TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK CAMPUS

Data Communication Hardware Lab Report

Submitted By:
Aagaman Sharma Pokharel (078BCT001)
Anil Shrestha (078BCT009)
Anil Yadav (078BCT010)
Ashok Prasad Neupane (078BCT021)
Ashok B.K (078BCT022)
Abhimanyu Chaudhary (078BCT006)
Bikash Niraula (078BCT031)
Jeevan Neupane (078bct097)

Submitted To:
Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 1. AUGUST 2024

Introduction to Digital Signalling

Abstract
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Introduction to digital signalling is presented. This report
explores the transmission of data by converting analog signals • U-2970A Data Source Module
into digital bit streams and reconstructing them on the • U-2970H Data Receiver Module
receiver side. It focuses on the conversion of data words into a • U-2970X Audio Module
digit stream, one bit at a time, for distant transmission and • U-2970M Power Supply Unit
reconstruction. The experimentation involves transmitting • U-2970N Set of Connecting Leads
voice signals between devices and measuring their • Function Generator
frequencies. The transmission process includes • Two-Channel Oscilloscope
analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) and digital-to-analog • U-2970K Audio Module
conversion (DAC). Additionally, the report discusses the
characteristics of Double Side Band Full Carrier signals using
amplitude modulation and demodulation. It highlights the
INTRODUCTION
advantages and limitations of delta modulation, its utility in A. Digital signalling, also known as digital transmission, is a
low-bit-rate scenarios, and its susceptibility to noise and method of communication where information is transmitted
sudden signal changes. The lab report provides an overview of using discrete signals made up of binary digits, or bits,
the principles of digital communication, covering both digital represented as 0s and 1s. Unlike analog signalling, which uses
and analog signal transmission through a digital continuous variations in amplitude and frequency, digital
communication system. It also discusses the working of simple signalling uses distinct voltage levels to denote specific data
transmission devices, transitioning from digital inputs and states. This approach makes digital signals more resistant to
outputs to one-way telephony with analog inputs and noise and interference, leading to more reliable and accurate
outputs. Moreover, the report investigates the transmission of communication over long distances.
digital data through line encoding into ’NRZ’ format. It delves
into the fundamental principles of digital transmission and In a digital signalling system, data is first converted into a
coding techniques, including the conversion of analog signals series of binary bits through a process called encoding. These
into digital and their transmission through line coding. The binary signals are then sent over various communication
report reflects outcomes from hands-on laboratory sessions, channels, such as cables, optical fibres, or radio waves. At the
combining theoretical knowledge with practical receiving end, the signals are decoded to retrieve the original
experimentation to equip students with skills for real world data, thus completing the communication process.
communication challenges in the digital age.
Key advantages of digital signalling include the ability to
Index Terms—Signalling, Digital Signalling, Communication,
incorporate error detection and correction techniques,
Digital Systems, Modulation, Demodulation, Delta
efficient multiplexing for simultaneous data transmission, and
Modulation, Digital Signal, Line coding, NRZ, etc.
the capability to compress data for efficient storage and
transmission. Modern telecommunication systems heavily rely
on digital signalling due to its robustness and versatility.
OBJECTIVES
• To show how data represented by data words can be sent
as a digit stream, one bit at a time, and reconstructed at
a digital receiver.
• To demonstrate that analog signals can be converted to
data words and sent using this process.
• To illustrate that communication (e.g., between
telephones) can be accomplished using this approach.
• To explore line encoding and the process of converting
digital data to digital signals.
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 1. AUGUST 2024

Fig. 1. Digital Communication Block Diagram

B. Key Terms
To fully understand digital signaling, it’s crucial to grasp key
terms associated with the process:
• Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) Coding: NRZ coding is a
signaling method that employs distinct voltage levels to
represent binary data. In the context of non-polar NRZ
coding,

a constant voltage level signifies a ’1’ bit, and the time intervals. These measurements, or samples, are
absence of that level signifies a ’0’ bit. While this then used to represent the analog signal in digital form.
technique is simple, it can lead to synchronization The sampling rate is critical; it must be sufficiently high
challenges and baseline wandering for long sequences of to prevent information loss and accurately reconstruct
identical bits. the original analog signal.

