PA00KWCX

Sheep and Goat Production Handbook
This report is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United
States Agency for International Development (USAID) under Agreement No. AID-663-A-11-
0001. The contents of this report are the sole responsibility of Save the Children and do not
necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.
1
PREFACE
The sheep and goat producers‟ booklet was compiled and prepared by the USAID funded
Empowering New Generation to Improve Nutrition and Economic Opportunities (ENGINE)
program to strengthening program supported vulnerable households‟ indigenous knowledge
synergy with modern husbandry for better benefit from sheep and goat rearing. This booklet is
a customized form of the previously prepared handbooks by FARM Africa Dairy Goat Project;
ILRI (IPMS Project) Sheep and Goat Production and Marketing Systems in Ethiopia:
Characteristics and Strategies for Improvement; the USAID funded Ethiopia Sheep and Goat
Productivity Improvement Program and the FAO (2010) Case Definition of Livestock Disease. In
an effort to ease user understanding, we have used simple language and illustrations wherever
possible.
The ENGINE program is leveraging the growing interest in sheep and goat rearing by project-
supported groups (vulnerable households). While developing the training curriculum, we found a
general lack of user-friendly training materials. Thus, we were prompted to prepare this sheep
and goat handbook. It is our objective that this document will be used as reference source for
vulnerable households and during ENGINE trainings.
ENGINE is an integrated nutrition program. The sheep and goat support is meant primarily for
household meat and milk consumption with additional nutrition opportunities from earned
income. Supported households are expected to translate income gained from animal sales into
nutrition through developing nutrition oriented purchasing behavior. Thus, we have included
nutrition education into the technical training. Traditionally, sheep and goat management and
ownership is suitable for both for men and women but income disposal is commonly the man‟s
right. To overcome this potential obstacle to better nutrition, gender discussions and training
techniques have been included in this handbook.
To address the diverse needs to project staff and beneficiaries, we have made as
comprehensive a handbook as possible. Currently this handbook includes i) sheep and goat
husbandry practices; ii) basic human nutrition; and iii) approaches to gender-related issues. We
anticipate updating this handbook as new information is learned and new situations arise.
The Sheep and Goat Production Handbook contains two major sections:
1) Sheep and goat husbandry; encompassing an introduction, brief overview of production
systems, reproduction, herd management, feeding, housing and healthcare.
2) Sheep and goat marketing, which includes nutrition (human) messages and gender-
based discussions.
The Sheep and Goat Production Handbook organized into six chapters in Section 1 addressing
sheep and goat management (Chapter 1-6) and three chapters in Section 2 addressing the
socio-economic benefits of sheep and goat rearing (Chapter 7-9).
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ........................................................................................................................... i
Chapter One: Sheep and goat rearing ................................................................................ 1
Benefits of sheep and goat rearing ................................................................................. 1
Health Benefits ......................................................................................................... 1
Production Benefits ................................................................................................... 2
Environmental Benefits .............................................................................................. 3
Additional Benefits .................................................................................................... 4
Sheep and goat production constraints ........................................................................... 4
Feed scarcity ............................................................................................................ 4
Below average reproductive rate ................................................................................. 4
Absence or inadequate provision of credit service .......................................................... 4
High mortality rate .................................................................................................... 4
Poor market orientation and lack of access to market information ................................... 5
Chapter Two: Reproduction in sheep and goats ................................................................... 6
Why reproduction is important ....................................................................................... 6
Puberty in females and males ........................................................................................ 6
Factors affecting puberty............................................................................................ 6
Effect of Temperature on Reproduction ........................................................................ 7
The Estrus Cycle in Ewes and Does ................................................................................. 7
Detection of estrus .................................................................................................... 7
Inbreeding .................................................................................................................. 8
Reproductive failures .................................................................................................... 8
Herd Ratios: Ram-to-Ewe/ Buck-to-Doe ratios ................................................................. 8
Gestation .................................................................................................................... 9
Parturition (Birthing) .................................................................................................... 9
Preparation for kidding or lambing............................................................................... 9
Stages of parturition .................................................................................................. 9
Signs of parturition.................................................................................................... 9
Parturition process .................................................................................................. 10
Providing assistance during parturition ....................................................................... 11
Chapter Three: Sheep and goat management ................................................................... 14
Care and management of nursing/lactating ewes and does .............................................. 14
Management of newborn animals (lambs and kids) ......................................................... 14
Colustrum .............................................................................................................. 15
Care of orphans ......................................................................................................... 15
Grafting orphan lambs/kids ...................................................................................... 15
Managing kid/lamb mortality ....................................................................................... 16
What cause kid/lamb death? ..................................................................................... 16
Managing young goats and sheep ................................................................................. 16
ii
Tail docking ............................................................................................................ 16
Managing milking/dairy sheep and goats ....................................................................... 18
Hand milking .......................................................................................................... 18
Mastitis .................................................................................................................. 19
Stopping lactation (Drying off) .................................................................................. 19
Keeping milk clean ..................................................................................................... 20
Clean sheep/goats................................................................................................... 20
Clean milking area & equipment ................................................................................ 20
Clean milkers.......................................................................................................... 20
Why keep records? .................................................................................................. 21
Which records to keep? ............................................................................................ 21
Culling ...................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter Four: Housing for sheep and goats ...................................................................... 22
Housing site selection ................................................................................................. 22
Housing design .......................................................................................................... 22
Floor plan ............................................................................................................... 22
Floor construction ................................................................................................... 23
Roof construction .................................................................................................... 23
Wall construction .................................................................................................... 24
Additional facilities ..................................................................................................... 24
Feed trough ............................................................................................................ 24
Water troughs ........................................................................................................ 24
Chapter Five: Feeding of Sheep and Goat ......................................................................... 26
Sheep and goat feeding habits ..................................................................................... 26
Nutritional Requirements ............................................................................................. 26
Energy ................................................................................................................... 26
Protein ................................................................................................................... 26
Vitamins ................................................................................................................ 26
Fiber...................................................................................................................... 27
Water .................................................................................................................... 27
What do sheep and goat like to eat? ............................................................................. 27
Feeding best practices ................................................................................................ 27
Need-based feeding practices ...................................................................................... 28
Feeding sick sheep and goats ................................................................................... 28
Feeding mature sheep and goats ............................................................................... 28
Feeding rams and bucks .......................................................................................... 29
Feeding breeding and lactating ewes and does ............................................................ 29
Feeding during pregnancy ........................................................................................ 29
Feeding lambs and kids............................................................................................ 30
Feeding young stock ................................................................................................ 30
iii
What kind of feed should the sheep and goat be given .................................................... 30
Sweet potato vines .................................................................................................. 30
Napier ................................................................................................................... 31
Fodder trees and legumes ........................................................................................ 31
Maize..................................................................................................................... 32
Hay making ............................................................................................................... 32
Chapter Six: Sheep and Goat flock Health ....................................................................... 34
Sick sheep and goat: How to identify? .......................................................................... 34
Good management practices and disease prevention ...................................................... 34
Housing and feeding ................................................................................................ 34
Drenching and spraying ........................................................................................... 34
Hoof trimming ........................................................................................................ 34
Disease prevention program ..................................................................................... 35
Viral and bacterial diseases of sheep and goats .............................................................. 36
Peste des Petites Ruminants (PPR) ............................................................................ 36
Contagious Caprine Pleuro-pneumonia (CCPP) ............................................................ 37
Sheep and goat pox ................................................................................................ 38
Pneumonic Pasteurellosis (Ovine and Caprine Pasteurellosis) ........................................ 39
Anthrax ................................................................................................................. 40
Parasitic diseases of sheep and goats ........................................................................... 41
Internal Parasitic Infestations in sheep and goats ........................................................ 41
External parasitic infestation in sheep and goats ......................................................... 42
Section - Two ............................................................................................................... 44
Chapter Seven: Sheep and goat economics of production and marketing ............................. 44
Sheep and Goat farming as a business .......................................................................... 44
Production Plan .......................................................................................................... 44
Marketing .................................................................................................................. 44
Understanding sheep/goat marketing ........................................................................ 45
Marketing analysis .................................................................................................. 45
Marketing Tips ........................................................................................................ 45
Financing Sheep and Goat business .............................................................................. 45
Sources of Finance .................................................................................................. 46
Assumptions for sheep/goat production: ....................................................................... 46
Financial analysis ....................................................................................................... 46
Cashflow statement ................................................................................................. 47
Chapter Eight: Benefits of Sheep and goat for human nutrition and Health ........................... 48
Nutrition and health benefits ....................................................................................... 48
Family-member focus ................................................................................................. 49
Income, choices and food security / nutrition ................................................................. 49
Chapter Nine: Gender in livestock management ................................................................ 50
iv
Gender roles and the division of labor ........................................................................... 50
Gender Analysis ......................................................................................................... 50
Gender considerations in Livestock Management ............................................................ 51
Key Questions for understanding the role gender plays in livestock management ............... 52
LIST OF FIGURES & TABLES

Figure 1: Female goat preparing to birth offspring ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2: Steps to the birthing process in a goat ............................................................... 11
Figure 3: Normal Presentations during birthing ................................................................. 13
Figure 4: Abnormal presentations during birthing .............................................................. 13
Figure 5: Udders damaged by disease or natural birth defects ............................................ 14
Figure 6: A women practicing milk bottle- feeding of kids ................................................... 15
Figure 7: Burdizzo instrument for tail docking and/or castration of livestock ......................... 17
Figure 8: Squeeze technique for milking goats and sheep ................................................... 18
Figure 9: Washing hands with soap and clean water before and after milking ....................... 20
Figure 10: Sample floor plan for improved multi-animal housing ......................................... 22
Figure 11: Roof and wall design that encourages good ventilation ....................................... 23
Figure 12: Height recommendation for elevated forage rack ............................................... 25
Figure 13: Placement for elevated water or feeding troughs ............................................... 25
Figure 14: Locally made feeding troughs .......................................................................... 25
Figure 15: Young sweet potato plants. The vines (shown) are a favored food of goats. .......... 30
Figure 16: Napier grass being grown with leguminous plants (mucuna) for better animal
nutrition. ...................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 17: Thinning young maize plants (top) for stronger/healthier plants. Cutting the top of
maize plants (bottom left) to push energy into stem and ear. Applying common salt (bottom
right) to stover for preservation. ..................................................................................... 32
Figure 18: Achieving the correct angle of the hoof ............................................................. 35
Figure 19: Locally available vaccines for bacterial and viral sheep and goat disease including
administration schedule. ................................................................................................ 35
Table 1: Three stages of birth in does and ewes ................................................................ 10

