitimized by various
government reports.[Tribals are anti development and backward]
Biggest threat to equality is ethnic group mobilizations.
Ethnicity is being used as a mechanism to justify the domination of dominant ethnic group to ethnic
minorities in different parts of the worlds in different time.[German - Jews are anti national , anti
development ..., Colonialism - India is a white man burden (negative stereotypes) ].
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Ethnicity is a stretchable identity . In America Indians , pakistan and banglaesh people constitute an
Asian ethnic group . India is a ethnic group to Pakistan.

Stuart halt - Marxist

• Strong connectivity between ethnicity and capitalism.
• Capitalism as a system is developed to provide benefit to capitalist. Capitalist would get benefit if
they cut from wage of labor to generate surplus. It wants cheap labor which is voiceless.
• First the right to equality of opportunity is glorified , People from race and caste society migrate to
America in search of merit with limited capability and unlimited aspirations. They engage in less
rewarding jobs [Sikhs as cab drivers in Canada].
• When their children get education , establish their academic merit and get rewarding jobs then
dominant ethnic group complaints about less employment opportunities.[Banning H1b visas]. They
bringing other ethnic groups.
• Ethnicity sustains because capitalism want it to sustain.

• Ethnicity divides working class into smaller groups making it difficult for the working class to come
together. Hence revolution would not take place.
• In capability , lack of professionalism of the ethnic minority are highlighted in the government
reports and it compares how one ethnic group has done better in comparison to other ethnic
groups. Therefore the ethnic group which has done well maintains social distance from other
ethnic groups.[Indian Americans with African Americans]
• He tells ethnic minorities constitutes working class. They have no skills and bargaining power
hence low chances of mobility.
• Therefore inequality in stratification system is explicitly defined by merit but implicitly based on
ethnicity.
Westergaurd and Paul heist
• Ethnic minorities are not working class. They are underclass.
◦ Working class is not always staying as working class , If they develop skills they can move up in
the class hierarchy. They have temporal disadvantage.
◦ Underclass are those who are placed outside the class structure. They are subjected to social ,
economic and political exclusion [Rohingyas]. They live in the poverty zones , voiceless,
jobless. There is no chance for them to enter into the class structure.
• Therefore hierarchy is making appearance in stratified and open system. Mobility is only benefiting
to a small number of people.
• Therefore the debate of parsons of open society and close society is useless.

Statistics of federal government

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Therefore class stratification system is largely influenced by ethnicity. In India also it is influenced by
tribal ethnicity, caste ethnicity , religious ethnicity.
Regional model of development rather than Indian model of development.

Gender as a form of stratification

• Concept of sex is biological while gender is social.
◦ Sex is a form of biological or natural inequality. Gender identity is a product of
socialization. Therefore a natural difference is converted into social inequality through
process of socialization (Gendered manipulated socialization offers a foundation to
gender inequality in society)
◦ Masculine ideology/ identity is attached to the name of boys. Girls are given name
connected to nature , wealth , beauty , prosperity. Therefore naming them different a
different identity is developed for them. Then dressing them different , toys are different ,
educate them differently .Therefore gender socialization is given to them. Therefore
women is not born she is made.
• In every sphere of society , patriarchal values are implicitly present to treat girls and boys
different.
i 128
Class Income and occupation and gender
• In American class structure , 99% of the corporate heads are men, 97 % of the news barons
are men, 99 % of the top level entrepreneurs are men. Out of 50 top ranking corporate , only
in 1 CEO is women.
• 98% of the office secretaries are women, 96 % of the stenographers are women, 93 % of

dental surgeons are women, 99% of play school teachers ,99% of nurse ,98% of hotel
receptionist and 99% of air hostess.
• Therefore men are present in the important position and subsidiary positions women are
present. A category of jobs are created which are designated for women called as pink
collar occupations. Family , school train women to give preference to these type of
occupations. Therefore patriarchy defines the job of women.
• In every culture it is spelled out the primary role of women is reproductive role and primary
role of a men is productive. Preference is given to male child.
• Biggest obstacle to women development is the reproductive activity of the women

• Amartya sen - On the ground of divorce , income of a men is increasing by 41% for a women

it declines by 72% because child custody is given to women.Divorce puts women into a
state of economic disadvantage .
• In unorganized sector men and women are paid different wages for the same hours and
same work. 3/4 th wage of the man is given to women.
• In many situations affluent people considers that women going out for work is against the
status of family.
• It is gender socialization due to which women are told her physical beauty is most
important. This leads to more spending on cosmetics. This is feminization of poverty.
• Socialist feminism - Kate millet

◦ There is no structural difference present between industry and family.

▪ [Every decision is external to labor v/s external to women ]
◦ Family is a worse form of class situation in comparison to industry.
▪ [In industry there is at least a contract/ fixed wage, women in family is engaged in
unpaid labor]
◦ Domestic work is costly because work is specialized and is variety.
◦ Women are made economically dependent on men.
• Marxist feminism - C. Nancy

◦ There is strong correlation between family and capitalism.

▪ A worker will be working well in the industry if basic needs of the worker are fulfilled
by the family.[Food and counseling, work virtue given by women to man in family]
▪ Parson - Role of family - Tension management and pattern maintenance.
▪ Family invest money on the education of children to supply manpower for the
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 furtherance of capitalism.
◦ Capitalism want a small nuclear family
▪ Parson - Nuclear family is fit for capitalism.
◦ State give different benefits to man in the name of family leaving women .Man has the
first right over the money.
◦ Once a society go for technological up-gradation, women are the first to loose their jobs.
Men are the first to learn the technical expertise.
▪ Hotel receptionist , teachers replaced by technology.

Gender and power structure

• It is not he question of how many women are in well off positions [Sarpanch women but still
control of sarpanch pati].
• Firstly speaks about power over body and secondly about power over mind , third power over
productive resources , fourth power over public institutions.
• Power over Body
◦ Despite cultural differences all societies of the world give importance on heterosexuality.
Heterosexuality is a cultural prescription and the outcome of which is children production. It is
institutionalized through institution of marriage.Marriage is nothing but a legitimate form of
prostitution which is putting women in enslavement. Body of a women is robbed because of
marriage because she cannot have sexual relations with any other man.
◦ During pregnancy there is change in physiology of women. Her body suffers.
◦ Culture gives meaning to mensuration which considers it is impure. Myths are created around it
which gives a feeling of powerlessness.
◦ Most victims of sexual crimes are women.
◦ menopause and widowhood puts women into the state of powerlessness.
• Power over mind
◦ MIND deals with decision making power.
◦ Silverberg- Gender and decision making process in American familes
▪ Studied 250 American families where both husband and wife are doctors and these families
are cutting across different ethnic groups.[Therefore only class is taken into consideration]
▪ He classifies Family decisions into 3 types
• Very important decisions- Investment in capital market, purchase of house, investment of
family resources
• Moderately important decisions- schooling of children , purchase of luxury items.

• Least important decisions- Regular family purchase, spending on routine activities,

buying clothes, entertainment of guests.
▪ Very important decisions in 90% cases are taken unilaterally taken by men.
▪ Moderately important decisions are jointly taken by husband and wife.
L ti t td i i tk b b ti t t d 130
 ▪ Least important decisions are taken by women because men are not interested.
• Sulasmith firestone(Radical feminist)
◦ To empower a women sexual freedom must be given
• Find some statistics about control on productive resources and power structure.
Gender and status
• Manusmriti equates women to shudras. ‘One cannot trust them, sexually they are not committed
to a men’. Constant surveillance of women is meant for social cohesion.
• Despite economic upliftment and access to eduction their status has not improved.

Institution and practices contributing to gender inequality

• Family

◦ Role- gender socialization , rewards and punishment , emphasis on marriage and child birth,
put restrictions on the sexual freedom of women.
◦ Therefore no family society is needed for a equal society
• State

◦ Law may move in one direction and social structure in other structure.[Parsons political
structure not endorsed by culture]
◦ Example in-spite of dowry abolition act it is still persisting.
◦ Welfare benefits of the state are reaching men and not women. Many cases of rape and
violence are pending in courts.
• Media

◦ Film industry sells beauty products to women[injecting consumerism] and masculinity is

appreciated.
• Economy
◦ Same work wage is less, hours of work is more, pink color occupations, technological
advancement women loosing out jobs
• Socio cultural structure

◦ Restrictions on widow , menstrual girls , importance on virginity.

Gender inequality is wishfully ignored by male sociologist

Example T Parson
• He says in American society in 1970 equality of opportunity is extended to both men and women.
Size of the family is small , women are making money therefore gender as a form of inequality is
not present.
• He also says American capitalism and nuclear family are strongly connected with each other.