Fig. 4. Sampling an analog signal

• Quantization: Quantization is the process of mapping

Fig. 2. An example of uni polar NRZ coding continuous analog signal amplitudes to discrete values.
This involves dividing the amplitude range into a set of
levels and assigning each sample to the nearest level.
The accuracy of quantization is determined by the
number of quantization levels, with more levels resulting
in finer representation and reduced quantization error.

Fig. 3. An example of bipolar NRZ Coding

• Sampling: Sampling is a fundamental process in digital

communication that involves taking discrete
measurements of continuous analog signals at specific
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 1. AUGUST 2024

Fig. 5. Quantization of an Analog Signal

• Analog to Digital Conversion: Analog to digital conversion

involves the transformation of continuous analog signals
into discrete digital values. This process includes
sampling the analog signal, quantizing the samples, and
encoding the quantized values as binary bits. This
conversion is integral to the conversion of real-world
analog data into a digital format suitable for processing,
storage, and transmission.
• Digital to Analog Conversion: Digital to analog conversion
is the reverse process of analog to digital conversion. It
involves decoding binary bits back into analog signals.
Digital-to-analog converters (DACs) are employed to
reconstruct the continuous analog waveform from the
discrete digital values, allowing for analog signal output. Fig. 7. U-2970A data-source module and U-2970H data receiver module

B. Step 2: Sending an Analog Signal Digitally

1) Set the data source module U-2970A in ADC mode.
2) Connect a function generator to the ’analog input’ and
earth terminals of U-2970A.
3) Configure the function generator to produce a Triangle
Waveform with the following parameters:
• Amplitude: 4V peak-to-peak
Fig. 6. An example of A/D and D/A Conversion
• Frequency: 0.01Hz

4) Observe the waveform on the oscilloscope as the analog

IV. PROCEDURE
signal is converted to a digital signal by U-2970A’s ADC.
A. Step 1: Establishing the Data Source
1) Connect the data source module U-2970A to the power C. Step 3: Receiving Digital Words
supply unit U-2970M to ensure power is on.
1) Utilize the Data Receiver module, U-2970H, to receive
2) Connect the output of the data source module to an data transmitted from the data source.
oscilloscope to visualize the input waveforms.
2) Ensure that the pattern of data received at the receiver
3) Set the oscilloscope’s two channels to 5V per division matches the pattern sent by the source.
and a time base of 10µs per division.
4) Input eight bits of NRZ data from the data source and
observe the resulting waveforms on the oscilloscope.
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 1. AUGUST 2024

D. Step 4: Obtaining an Analog Output

1) Process the received digital word using the digital-to
analog converter (DAC) on the U-2970 receiver module.
2) Note that the DAC on the U-2970 receiver module is
permanently connected for this purpose.

E. Step 5: Testing a Simple Telephone

1) Establish a connection between the Audio Module
U2970K as both a microphone and a speaker.
2) Transmit sound signals digitally using the microphone
and the data source module.
3) Observe the microphone input using an oscilloscope
and verify that the data source module converts the
sound signal to a digital format for transmission.
4) Convert the received digital signal back to an analog
signal using the data receiver module and observe the
output from the speaker.
5) Measure the frequency of the transmitted sound signals
using an oscilloscope.

Fig. 9. Setting up Audio Sampling

RESULTS

The U-2970K Audio module receives the analog signal given

Fig. 8. U-2970K audio module connected to the U-2970A data source module
as input to the data source module U-2970A. U-2970A
performs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) on the received
analog signal, adding a redundant bit for error detection. The
output of this conversion was observed using a dual-channel
oscilloscope. However, the observed signal contained noise,
which was likely introduced due to various factors including
interference in the U-2879N leads and connecting wires, as
well as contributions from the oscilloscope itself.
Subsequently, the output from U-2970A was transmitted to
the U-2970H receiver module. The received data was then
converted back to an analog signal and routed into the
U2970K Audio Module. Within this module, the analog output
was transformed into sound signals, effectively allowing for
the reconstruction of the original analog input.
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 1. AUGUST 2024

Fig. 10. Sending Digital Data in NRZ format

Fig. 13. Oscilloscope showing the output from the U-2970A Data Source
Module after ADC

Fig. 11. Sending Analog Data from one device to another using ADC

Fig. 14. Oscilloscope showing the sent and received data from U-2970A Data
Source Module

DISCUSSION
The lab trials provided priceless information about the
field of digital signaling. In the first attempt, binary data
was encoded into Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) format, with
low and high pulses, respectively, denoting the numbers
"1" and "0." This basic knowledge of signal encoding
prepared the way for further research.