Table 2: Size requirements based on production system .................................................... 23
Table 3: Characteristics of healthy vs. sick sheep and goats ............................................... 34
Table 4: Sample cash flow sheet ..................................................................................... 47
v
CHAPTER ONE: SHEEP AND GOAT REARING
BENEFITS OF SHEEP AND GOAT REARING
Sheep and goat rearing has quit many benefits that the sheep producers can make use of live
animals and or its products. Among others, important benefits are mentioned below
Health Benefits
Sheep milk
 Sheep are raised primarily for their meat and wool, although their milk products are
gaining in acceptance and economical importance. Sheep can produce 2/3 liters of milk
daily. Their milk, including sheep-milk products, is an important component of the
human diet in many parts of the world. Below is a bulleted discussion of these benefits.
Rich in Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Potassium and Sodium. It also has small
amount of Selenium, Zinc and Iron
 Rich in Vitamin A, C and Folate.
 It has small amount of Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12 and
Pantothenic acid. On average, it is more nutritious then cow‟s or goat‟s milk.
 Space and feed requirement is very low compared to cattle and minimum risk.
 Easy to manage by vulnerable households, especially women-headed households and
those with high dependency ratios.
Table 1: summarizes the nutritional content of sheep and goat milk compared to cow, camel,
and human milk
Goat Milk
Milk Variety: Goat Cow Sheep Camel Human
Protein (%) 3.0 3.0 5.85 3.35 1.1

Fat (%) 3.8 3/6 3.24 4.0
Calories/100ml 70 69 68
Vitamin A (i.u./gram 39 21 32
fat)
Vitamin B (u.g./100ml 68 45 17
Riboflavin 210 159 26
(u.g./100ml)
Vitamin C (mg 2 2 3
ascorbic acid/100ml)
Vitamin D (i.u./gram 0.7 0.7 0.3
fat
Calcium 0.19 0.18 0.04
Iron 0.07 0.06 0.2

Phosphorus 0.27 0.0 0.06
Cholesterol 12 15 20
(mg/100ml)
Lactose (%) 4.10 4.86 4.52
Ash (%) 0.79 0.92 0.80

Total Solids 11.05 18.63 11.05
Energy (kCal/ liter) 622 1080 670
ENGINE Livestock Producers Sheep and Goat Production Handbook (February 2013) Page 1
Many cultures around the world drink goat‟s milk. Most commonly, goat‟s milk is reserved for
home consumption, specifically consumption by children; with cow‟s being reserved for
cash/income. Other advantages of goat‟s milk include:
 Greater quantities of calcium, phosphorous and chlorine than cow‟s milk
 For some, goat‟s milk does not cause an allergic reaction. Children are commonly reared
on goat‟s milk due to high digestibility and/or in cases of reaction to cow‟s milk.
 The small size of the fat globules and the soft curd are favorable qualities because it
makes the milk easier to digest. Goat‟s milk is often recommended for infants, pregnant
women, people suffering from liver disease, allergies or ulcers, or others with digestive
problems
Production Benefits
Sheep and goats are some of the most widely reared livestock around the world. Their low
feed, input, and labor requirements make them a desirable choice for millions of smallholders
globally. Sheep and goats are easily integrated into different farming systems.
 The importance of sheep and goats in fulfilling the role once played by cattle for meat,
milk and manure production is being increasingly recognized because of shrinkage of
available grazing lands, increased climate variability, and increasing conflict with crop
farmers.
Feeding behavior
Sheep and goats have different but complementary feeding habits.
 Sheep are grazers and amenable to herding, hence a species of choice in mixed cropping
areas where cereal production dominates.
 Goats are browsers and highly selective feeders – a strategy that enables them to thrive
and produce even when feed resources, except bushes and shrubs, appear to be non-
existent.
Size
Being small-sized animals, sheep and goats require a small initial investment. Sheep and goats
are relatively cheap and are often the first asset acquired, through purchase or customary
means, by a young family or by a poor family recovering from a disaster such as drought or war
 Their small size, together with early maturity, makes them suitable for meeting
subsistence needs for meat and milk. Sheep and goats, once acquired, become a
valuable asset providing financial security to the family as well as milk and dairy
products to the household.
Fat deposition
Sheep and goats vary in fat deposition, presumably due to different adaptation strategies.
 Goats tend to lay down more internal fat, which is not associated with the carcass.
Survival rate during drought
 Compared to goats, sheep lay down more subcutaneous and intramuscular fat from
surplus energy. Where carcass fat is a delicacy and fetches a higher price, sheep make
an important contribution to the household economy.
Sheep and goats have higher survival rates under drought conditions compared to cattle.
 In general, they have lower feed and water requirements although a goat will surpass a
sheep in drought tolerance.
 Because of their high reproductive rates, flock numbers can be restored more rapidly
post-loss.
 Goats are economical in how their body utilizes and conserves water; an important
biological feature in drought-prone areas. It is common for goats to be watered every
four days and still provide a reasonable amount of production
High off-take
Due to their short reproductive cycles (short lambing/kidding interval) and high incidence of
multiple births (particularly for some breeds such as the Horro), there is potential for a higher
annual off-take of sheep and goats than seen with cattle.
This allows farmers/producers a quick interval of selling part of their flock and generating cash
income
Rural savings bank and inland revenue
Commonly, rural areas have no formal banking facilities. Cash resources are quickly converted
to livestock as a form of wealth accumulation or savings.
 Sheep and goat, because of their relative value and high security (i.e. survivability) are
the asset form of choice for millions of smallholders around the globe. In fact, in some
areas, small ruminants have been described as the „village bank‟.
 Small ruminants represent only 7% of the average total capital invested in livestock in
the mixed crop-livestock production system, but they account on average for 40% of the
cash income and 19% of the total value of subsistence food derived from all livestock
production.
 Sheep and goats contribute a quarter of the domestic meat consumption; about half of
the domestic wool requirements; about 40% of fresh skins and 92% of the value of
semi-processed skin and hide export trade.
 Increased domestic and international demand for Ethiopian sheep and goats has
established them as important sources of Inland Revenue as well as foreign currency.
High income earning potential
For smallholder farmers, goats and sheep have high income earning potential.
 Multiple (twins triplets) offspring (kids/lambs) are typically born every year and
commonly twice per year.
 Households can either easily sell the offspring or replace their own reproductive stock or
grow their herd.
 Even for households with small land-holdings or minimal access to grazing areas, sheep
and goats are a viable livelihood. In the space and using the same feed, you need to
keep a cow you can keep six goats!
Households do not need big areas to graze as cattle require. Because their easy access to
markets and large cash payouts (compared to poultry), farmers will sell goats/sheep to pay for
medium to large household expenses such as school fees, hospital bills, and crop inputs.
Alternatively, farmers can save income earned from milk and manure sales to finance these
costs.
Because of their small size and low input requirements, sheep and goats are relatively
inexpensive to maintain. Drug doses are small because of the animal‟s small size. This is a
good alternative livelihood opportunity for people who do not have a lot of money to start
with/the business can be started with small capital.
Environmental Benefits
Sheep and goats will eat many different plants including plants with relatively low nutritional
value; making them easier to feed through the year.
 Besides fuel, droppings are used as manure for organic farming; good to use droppings
both for homestead horticultural production and for staples farmlands.
 Because they are browsers, goats good at keeping bush under control by slowing down
(i.e. eating) shrub growth.
Additional Benefits
Important for Social events
Traditionally, sheep and goats are used as dowry payment. This increases their overall value
because they have non-consumptive value (i.e. can be sold/traded even if not going for
slaughter).
 Although their value remains high throughout the year, market prices will peak during
certain cultural or religious events as sheep and goats are often eaten during religious
festivals or cultural events.
 Sheep and goats are also important in some rituals; they are used during circumcision
ceremonies for example as well as in payment for land disputes, during leadership
meetings, or other special events.
 Sheep and goat horns and bone are used in the traditional craft industry. Hides/skins are
highly valued by artisans, especially if the hide is not marred with cuts or by
insect/parasite damage.
Minimal labor requirements
Sheep and goats require less labour and time per head compared to cattle.
SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS
Sheep and goat production and productivity in rural household are constrained by many factors.
These constraints are not as great as the challenges associated with cattle rearing. These
constraints can be managed. Constraints include:
Feed scarcity
The feed resource base for sheep and goat production in the rural area is natural grazing and
crop residues. Depending on the season, the quality and quantity of supply varies. Grazing
resources in the highlands are diminishing due to increases in cropping land, recurrent drought,
invasive weeds and overgrazing.
 Poor feed inputs will reduce reproductive rates and/or infant mortality.
Below average reproductive rate
Typical reproductive rates average as low as 55 lambs and 56 kids born per 100 mature females
per year in the central highlands.
Absence or inadequate provision of credit service
Obtaining credit can be very difficult for livestock owners. Credit facilities often view
investments in livestock as high risk and/or as having low returns. This prevents the farmers‟
ability to expand production, purchase inputs, increase stock, etc.
 Addressing financial illiteracy and working with financial institutions can overcome some
of this challenge.
High mortality rate
About one-half of all lambs/kids born die before reaching reproductive maturity.
 Annual mortality in all classes of stock averages 23% for sheep and 25% for goats in the
central highlands.
Causes of death include season of birth, low birth weight, feed shortage, disease and predators.
Inadequate animal healthcare

Livestock farmers are often unwilling to invest in animal healthcare (vaccinations, treatment,
professional services) and/or there is a general lack of veterinary services accessible by
smallholder farmers. Without consistent or timely treatment, mortality and morbidity rates are
high in local herds.
 Diseased sheep and goats reduced production of meat and/or milk, skin and other
byproducts.
 Disease incurred costs of patient animal treatment.
 Certain disease conditions are also causing animals and products to be banned from
export markets.
Low product quality