Goldthrope
• In stratification system one finds out that women income is less in comparison to women but
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 y p
income of the both is the income of the family. Over family family property right is not defined on
the basis of income. Women are more privileged than men.
• There are intersectional differences within women. [Working class women , color women ].
Therefore we cannot generalize women.

Social Mobility
• Mobility talks about the change in the position of people who are placed in different ranks in
a stratification system.
• If one changes ranks upward or downward , horizontally.
• A society where social positions are interchangeable then hierarchy would be absent in such
a society. Therefore mobility is the hallmark of modern society.
• When mobility is extended to every group and degree of mobility is high then that society is
called achieving society .
• When social positions are fixed and they are defined by heredity , one makes an ascriptive
society , closed society.
Advantage of mobility
• It puts an end to the process of elite self recruitment.

• It makes social inequality competitive and acceptable.

• It fulfills the aspirations of different sections of society.

• It develops a sense of equality among people coming from different sections of

backgrounds .
• It puts right people in the right positions driven by the principle of merit.

• It keeps stability to capitalism and democracy for evolving into welfare society.

Types of mobility

Horizontal versus vertical mobility

• Horizontal mobility in the same scale while vertical mobility is in different scales.

• Vertical mobility change in position , occupation and income, status while horizontal mobility
involves little enhancement in income but same status , occupation and power.
• We have to study the intensity of mobility rather than jumping on conclusion.

Upward and downward mobility

• Free mobility and restricted mobility.
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 Free mobility and restricted mobility.
• Short range and long range mobility.
• Collecting data and finding the intensity of mobility
Intergenerational mobility and intrageneration mobility
• Mobility that the son is achieving in comparison to his father. [Son becoming an IAS officer]

• Mobility within ones lifespan.

• Both can be upward and downward

• Example traditional society -> industrialized society -> inter generational mobility is high.

Experiencing mobility in the career is intragenerational

Absolute and relative mobility
• Total number of people living in a stratified system moving from one position to another

position and corresponding to that changing their life chances is absolute mobility. It will be
more in when society is cherishing the idea of equality of opportunity.
• Mobility of one class relative to other class. Example - lower class becoming upper class
possibility is low as compared to upper class as they reproduce themselves.
Different mobility studies
• Early 20th century sociologist

◦ Comparison between modern and traditional societies in terms of mobility. Example

parsons
• David Glass

◦ Study on mobility in 1949 in British society.

◦ Only 9 % of the people belonging to working class get into middle class .
◦ Within middle class upward mobility rate is 56%.
◦ That is between the class mobility is low but within the class mobility is high.
◦ Upper class goes for self recruitment . Therefore no vacancy in upper class.
◦ Therefore in British society there is restrictive mobility.
• Rubinson

◦ Supported the above theory

◦ Out of 10000 big industrialists of Britain 87% are running industries by inherited wealth.
◦ Therefore it is a kind of hierarchical society.
• Anthony heath

◦ Out of the 9% of working class joining middle class , 76% are women. That is women
chance for occupational mobility is higher because literacy rate was expanding greatly 133
 chance for occupational mobility is higher because literacy rate was expanding greatly
among women.Women are only going for targeted occupation so it is not an open
society.
• Goldthrope and Lockwood
◦ Sponsored by british government to conduct study on mobility.
◦ Affluent workers and black coated workers - Affluent workers have experience upward
mobility and black coated workers have experienced downward mobility . Therefore it is
not restricted mobility.
◦ Affluent workers are the assembly line workers whose income is increased due to boom
in automobile industry. They have moved up in terms of wealth but class behavior may
not change. 98% of the affluent workers don’t prefer to open bank account i.e they are
still following working class habits, still voting and supporting labor party.
◦ Black coated workers are stenographers , writers when typewriters were not introduced.
When type writers was introduced new skill is introduced an more people acquired these
skills and black coated workers loose out their jobs.Neither they belong to working class
not to officer class.
◦ There is competition between workers for better skills and jobs and hence polarized
class conflict would not take place.
◦ This study is known as oxford mobility study.
◦ We cannot say American society is more open than European society. In medieval Europe
there was closed system but due to industrialization it has become an open society.
(INDUSTRIES ARE A LEVELER)
▪ As industries expand more jobs are created at the top.
▪ Every industrialist must hire talented people and experts who are coming from
different sections of the society.
▪ Due to globalization new frontiers have opened .
• Alexis de Tocqueville
◦ ‘Democracy in America ’
◦ America has always been a land of small buyers and small sellers because most of the
population was migrant. Hence more importance is given on merit unlike Europe where
people inherit large amount of wealth. Therefore American society is more mobile.
◦ Therefore in American society anyone can start from bottom and reach the top. [Obama]
◦ John Stuart mill - Inherited wealth must be taxed to encourage people to go for mobility
• Goldthrope and Ericsson
◦ Collected data from 20000 workers working in different industries of Britain.
◦ They divided the occupation groups into 7 types
▪ Class 1 - top level managers , administrators working for state government or central
government 134
 g
▪ Class 2-middle level counterparts of class 1
▪ class 1+class 2 = service class
▪ class 3- lower level managers , bankers , school teachers
▪ class 4- self employed people
▪ class 5 - supervisory staff and clerical staff
▪ class 3,4,5 = intermediary class
▪ class 6- semi skilled workers
▪ class 7 - Manual workers
▪ class 6,7 = working class
◦ Service class have control over market situation , they have big demand in market. Their
position never shrinks in the market. No tension for the future. They go for elite self
recruitment . [Happens in indian bureaucracy , judiciary]
◦ Intermediary class have complete control over work situation [supervisor assigning work
to laborers]. They know their work and know how to make people work . They are liked
by officers as well as workers.[Same for self employed workers]
◦ Working class - 28.5% of the people belonging to working class has sent their children to
work in service class in Britain society. Therefore large chunk of mobility has taken place.
56% of middle class experiencing mobility within and mobility between. Therefore elite
self recruitment is only 15% in service class .
◦ Therefore one cannot say that there is no mobility in british society. Heredity is not so
important , merit is important. Social discrimination is put into minimum level. [connect
this with India and US]
◦ The rate of absolute mobility is high but relative mobility is low.
▪ Social barriers restricting the mobility has been reduced. Capitalism has facilitated
different classes to come to close to each other.
◦ Intragenerational mobility has declined and intergenerational mobility has speed up.
▪ If the kind of industries is same over the years then intragenerational mobility is high.
▪ If transformation taking place in industries then intragenerational mobility would be
low.
◦ High degree of upward mobility and moderate level of downward mobility symbolizes
stability.
▪ Downward mobility is also bad [Imagine Ambani loosing job - so many people would
also loose job ]
• Duncan Michel and Peter Blau
◦ 1986 - ‘American occupation structure ’
◦ While studying social mobility one should not speak about class because class is a dead
concept 135
 concept.
▪ In class more importance is given on income. But nowadays varieties of occupation
have made appearance. People are taking occupation not considering income but
prestige attached to occupation. [IITians going for civil service]
◦ Occupation structure has gone through a series of transformation. There are manual and
non manual work.Both can enjoy prestige.
◦ Supply of the occupation carrying high prestige is limited. Therefore these occupation
demands skills ,merit.
◦ Traditional barriers are lifted and equality of opportunity is extended to everyone hence
there is high mobility in America.
◦ They considers 4 factors
▪ Education of parents
▪ Education of children
▪ Employment of the parents
▪ Employment of the child
▪ Job profile in the beginning and on profile at the moment
◦ Families where parents education is high, their children education is Lund to be high.
Once children education is high parents occupation position is becoming the starting
position for them. Their launching pad is high . If parents education is low then children
education may be low and they may settle for low paying jobs.
◦ Intragenerational mobility is low while inter generational mobility is high.
◦ The rate of absolute mobility is high but relative mobility is low.
◦ Mobility between the immediate ranks is quite high, long range mobility is rare. [All open
societies are not absolutely open]
◦ Neither in Britain nor America there is circular mobility , therefore no society is open nor
closed. One should study the degree of mobility.
Factors responsible for social mobility
• Demographic factors

◦ If in a society birth rate is high and death rate is low -> population explosion -. Cheap
labor available .
◦ Mobility will be possible in those society where population growth is low. [Scandinavian
countries]
◦ Where population is stagnant or negative growth. To do the dead end jobs cheap labor is
invited from different countries, ethnicity and occupation gets connected to each other.
[France and Britain]. Once this population of ethnic group multiples they are resisted by
majority to rise up.
136
 ◦ India and china have same demographics. For one it has become a burden while for other
it has become an asset.
• Political factors
◦ Pitrin Sorokins and Vilfied Pareto
▪ ‘Circulation of elites’
▪ In every society there are elites and masses.
▪ There are two types of elites
• Governing elites - One are lions and other are fox. Lions rule by might , power ,
force and fox rule by cunningness , cleverness. Each group of governing elites try
to replace other governing elites
• Non governing elites - sportspersons,industrialist , movie stars - They are the

opinion makers.
▪ Elites comes from the governing elites and also from the masses. Therefore mobility
take place due to circulation of elites.
• Industrialization and urbanization
• Education [Education interlinked with market requirements]
• Public policy of the state [Globalization]
• Social equity
Equality is nice to hear but inequality is universal. There is a different between acceptable
inequality and unacceptable inequality. How much of inequality , why inequality , how long
inequality is more important. Appropriateness of the stratification structure defines the destiny
of the society.