Fig. 12. Sending Voice Signal from Microphone Digitally and receiving it in
In the second experiment, digital transmission of analog
Speaker
signals was tested. An Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) in
the U2970A module was first used to convert the analog
signal into a digital format. The output, however, showed
differences from the input that were caused by
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 1. AUGUST 2024

transmission noise interference. This demonstrated how The lectures gave us a strong foundation, and online
susceptible analog signals are in noisy settings. resources and discussions helped us explore digital
signaling in more detail. Talking with classmates inside
The ability to transmit voice signals digitally was shown and outside the classroom expanded our understanding
in the last experiment. Making use of the U2970K Audio and provided different viewpoints.
Module in two ways. Voice signals were transferred,
processed, and then rebuilt using a microphone and We appreciate our classmates' teamwork and
speaker. Male and female speech differences were sharing of ideas that helped clarify complex concepts.
revealed through the use of an oscilloscope to assess the Interactions during lab sessions contributed to our
frequency of voice signals. practical understanding of experiments and theories.

Our lab instructors' dedication and support helped

us connect theory with practical applications. The
department's resources and supportive environment
enabled us to conduct experiments effectively.
CONCLUSION
These experiments highlighted the advantages of
digital signaling over analog methods. The discrete
nature of digital signals makes them more resistant
to noise, enhanced by error detection and correction
techniques. The processes of sampling and
quantization were identified as crucial in
Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC), emphasizing the REFERENCES
importance of adhering to the Nyquist sampling rates
to prevent aliasing and over-sampling. 1) B. A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking,
4th ed. New York, USA: The McGraw-Hill Companies,
The concept of quantized bits forming Inc, 2007.
parallel-encoded "words" that are transmitted 2) W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, 8th
serially was reinforced. This practical experience ed. New Jersey, USA: Pearson Education, Inc, 2007.
confirmed the dominance of digital signaling in 3) N. Kani, Signals and Systems, 7th ed. New Delhi, India:
modern communication, thanks to its precision, Tata McGraw-Hill Education Private Limited, 2010.
noise immunity, and error correction capabilities. 4) G. Held, Understanding Data Communications, 4th ed.
However, potential discrepancies may occur due to New Delhi, India: Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited,
procedural errors and instrumental variations, 1994.
necessitating caution in practical implementations. 5) Huang Lu et al.,” Research on Application of Digital
Overall, these lab sessions provided a solid Signal Processing Technology in Communication,” E3S
foundation in the basic principles of digital signaling, Web of Conferences, vol. 185, 2020, Article ID 02020,
paving the way for more advanced studies in the doi:
field. 10.1051/e3sconf/202018502020.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very grateful to Mr. Bikal Adhikari for his

outstanding guidance, mentorship, and insightful
lectures, which have greatly improved our
understanding of digital signaling. Mr. Bikal Adhikari
help, and support have also been crucial to our
learning.
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 2. AUGUST 2024 1

Lab on Data communication: Amplitude

Modulation And Demodulation
Abstract—This report explores the principles and techniques of
Amplitude Modulation (AM), along with its advantages and Amplitude modulation was extensively used in early radio
applications. It also delves into the demodulation process, which
extracts the original information from the modulated signal. broadcasting to transmit audio signals over long distances.
Additionally, the report presents the results obtained during the lab Although newer techniques, such as frequency modulation
session. A solid understanding of AM and demodulation is crucial for (FM) and digital modulation, have become more prevalent in
grasping the operation of various radio communication systems and
is fundamental in modern telecommunications. certain applications, AM continues to be used in areas such as
broadcasting, aviation, and two-way radio communication.
Index Terms—modulation, amplitude, carrier, etc.
In this experiment, we will investigate the principles and
mechanisms of amplitude modulation and demodulation,
. INTRODUCTION explore the advantages and limitations of this technique, and
assess its significance in modern communication systems.
A. Amplitude Modulation Understanding AM and demodulation is key to grasping the
development of telecommunication technology and its impact
on our daily lives.
This report examines the principles and techniques of
Amplitude Modulation (AM), highlighting its benefits and
applications. It also covers the demodulation process, which
recovers the original information from the modulated signal.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Furthermore, the report includes the outcomes from the lab
session. A thorough understanding of AM and demodulation
is essential for comprehending the functioning of various The following equipment is needed to successfully conduct
radio communication systems and is vital in modern the experiment on Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation:
telecommunications. • ED - 2900: Power Supply Module