In general, smallholder livestock farmers are unable to produce and sell sheep or goats to
domestic market standards. This inability limits livestock producers‟ income generating
potential.
Smallholder livestock producers in Ethiopia are also missing opportunities from more lucrative
markets. The poor quality of live animals and small ruminant meat and meat products prevents
penetration into many export markets
Poor market orientation and lack of access to market information
Like many smallholder livestock producers, sheep and goat rearing lacks market orientation and
rarely develops beyond subsistence level.
 Market orientation is an important driving force for increased production and improved
productivity.
Sheep and goats are generally trekked long distances for marketing, often without adequate
water and feed. They are also trekked similarly long distances in search of feed and water.
 Trekking for many kilometers negatively effects meat quality and overall body condition,
which later predisposes them to disease and significant weight loss.
CHAPTER TWO: REPRODUCTION IN SHEEP AND GOATS
WHY REPRODUCTION IS IMPORTANT
Reproduction determines several aspects of sheep and goat production and an understanding of
reproduction is crucial in reproductive management. A high rate of reproductive efficiency is
important for:
 Herd expansion and replacement
 Production of meat, milk, skin and fiber
 Replacement of breeding stock
PUBERTY IN FEMALES AND MALES
Puberty is generally defined as the point of sexual development at which the animal becomes
capable of reproduction (becoming pregnant and bearing offspring) but animals may not be fully
sexually mature at this stage and may not actually conceive.
 Sexual maturity is the time when the animal expresses its full reproductive capacity.
 In both the male and female sheep and goats, puberty may often be reached without
adequate physical growth to support reproduction.
 In females, the first ovulation may not necessarily coincide with first estrus. Female
goats and sheep reach puberty as early as four months although they will not reach
sexual maturity until 12 months of age. Issues such as weight, breed, genetics, and the
season effect the female‟s age of maturity.
 In males, puberty is the time when complete separation of the prepuce. In the penis in
immature rams and bucks, the penis has adhesions that prevent it from being fully
extended. At puberty, these adhesions dissolve under the influence of testosterone and
the penis can be fully extended. This may occur as early as 5 months. However, full
reproductive competence may not occur until 15 months of age.
Factors affecting puberty
Several factors such as nutrition, body weight, breed, season of birth and growth rate are
known to influence the age at puberty. In most sheep and goat breeds, attainment of puberty is
dependent on achieving satisfactory body weight, usually between 40 and 70% of the mature
body weight. For example, a late-maturing breed like the Somali goat is known to attain
puberty at a later age. Complete separation of males and females during the early growth
period may delay the onset of puberty.
 Nutrition is among the most significant factors influencing reproductive development
and the onset of puberty. Poor nutrition delays first estrus and reduces uterine and
ovarian development. Increasing the animal‟s nutritional health generally advances the
onset of puberty.
 Overfeeding an animal will decrease subsequent fertility and impair mammary gland
development. Therefore, care must be taken to avoid overfeeding.
 Energy and protein restriction influences age at puberty, with energy restriction having a
greater influence on delaying onset of puberty than protein restriction.
Different investigations on the reproductive performance of Ethiopian sheep and goats have
shown the following:
 Ewe lambs of the Menz breed attain puberty at 10 months of age and 16.9 kg mean
weight or 56% of mature body weight. The onset of puberty was earlier in animals with
higher weaning weights.
 Somali kids were 19 months and weighed 26 kg at puberty, indicative of a late maturing
breed. In Horro sheep kept under low-to-high nutritional regime, age at first mating was
reported to be 206 to 285 days while weight was 18 to 21 kg.
 From on-farm monitoring work in Ada District, weight and age at first successful mating
for sheep was reported to be 20 kg and 8.7 months, respectively, while for goats it was
17kg and 7.4 months.
Effect of Temperature on Reproduction
Increased body temperature can lower the reproductive rate in ewes/does by decreasing
ovulation rate, delaying heat cycles or by increasing embryonic mortality. Although physiological
mechanisms in the male assist in regulating temperature, heat stress affects the process of
spermatogenesis and can render bucks and rams temporarily sterile for 6 to 10 weeks.
 For these reasons, it is important to assist animals in maintaining body temperature,
especially during times of the year when ambient temperature is high. A simple provision
of shade in range production systems could reduce the negative effect of heat.
THE ESTRUS CYCLE IN EWES AND DOES
Once puberty is reached, large domestic animals such as sheep and goats display repeated
reproductive cycles until conception.
 The estrus cycle, defined as the number of days between two consecutive periods of
estrus (heat), is on average 17 days in ewes and 21 days in does.
Detection of estrus
The detection of estrus is very important when artificial insemination is conducted and when
mating is controlled, i.e., sires do not run with females. For this reason, it is important to know
the signs of estrus.
Does
 Bleating continuously
 Swollen – red colored vulva
 Flagging of the tail
 Frequent urination
 Cervical mucus discharge, which causes hairs to stick together
 Restlessness
 Mounting other goats and seeking the buck
Ewes
 The signs of estrus in the ewe are not obvious unless a ram is present.
 As in the doe, the vulva is swollen and redder than usual, and there is a discharge
of mucus but is difficult to see in a ewe with a tail or fleece.
 All of the symptoms mentioned may not be exhibited by a doe or ewe in estrus.
 The best confirmation of estrus is when the doe or ewe stands when being
mounted. This is commonly called „standing heat.‟ The duration of estrus is variable
in that it is shorter in younger ewes and does but longer in older animals. Normal
duration will be 24 to 36 hours.
When to mate
A doe should be mated 12 to 24 hrs after you have seen her on heat.
 Heat signs in the afternoon, the goat/sheep should be mated the next morning.
 Heat signs in the morning should be mated in the evening.
Seasonality of breeding
Local breeds of sheep and goats in tropical conditions are either non-seasonal breeders or
exhibit only a weak seasonality of reproduction.
 In the Ethiopian highlands, most conception in sheep and goats occurs during or
following the periods of the short rains in March through May.
 Peak kidding/lambing is observed in May–June on research stations and in August under
farm conditions.
Most results show that in the absence of nutritional stress, there are no periods of the year
when the whole flock is experiencing animals in estrus.
 A study conducted in the central highlands (Ada District) reported that most lambing and
kidding occurred during the heavy rains (August–September), indicating that most of the
conception occurred during or following the small rains in March–May.
INBREEDING
When any two animals are related by blood (i.e. siblings, cousins, etc) are mated this is called
inbreeding.
 Inbreeding should be avoided as much as possible. Inbreeding results in weak offspring,
decreased productivity e.g. milk, birth defects, and even death.
 Bucks should be rotated or moved from their stations after one and half years.
 Farmers should keep good records to help know which animals are related and which
ones are not.
REPRODUCTIVE FAILURES
The cause of reproductive failures is varied and often poorly understood. Individuals or entire
flocks can be affected with acute or chronic problems that can have catastrophic consequences
for livestock producers. Depression of reproductive performance can be broadly classified into:
 Failure to mate
 Failure of fertilization in mated animals
 Loss during any stage of gestation (embryonic, fetal losses)
 Neonatal mortality and subsequent loss occurring until the time of weaning
The greatest economic losses occur with late gestation, abortions and neonatal mortalities or
pre-weaning deaths.
Reproductive failure can also result from structural defects or functional disorders affecting the
genital tract. In males, the following could easily be detected:
 Testicular hypoplasia: This is characterized by undersized testicles and very low semen
production. It can be diagnosed by semen, testicular palpation and a high return rate to
estrus of females mated to that particular male. This commonly occurs in animals that
are actually intersexes
 Crypt-orchidism: This is a failure of one or both testicles to descend from the abdominal
cavity into the scrotum. Crypt-orchidism can be unilateral (failure of one testicle to
descend) or bilateral
HERD RATIOS: RAM-TO-EWE/ BUCK-TO-DOE RATIOS
Maintaining the correct ratio of fertile rams/bucks and ewes/does is important as it can affect
the overall reproductive efficiency. In a year-round mating system, the following ratios are
recommended:
 One ram/buck to 20–25 ewes/does OR
 Three per 100 ewes/does
The age of the breeding ram/buck, the length of the mating season and the environment in
which the animals are kept may influence the ratio.
GESTATION
Gestation is the period from fertilization to delivery of the fetus. The average duration of
gestation periods in ewes and does is constant.To some extent, the gestation period is
influenced by:
 Age of the doe: younger ewes and does have shorter gestation than older ones
 Litter size: does carrying twins have shorter gestation than those carrying singles
 Nutrition of the pregnant ewe or doe: low level of feeding on range shortens
gestation
 Breeds: small and dwarf breeds have shorter gestation periods
PARTURITION (BIRTHING)
Parturition is the birth of young goats and sheep, kids and lambs respectively. The gestation
period is 5 months for goats and 6 months for sheep. During this time, female animals should
have adequate nutrition including water so as not to cause harm to the fetus and to make sure
the mother has the best health possible in preparation for delivery and lactation.
Preparation for kidding or lambing
There are three very important rules for kidding/lambing:
 Rule 1: Ensure the kidding doe or lambing ewe is put in a dry clean and quiet place at
the time of kidding or lambing
 Rule 2: The kidding/lambing place should be under a shelter (in the house) or shade.
This is to protect the kid/lamb from too much sun
 Rule 3: The doe/ewe must have water as
soon as she has given birth so she can
make sure she has enough to balance the
loss of water from giving birth and to
have enough milk to feed the newborn.
Animals ready to delivery are to be kept where
you can see what is happening easily and often.
Stages of parturition
Parturition is traditionally divided into three
stages. These are outlined in Error! Reference
ource not found..
Figure 1: Female goat preparing to birth
Signs of parturition offspring
Does commonly display the following signs that they are close to birthing their offspring. Error!
Reference source not found. to the right above shows a female goat exhibiting signs she will
delivery her offspring soon.
 Restlessness of the doe/ewe
 Doe/ewe seeks a quiet place away from other flock
 Udder is enlarged, full and firm
 Muscles either side of tail will become sunken and on either side of tail a hollow appears
 Often stand or lie down and stretch her neck pointing her head skyward.
 Enlarged vulva; will have a clear discharge from the vulva
Parturition process
The three stages of partition are detailed on Table 2 below. Figure 2 (next page) displays, step-
by-step, the birthing process.
Although female goats and sheep have been birthing their offspring for thousands of years,
there are several steps the farmer can take to ease the process for the doe/ewe and increase
the survival rate of the newborn kids/lambs.
Table 2: Three stages of birth in does and ewes
Stage One Stage Two Stage Three