137
Religion and society
Religion is derived from Latin word religare meaning to connect. What to connect ?
• To connect between two individual
• Connect individual with the larger society [Durkheim]

• Individual to transcendental entity which is referred to as supernatural power or god.

How sociologist define religion

• Ronald Robertson

◦ Existence of supernatural entity having governing effect on life of individual or society.

◦ Problem in this definition - Malcolm Hamilton - Many religion in the world which do not profess
any existence of god though it has governing effect on life. Example Buddhism
• Sociologist defines religion as a cultural system of common shared beliefs and rituals that
provides a sense of purpose by creating an idea of reality i.e all sacred ,all encompassing and
supernatural.
Sociological theory of religion
Evolutionary theories
• Herbert Spencer
◦ Book -‘Principles of sociology’. He gave theory known as dream theory of religion keeping tribal
persons in mind.
◦ Soul temporary leaves the body during night and appears in the dreams of the people, while it
permanently leaves the body when the person is dead. Primitive people started worshipping
the soul.
• August compte
◦ Every religion begins from animism followed by polytheism followed by monism.
◦ Animism is the concept when people try to associate everything with a soul. Ex soul in
mountains , trees. This type of practice exist in tribal societies.
◦ In polytheism we attempt personification of the sacred things. Ex personification of river ganga
with goddess
◦ In monism finite number of gods merged into a single god.
• Durkheim

◦ Religion is the worship of the totem which is sacred and kept apart. Through worshipping they
are adhering to the norms of the society. Over a period of time society becomes complex so
religion also becomes complex
138
 • EB Taylor
◦ Religion attempt to fulfill men intellectual needs and that is the reason for the birth of religion.
Ex Questions about everything. In order to answer the unanswerable human being invented
religion.
◦ Gave the concept of animism
• Max Muller
◦ Gave the idea of naturalism
◦ Religion originates not just to fulfill intellectual needs but also emotional needs like fear,
surprise , happiness . To remove this fear and bring happiness people invented religion
Functional perspective
It tries to study religion from the society perspective
• Malinowski

◦ Religion played a very important role in establishing stability in the society. It act as a bond
between the person especially during the emotional crises. Religion invented such kind of
rituals which are collective which keep the society together during crises.
◦ Religion also played a functional role in preventing fear in the members of the society.
◦ Ex- Praying while going to fishing in deep sea .
• Parsons

◦ AGIL functions . Religion is a part of cultural system which performs the function of latency.
◦ Religion is providing some norms and values which helps in pattern maintenance and tension
management and leads to integration of the society.
• Durkheim

◦ All societies divides social world into 2 categories i,e sacred and profane. In sacred world
things are kept apart and forbidden, For Emile Durkheim religion has nothing to do with
salvation but has important role in bringing cooperation and solidarity among members.
◦ Religion performed the function of society keeping as one.
◦ Religion promotes collective conscience among the members of the society.

Conflict Perspective/Dysfunctional
• Karl Marx

◦ Religion is opium of masses. Religion is the tool used by the bourgeoise class to keep the false
class consciousness in the proletariats.
◦ Through religion there is status quo in the society. It is giving justification to the exploitation.
◦ It doesn’t support change in the society.
◦ Example - In caste system people never revolted against the brahmins.
◦ In a communist world there would not be any religion.
• Max Weber called this Theodicy of the Dis privileged
139
 ◦ Religious justification of the dis privileged status in this life
Feminist theory
• Religion is the institution of domination and suppression propounded by patriarchy
• Anthony Giddens

◦ Various religions propagates the idea of male dominance.

◦ Christian religion is more about men as god is a father figure. There is no place for women in
holy trinity.
• Karen Armstrong

◦ Women have limited role in religion. In every religion women are given subordinate role. Ex Very
less priest position for women.
• Jean Holmes
◦ Women have some role in religion but that is limited to private affair and subordinate to men
• Simone De Beauvoir - French
◦ Book- The Second Sex
◦ Women played a major role in stabilizing the religion because it the women who introduces the
religion to children but in return they are not rewarded by the religion. Women are considered
secondary human being to men.
◦ There should be a separate religion for women.
◦ Religion is used by oppressors to control the oppressed group (women). Women are thought to
be relatively passive, religion gives women the false belief that they would be compensated for
their suffering on earth by equality in heaven. In this way subjugation of women through
religion helps in maintaining social inequality in society.
◦ She indicates that there must be a religion for women which is mentioned in the work of carol
Christ who propounded the need to replace theology by thealogy(Goddess)
• Carol Christ
◦ Propounded thealogy - Only worshipping of female goddesses , replacing theology
• Nawaal el saadawi- Egyptian scholar
◦ Book - the hidden face of eve
◦ In every religion it is patriarchy which is dominant force where male are given dominant
positions. If patriarchy is abolished then religion would be reformed .
◦ In this book she highlighted that the religion is only aspect of wider patriarchal system which
need to be overthrown by struggle to establish equality in society.
Rational choice theory
• There is multiplicity of religion in today’s society .It is no longer divine thing .It indicates that
religion is like a market commodity , individual based on their choice are adopting that religion
which is suitable to them. There is freedom of choice to choose between religion therefore every
religion is providing services to its followers.
140
 • In this theory religion is seen in terms of market in which individual consumers have choices to
determine whether a particular religion is successful or not based on it they choose a particular
religion.
Religion and compensator theory (Exchange theory)- Stark and Bain bridge
• Every religion nowadays offers a compensation.

• The religion in the immediate, long run or after life provides a kind of compensation. Ex- Moksha ,
rebirth , Jannat , anxiety maintenance
• Based on the evaluation of compensation people are following different religions. The religion
which offers more compensation will have more followers.
• Within the traditional religions their is development of different ideas and options which offers
different compensation. Ex- Ram rahim in Hinduism , aryasamaj .
• They indicated that attendance to religious institutions, follow particular ritual , offering prayers
are considered as an investment made by religions followers for specific gain (ethical or subjective
) i.e anxiety management , relief from suffering , peace etc . A belief of reward that is to be obtain
in distant future as a compensation attracts various followers.
Symbolic interaction theory
• Religion is not just visiting religious institutions but it the use of religious symbols like dressing ,
food items, religious symbols and through them we manifest our religious identity.
• Clittered Geertz - Islam observed- Muslims of Indonesia manifest symbols more similar to
Hinduism in comparison to other counterparts
Types of religious practices
• Animism
◦ Animism is a form of religion practice in which man founds the presence of spirits in objects or
notions that surrounds him.
◦ Even today many tribal communities, sects and cults across the world believes in the idea of
animism.
◦ Primitive man faced many challenges and he came to believe that his happiness depends upon
the happiness of his dead ancestors. Ex- Concept of Pitra and shards in India. For the same
reason animism is also called as ancestor worship theory.
◦ EB Taylor was one of the first person to propound this idea.He argues that primitive man
believes that spirits originates from his dreams. In his dream he encountered his double who is
more dynamic and elastic than himself . Primitive man than generalized the presence of soul in
his body which leaves the body temporarily when he is asleep and leaves permanently when
the person dies .
◦ Hence man generalized that everything which is subjected to growth, birth and decay has soul.
Hence trees , rivers, mountains persons were considered as embodiments in which soul was
present 141
 present.
◦ Therefore religion in the society originated as a quest for the intellectual needs of the men.
• Monism
◦ Monism is the belief on single attribute, god or religious idea. It means believe in single god.
◦ Example - In Hinduism -Advaita philosophy , Islam , Sufism
◦ Social solidarity and cohesion is more in such society .
• Pluralism
◦ Pluralist religious practices are those which accommodate different viewpoints , beliefs etc .
Pluralism in simple terms can be defined as respecting others and is a counter ideology to
exclusivism
◦ Pluralism involves freedom of ideas, freedom of religion and mutual tolerance.
◦ Modernization and urbanization are the two key factors which are said to be the causes of
growth of pluralistic societies
◦ Multiple faiths in single society.
◦ More emphasis on rationality according to rational choice theory.
• Sects
◦ Group of people who descended from original religion having principal differences from the
main religion.
◦ Sect is one of the way to create new religion.Ex- Buddhism and Jainism
◦ Over a period of time dimensions emerged and many people protest and breakaway religious
groups are formed. Different sects emerged to protest against church and the movement is
called sectarian movement.
◦ Sects demands high level of commitment and have a charismatic leader.
◦ Sects tends to grow in time of rapid change.
◦ Sects follow a life cycle if they are going to spread - bring more members. Over time they
become more moderate and tolerant towards existing order and people of the higher classes
may join them during this time and in this case sects develop into denomination.
• Cults
◦ It is a small group of religious activities whose beliefs are different from dominant religion and
are universalistic focusing on individual experience. It never challenges the main religion
directly.
◦ They provide alternative to the people and are more widely accepted by the marginalized
sections of the society.
◦ It is a voluntary organization open to all who wish to join
◦ Cult seems to flourish among the metropolitan population where large heterogeneous
population lives.
◦ Types of cults - Stark and Bain bridge
▪ Audience cults -Least organized and very little face to face interaction, contact made
through mass media, members hardly know each other.
▪ Client Cults-more organized and offer services to its followers.
142
 g
▪ Cult movements-Most organized form of cult. Tries to satisfy religious needs , attendance to
cult meeting and acceptance of its beliefs - OSHO
• Denominations
◦ They grow out of sect. Sects often loose their momentum as it is often difficult to maintain high
level of commitment for long periods and sects either die out or transforms themselves into
denominations.
◦ They are closer to the main religion or church and more acceptable compares to sect. Ex-
Calvinism and Methodism started as sects but are now denominations.
• Church
◦ Final stage in the evolution of cult, sect and denomination.
◦ It refers to the large formal organization with a hierarchy of paid officials
◦ Individuals are born and then become members .
◦ A church generally accepts the norms and values of society and regards itself as the guardians
of social order.
Roy Wallis on religious institutions