Amplitude modulation is a process where a high-frequency • ED - 2950 A: Signal Source Module

sinusoidal carrier signal merges with a modulating signal to • ED - 2950 D: Balanced Modulator Module

create a new waveform. In this waveform, the amplitude • ED - 2950 C: Detector Module
varies in accordance with the fluctuations of the modulating • U - 2970A Data Source
signal, effectively encoding the carrier signal with the • U - 2970H Data Receiver
information. The result is a modulated signal, ready to travel • U - 2970H Audio Module
through the transmission medium, such as a radio frequency • U - 2970M Power Supply
channel or coaxial cable, with the information preserved and • Set of connecting leads
prepared for delivery. • Two-Channel Oscilloscope
• Signal (Function) Generator

B. Amplitude Demodulation The carrier signal is represented by:

Demodulation, in contrast, reverses the modulation xc = Vc sin(fct)
process. It is the technique used to recover the original
modulating signal from the modulated carrier wave at the
receiver. This step is essential for accurately and faithfully
retrieving the transmitted information.
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 2. AUGUST 2024 2

Fig. 1. Carrier Signal

Fig. 3. Amplitude Modulated Signal

The message (modulating) signal is represented by:

From the above expression it can be seen that the output
xm(t) = VDC + Vm sin(ωmt)
consists of three components:
• The carrier component with amplitude VDCVc
• The upper sideband component with amplitude VmVc/2 •

The lower sideband component with amplitude VmVc/2

The degree of modulation (modulation depth) is measured
by the modulation index(m) and is defined as:

In the above expression, Vm is the amplitude of the

message(modulating) signal and VDC is the value of the DC
bias.

Fig. 2. Message (Modulating) Signal

An alternate way of defining the modulation depth is as

If these two signals are multiplied the output is given by: x(t)
follows:
= xm(t)×xc(t) = {VDC+Vm sin(ωmt)}×{Vc sin(ωct)} x(t) = VDCVc
In the above expression, Vmax is the maximum value of the
sin(ωct) + VmVc sin(ωmt)sin(ωct) DSB FC-AM signal and Vmin is the minimum value of the
DSB FC-AM signal. The modulation index can also be
Using Trigonometric identities, the output can be expressed in percent form as:
expressed by:
100%
Let,
V = VcVDC
Then,
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 2. AUGUST 2024 3

From the expression above, the message signal is contained fLSB = fc − fm

within the upper and lower sidebands. This means that higher
The bandwidth required for a DSB–FC–AM signal is:
sideband amplitudes improve transmission efficiency.
Therefore, a higher modulation index results in larger BW = fUSB − fLSB = 2fm
sideband amplitudes and enhanced transmission efficiency. In
practice, the modulation index is typically: The power required for the transmission of a DSB–FC–AM
0 < m <= 1 signal can be calculated as follows:

Note: When the modulation index exceeds 1 (i.e., m > 1), it

is referred to as over-modulation, which can lead to
distortion. The bandwidth requirement for a DSB–FC–AM
signal can be determined as follows: The upper frequency
component is defined by:
fUSB = fc + fm
Lower frequency component is given by:

The modulation efficiency for a DSB–FC–AM signal can be

calculated as follows:

III. RESULTS
A. Amplitude Modulation
1) Over-Modulation: .

Fig. 4. Output signal wave at over-modulation

2) Under-Modulation
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 2. AUGUST 2024 4

Fig. 5. Output signal wave at under-modulation

Calculation:
Vmax = 0.991
Vmin = 0.257
Modulation-index(m)= 0.588
Calculation:

Vmax = 1.085
Vmin = −0.21
B. Amplitude Demodulation Modulation-index(m)= 1.48 2) 100%-Modulation: .