 Occurs immediately before  Typically faster and lasts  Involves release/delivery of
lambing/kidding. It can approximately 30–45 the placenta normally within
last up to 12 hours. minutes. 4 hours, and
 The doe/ewe isolates  Stage Two is accompanied by  Gradual reduction of the size
itself from the flock, straining (contraction of of the uterus.
seeking a solitary place; abdominal muscle)
 Doe/ewe will become  The lamb/kid normally
restless and uneasy; appears front feet and nose
first. At this stage, the animal
 She will paw and scrape
is normally lying on her side.
the ground with her
hooves. She sits and  This stage is completed by
stands; full delivery of the lamb/kid.
In case of multiple births
 Stretches and strains with
Stage Two is not complete
her neck skyward when
until all lambs/kids are
sitting;
delivered.
 Forces placenta, fetus, and
 Once the lamb/kid is
fluids against the cervix to
delivered, the doe will lick off
dilate it;
the membrane covering of
 The water bladder appears the newborn(s). This
or has already ruptured; uncovers the mouth and nose
and stimulates breathing.
 The ewe/doe licks the
fluid
 She may wander about
 Keep the kid in a cool dry place away from too much heat and draught
 Disinfect the navel of the kids/lambs immediately using a disinfectant e.g. Dettol® or
tincture of iodine
 Ensure kid/lambs suckle colostrums within 20-30 minutes after being born
 Stimulate mother-kid/lamb bond by encouraging mother to lick the offspring
 In case of breathing problems, help by tickling the tongue, and removing all mucus from
the nostrils
Figure 2: Steps to the birthing process in a goat
Providing assistance during parturition

In a majority of cases, ewes and does give birth normally without assistance. However, a few
may need help, especially first-time mothers. Whenever assistance is required follow the below
mentioned steps:
 Hygiene, lubrication and care are most important when assisting ewes/does during
parturition.
 Prepare a bucket of clean, warm water with soap. Have available disinfectant, a good
lubricant such as Vaseline, and towels or clean cloths.
 Wash your hands and arms and wash the vulva and surrounding area of the ewe /doe.
 Wear latex gloves if available. There are some diseases that can pass to humans from
assisting in birth.
 Apply a good lubricant and insert your hand into the reproductive tract to determine the
position of the lamb/kid.
 If it is a normal birth (Figure 2 and
 Figure 3a), both front legs (hooves pointed up) and the head will begin to appear. In
this situation, you can lightly pull on the legs when you feel the ewe/nanny push.
Otherwise unless you see obvious signs of distress (ewe/nanny not pushing), it is best to
let the mother complete the task on her own.
 If you feel the legs but no head (Figure 4b), the lamb needs to be pushed in slightly,
and the head found and pulled towards the birth canal before the lamb/kid can be
delivered.
 If the head is coming but one or both of the front legs are missing, the lamb/kid
will need to be pushed in slightly (Figure 4a) and the missing limbs retrieved and gently
pulled towards the birth canal. It is important to take special care and cover the hooves
with your hand (i.e. hold in your palm or inside your hand) to prevent tearing of the
uterine wall. Once in normal birth position, the rest of the process should proceed
smoothly.
 If you find hind legs and a tail, this is considered a normal posterior (rear) position (
 Figure 3b), although more stressful for the ewe/doe than the normal anterior (front)
position. There is a possibility that the lamb/kid will take in birth fluids so it is important
to check the breathing of the newborn immediately after delivery.
 You may also come along a breech delivery (Figure 4c). You know it is a breech when
you feel a tail but no legs. The lamb must be slightly pushed in and each rear leg
needs to be retrieved one at a time with a lubricated hand.
 As soon as the lamb/kid is born, remove all placental membranes and mucous from the
nose so that the young can breathe. The newborn can be gently swung from its hind legs
to clear out mucous from the lungs and air passages.
Figure 3: Normal Presentations during birthing
Figure 4: Abnormal presentations during birthing
CHAPTER THREE: SHEEP AND GOAT MANAGEMENT
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF NURSING/LACTATING EWES AND DOES

Nursing ewes and does, especially those nursing twins or triplets, need special attention.
Lactating animals and those recovering from giving birth need to be fed sufficient quantities of
hay and concentrate (if available) to meet the high nutritional and energy requirements during
early lactation.
The quality of feed offered and particularly that of the roughage is important. There is also a
need to provide plenty of clean, fresh drinking water. Lactating ewes and does require double
the amount of water as non-lactating animals.
Figure 5: Udders damaged by disease or natural birth defects
MANAGEMENT OF NEWBORN ANIMALS (LAMBS AND KIDS)

The management of lambs/kids starts before birth. Proper feeding and care of the does during
the last trimester of gestation is necessary to have healthy, vigorous offspring.
 Lambs/kids with birth weight within the normal range for the breed can be raised
without much difficulty
 Lambs/kids with low birth weight or are weak at birth need special follow-up, feed and
shelter
Immediately after birth, the umbilical cord should be trimmed if needed using clean scissors and
then dipped in tincture of iodine; the recommended concentration is 7% tincture of iodine. As
much as possible, protect newborn lambs/kids from cold, rain and wind.
Mothering instinct in primiparous mothers (first kidders/lambers) often needs some time to fully
develop. Do not handle lambs/kids too frequently immediately after birth and let the does lick
and recognize them properly. In order to ensure the establishment of firm doe-offspring
relationships, the does and their offspring should be confined together soon after birth or stay
around the homestead for at least 4 days.
 If the lamb/kid is not licked dry or is born in a wet/windy place or does not consume
colostrum immediately, it will develop hypothermia (very low body temperature),
especially if small in size (triplet, premature, mother malnourished)
 If the lamb/kid is shivering or has a cool mouth and extremities and is not suckling, dry
the lamb/kid with a cloth. The lamb/kid may need to be warmed with a heat source or
with a hot water bath or warming box, particularly if body temperature is cool.
 If only one of a twin birth needs to be removed for feeding or warming, it is best to
remove both offspring. If one is left, there is the risk that the doe will not accept the
treated one when it is returned
If lambs appear thin and weak, check the ewe to see if she is milking. Check for mastitis in the
teats, whether the teats are open, and/or if she has claimed the lamb. Hand feed the lamb with
colostrum or milk replacer (if available) if any one of these problems is observed.
Colustrum
Intake of colostrum, the "first milk”, is crucial for successful rearing of lambs/kids. What is
special about colostrum?
 Colostrum contains a high level of nutrients important for lamb health and performance.
 Colostrum also contains a high level of antibodies against a variety of infectious agents.
At birth, the lamb/kid does not carry any antibodies because antibodies in the ewe's
bloodstream do not cross the placenta.
 Colostrum strengthen disease defense mechanism. It has to be fed during the first 24
hours; feeding colostrum later than this period offers little or no advantage. This is
because the intestinal wall of the newborn is only permeable to antibodies (large protein
molecules) during the first 24 to 36 hours and absorption is most efficient during this
period.
 If the ewe/doe has inadequate colostrum, cow colostrum can be given.
Normally, the newborn stands and suckles within 30 minutes of birth. If you do not see the
newborn standing after an hour, it is wise to assist the newborn to stand and nurse so they can
get the colostrum.
Growth of the young, particularly during the first weeks of life, is entirely dependent on milk of
their mothers. For this reason, it is important to ensure that does produce adequate milk.
 The health and structure of the udder should be examined. Faulty udders may mean
insufficient milk production for adequate lamb/kid growth (See Figure 5).
Newborn lambs/kids are pre-ruminant animals in the early stage of development.
 It will take usually 6–8 weeks for the rumen to develop.
 When concentrate feed or hay is offered, consumption starts at about 2–3 weeks of age.
Access to palatable and digestible roughage feed or concentrate is essential as it stimulates
early development of the rumen.
 It is recommended that forage be chopped and given to kids, and when possible
concentrate feed should be offered but not in a dry form.
CARE OF ORPHANS
Figure 6: A women practicing milk bottle- feeding of
kids In cases where a newborn loses or is
rejected by their mother, try to foster
orphans to docile does/ewe for nursing
(grafting). If this is not an option,
expressed milk or commercial milk
replacer can be fed by a bottle.
Alternatively, sweet potatoes vines can
be used to feed orphan animals.
Grafting orphan lambs/kids
Grafting is defined as giving a lamb/kid
to another ewe/doe. In cases of twins,
always graft the stronger lamb, as the
problem ewe/doe will normally take care
of the smaller one. An experienced
mother will accept a newborn covered
with birth fluids immediately after
delivering her own lambs/kids. If lambs/kids aren‟t being cared for by their mother or are not
receiving an adequate amount of milk, they may become orphan lambs. The sooner this is
detected the higher the chance of survival.
Techniques to facilitate grafting include:
 Bathe the graftee in amniotic fluid from the new mother (if available).
 A wooden stanchion (or head/neck press) to hold the ewe/doe in place while the orphan
nurses may result in adoption in 7–10 days.
 If an orphan is older, tying its legs together so it appears helpless may help.
 If all this fails, the lambs/kids will have to be raised artificially: Feed cow‟s milk. If they
are newborns, they need to be fed frequently, i.e., 5–6 times daily
 After the lambs/kids are 10–12 days of age, they may be fed only 3–4 times per day and
offered creep feed.
MANAGING KID/LAMB MORTALITY
What cause kid/lamb death?
Mortality of lambs and kids is one of the main factors adversely affecting sheep and goat
production. Losses are usually as high as 50% of the lamb/kid crop. An essential factor
affecting return on investment in sheep and goat production is pre-weaning mortality.
 The highest losses usually occur during the first 30 days of life.
Causes of mortality are related to management and production system. Some of the reasons for
death of newborn and young animals include:
 Low birth weight
 Low environmental temperature at birth or shortly
 Litter type (single or multiple)
 Diseases and accident
 Season of birth
 Inadequate colostrum consumption
 Inadequate milk production of the doe
 Predators
How to reduce kid/lamb mortality?
Reducing kid mortality focuses on two key issues:
 Improving birth weight of newborns by supplementary feeding of pregnant animals
during the third trimester of pregnancy
 Following standard hygienic practices to prevent/reduce incidence of diseases that affect
young animals
MANAGING YOUNG GOATS AND SHEEP
Tail docking
Tail docking is not a common practice in Ethiopia except in some parts of the country, e.g.,
Gojjam and some parts of Arsi, and it is normally done for ewe lambs only. Steps to tail
docking are:
 A Burdizzo (Figure 7) instrument is used to crush the tail between the vertebrate joints
before 2 days of age.
 The tail is then cut off with a knife
 Spraying the wound with antiseptic powder is recommended to
prevent infection
Although castration and tail docking can be used as management tools,
some communities do not accept meat from docked or castrated sheep or
goats. For instance, the Muslim Festival of Sacrifice requires unblemished
lambs. An unblemished lamb is one that has not been docked, castrated, or
had its horns removed. Note that a sheep‟s tail has a purpose. It protects
the sheep's anus, vulva, and udder from weather extremes. Because of this,
care should be taken while docking. Tails must be left long enough to cover
the ewe's vulva and the ram's anus. Docking has the following purposes:
 Even distribution of fat on the carcass
 Easier ewe mating/breeding Figure 7: Burdizzo
 Prevention of fecal matter from accumulating on the tail and instrument for tail
docking and/or
hindquarters of sheep and lambs
castration of livestock
 Reduced fly strike (wool maggots)
Castration
In most cases, non-breeding males and males not slaughtered at a young age need to be
castrated. Castration is done to control mating by preventing inbreeding and inferior males from
breeding, or for production of fattened carcass. Male goats that will not be bred should be
castrated early in life (in the first 2 months) and kept for meat. The main effect of castration is
on the composition of the carcass and weight development. In general, the following effects are
noted:
 Carcasses from castrated sheep/goats have more fat tissue
 Castration could retard growth and reduce the quantity of lean meat if done late (after 6
months)
 In the case of goats, meat from castrated males has no „goaty smell‟ as does the meat
from entire bucks
Weaning
The weaning period is the time when lambs/kids stop feeding on liquid milk or milk replacer.
Decline of maternal antibodies and the stress of weaning appears to predispose kids to
respiratory infection. Retardation of
growth commonly known as „weaning Enterotoxaemia is caused by two strains of bacteria
shock‟ is common following weaning but called Clostridium perfringens – the strains are termed
every effort should be made to reduce it types C and D.
as excessive retardation might not be These bacteria are normally found in low numbers in
compensated for at later stages. the gastrointestinal tract of all sheep and goats;
“laying low” in the small and large intestine – that is,
 Weaning typically takes place
they are present in relatively low numbers.
between 4-6 months of age.
Although age is a good indicator The change that triggers disease is often an increase
of weaning times, body weight is in the amount of grain, protein supplement, milk or
the best indicator. milk replacer (for lambs and kids), and/or grass that
the sheep or goat is ingesting. These feeds are rich in
 Young can be weaned successfully starch, sugar, and/or protein.
once the birth weight has When unusually high levels of these nutrients reach
increased 2.5 times. the intestine, Clostridium perfringens undergoes
 After weaning, lambs/kids depend explosive growth. As the organism grows in number, it
releases very potent toxins (bacterial poisons) that
entirely on dry feed. This change
cause damage to the intestine as well as numerous
must be gradual to avoid losses other organs. This can result in fatalities, particularly
due to faulty feeding in the non-vaccinated animal or in the newborn lamb
management. Let kids try hay and or kid whose dam has not been vaccinated.
grains early in life to strengthen their stomachs.
 When kids/lambs start eating fodder they will suffer high worm infection so they need to
be dewormed after exposure.
 When given concentrates kids are likely to suffer Enterotoxiemia (see Textbox to right)
so you will need to vaccinate against these diseases.
 Do not stop feeding milk suddenly but this should be gradual to avoid indigestion or
bloat.
MANAGING MILKING/DAIRY SHEEP AND GOATS
Hand milking
The majority of smallholder farmers across Ethiopia milk their animals (goats, sheep, cattle,
camel) by hand. Good milking is done by the squeeze method. This technique mimics the
nursing technique used by young animals and, if done correctly, can hygienically express the
majority of the milk. Avoid the pulling technique as it hurts the udder and the teat and udder
will get a mastitis infection
Milking technique - squeeze