Respectable Deviant
Uniquely legitimate Church Sects
Pluralistically legitimate Denomination Cults

Sects Cult
1 It is formed in a bid to It is not so organized.
become more organized
religious unit
2 Marked by desire to It beliefs are different
disassociate from from dominant religion
existing social order. It is and do not challenge it
seen as an attempt to
rationalize the dominant
religion
143
 3 It is formal and definite in It is more volatile in
nature nature
4 Generally more closed They are relatively open
and need strong claim of and don’t have
loyalty from its members precondition for
membership
5 Calvinist, Methodist, OSHO cult,
Arya samaj transcendental
meditation

Why do sects develop?

• They are a result of wider secularization and liberalization of the society or main religion.

• They are a result of rapid social change i.e marginalization of people, loosing social importance
and developing a sense of relative deprivation.
• Traditional religion are orthodox and rigid and people look for less impersonal religious movements.
• Appeal to those who are marginalized and alienated in the society

• New religious movements are a result of large scale urbanization and migration of the people and
questioning of religious ideas.

Religion and science

Religion is defined as a system of institutionalized interaction between man and some other
extra mundane entity. Man propitiates the extra mundane and in return it is supposed to
reciprocate.
Science is a systematic body of certified and changing knowledge rooted in empirical facts and
reality.
Science Religion
1 It is inquisitive and It is imaginative and
deliberative speculative
2 It drives man to shape Most religion puts the
his own destiny man towards fatalism
(fate/destiny)
3 It believes in precision It has no such provision
144
 and measurement
4 It is liberating and It promotes status quo
enlightening and and tradition
promotes questioning of
everything
5 It is based on rationality Based on belief on
sacred
6 It promotes individual It is more collective
innovations though team oriented
work is also there
7 Scientific method and Religious principles are
knowledge are valid accepted by a particular
universally community or those who
believe in the principles
8 Science has utilitarian Non utilitarian goals
goals
Sorokins :Science is essentially based on sensate ethos, consumerism is inevitable in science while
religion is Supra sensory i.e based on intuition and faith,
Einstein:Science without religion is lame(Science cannot decide about morality) and religion without
science is blind.

Similarities
• Durkheim viewed both religion and science provides society with its collective conscience.

• Both aim to answer the unanswered questions.

• Both have manifest, latent functions and dysfunctions.

• Both are the result of the intellectual and emotional quest of the human beings.
• Both act as a cognitive system.

• Weber in his Protestant ethics and capitalism showed that how religion can come close to science
when it radiates certain types of values which are conducive for the growth of science.
Growth of science and technology has impacted religion in following ways
• Cognitive role of religion has reduced - Religion ideas matter only where science has not yet
reached.
• Internal secularization of religion
145
 Internal secularization of religion
• Privatization and pluralization (New religious movements) has taken place.

Secularization and secularism

• Secularization is a process of social change or transformation which leads to the emergence
of a secular society. It involves low involvement of men with religious institutions, decrease
in influence of religious institutions on material aspect of the life and decline in degree to
which the people hold the religious beliefs.
• Some sees it as associated with the process of modernization. Ex- compte , spencer
,Durkheim.
• Some other view it as increasing tolerance and plurality in the society.
• Post modernist view that secularization was only in industrial society while there is religious
revivalism in advanced society.
Strands of secularization
• Bryan Wilson

◦ The attendance of people in the church has been decreasing which is pointing to the fact
of decline of religion on the daily life of people .
◦ In secularization process various social institution gradually becomes distinct from one
another and increasingly free from the matrix of religion.
◦ Parsons contradict his point of view and says that structural differentiation is a natural
process and leads to value generalization and doesn’t make role of religion any less
important.
• Rise of religious pluralism as a symbol of secularization

◦ Religious societies are monotheistic in nature , competition among various religions have
reduced the power of religion
◦ Religion practices have become a matter of convenience
◦ Many sects and cults running parallel with dominant religion also weakens faith in the
core philosophy.
• Secularization of the religious institution themselves have taken place

◦ Heaven is not seen as a place now rather a state of mind , beliefs in supernatural
• Growing individualism - religion is no longer a matter of collective worship , individual today
work out their own path to salvation.
• Desacralisation: Growth of science and technology has restricted the space of sacred .
People are more guided by rational ideology. Ex- Small pox is a disease , people used to
worship goddess in India.
• Rise of secular state - The states do not recognize any religion dogma officially in the west.
146
 g y g g y
however the case of india was different because india never had a powerful institution like
church which need to be separated from state.
• Secular or profane activities have become as important as the sacred. We find religious
institutions running hospitals and charitable trust and schools today.
The development of secularism as an ideology was partly an outcome of the process of
secularization in Europe. Secularism was an ideological goal of the new political philosophy and
movement after the French Revolution. Secularism as an ideology was seen as an end to feudal
and theological state and arrival of liberal, democratic state

Criticism
• A study by Kaufman indicates that while church attendance has decreased, the number of

believers has not . This is called as belief without belonging.

• Kaufman linked demography with the politics of the 21st century - countries like Israel there

is a growth of orthodox believers and they produce more children than secular population.
• Thomas luckmann - ‘Invisible religion’

◦ Religion is still alive though it may have receded from the public sphere and he calls it
invisible religion. It is being channeled though different directions like rise of new
religious movements
Civic religion or civil religion
• Religious or quasi religious regard for certain civic values and tradition found recurrently in

the history of the political states.

• Term was developed by Rousseau and used by Durkheim in his elementary form of religious

life.
• It is different from the religion of man which was a private affair between man and god. Civic

religion is the religion of the citizen which is a public matter of the individuals relationship
with the society or government - Rousseau
• In contemporary times it refers to the belief , symbols , rituals and institutions which
legitimizes the social system, create social solidarity and mobilizes a community to achieve
common political objectives .
• Ex- celebration of Independence Day when collective conscience of people are high.

Fundamentalism and religious revivalism

Fundamentalism in strict sense of meaning describes an ideology of religious or other social
group which call for an adherence to literal meanings of sermons or scriptures or doctrines and147
group which call for an adherence to literal meanings of sermons or scriptures or doctrines and
apply them to all aspect of life. They strongly believe in one and only one true explanation. It is
relatively new phenomenon and emerged in background of threat of modernity and
globalization to tradition.
In contemporary times fundamentalism as an ideology has following distinct features
• Stress on infallibility of scriptures. Meaning of the text are considered unambiguous and also

changeless.
• All aspects of the life are to be over ended by the true, revealed religion as embodied in the

original texts. God words are to be the basis of society, economy, polity , culture and laws
and the entire personal and domestic life.
• Fundamentalist attack the separation of religion from state and more importantly the idea of
secular state.
• It is opposed to reason, rationalism, humanism and secularism

• TN Madan

◦ Fundamentalist movement are of collective character. They are often led by charismatic
leaders who are usually men. Ex- Sikh fundamentalist upsurge led by bhindranwale.
Various factors which led to growth of fundamentalism
• Secularization and modernization have upset the traditional beliefs and as a result of this ,
fundamentalism emerges as a reaction for restoration .
• Some religion have greater potential for fundamental offshoots. Religion which lack a single
authoritative text are less likely to result into fundamental tendencies as plurality of views
diffuses the extreme views.
• Threat perception or presence of a common enemy turns the cohesive feeling into tangible

action on the ground. Ex- Jews in Israel grew insecure after the Holocaust event .
• Fundamentalism require charismatic recruiters as well. Example - Bakr-al-Baghdadi in case

of Islamic state.
• Wider political support is also conducive for the growth of fundamentalism. Example -

fundamentalist Buddhism in Myanmar with the backing of military.