Fig. 7. Output signal wave after demodulation

Fig. 6. Output signal wave at 100%-modulation
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 2. AUGUST 2024 5

Conclusion
IV. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY In this manner, we achieved a successful amplitude
Calculation: modulation and demodulation of a signal, unravelling the
intricate dynamics of this fundamental communication
In this laboratory experiment, we delved into the technique.
characteristics of Double Side Band Full Carrier (DSB-FC)
signals.
index(m)= 1 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Vmax = 7.102 , Vmin = 7.024, Modulation-

To initiate the process, a 300 Hz signal was generated via a signal We, the students from the Department of Electronics
generator, serving as our modulating signal (V=5.01V). For the and Computer Engineering, extend our sincere gratitude to
carrier signals, we harnessed a functional signal generator. Mr.
Bikal Adikari sir, and all those who contributed directly or
indirectly to the successful completion of this lab section.
The experiment unfolded by adjusting the ’a’ knob, which Their guidance and support have been invaluable in
allowed us to observe the changes in the
modulated signal. Subsequently, by manipulating the
’b’ knob on the modulator, we witnessed the creation
of a symmetrically modulated skewed signal. As the
carrier signal was artificially generated, we
meticulously recorded the signal’s variations on an
oscilloscope by modulating the carrier signal.

Throughout this meticulous process, we explored

three distinct types of modulation, calculating their
respective modulation indices. Furthermore, we
passed the same modulated signal through a
demodulator and then routed it to an oscilloscope.
Astonishingly, the original modulating/message signal
was successfully retrieved on the oscilloscope,
exhibiting only minor deviations.

REFERENCES

1.) Stallings, W. Data and Computer Communications,

Eight Edition.
2.) Forouzan, Behrouz A. Data
Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition.
 Sample and Hold Circuit
This study explores the fundamentals, design, and "freezing" the analog signal, S/H circuits facilitate more
operation of sample-and-hold (S/H) circuits, which are precise and dependable signal processing and data
essential components in analog-to-digital converters. The
conversion.
focus is on how these circuits accurately process and convert
signals by capturing and retaining the voltage of an analog
signal for a specific duration. By constructing a basic S/H A basic S/H circuit is composed of three key components: an
circuit, we conduct a series of lab experiments to observe its electronic switch, a hold capacitor, and a buffer amplifier.
behavior under varying conditions. Key parameters such as During the sampling phase, the switch closes, allowing the
acquisition and hold times are measured and analyzed to input voltage to charge the capacitor. Once the switch opens,
understand the circuit's functionality. The study also
entering the hold phase, the capacitor retains the sampled
investigates the trade-off between speed and voltage stability
by examining the effects of different capacitor values on voltage, which is then buffered and output. This
circuit performance. Common issues in S/H circuits, such as straightforward yet effective process serves as the foundation
charge injection and clock feedthrough, and their impact on for more sophisticated S/H designs employed in advanced
signal quality are also discussed. The combination of electronic systems.
theoretical learning and practical lab sessions provides a
comprehensive understanding of S/H circuit operation. By
manipulating circuit components and observing the
outcomes, students gain valuable insights into designing
efficient S/H circuits. This hands-on approach enables
students to bridge the gap between theory and practical
application in modern electronics, particularly in analog signal
processing and data conversion.

Index Terms—Signal Sampling, Analog-to-Digital Transformation,

Capture Time, Signal Preservation, Voltage Distortion, Timing Noise,
Capacitor Choice, Amplifier Circuitry

I. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• Operational Amplifier (e.g., LF398 or equivalent)
• Various capacitors (0.001µF to 0.1µF)
• Resistors (as needed for the specific circuit design)
• Function Generator
• Dual-Channel Oscilloscope
• DC Power Supply
• Breadboard and Connecting Wires
II. INTRODUCTION
Sample-and-hold (S/H) circuits are vital components in
modern electronic systems, acting as a bridge between
continuous analog signals and discrete digital
processing. They are especially critical in
analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) applications, where
they stabilize the voltage during conversion, ensuring Fig. 1. Input and Output Response
precise signal conversion.
Several key performance parameters characterize S/H
The primary role of an S/H circuit is to capture an analog circuits. Acquisition time, the period needed for the hold
voltage at a specific moment and maintain it at a constant capacitor to reach the input voltage within an acceptable
level for a predetermined period. This function is crucial in error margin, is particularly crucial for applications requiring
systems with rapidly fluctuating input signals, where a stable high sampling rates. Hold time is the time the sampled
voltage is essential for accurate processing. By temporarily voltage remains stable within permitted limits, affecting the
maximum allowable conversion time in ADC scenarios. Droop
rate measures the rate at which the held voltage decreases observing key performance metrics, students will gain
over time, typically due to capacitor leakage and discharge, valuable insights into the functionality of these critical
and is crucial for systems with extended hold requirements. circuits.
S/H circuits encounter several performance challenges. The following sections of this report will outline the
Charge injection, which occurs when the sampling switch is objectives, experimental methods, results, and analysis of our
turned off, can introduce errors into the held voltage, posing a study on S/H circuits. This exploration aims to connect
greater risk in high-speed or high-resolution applications. theoretical concepts with practical application, equipping
Clock feedthrough, caused by unwanted interference students to tackle the complexities of designing and
between the control clock and the held voltage, can affect implementing high-performance analog and mixed-signal
signal clarity. Additionally, aperture uncertainty, the variability systems in real-world scenarios.
in the precise sampling moment, can lead to errors,
particularly with high-frequency signals.

Fig. 2. Acquisition Time , Aperture Time and Settling Time

Fig:Sample and Hold Circuit
Designing effective S/H circuits demands careful
consideration of various parameters and challenges. III. PROCEDURE
Engineers must balance trade-offs between speed and A. Step 1: Circuit Construction
accuracy, power consumption and performance, as well as 1) Assemble the Circuit:
circuit complexity and cost. The choice of components, • Construct the basic sample and hold (S/H) circuit
particularly the operational amplifier and hold capacitor, is on a breadboard using an operational amplifier and
critical in determining the overall performance of the S/H a 0.01µF hold capacitor.
circuit.
2) Connect Input:
Recent advancements in semiconductor technology have led • Attach the function generator to the input of the

to the development of more sophisticated S/H architectures. S/H circuit.

These innovations include designs that mitigate charge 3) Monitor Signals:
injection, reduce clock feedthrough, and improve linearity. • Use an oscilloscope to observe and record the
Modern techniques, such as bottom-plate sampling and circuit’s input and output signals.
differential architectures, are now commonly used in
high-performance S/H circuits, offering enhanced accuracy B. Step 2: Basic Operation Analysis
and noise reduction. 1) Set Function Generator:
• Configure the function generator to output a 1 kHz
For engineers involved in data acquisition, signal sine wave with a 2V peak-to-peak amplitude.
processing, and mixed-signal system design, a thorough
2) Observe Waveforms:
understanding of the principles, challenges, and design
considerations of S/H circuits is essential. This laboratory • Examine and document the input and output

experiment is designed to provide practical experience in waveforms on the oscilloscope.

building, analyzing, and optimizing S/H circuits. By 3) Measure Parameters:
investigating the impact of various component values and

2
 • Measure and note the acquisition time and hold Our analysis of charge injection effects also detected small
time. voltage spikes of around 10 mV during the transition between
the sampling and holding phases. Clock feedthrough was also
C. Step 3: Capacitor Value Investigation noted, causing periodic disturbances of about 5 mV in the
1) Change Capacitor: held voltage.
• Substitute the hold capacitor with different values
(0.001µF and 0.1µF).
2) Repeat Measurements:
• For each capacitor value, repeat the measurements
conducted in Step 2.
3) Analyze Effects:
• Record how different capacitor values impact the
acquisition time and hold time.

D. Step 4: Charge Injection and Clock Feedthrough Analysis

1) Increase Resolution:
Fig. 3. Input Signal
• Adjust the oscilloscope’s vertical resolution to
detect small voltage changes more precisely.
2) Observe Transitions:
• Identify and measure any voltage spikes or
discontinuities during the transition between
sample and hold modes. 3) Record Effects:
• Document observations regarding charge injection
and clock feedthrough effects.