1) Wash hands and teats/udder with clean water. (Figure 8, 1 & 2)
2) Take hold and squeeze the base of the teat with the thumb and forefinger to trap the
milk in the teat. (Figure 8, 3)
3) Close the other three fingers in a downwards motion with the topmost finger grasping
around the teat followed by the second and then the third. (Figure 8, 4 – 6)
4) The milk in the teats is squeezed downwards and not pulled. Squeezing slowly downward
makes the milk come out.
5) Repeat this in a rhythm and quickly; using the full hand to avoid finger and thumb
striping. (Figure 8, 7-9)
6) This should take about 7 minutes. So be quick so that you get as much milk as possible.
Figure 8: Squeeze technique for milking goats and sheep
Precautions
To ensure the best quality milk possible the following practices are recommended:
 Always house/pen the doe and the serving buck in different pens to prevent smell in the
milk
 Make the milking premises far from the buck pen
 Wind direction should be from milking premises to the male pen and not vice versa
 Wash milk equipment with hot water rinse and dry on a rack immediately after milking
 Avoid giving feeds with strong smells just before milking and during milking e.g. silage,
pineapple, waste etc to avoid tainting the milk
 Use of sprays/oils/soaps with smell by milker will taint the milk
In addition to good milk hygiene, these recommended practices will keep your does and ewes
healthy and highly productive:
 Always be calm, friendly to the doe/ewe and milk at the same time every day
 Maintain similar milking position (back position or side position)
 If possible same person should milk always
 The nails on the hand of the milker should be short
 Measure and record your milk immediately
 The hair on the flanks and around the udder should be trimmed regularly and the goat
brushed occasionally
After milking
Irregular milking can lead to low yields and increased chance of mastitis. It is important to
keep a consistent twice-daily milking schedule. To prevent mastitis, full draining of the teat is
recommended.
 The kid should be allowed to suck the milked teat after milking for proper emptying of
teat canal
After milking use a teat dip containing a suitable antiseptic e.g. tincture of iodine
Mastitis
Mastitis, or a bacterial infection of the teats and udder, is a common but completely avoidable
problem. It causes great pain to the animal, makes the milk un-consumable, and, if not
treated, can lead to serious illness or death.
 Mastitis can reduce yields by at least 10%
Mastitis prevention and control best practices include:
 Goats or sheep with mastitis should be milked last to prevent the spread of the infection
to other goats
 Treatment of sick animals with antibiotics
 Isolation of milking sheep or goat with mastitis
 Milk from sick dairy goat or sheep, especially breeding sheep and goat with mastitis
should not be sold but be discarded
Stopping lactation (Drying off)
On average, a lactating sheep and goat will produce milk for 90-150 days respectively. The
animals breed, age and nutritional status will greatly affect the length of the lactation period.
For optimal animal health and best performance in the next lactation, lactating animals should
have an opportunity to rest and regenerate mammary tissue between lactations.
 Animals should be dry for 45 to 60 days. This is sufficient time to rest and regenerate
mammary tissue. If animals have prolonged dry periods, they run the risk of becoming
obese, experiencing obesity-related diseases and having difficulty birthing.
 If a doe or ewe has been served and is pregnant – a „drying off‟ period is recommended
during the 4th and 5th month of goat‟s pregnancy and 5th and 6th month of sheep
pregnancy as the embryo‟s gains weight rapidly.
Recommendations for drying-off are:
 Preparation for dry off should begin at least two weeks prior to the dry-off date with a
significant change in the animal‟s diet. Slowly reducing the energy content of the diet
and feeding primarily a high-fiber diet will reduce the nutrients available for the animal
to make milk; this is often all that is needed to reduce milk production to a level that
makes dry off safe and simple.
 Abrupt dry-off: After animals have been on a high fiber, low energy diet for about two
weeks, their udder should be assessed for level of continued milk production and
mammary health. If all seems well, abrupt dry off should be implemented. This means
the animal is milked (by a human or its offspring) a final time, then not again until the
next birth and lactation.
 Gradual dry-off: The doe or ewe is dried gradually i.e. milking is done normally but the
amount milked at every subsequent milking is reduced gradually until finally one stops.
This prevents development of milk clots.
 During this period, does and ewes should be housed alone to avoid disturbance by the
other flock.
Figure 9: Washing hands with soap and clean
KEEPING MILK CLEAN water before and after milking
Clean milk production is crucial for the safety and

health of both the milking animals and the human
consumers of the milk. Producing clean milk
means clean animals, a clean milking area, and
clean milkers.
Clean sheep/goats
 Before milking the udder should be washed
with clean water which has disinfectant
added to it
 Use two cloths alternatively for washing
the udders. Leave one in the disinfectant
whilst the other is in use.
 The first drop of milk from each teat should be thrown away as it has a very high
bacteria count
Clean milking area & equipment
 The milking shed should be cleaned after each milking and disinfected
Clean milkers
 The most important thing to do is keep yourself clean.
 People who are ill should not milk.
 Before starting milking, the milker should wash his/her hands, arms with soap and hot
water, or disinfectant
 Keep finger nails cut and clean
Record keeping
Why keep records?
Farmers around the world are encouraged to keep records. Often it is not understood why a
farmer should keep records and what records they should keep. The advantages to record
keeping include:
 Helps you to know your goats
 Recording increases animal values and therefore sales income
 Recording promotes increased milk yields
 Recording promotes improved genetic merit
 Helps you to manage your animals well
Which records to keep?
A farmer should keep simple records of
 Birth dates
 Birth weights
 Sire and doe
 Milk records
 Treatment records
 Service dates
 Good record on service date will help you calculate the expected date of birth.
o You can know the expected date by counting 5 months and 6 months from the date
of service and take off three days for goat and sheep date of birth respectively.
CULLING
Culling, or selectively removing and slaughtering members of the herd, is a method used to
improve the overall productivity of the flock. Although reasons for culling could be different for
different systems and agro-ecologies, the following management practices are highly
recommended:
 It is essential to intensively cull ewes/does after 5–6 years of age. This strengthens the
overall reproductive health and growth potential of the herd.
 It is important to detect barren ewes or does in the flock. Because they do not contribute
to the herd, these animals should be sold or culled.
 Habitual aborters should be identified early and culled.
o This is of significance as abortion caused by Brucella bacteria can be transferred
to healthy animals within a short period of time
CHAPTER FOUR: HOUSING FOR SHEEP AND GOATS
Importance of building sheep and goat house:

• Animals do not get sick very often
• You can make sure that only the animals you want to breed do so
• Make it very easy to feed
• Stop wasting feed
• Save the sheep and goats wasting energy and increase the amount of milk you get
• Keep goat‟s feet dry and clean all the time
HOUSING SITE SELECTION
Due consideration should be given to the following points in site selection for a sheep and goat
house
 Drainage: The area should be slightly sloped for effective drainage
 Wind direction:
Animal houses
should be partially
or totally protected
from the direction
of strong wind
depending on the
wind intensity of
the area.
 Climatic factors:
Such as
temperature and
rainfall
 Environmental Figure 10: Sample floor plan for improved multi-animal housing
 factors: Livestock housing should not be placed within 10 meters of springs,

rivers/streams or other water bodies.
HOUSING DESIGN
Having an appropriate design for sheep and goat housing is crucial prior to beginning
construction. Housing design should be practical, cost saving, and protect the health of both
animals and people. Key design features include; the floor plan, floor construction, wall
construction, roofing, and other additional facilities
Floor plan
Housing for goats and sheep should be practical, easy to build, and protect the health of the
animals. Multiple pens can easily be put under one roof. Pens should have easy access to the
outside, a place for water and feed, and be easy to clean. Figure 10 outlines a simple design
that gives young animals access to their mothers, and has easy access for feeding and waste
removal.
Floor design is particularly important in wet climates, where dung and urine on a damp floor
make ideal conditions for the multiplication of disease-causing organisms. In particular, kids
and lambs are very susceptible to pneumonia and it is wise to avoid damp and poorly ventilated
houses. Specific floor plan recommendations are:
 House should be raised 50 cm (or just below knee height) from the ground
 Ventilation is good and dung and urine drop through the floor, preventing build-up and
reducing risk of disease spreading
Table 1: Size requirements based on production system
Space (m2/animal)
Type of Housing
Breeding Female Breeding Male Young Stock Additional
Permanent confinement (zero- Exercise yard, feed

1.2 2.0 0.8
grazing) racks, watering trough
Night housing with day-time

0.8 1.5 0.5
grazing
 Where slatted floors cannot be constructed and concrete or earthen floors are used, it is
important to control temperature of the floor and avoid muddiness
o In such cases, bedding materials may be used. Straw or wood shavings or any
material that can absorb moisture can be used for this purpose
Floor construction
 The floor should be sloped, porous or slatted for water drainage. A minimum floor slope
of 5% is recommended; that is, for every 1 m there should be a fall of 5 cm
 Houses with raised, slatted floors have a number of advantages including keeping the
floor clean and dry
 The spaces between slats need to be big enough to allow manure to drop easily, but
small enough to prevent feet from passing through.
o A spacing of 1.5 cm is optimal for adult sheep (slightly narrower for goats). For
young lambs, 1.3 cm is enough
 Floors may be made from stones or bricks. With all floors, ease of manure removal and
disposal should be given attention
Roof construction
The roof is important as it protects animals against the sun and rain. The under-surface of the
roof should remain cool and watertight. To ensure adequate ventilation, the height of the roof
and the design should be considered.
 A high roof encourages air movement but is more likely to be damaged by strong winds
o In some cases a design with a
Figure 11: Roof and wall design that encourages
chimney or roof vent could be good ventilation
useful to assist ventilation and
remove ammonia that could
easily accumulate
o Figure 11 outlines one roof/wall
design that encourages the
continuous flow of air.
 The following materials are used for roof
construction in different locations:
o Iron sheet
o Grass/bushes
o Wood
o Stone/brick
o Earth
o The majority of houses have roofing made of grass/bushes
Wall construction
In rural areas, animal housing is commonly built with woven plant materials or the same
mud/wattle human housing is constructed from. These styles are not undesirable as long as
they provide appropriate ventilation to remove heat, moisture and pollutants so that animals
stay cool, dry and clean. Some points to consider before building your animal shelter:
 Outer walls protect the animals from external influences while separation walls within the
house prevent mixing among the animals.
 Attention needs to be given to construction of pens within the house. Pens serve as a
means of controlling animals and for management purposes, such as controlling
breeding.
 Areas for lambing/kidding and isolation of sick animals should be included.
ADDITIONAL FACILITIES
Feed trough
Feeding animals on the ground in a confined space encourages disease transmission and feed
waste. Fodder should not be put on the ground for sheep and goats. Instead a feeding rack
should be included in the pen. Different feeding rack/trough styles are shown in Figure 14.
 Feeding rack for forage/fodder (Figure 12):One meter (3 feet) above the platform with a
width of 30 cm and a depth of 15 cm
o Approximately 30 to 40 cm per animal space is the minimum
 Wooden troughs can be created from construction rafters or logs. (Figure 14)
 Metal troughs can be made from sheet metal or a half-cut barrel (Figure 14)
Water troughs
Confined goats and sheep should be offered clean water daily. Most smallholder farmers will
carry water to their animals (if confined) 2-3 times per day or trek the animals to a water
source twice daily.
Lactating animals have the highest water needs of any animal. On average,
 Goats can be expected to consume 3-7 liters/animal/day and
 Sheep 3-5 liters/animal/day.
Water troughs can be made from a variety of supplies. Watertight tins, buckets or bowls can be
adequate.
 Any type of watering trough used should be easy to clean and ideally lifted off the floor
to prevent spillage and contamination with feed or fecal matter (Figure 13).
o Water troughs can be placed 1 foot above the floor in the feeding area, or
o Hung in a 5 liter tin on the door/wall
Figure 14: Locally made feeding troughs
Figure 13: Placement for elevated water or

feeding troughs
Figure 12: Height recommendation for

elevated forage rack
CHAPTER FIVE: FEEDING OF SHEEP AND GOAT
SHEEP AND GOAT FEEDING HABITS

The biggest difference between sheep and goats is their foraging behavior and diet selection.
 Goats are natural browsers, preferring to eat leaves, twigs, vines, and shrubs. They are
very agile and will stand on their hind legs to reach vegetation. Goats like to eat the tops
of plants.
o Goats prefer to eat feed at a height of 20–120 cm
o Goats require a more nutritious diet.
 Sheep are grazers, preferring to eat short, tender grasses and clover. Their dietary
preference is forbs and they like to graze close to the soil surface.
o Sheep will graze for an average of seven hours per day, mostly in the hours
around dawn and in the late afternoon, near sunset.
o When supplements are fed, it is best to feed them in the middle of the day so
that normal grazing patterns are not disrupted.
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Sheep and goats do not require specific feedstuffs. They require energy, protein, vitamins,
minerals, fiber, and water.
Energy
Energy makes up the largest portion of the diet and is usually the most limiting nutrient in
sheep diets. Carbohydrates, fat, and excess protein in the diet all contribute towards fulfilling
the energy requirements of sheep. Carbohydrates are the major sources of energy.
Concentrates (grain) contain starch, which is a rich source of energy. Forages contain fiber or
cellulose, which is not as rich in energy as starch. The major sources of energy in a goat sheep's
diet are pasture and browse, hay, silage, and grains.
Energy is quantified in the ration in many ways. The simplest measure is TDN or total digestible
nutrients. Metabolizable energy (ME) and net energy (NE) values are more accurate measures
of energy in a sheep's diet. TDN is usually used to formulate rations for breeding animals, while
the net energy system is usually used to calculate diets for growing lambs.
Protein
Protein is usually the most expensive part of the diet. Since the rumen manufactures protein
from amino acids, the quantity of protein is more important than the quality of protein in a goat
or sheep's diet. Protein requirements are highest for young, growing kids/lambs that are
building muscle and lactating does/ewes that are producing milk proteins.
Though levels vary, grains are usually low in protein. Urea is the most inexpensive source of
protein or dietary nitrogen. Other sources of protein include soybean meal, sunflower meal,
cottonseed meal, whole cottonseed, whole soybeans, peanut meal, canola meal, fishmeal, and
alfalfa pellets. Legume hays, when they are harvested in the early to mid-bloom stage are
intermediate sources of protein.
Calcium and phosphorus

Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are interrelated in the development and maintenance of the
skeleton. Deficiencies may result in rickets. An imbalance of Ca and P in the diet can cause
urinary calculi in male animals. The calcium in most forages is usually adequate to meet the
needs of sheep/goats. Deficiencies of calcium most often result when high-grain diets are fed.
The ratio of calcium to phosphorus in the goat/sheep's diet should be at least 2:1.
Vitamins
Goats and sheep require vitamins A, D, and E. Vitamin A is absent in plant material, but is
synthesized from beta-carotene. Vitamin D is required to prevent rickets in young animals and
osteomalacia in older animals. B-vitamins are not required in the diets of ruminants because
they are synthesized in the rumen. Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting.
Fiber
Fiber adds bulk to the diet and keeps the sheep's rumen functioning properly by increases
rumination and salivation.
Water
Water participates in nearly all body functions and is the most important "nutrient," though
oftentimes the most neglected aspect of feeding goat or sheep. A goat or sheep will consume
anywhere from 3-12 liters of water per day, depending upon its physiological state and the
environmental conditions.
WHAT DO SHEEP AND GOAT LIKE TO EAT?
Both goats and sheep are selective eaters. Although their diets are diverse, they are specific in
their choice of plants and parts of plants.
 Both species like diversity in their diets and will become bored if they have the same
thing to eat every day – this is especially true for confined or semi-confined animals.
Because both species are selective in what they eat, they will eat their preferred plants and
parts of plants first – making them very wasteful eaters.
 For example, when given un-chopped feeds like Napier grass goats will eat the leaves
only and waste the stem.
Goats and sheep are also clean feeders – they will not eat feeds that are not fresh, have been
trampled on, or are somehow viewed as „dirty‟. (e.g. grass with mud splash from rain)
 Goats and sheep prefer not to eat sticky, moldy or wet dusty feeds.
Sheep preferences:
 Mostly sheep eat grass, clover, forbs, and other pasture plants. They especially love
forbs. It is usually their first choice of food in a pasture. A forbe is a broad-leaf plant
other than grass. It is a flowering plant. Forbs are often very nutritious. As compared to
cattle, sheep eat a greater variety of plants and select a more nutritious diet, but less so
than goats.
Goat preferences:
 The goat has very sensitive lips and their natural curiosity gives them a habit of "mouthing" and
"smelling" for food that is clean and tasty.
FEEDING BEST PRACTICES
Given the behaviors and nutritional requirements of goats and sheep. We recommend the
following Best Practices for feeding goats and sheep.
 Feed only clean, fresh and dry fodder that does not have mold, excessive dust/dirt.
o Dusty feeds and concentrates should be wetted a little
o If you use molasses to make feed taste better do not use too much it will make
feed stick
o Chop/Cut forages to prevent waste
 Always have fresh water for sheep and goats to drink at any time.
 Provide a Mineral Lick [block] always to all goats Clean the feeding trough and water
bucket every day.
 Provide a diverse diet of feeds such as grasses and legumes, tree leaves and fresh
kitchen remains.
o Mix feeds with grass hay, straw or Napier to balance
o Only 1/3 of the days feed can be leucenea. Do not feed too much leucenea, it can
poison the goats
o Do not feed too much leguminous feed such as desmodium
 For confined animals, feed sheep and goats at least 3 times a day and at the same time
every day.
 Leave some feed in the feed trough or rack or hanging to be eaten overnight. If it is
placed directly on the ground, there is a chance the feed will be wasted because the
animals have trampled on it and/or soiled it.
NEED-BASED FEEDING PRACTICES
As was discussed above, sheep and goats have different preferences and dietary needs.
However, even within one species, the dietary needs of individual animals will be influenced by
weather conditions, the animal‟s age, reproductive and health status. Below we provide general
suggestions on meeting the nutritional needs of individual animals:
Feeding sick sheep and goats
 Small, weak, young and sick sheep and goats should be fed separately so they do not
compete for feed or become stressed while feeding.
 In general, limit the amount of stress sick/weak animals experience. If completely
separating them from the flock causes increased stress, try to confine them in close
proximity of other animals or confine their „friends‟ along with them.
Water: A dehydrated goat or sheep is an almost dead goat or sheep. Adult or kid/lamb, a
goat/sheep cannot survive long without adequate fluid levels in its body. Nearly every illness or
injury to a goat/sheep involves some level of dehydration.
 Thus it is extremely important to make available fresh and clean water to any sick
animal. Ideally, ORS will also be given to keep the animals electrolyte balance correct.
Goats: A goat standing off by itself is either a doe getting ready to kid or a sick goat. Goats are
herd animals. They hate being alone.
 When a goat is ill, its body diverts blood to organs essential for survival, such as the
heart, kidneys, and lungs. Thus, a goat that can't hold its head up also cannot digest
solid food in its stomach.
Sheep: Like goats, or many sick animals, a sick sheep is likely to be standing off to the side
away from other animals. Other characteristics of a sick animal include:
 An animal not able to keep up with the flock when you are moving
 An animal not eating when the rest are, sick animals will go off feed Standing with head
down and ears drooped even as you approach
 Breathing sounds out of ordinary, rasping or shallow
Sick animals should be given extra amounts and higher quality forages to give them the extra
energy and nutrients to recover.
 Sheep and Goats: Feed green leaves, when available, are the best food source that the
sheep and goat can be offered. Green leaves on freshly cut branches are the sheep‟s and
goat's natural food and are more easily digested than anything else is.
o Do not provide processed grains such as sacked feed or cracked/shelled maize;
the sick goat will not be able to digest them properly and recovery will be
delayed.
Feeding mature sheep and goats
Feeding of mature non-lactating or breeding animals should follow the basic guidelines provided
above in Feeding Best Practices section. If the flock does not appear to be thriving/growing on
the current feeding routine, look at the quality and quantity of the feedstuffs being offered. It is
recommended to find alternative feed sources in this situation.
Feed requirements will change depending on the season. The farmer needs to be aware of the
current weather conditions and adjust the feeding and watering practices accordingly.
The most important practices for feeding mature animals is:
 Provide clean water throughout the day and night
 Fresh and clean forage is best
 Diverse feedstuffs ensure a more nutritious diet.
Feeding rams and bucks
As with any healthy mature animal, the amount and quality of feed should sufficiently meet the
animal‟s daily requirements. For breeding males, it is best if they maintain a steady weight but
do not become too fat/heavy. Below are the recommended best practices for feeding breeding
rams and bucks:
 Give more feed two months before the ram or buck has to serve the does this will
improve the bucks sperm and make it more active.
 When a ram or buck is being used a lot to serve ewe or does respectively, it should be
separated from other sheep or goats for about 2-3 hours per day. This will allow it time
to eat and rest.
 Because of their increased activity, breeding males should be offered increased amounts
of clean water throughout the day/night.
 Breeding males should be able to lick a mineral lick or have access to loose minerals at
any time. This will help keep balanced electrolyte levels.
Feeding breeding and lactating ewes and does
Below are feeding best practices specifically for breeding ewes and does.
 One month before mating the ewe and doe should be fed and watered very well so as
she is in the best of health
o If she is very well she is more likely to have twins or even triplets
 Concentrates should be fed to ewes and does just before the ewes and does are served
by the ram and buck respectively
 Increase feed gradually for 2 months up until the ewe and doe gives birth
 Continue feeding concentrate while she is giving milk
 Mineral licks hasten coming on heat
 Always have fresh water for sheep and goats to drink at any time.
Feeding during pregnancy
The nutritional needs of pregnant females changes throughout the pregnancy. Below are some
general guidelines of feeding best practices over length of the pregnancy
First 3 months of pregnancy

 Newly pregnant females can be fed as normal (Feeding Best Practices discussed above)
 Shearing, vaccinating, working ewes, pronounced changes in feeding practices should be
avoided during the first 30 days of gestation.
 Ewes need only slightly above maintenance levels of nutrition for the first 15 weeks of
pregnancy.
Figure 15: Young sweet potato plants. The vines (shown) are a
favored food of goats.
The last two months of

pregnancy
 Late gestation (last 4
to 6 weeks) is a
critical period for
doe/ewe reproduction.
This is when the
majority of fetal
growth is occurring,
placing increasing
nutritional demands
on the doe/ewe.
 Dams/Ewes
consuming inadequate
diets are prone to
pregnancy toxemia and milk fever.
 Nutrition in late-pregnancy affects the size and vigor of kids/lambs and the milk
producing ability of the doe/ewe.
During first 2 months after lamb or Kids birth and giving milk
 The sheep and goat must be well fed for milk production and maintenance of body
weight.
 Mothers can be supplemented with at least 200 gm/day of dairy meal. Make this addition
gradually so as not to disrupt her gastro-intestinal system.
o It is recommended to reduce added dairy meal to 100gm/day after the 3rd month
Feeding lambs and kids
Feeding the newborn up till 3 months
 Newborn lambs and kids should suck colostrum within 24 hours. In the first 24-48 hours
after being born, it is best to leave the newborn with the mother, but with some
supervision, to make sure the newborn is able to nurse and receives colostrum.
 At one week, lambs and kids should be provided with small quantities of good clean feed
e. g. sweet potato vines, tree legumes leaves or natural tree leaves
 Lambs and kids should continue with milk for the first three weeks
 Lambs and kids should be allowed milk with fresh mixed fodder up to 3-4 months
Feeding young stock
 Should be fed on fresh, highly nutritious mixed fodder
 Give lots of water at all times
 Mineral blocks must be given at this stage
WHAT KIND OF FEED SHOULD THE SHEEP AND GOAT BE GIVEN
 The dairy sheep and goat gives as much milk as it is given the right food!! There are
many feeds the sheep and goat likes. Here are some good feeds that can be used:
Sweet potato vines
Sweet potatoes are good crop to plant because it gives tubers for the family to eat and the
leaves can be fed to the sheep and goats
 Favorite food of goats
 Can be planted beside river beds, steep hillsides and steep areas along roadside edges
Useful in feeding orphaned lambs and kids.
Napier
Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) is an important carbohydrate-rich fodder grass, also
known as "elephant grass"
 Napier grass is propagated easily.

 It has deep roots, so is fairly
drought-resistant.
 The tender, young leaves and
stems are very palatable for
livestock.
 Napier grass grows very fast but it
can become invasive with its
extensive rhizomial root network
 Plant Napier along river beds,
along soil terraces, fence/row
lines, road reserves etc.
 Good Napier needs manure and
top dressing with a fertilizer and
needs weeding
 Cut Napier often so it is easy for
the goats to eat and digest
 Where new fields are being
planted mixed cropping with
desmodium improves the quality
of the fodder.
 Vine-like or creeping leguminous
species (Centrocema pubescens, Figure 16: Napier grass being grown with
Desmodium intortum, Vicia sativa) leguminous plants (mucuna) for better animal
can be intercropped with Napier. nutrition.
When harvesting, leave the plants
together, chop and feed for a mixed forage meal.
 If you plant Napier around your maize it stops Maize stalk borer!
 Where a farmer has a big shamba then plant as one crop near the home to save time
and work when taking to the goats
Fodder trees and legumes
Growing and feeding leguminous plants to livestock can be one of the most beneficial activities
a smallholder farmer does. Browse species have considerable potential in mixed crop livestock
production systems, to supplement low quality feeds, fix atmospheric nitrogen, provide fuel and
shelter and to help in soil and water conservation.
Recommended leguminous and fodder trees and crops include:
 Leuceana
 Calliandra (does better in high altitudes (tea zones) than Leuceana)
 Sesbania
 Desmodium
 Sweet potato (vines)
General feeding and growing recommendations include:
 Preferred leguminous species have high protein content. Thus, they must be mixed with
other forages and not be the only forage crop being fed.
 The trees and legumes, can be planted along the fences and terraces
o Leuceana is good in fences
 Do not forget that many weeds also make good fodder
Maize
 While maize is grown for farmer‟s food, harvest stalks and stems (stovers) are a good
source of animal fodder.
 Thinning - extra maize seedlings that grow from the same seed hole should be thinned
and dried a little before feeding to the goats (Figure 17)
 Remove extra leaves - this should start with the leaves below the cobs as soon as the
cob can be seen
 Cutting the tops - this
should be done after
the grains have
hardened (Figure 17)
 Stovers - these should
have sweeteners
(molasses) added to
increase palatability or
sprinkle common salt
after chopping. (Figure
17)
 Broken grains - these
are very nutritious
especially after a
heavy harvest but
should be fed carefully
to avoid grain
overload.
HAY MAKING
 Haymaking is a good
way to preserve
grasses for dry season
Figure 17: Thinning young maize plants (top) for stronger/healthier
feeding.
plants. Cutting the top of maize plants (bottom left) to push energy
 Hay can be grasses, into stem and ear. Applying common salt (bottom right) to stover for
legumes or mixture of preservation.
the two. Plants
suitable for haymaking are those of erect type, leafy and not stemy.
 To produce good quality hay, you must cut the plants at the right time. For legumes cut
when about 50 % starts blooming and for grasses about 50 % heading
 Try not to cut grasses/plants for hay making until after the rains have stopped. Long dry
days and nights are the key to haymaking. Dry the cuts evenly and quickly for about
three days depending on sun intensity.
 Quality hay is greenish, 25% water content, not moldy and acceptable by animals. To
avoid spoilage feed in trough, keep clean, remove and destroy any spoiled hay, mix with
green legumes and save for dry season.
CHAPTER SIX: SHEEP AND GOAT FLOCK HEALTH
SICK SHEEP AND GOAT: HOW TO IDENTIFY?