• Gabriel almond highlights other factors like unemployment, presence of prosecuted ethnic

groups, radical social change.

• In many instances it was liked to the reaction to colonist and growth of nationalism as well.

Ex- Iranian revolution in 1979 against US interferences.

Revivalism is a much broader term than fundamentalism. It simply means revival of religion in
any form be it , institutional attendance of church, growth of religious institutions ,and the
phenomenon like sects ,cults and denominations, rise in individual pursuing spiritual peace and
fi ll f d t li it lf 148
finally even fundamentalism itself.
Towards the end of the first half of the 20th century in 1940s a tendency across the globe has
been observed where the role of religion has been emphasized. It is observed at following levels
• Increased institutional acceptance of religion- This is observed in increasing attendance at
religious places, construction of new religious places , increase in the activities of sects and
cults like ISKCON
• Increasing use of religion as a medium for political support. Example in Latin American

societies Christianity has become a tool for resistance against exploitation.

• Growth of invisible or private religion

◦ Luckmann - religion today is invisible as individuals carry it out in their private space and
not in institutions.
• Growth of civil religion

◦ Robert Bellah- Civil religion is emerging as a new form of religion where civic symbols
and nationalism are accorded same respect and faith as that of religion.
• Complexities of life, anomie and alienation are forcing people to explore peace in spirituality .

Fundamentalism communalism
1 Stress on infallibility of Strong allegiances ones
scriptures own ethnic group rather
than to society. It can be
based on
religion,race,ethnicity,lan
guage
2 They tend to separate It becomes active during
certain communities the phases of social
from the mainstream upheaval. Example
society communal clashes
during partition
3 It aims to establish a new It aims to establish its
order by various means supremacy through the
either war or peace use of violence, which
often involves hatred
4 It is a movement and It is the mass psyche. It
such movements are become apparent at
often led by charismatic certain points of time .It
149
 leaders may not sustain like
fundamentalism as a
movement
5 They reject all corrupt Communalism doesn’t
lifestyle and aims to have such reformative
purge community os agenda
such evils. Ex-
Bhirandwale talked of
fallen Sikhs
6 They are a reaction and They arise when there is
response to what its conflict of interest
leader consider as a between two
crises, communities.
Antagonism is central to
communalism
7 Pursuit of political power It is more protective of
is important to its own rights and beliefs
fundamentalist and exclusionary in
nature.

150
Politics and society
Chapter 1.Sociological theory to power
Chapter 2 Power elite, bureaucracy, pressure groups and political parties
Chapter 3 Nation, State, citizenship, democracy , civil society , ideology
Chapter 4 Protest , agitation , social movement , collective action , revolution

Chapter 1 Sociological theories of power

Max weber
Power is nothing but social action. Power convert into authority when it is legitimized. He made ideal
type of authority.
• Power is an aspect of social relationships , nobody holds power in isolation.
• According to weber it is a chance of man or a number of men to realize their own will even against
the resistance of others in a communal action.
• Weber distinguishes between power and authority. Power is coercive while authority is consensual
[ready acceptance of power by subjects]
• Power is unstable in nature while authority is stable and long term in nature

• Power is through use of force while authority is legitimized and does not require use of force.
• Social action determines the type of authority

◦ Actions driven by traditions or customs -> Traditional authority

◦ Action is emotional -> Charismatic authority
◦ Actions which are rational -> Legal rational authority
• Authority can be of two types

◦ Macro authority
▪ Political parties gives authority
◦ Micro authority
▪ Class and status will give authority

Sources of power
Class
• Weber theory of power is closely linked with social stratification. He defines that there are 3
sources of power in a society class , status and political parties
• Weber criticizes Marx by saying that class is not the only source of power rather it the
multidimensional model of power 151
 multidimensional model of power.
• Weber says class is the position in the market situation . Situation here means where one is
situated in a competitive market. There are major two types of classes according to weber
◦ Positively privileged class - Property owners
◦ Commercial class/ acquisition class - Propertyless class
• He says as the society moves towards rationalization [Progress] there will be third class called
middle class. Property owned class or the positively privileged class has the authority here.
Status
• Status is closely connected with honor or prestige enjoyed in the society.
• Honor can come from traditional social action and charismatic social action.

• Example - caste system in Indian society , brahmins enjoy prestige due to traditional authority.
Political parties
• These are voluntary associations with the aim of securing direct control of an organization in order
to implement certain policies within the organization.
• Political parties are organizations not communities or groups and they involve striving for goal in a
planned manner.
• Class and status on the other hand might/ might not acquire power but the only goal of political
parties to acquire power.
• Political parties can take the help of class and status both to acquire power.
• Poltical parties if they acquire power on the basis of emotional social action -> charismatic
authority, on the basis of development agenda -> legal rational authority, on the basis of status ->
Traditional authority.
This concept of weber is also called as constant sum approach to power.
• According to weber power is constant in a society. A group holds power at the expense of others.
• Power will not increase in the society . Group 1 can become powerful by taking power from group
2.
Talcott parsons
• Sum of all the social actions is the social system.

• He talks about variable sum approach to power

◦ He uses the idea of value consensus to explain his concept of power in the society.
◦ Power is a resource or facility of social systems which is used to achieve goals given to us by
value consensus
◦ For parsons power is a component of political system . Function of political system is to achieve
goals. To achieve these goals it uses power.
◦ Power is not constant rather it is variable.
◦ Power is directly proportional to achievement of goals. This implies that more the goals are
achieved in the society more is the power in the society Hence it is variable 152
 achieved in the society more is the power in the society. Hence it is variable.
◦ One group does not hold power at the expense of other.
◦ Groups give power to other groups [G2 and G3 giving power to G1] so that G1 can achieve the
goals given by value consensus for entire social system.
◦ As the society progress DOL will intensify leading to specialized DOL. Hence power must be
given to a specialized group which is a highly organized intellectual and can work to achieve
the goals given by value consensus. [Taken from Durkheim]
Q. Differentiate with respect to Weberian and Parsons approach to power. Give examples with respect
to Indian society. Which approach is more closer to Indian society ? [Weber approach is more closer]
• Introduction - Define power
• Body - Make columns to differentiate

• Conclusion

Q.What is variable sum to power?

Q.Parson approach to power is a mix of Durkheim and Weber . Discuss.

Marx
• Source of power in society lies in economic infrastructure. Those who own MOP that is the
dominant group.
• The use of power is to promote sectional interest of class 1 [Those who control MOP] —
[Contraction to parsons]
• Initially the power would be maintained by coercion and force. However with the development of
superstructure [Political , educational , legal , media and ideology] the coercive power is converted
into legitimate power turning this into authority.
• Class 2 also accepts the idea that they are born to be subordinate resulting into false class
consciousness.
• Power -> authority (False class consciousness )

• Class in itself should convert into class for itself by identification of false class consciousness and
then must be ready for revolution.
• Revolution + class for itself will bring classless society.
• Marxian approach is constant sum approach to power.

Marx theory has been criticized by Robert Dahl who gives the idea of pluralist approach to power.
Power is not with a class rather it is with multiple groups called interest groups and political parties

Functionalist approach to power - Parsons and Durkheim [variable sum approach ]

Marxian approach - Karl Marx , Ralph Miliband [constant sum approach ]
153
Weberian approach -[constant sum approach ]
Pluralist approach- Robert Dahl , Arnold Rose
Elite theory - Vilfred Pareto , Mosca , C wright mills

Pluralist approach to power

• Power is distributed to different groups . It is not distributed at the expense of others.