IV. RESULT
Fig. 4. Input Pulse Signal

The investigation into the sample and hold (S/H) circuit

revealed several significant findings.
Initially, we assessed the circuit’s basic functionality with a
1 kHz sine wave input at 2V peak-to-peak amplitude. The
oscilloscope displayed a staircase-like output characteristic of
the S/H circuit, highlighting its ability to convert the
continuous input signal into discrete levels.
Key measurements showed that with a 0.01 F hold
capacitor, the acquisition time was about 5 s, and the hold Fig. 5. Output Signal
time was 50 s. The droop rate was 0.1 V/ms, indicating
minimal voltage decay during the hold period.
V. DISCUSSION
When we changed the value of the hold capacitor, we
observed a clear trade-off between acquisition time and The laboratory experiments offered significant insights into
performance. A smaller 0.001 F capacitor reduced the the operation and properties of sample and hold (S/H)
acquisition time to 1 s but increased the droop rate to 0.5 circuits. Our analysis revealed a notable trade-off between
V/ms. Conversely, a larger 0.1 F capacitor extended the the value of the hold capacitor and the circuit’s performance.
acquisition time to 20 s and decreased the droop rate to 0.02 Specifically, increasing the capacitor value resulted in longer
V/ms. acquisition times but greatly enhanced hold times and
reduced droop rates. This trade-off is crucial for designing S/H

3
circuits suited to specific needs. For applications involving
rapid signal changes, prioritizing a shorter acquisition time
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
might be beneficial, while scenarios requiring a stable voltage
over extended periods could benefit from a larger capacitor. The authors would extend our heartfelt gratitude to Dr.
Nanda Bikram Adhikari for his exceptional mentorship and
We also observed that the effects of charge injection and insightful lectures that have significantly enriched our
clock feedthrough became more significant with smaller hold understanding of digital signaling. Another person not to
capacitors. Charge injection, resulting from the switching forget is Bikal Adhikari sir whose contributions and support
actions within the sampling circuit, introduces errors in the have also been invaluable in enhancing our learning
held voltage, which can affect the accuracy of experience and lab work. The practical knowledge provided
analog-to-digital conversions. This finding highlights the by Bikal sir is memorable and very useful in our future
importance of careful component selection and circuit design research and experiments.
to minimize such errors. Additionally, clock feedthrough,
which caused periodic disturbances in the held voltage, The instruction of our helpful lab instructors provided a
underscores the need to reduce unwanted signal coupling. robust foundation, and online resources along with
Effective shielding and thoughtful circuit layout are crucial for discussions allowed us to explore the complexities of digital
minimizing these effects and improving signal processing signaling in greater depth. Engaging in discussions with peers
accuracy. both in and out of the lab enhanced our understanding by
incorporating diverse perspectives.
Moreover, our experiments highlighted the critical impact of
the operational amplifier's slew rate on the circuit's overall We are grateful for our classmates’ collaborative spirit,
performance. The slew rate determines how quickly the sharing insights that clarified challenging concepts. The
operational amplifier can respond to changes in the input dynamic interactions during lab sessions significantly
signal, directly affecting acquisition time and the accuracy of contributed to our practical understanding of the experiments
the sampled data. A higher slew rate is essential for and concepts.
applications with rapidly changing input signals, ensuring the
signal is accurately captured and held without distortion or The dedication and support of our lab instructors bridged
errors. the gap between theory and application. The department’s
resources and conducive environment were instrumental in
VI. CONCLUSION our successful learning experience.

REFERENCES
These experiments provided us with practical insights into
sample-and-hold circuits, emphasizing their key parameters [1] W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, 8th ed. New Jersey,
and the factors that influence their performance. We USA: Pearson Education, Inc, 2007.
observed the critical balance between acquisition and hold [2] G. Held, Understanding Data Communications, 4th ed. New Delhi, India:
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, 1994.
times, recognizing how component selection impacts this
[3] R. J. Baker, CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, 3rd ed.
equilibrium. The hands-on experience with challenges like Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, 2019.
charge injection and clock feedthrough highlighted the [4] A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 7th ed. Oxford, UK:
complexities involved in designing high-performance analog Oxford University Press, 2014.
[5] B. Razavi, Fundamentals of Microelectronics, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA:
systems. Wiley, 2014.

This lab session demonstrated the essential role of

sample-and-hold circuits in bridging continuous analog
signals with discrete-time digital systems. The knowledge
gained is fundamental for understanding more complex data
acquisition and signal processing systems, and it prepares us
for tackling advanced topics in analog and digital circuit
design.