Robert Dahl
• ‘Who governs ’ - conducted a case study in new heavens

• He uses decision making method arguing that the only way to discover distribution of power is to
examine actual decisions.
• He claims that to discover whether a single group monopolizes in decision making over other
groups.
• Conclusion of the study -
◦ There is no evidence to support the idea there is one ruling group.
◦ He claims that power is dispersed between interest groups each representing its own interest.
◦ He even rejects the idea of elite pluralism
◦ Politics is the system of bargain and compromise. Example - business interest , trade unions ,
farmers unions bargains for their sectional interest and government takes decisions in such a
manner that decision is acceptable to all interest groups.
◦ He rejects the view that economic interest group is the only dominant group.
Arnold rose
• The same study was done by Arnold rose at the national level and came out with multi influence
hypothesis.
• This hypothesis reject the idea of unified power elites rather society is made up of many groups
and each group is headed by elites. These elites represent the interest of group. [Example farmers
Union leaders in agriculture bill protest]
• Politics is about negotiations with group elites .
• He also uses decision making approach. Decision are taken by negotiations with elites of the
group. [Example president takes decisions taken the interest of all the groups together]
Q. How pluralist approach is different from parsons ?
• Pluralist says power is constant while parson says power is not constant.

• Parsons says only one group holds power but in pluralist approach all groups are negotiating with
power.
• Parsons never talks about interest groups and political parties explicitly while pluralist takes in
detail about interest groups and political parties.
• Pluralist says this can happen in democratic society only while parsons doesn’t talks about
alternative models of power 154
 alternative models of power.
• Negotiations of power is possible between groups in pluralist approach.
Elite theory
Vilfed Pareto
• Society is ruled by elites always . These elites have special psychological characteristics. There is
no concept of interest group here.
• Elite can be of two types

◦ Lions
▪ They can rule by force , take strong decision , direct in their approach
▪ Rulers in dictatorships
◦ Fox
▪ They rule by manipulations , cunning nature , dealings
• Society is either ruled by lions or fox.

• He give the concept of circulation of elites

◦ Lions are replaced by foxes after a time period and then lions are replaced by foxes. This is
called the theory of natural decay.
• Elites are closed for recruitment from masses because they don't have special psychological
characteristics.
• Pareto rejects the theory of Marx- Either in capitalist or in communist societies there will always
be a rule of elites [Putin in Russia]
Mosca
• He gives sociological explanation to understand the theory of elites.

• He also considers that elite rule is inevitable.

• He believes that ruling minority are superior to masses. He provides explanation to their
superiority as a product of social background of elites.
• Unlike Pareto who believed that qualities are same for all the societies , mosca believes that
qualities are not same across societies . Example In some societies courage in the battle is elitism
• Pareto said that democracy is nothing but rule of elites while mosca believed that there is
difference between democracy and elite rule because he believed that elites are opened for
recruitment from below. These kind of societies are open societies.
• Elites are dawn from wide range of social backgrounds . Hence elites represents various social
groups an not the decision of single social group.
• However masses lack the capacity for self government and require the help of elites . Hence he is
taking a dim view of masses.
C wright Mills 155
C wright Mills
• Elite rule is institutional rather than psychological.
• There are certain institutions which are pivotal in nature also called as command posts. These
institutions are
◦ Military
◦ Federal government
◦ Capitalist / Bourgeoise
• The interest and activities of elites are similar and interconnected to form a single ruling minority
called power elites.
• They serve each other interests and they interchange their position [Trump and Musharraf ]
• Exampl e- Military elands tanks and planes to be manufactured by multinational corporations , the
order for which will be given by federal government.
• These power elites are un accountable to people and believe in centralization of power.

• They can easily manipulate the masses trough psychic management.

• The believe in self enhancement of power.

• This concept was criticized by Robert Dahl

◦ Power is distributed among different groups.
◦ Criticized by pluralist
• What C wright mills has said at national level that was confirmed by Floyd hunter at community
level updated in
Elite pluralism
• Pluralist perspective maintains that power is dispersed among a variety of groups and societies.

• Pluralism beings with the fact that society is getting increasingly differentiated into a variety of
social groups and sectional interest.
• Each group has its own needs and concerns resulting in formation of organizations to represent
and articulate their interest. for example trade unions and professional associations.These
organizations are called as interest groups .
• No one group is dominant over the others.

• Leaders of these organization come under the category of elite pluralism .

• Elite pluralism ensure that power remains dispersed as interest groups represents only sectional
interest.
• Democratic government involves political parties along with interest groups. The difference
between the two
◦ Interest groups represent only sectional interest while political parties have to cater to the
interest of all the IG.
◦ Interst group have no aim of acquiring power while political parties major purpose is to acquire
power.
◦ Ig are many while PP are few.
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 ◦ Ig can converge into political groups [AAP]
• Political parties
◦ They represent ideology , one party is differentiated between the other on the basis of
ideology.
◦ Competition between political parities ensures democracy.
◦ PP are required for following reasons
▪ They represent the wishes and interest of their electorates.for example- farm loan waivers
▪ If a section is not represented in political parties new party will emerge. Example - Labor
party in Britain.
▪ Parties are accountable to the electorate .
▪ Parties have to represent all IG and cannot represent sectional interest
• Interest Groups / Pressure Groups
◦ Interest groups are of two types
▪ Promotional- They are for a cause and it can be sectional or for the whole society.
▪ Protectionist-They protect particular sectional interest . Example trade union , farmer unions.
▪ The difference between the two is slowly fading away
◦ Role
▪ They give funds to political parties
▪ They make illegal payments / bribes to representatives.
▪ They appeal to public opinion and can mobilize extensive public support. Example Media
▪ They have expertise in their field, i,e specialized knowledge of their IG which is useful for
political parties. Hence no government can work without IG.
Q.What do you think is the function of political parties in India?What are the challenges to political
parties in India ?How to reform them ?
Second part - PP are appealing to caste not development , Corruption in PP and elections ,
criminalization of politics , less women representatives , populism , not opened to RTI, dynastic politics
, Inner party democracy is missing , alliance between parties who are totally ideologically opposite .
Reforms - Electoral bonds , bringing transparency , should come under RTI , Public funding o elections
, decriminalizing - Lily Thomas case , anti defections more stringent , reforms in election commission ,
PP must give representation to women and tribes and lower caste , must improve public participation ,
should bring more youth in politics , educational qualifications....

Q Role of IG in Indian democracy

State
• It implies state is sovereign power which implies supreme authority of power in a definite territory
free from any kind of external control. 157
 y
• It must have 4 essential features
◦ Territory
◦ Free from outer control
◦ Sovereign
◦ Free to apply power and unify people by use of legislative , executive and judiciary and military
also.
• The members of the state are called citizens.
• State may or may not be a nation but nations usually have states .
Marxist approach to state
• Marx
◦ State is a force and it exercise power for promoting interest of dominant class and suppressing
and exploiting the weaker class called as proletariats.
◦ State is a man made institution which lies in superstructure rather than a natural institution.
◦ State is the product of class struggle and an instrument of class rule.
◦ The dominant class requires state to maintain its domination.
◦ State ensures that private property remains private and concentrated in few hands by creating
laws , rules and regulations which favors the dominant class.
◦ However end of capitalism through revolution will bring the end to the institution of state.
• New Marxist on state

◦ Westergaard and resler

▪ Power is visible only in its consequences.
▪ Concentration of wealth and inequalities in British societies is a proof that power is
concentrated in few hands. Hence it is a visible evidence.
▪ Ruling class ideology is pervasive in nature. It is present everywhere and hence the society
takes inequalities to be normal.
◦ Ralph miliband
▪ Process of legitimation - A system of massive indoctrination where capitalist make the
masses believe that their values , ethos and ethics are correct and needs no revision and
hence automatically legitimize the inequality of power.
◦ Nicos
▪ Capitalist state best serve the interest of capitalist when it is relatively free from a
particular section of capitalist . Hence the state is relatively autonomous to capitalist to
take decision in favor of different capitalist.
Weber on state
• Politics is a vocation. State is an institution which claims monopoly on legitimate use of force
within a given territory.
158
• There are 4 defining features of state
◦ Legitimacy- Bureaucracy is found in modern state which administers according to law of the
land
◦ State has binding authority on all its members .
◦ State gives membership by birth.
◦ Use of force is permitted and legal
• Power of the state can come from tradition , charisma and legal rational authority but weber talks
in detain about the last .
• An important component of state in LRA is bureaucracy.
• State slowly depends on bureaucracy for its existence.
• In sate there is DOL , bureaucracy is a means of administration and has no control over the state.
Durkheim on state
• Development of state to DOL in society.

• DOL will create many specialized groups called secondary social groups.
• State is the organization which controls secondary social groups because no one group or
individual should not be over dominant over individuals and other social groups .
• State act as a mediator between different secondary groups.

Nation
• State + common consciousness = Nation
• Largest community have a common consciousness of a common kind.

• Consciousness can come from many sources - Language , race , religion , culture , geographical
location , similar history
• However these are narrow meaning to the idea of nation.
• State tries to broaden the concept of nation through use of effective symbols like national anthem
, flag , emblem are the symbols of integration and nationalism.
• India concept of nation is unity in diversity. It is a tough goal to maintain nation with diversity.

• Factors responsible for emergence of nation

◦ Race and kinship - German , Yugoslavia
◦ Religion - Pakistan
◦ Common history or tradition - Language , geography or economic bonds - India
◦ Psycological and sentimental belongingness
• Nation is a psychological concept while state is a political concept

Ideology
• Ideology is set of ideas accepted to be true by a group without further examination.
Id l i l ll d i f id I i h diff id l d 159
 • Ideology is also called as science of ideas - It examines as to how different ideas are evolved ,
how truth is distorted and how to overcome distortions.
• Examples of ideology
◦ Liberalism
◦ capitalism
◦ socialism
• Ideology leads to legitimacy of ruling class which converts power into authority.
• Ideology can also lead to revolution as ideology is action oriented , it present a cause before its
adherence and induce them to fight for the cause.
• Ideology leads to fundamentalism.
Karl Marx
• Ideology is manifestation of false consciousness. It is used as a tool by superstructure to continue
the rule of dominant class.
• Ideology according to Marx only serves the interest of dominant class.

George lukacs
• Ideology means both bourgeoise and proletariat consciousness, however bourgeoise ideology
create false consciousness which prevents class struggle.
• Ideologies create ideological struggle , hence preventing class struggle , hence maintains the rule
of bourgeoise.
Karl Mannhein
• ’Ideology and utopia ’
• False consciousness is of two types - Ideology and utopia.

• Ideology has the tendency of conservation of the rule of dominant class .

• Utopia is a false vision of classless society.

• Proletariats only talk about change and any revolution is prevented by utopia.

Ideology and totalitarianism

• Ideology is a system of total domination characterized by ideology and terror.

• In totalitarianism ideology is used as an instrument in political sphere for achievement of goals.

Karl Popper
• ‘In open societies and its enemies ‘

• Ideology is the characteristic feature of totalitarianism. These societies claims that they have
absolute knowledge of truth and strive to achieve that truth.
160
• They force people to work towards ideology ruthlessly and at any cost.
• Ideology has no space in open societies because open societies which are open to new ideas and
science.
• New ideas and totalitarian ideology cannot sustain together as old ideas are questioned with the
help of science.
• Western societies are open societies and hence they don’t require any ideology for support.
• Example
◦ North Korea and Germany Hitler ideology (Nazism)
• Hence ideology is limited only to totalitarian states.
End of ideology debate [Capitalism vs socialism]
• Daniel bell
◦ After 1960 capitalism has been replaced by forced capitalism or forced industrialist societies.
Ideologies are exhausted and there is a rough consensus among individuals on political issues
like acceptance of welfare state , decentralization of power , system of mixed economy and
political pluralism. Hence there is end to political debate.
◦ In services sector there is increasing dominance of technical elites who are not influenced by
political ideology.
• Ralph Dahrendorf
◦ ‘Class and class conflict’
◦ We are no longer loving in capitalist societies rather we are living in post capitalist societies.
◦ Political system has separated from economic system leading to dissociation. Conflict in one
will not affect the other.
◦ This is dissociative approach to power.
◦ This dissociation creates institutional isolation.
◦ Industrial conflicts no longer determines the whole society but remains confined to pattern and
problems of the sphere of industry.
◦ Industry and industrial conflicts are institutionally isolated and hence Marxian framework is not
useful in post capitalist societies.
• WW Rostow
◦ Unidirectional model of economic growth- Irrespective of political ideologies .
◦ Traditional societies -> preconditions for takeoff ->take off -> road to maturity ->age of high
mass consumption.
• JK Galbraith
◦ ‘The new industrial state’
◦ He observed that all industrial societies are destined to similar development (Greater
centralization , bureaucratization , professionalism , tecnocratisation). These are visible in
Russian as well as American system through they have adopted different ideologies however 161
 y g y p g
the destination is same .
◦ Hence societies are now based on level of industrialization not by their political ideologies.
• Francis fukuyama
◦ ’End of history’- After collapse of USSR in 1991
◦ It is proved that ideologies have ended and there is only ideology - economic and political
liberalism
End of ideology debate is questioned by
• C W mills and Titmuss

◦ Champions of End of ideology overlook the idea that concentration of economic power , social
disorganization and cultural deprivation are very much part of political system.
◦ Basically it is the dominant ideology which has won and they want the end of ideological
debate to prevent any new form of ideological development
Conclusion
• Different ideologies , set of ideas will continue to exist as vehicles of value system eve loved by
different groups.
• Ideology also leads to social movements and brings social change.

• Role of ideology is contemporary movements

◦ Naxalism
◦ Feminism
◦ Environmentalism

Protest , agitation , social movement and revolution

• Dissent -> protest -> agitation ->social movements
• Dissent means disagreement.

◦ Dissatisfaction in the society leading to questioning of practices in society.

◦ It might be because of prevailing different ideologies in the societies at a given point of time.
◦ Example -Criticizing some policy of government.
• Protest is crystallized form of dissent. This is more organized as compared to dissent , more
formal in nature and usually against the state.
◦ It is in groups leading to collective action.
• Agitation - Methods by which protest is happening , if it becomes very formalized and sustains for
a long period of time then protest convert into a movement. Social movement try to bring social
change.
Social movement
• sustained collective action to bring about social change

F t 162
 • Features
◦ Collective action , not an action of individuals.
◦ They promote change or bring about change
◦ It is not a spontaneous movement rather it is sustained , however cooperative movement and
trade union movement are different they are not social movement.
◦ Social movements have a pattern of hierarchy and DOL
• Types of social movements
◦ Reform movements
▪ They accept the basis structure of society but want to bring change in one part of the
society which affect a particular section or group.
◦ Revolutionary movement
▪ They overthrow the existing system and replace it with a new one.
▪ They are reconstructing the entire social order
◦ Migratory movement
▪ Mainly because of discontent and hope for better future in some other land.
• Reasons for social movement
◦ Relative deprivation
▪ Deprivation of economic , political and social rights
◦ Structural Strain
▪ The present structure of the society doesn’t fulfill the needs of all , hence some groups are
discontented with the social structure.
▪ Example JP movement during emergency - Inflation , unemployment , poverty and growth
◦ Possibility of change
▪ For example - In totalitarian state here is no possibility of change while in open democratic
societies change is possible. Saudi Arabia there is no possibility of social revolution.
Theories explaining social movement
• Deprivation theory

◦ Stratification result in uneven distribution in goods, status and honor as well as different market
situation leading to deprivation of some .
• Social strain theory- Neil Smelser
◦ Multi causal explanation of social movement . Also called as value added model.
◦ It was given by Neil smelser.
◦ Stage 1 - Structural conduciveness
▪ There is belief that some problem is there
◦ Stage 2 - Structural Strain
▪ People experience deprivation which strengthens the belief.
◦ Stage 3- Generalized belied
163
 ◦ Stage 4- Precipitating Factors
▪ Catalyst or immediate cause of movement. Spark for the start of social movement
◦ Stage 5- Mobilization of people
◦ Stage 6- Lack of social control by the state.
• Resource mobilization theory
◦ In a society deprivation and discontent is always present. Availability of resources (media ,
capital , organized groups , NGO and power elites ) converts the stress or strain into successful
social movement.
◦ This theory is also called as rational choice theory.
◦ This theory makes social movement as a industry within a competitive field and each industry
is competing for resources
◦ Criticism
▪ The problem with this theory is social movement will always be dominated by power elites.

New social movements

• After 1960s there is transformation in collective action

◦ New issues like identity , lifestyle and culture , values and customs
▪ Mainly based on post modern values , post materialistic values
▪ Gay , women , corruption , disabled movement , environment , privacy movement
◦ New organizational forms - Loose organizational forms and use network of people Example
Hashtag movement
◦ Poly headed structures with no single authority
◦ New actions
▪ Like button , Share , subscribe , alternative festivals
◦ They make extensive use of internet and social media
◦ Involves New middle class - Sleeping middle class , rainbow coalition of students , feminist and
socialist , retired people.
◦ Wants to improve quality of life.
• They bring limited and slow change and is more self oriented .

Revolution
Brings complete change in political structure
• Characteristics
◦ It result in period of uncertainty in the society.
◦ Never led by oppressed class rather than middle class.
◦ It brings total change in economic , political and social structure.
• Factors which make revolution successful
◦ Alternatives channels to change must be blocked
164
 Alternatives channels to change must be blocked
◦ Society must be on the merge of breakdown.
◦ People must be aware of alternative system to change
◦ According to Marx - History is the history of class struggle, laid a lot of emphasis on revolution.

165
Social change in modern society
Wilbert Moore defined social change as a significant alternation in structure over time in behavior
patterns and cultures , including norms and values
At the macro level social change has two aspects
• Structural social change - which affects the whole society fundamentally like urbanization ,
industrialization
• Cultural social change -change in the belief system , modernization , westernization ,
Sanskritisation
Sociological theories of social change
Linear theories of social change
• Compte law of three stages- intellectual development as the basis of evolution
◦ Theological - dominance of religious thought
◦ Metaphysical - Imaginative thoughts
◦ Positivistic - scientific thoughts
• Spencer - Social Darwinism
◦ Just like living organism societies also evolve from simple to complex.
◦ Unlike compte who gave more emphasis on development at intellectual level , spencer gives
importance to individual development .
◦ He also believed in the idea of survival of the fittest.
◦ Process of differentiation in the society is accompanied by process of integration.
◦ Simple->compound -> doubly compound -> trebly compound societies .
◦ He also offer theory of evolution from militant societies engaged in warfare to industrial
societies which are based on friendship , altruism , specialization
• EB Taylor

◦ Animism -> Polytheism -> Monotheism

• Morgan

◦ Primitive -> Barbaric -> civilized

• Ferdinand tonnies

◦ There exist two types of group due to two different types of will- essential will and arbitrary will.
◦ Essential will is associated with peasants , artisans while arbitrary will is associated with
businessman , scientist , political class. People belonging to the first type are called
gemeinschaft or translated as community and those associated with latter are called
Gesellschaft or society.
166
 ◦ gemeinschaft is small in size and its population . It is isolated from other group hence little
chance of change happening in the society and marked by homogeneity. Family occupy the
central role , religion has presence in all aspects of life
◦ In comparison gesselschaft are large and heterogeneous such as modern industrial societies ,
relationship among members are clear cut , formal , legal rather than governed by tradition.
These societies are marked by high degree of stratification and conflict as well. There is limited
role of religion.
• A subgroup of evolutionary theory is dialectics theory
◦ Hegel - Idealism -> thesis + antithesis -> synthesis
◦ Marx conflict theory -> historical materialism

Linear theories are criticized for their bias , lack of objectivity ,based on questionable secondary data .

Cultural lag
Idea was developed by W F Ogburn in response to the economic determinism which drives the all
social changes. He argued that when the economic base changes the material aspects of the society
also undergoes a changes but the cultural aspect changes slowly in comparison to material aspect
which he termed as cultural lag. Ex- changing economic base influences the DOL in family instantly
but the patriarchal ideology slowly.

Cyclical theories of social change

• Oswald Spengler believed that every society is born, matures , decays and eventually dies. Social
change may take the form of progress or decay but no society lives forever .
• Pareto theory of circulation of elites
• Pitting sorokins

◦ ‘Social and cultural dynamics ’

◦ He classified societies according to their cultural mentality which can be ideational (reality is
spiritual), sensate (reality is material) or idealistic (a synthesis of the two).
◦ Social change follows a pattern like a pendulum as culture moves in one direction and then
back in other direction.
◦ Ideational culture give emphasis on those things which can be perceived only by mind. It is
abstract , religious concerned with faith and ultimate truth. It is opposite of the sensate culture.
◦ Sensate culture give emphasis on those things which can be perceived directly by senses.It is
practical , hedonistic , materialistic and sensual.
◦ Both represents pure type of culture , hence no society ever fully confirms to either type.
◦ Without mentioning the causes he said the culture of a society develops towards one pure type
, it is encountered by the opposing cultural force in the form of development of new institutions
and normative patterns .cultural development is then reversed moving towards the opposite
type of culture.
167
 ◦ Societies contain both the impulses in varying degree and the tension between them creates
long term instability.
Cyclic theories are criticized for being too abstract and speculative and impossible to test scientifically.

Structure functionalist theory of social change of parsons

Functionalist are often criticized for being Status quoist and ignoring change. Parsons addressed this
issue by giving the concept of dynamic equilibrium or moving equilibrium.
• Parsons sees the change as temporary which is overcome by the systematic forces. Change
occurs when structural strain exceeds the equilibrium forces.
• Systems view of change- Change is restorative , one that brings system back to its equilibrium.All
the sub systems are related to one other and change in any one of the functional pre requisite
produces change in other also.
• Evolutionary view of social change -Like evolutionary theorist he believes societies evolve from
simple to compound and head from one evolutionary universal to another in 5 stages . Social
change involves the process of increasing differentiation , specialization and adaptation.
Post modernist perspective on social change
• They see social change beyond integration -conflict debate . They reject grand theories of social
change .
• Feminist sociology - social reality is viewed differently by the two sexes. Rising awareness about
women rights , feminization of workforce are new forms of social change
• Social changes due to environmental issues.

• Post modern society is not headed for socialism as predicted by Marx but for a more multi culture
an diverse society which traditional branches of sociology would be unable to explain .
Development and dependency
Development as a social concept involves progressive change from the lower state to higher state of
well being or simply change in the desired direction. True development is the one which not only
means growth , but also the self realization and independence of thoughts and actions leading to full
realization of every individuals potential in the society .
Classical sociologist took an evolutionary view of development as a change from simple to modern
society.Thus development means industrialization , urbanization , secularization , democracy ,
individual liberty etc.
Contemporary notion of development stress on justice, rights , equality ,equity , human development ,
sustainability , individual liberty and realization of individual potential.
Western notion of development - material well being was imposed on the newly independent nations
after Second World War.Howerever soon it was realized that condition was not improving rather they
were facing outflow of resources. This led to the rise of dependency theory in Latin America which
were under communist influence 168
were under communist influence.
Dependency theory
• They rejected the arguments of the modernization theories that modernity and development reach
to the bottom most in its due course.
• They also rejected the argument that underdevelopment of the counties is due to their own
cultural and institutional faults.
• They are an offshoot of Marxist thinking and the creation of global haves and have nots
• According to it though colonism has ended it is continued to be practiced in disguised manner and
developed countries prevent development of developing countries for their own vested interest
• Powerful rich countries impose unequal terms of trade and development on developing countries.

• French economist arghiri Emmanuel in his unequal exchange refers to the low income countries as
mis developed and not under developed.
• Therefore development which is unequal will always give rise to dependency.
• Dependency can be curtailed only through the empowerment of those who are at the receiving
end of the development process.- Mahatama Gandhi grassroots development .
Dependency theories are criticized by liberals who term this theory as simplistic and suffering from
ideological bias.
• Gunnar Myrdal - Development deficit cannot be completely attributed to dependency but its major
causes are value deficit and institutional inadequacies.
• It doesn’t provides any substantive empirical evidence to support its arguments .
• Amartya sen also rejects dependency theory and contends that third world countries have
benefitted from the technology transfers and revolutionary changes in social sector.
• They also fail to explain high development rates in Brazil , india , china ...

World system theory

• It stresses that the world as a system and not the individual , state should be the basis of analysis.
• It is an extension of Marxian concepts of dialectics material is and class struggle on global scale.

• It is developed by Immanuel wallerstein

◦ Modern world system is essentially capitalist in nature after the fall of feudalism.
◦ Process of exploitation during colonism produced a world system made up of core , semi
periphery and periphery
◦ Core forms the exploitative capitalist system on global scale . While countries may transit from
core to semi periphery the structure still remains the same.
◦ Core countries focus on high skills ,capital intensive production and the rest of the world focus
on the low skill, labour intensive production and extraction of raw materials .
◦ Economic exchange between core and periphery take place in unequal terms.
◦

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Agents of social change
Agents of change can be
• Endogenous/orthogenetic - within the society

◦ Stress and conflict in the society , charismatic leadership

• Exogenous/Heterogenetic -from external sources

◦ External aggression , urbanization , westernization

Various factors of social change can be classified as

• Cultural factors

◦ Invention , discovery and diffusion of new ideas

• Ideas and values

◦ Rationalization of belief in Protestant belief

• Social structure

◦ Strain in social structure

170
• Political factors
◦ Revolution like French Revolution
• Environmental and physical factors
• Economic factors
• Demographic factors
• Religious factors
• Technological factors
• Conflict and change
• Social movement and change
Education and social change
• It can initiate social change -It propagates such ideas which promotes social change , Sati
and child marriage were banished from indian society due to education .
• It has capacity to welcome change - It creates a wholesome and conducive environment for
the social change
• Equality of opportunity - provides scope for social mobility , bargaining power also increases

• Moral agent

• Economic agent

• Fights orthodoxy, promotes liberal ideas

• Social mobility

• Evaluate change

• Durkheim - It is an agent of transmission of social norms. By respecting rules in schools ,

children learn to respect norms of the society and they learn to be a part of larger group.
• Parsons says education play a key role in role allocation in an specialized industrial economy.

• Feminist scholar mc Robbie and sue lee- schooling reproduces appropriate feminine role in

girls.
• Critical theorist like Althusser - Education is a ideological state apparatus appropriated by

the ruling class to pursue their own interest and ideas.

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