Table 2 below provides a quick summary of the common characteristics of sick and healthy
sheep and goats.
Table 2: Characteristics of healthy vs. sick sheep and goats
Healthy Sick
A healthy sheep/goat: A sick/unhealthy sheep or goat:
 has a good appetite.  has reduced appetite
 appears bright, alert and responsive when  has breathing that is too fast or too slow
playing and climbing.  sits or lies separated from the flock/herd
 stays with the flock.  has an ill-appearance with a dull, matted
 has smooth, clean and shiny coat. coat, hunched-up stance and tail and ears
 has clear eyes with some pink color in the that droop down
eyelids.  has a dry nose or has discharge from the
 has an erect tail and a moist nose nose, eyes, and/or mouth
Healthy lambs/kids: Unhealthy lambs/kids are:

 are active and alert, and breath normally  often unwilling to move or feed.
 They are up on their feet in 30–60 minutes  appear weak, cold, lazy and hunched up
 After birth, move freely and feed often
GOOD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND DISEASE PREVENTION

All good management practices, or management best practices, assist in the reduction of
diseases in the flock. Implementation of these actions help protect animals from disease on a
day-to-day basis. Because the animal is in overall good health, they help animals fight off or
survive other health challenges (drought, disease outbreaks) over the long-term.
Health protecting good management practices include:
Housing and feeding
 Housing that provides protection from wind and rain, is easily cleaned and is well
ventilated. This is preferred over hot/warm, wet and airless conditions
 Feed racks prevent contamination of feed with feces and urine
Drenching and spraying
When sheep and goats are kept in intensive conditions, parasites in the herd and soils will build-
up as animals continually re-infect themselves. Ideally, animals will not be kept in such
conditions. However, if it unavoidable, it is crucial the farmer have a strict routine of manure
removal and/or rotation of grazing areas or paddocks for disease control. In addition, the
farmer should consider:
 Regular treatment with effective anti-parasitic drugs to reduce intestinal parasite
burdens.
The same approach is required with external parasites such as ticks, lice and flies:
 Spraying or dipping of animals will reduce external parasites during periods of high
infestation and break the reproductive cycle of the parasites in the soils, vegetation,
herd.
Hoof trimming
In management systems where sheep and goats are mostly confined and do not walk daily on
hard groundcover or climb rocks, abrasion of the hoof is not balanced with hoof growth. This
will affect mobility and could lead to reduced intake from grazing. It may additionally lead to
diseases such as foot rot.
 To avoid these problems,
hooves need to be examined
regularly and trimmed as
needed (Figure 18). Do not let
hooves grow longer than shown
below, cut and trim carefully.
Disease prevention program
Disease prevention programs can be
developed by the animal health staff
and the Kebele Development Agent
(KDA). By working with the KDA the
farmer is guaranteed to include local
Figure 18: Achieving the correct angle of the hoof
information on disease occurrence and
epidemiological information into
his/her program
In addition to following the recommendations (management and husbandry practices) provided
in this training manual, vaccinations are also necessary and highly recommended. A herd-
vaccination program will include the following elements
 Routine vaccination using locally appropriate vaccines:
o Pasteurellosis
o Sheep and goat pox
o Anthrax
o Pest des petits ruminants (PPR)
 Ring vaccination as recommended by local health authorities. These are carried out
during outbreaks of Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP).
o Goats found around the outbreak areas are included in the mass-vaccination
program. This serves as a barrier to halt the spread of infection.
Importance of vaccination programs

 Properly conducted and managed vaccination programs are critical to enhancing the
immune status of the herd
 Proper timing of vaccinations and booster immunizations will assist in combating disease
and minimize the severity of any disease outbreak
Figure 19: Locally available vaccines for bacterial and viral sheep and goat disease including administration
schedule.
VIRAL AND BACTERIAL DISEASES OF SHEEP AND GOATS
Peste des Petites Ruminants (PPR)
Affects sheep and goat and also causes limited cases in camels
Contagious Caprine Pleuro-pneumonia (CCPP)
A disease of goats only.
Sheep and goat pox
A disease of sheep and goat
Pneumonic Pasteurellosis (Ovine and Caprine Pasteurellosis)
Disease that affects both sheep and goats. This disease occurs following stress related triggers
such as transport, feed shortage, climatic change and other management factors
Anthrax
This disease affects all animals, including humans, except birds. Because of its high-risk to
people, it is a concern to national and international public health officials.
PARASITIC DISEASES OF SHEEP AND GOATS
Internal Parasitic Infestations in sheep and goats
Stages Case Definitions
Stage 1: Clinical case definition  Sheep and goats get worms from
fodder at which hold many worm eggs
or larvae
 Sheep and goats can suffer very sever
disease
 Adult sheep and goats suffer as young
ones
 Usually can be source of stress in sheep
and goats
 Internal parasites potentially cause:
o an animal is thin, probably being
well-fed;
o an animal is not growing well;
o an animal eats less than normal;
o an animal is weak, tires easily and
lags behind the flock;
o an animal has rough coats;
o you observe a number of animals
with diarrhea and dehydration; and
o you observe swellings or edema
(e.g., bottle jaw) or see animals with
pale mucous membranes
Stage 2: Post mortem case definition Stage 3: Prevention methods
 Usually you see the parasites in the  Avoid contaminated feeds

internal body part and lesions on the
 Deworm before the rains and
predilection site of the internal parasite
immediately after
 Good housing that prevents
contamination of feeds with feces
External parasitic infestation in sheep and goats
Stages Case Definitions
Stage 1: Clinical case definition Effects of External Parasites:
Ticks External parasites are responsible for a

great diversity of animal health problems:
 Attachment to the host causes irritation

of the skin with subsequent ulceration
and secondary infections
 The wounds attract screw worms and
other flies, and myiasis can develop
 Heavy infestations are associated with
anemia, since adult female ticks can
suck up to 10 ml of blood
 The presence of large numbers causes
annoyance and animals become restless.
This may cause loss of weight and
condition
 Bites can damage sensitive areas of skin
(teats, vagina, eyes, etc.)
 Tick attachment between the claws of
the feet may cause severe lameness
 External parasites transmit additional
diseases to their hosts. Some of these
are serious with fatal consequences.
 Causes tick-paralysis
Stage 2: Prevention and control methods Some traditional methods of external
parasite control include:
If parasites are seen on an animal, it should be
treated immediately  Washing the animal with salt water
 Check recently purchased or borrowed  Smearing the animal‟s body with spent
animals for parasites. oil
 Treat with acaricides only where parasites  Using repellent herbs
are present in large numbers. READ
INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE TREATING. Using kerosene to rub the predilection sites
o Some insecticides should not be used

when animal is pregnant or lactating
o Some insecticides should not be used in
combination with other products.
o Wear protective clothing
 When tick numbers are not large, it is
possible to kill them by hand using a needle
or thorn.
 If using an insecticide, shear the animal‟s
hair and then use an insecticide such as
Amitraz
 Solutions can be sprayed on the animal,
used as a dip or pour-on
 After treating, place the animal in the sun.
 Mothers should be separated from nursing
young until all insecticide is dry
SECTION - TWO
CHAPTER SEVEN: SHEEP AND GOAT ECONOMICS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING
SHEEP AND GOAT FARMING AS A BUSINESS

Sheep and goat production as an economic strengthening activity must be demand driven and
market based in order to succeed. The major objective of engaging in sheep and goat
production is to make profit. The key factors that determine profit in sheep and goat enterprise
are feed costs, percent lamb/kids, and market price. Financial success usually begins with
business planning. To obtain the largest possible benefit from sheep and goat businesses,
producers need to conduct an enterprise analysis that includes production, marketing and
financial analyses that is part of business planning process.
PRODUCTION PLAN
Sheep and goat production can be a beneficial enterprise because small ruminants are easily
managed, require relatively small initial investment, and their short generation interval lends
itself to a fast return on investment. For most farmers, goats and sheep are raised for meat and
immediate cash income.
Before he/she can start any farming business, he/she must answer four basic questions:
 What should the farm produce?
 How much should be produced?
 How should it be produced?
 How should it be marketed?
Many farmers do not take the time to answer these questions. Smallholder farmers commonly
take their subsistence farming approaches and think they can quickly become a businessperson.
Farmers obtain outputs when they use inputs. The amount and quality of the sheep and goat
outputs (meat, milk, skin, etc.) is directly related to the type and amount of inputs (feed,
medicaments, etc) the farmer invests in.
Production analysis: A farmer should have an understanding of their current production as
well as their production potential. To assess this physical performance measures % lamb/kid
crop, lambs/kids produced per ewe/doe, weight of weaning lambs/kids, feed consumed per
head, are measured. These topics have been addressed in previous chapters. In production
analysis, production efficiency is the main goal. To assess this, the farmer looks at the details of
his/her flock more closely – looking at an individual animal‟s contribution to the overall flock
production:
 The number of lambs that ewe gives birth will be varies by her age, genetics, body
condition, nutrition and season. (peak production age is between 3 to 6 years and
fertility is high in fall months))
 Ewes with better body condition will ovulate more eggs
 Farmers need to know the relative price differences between alternative input and output
prices to determine the combination of inputs to use to produce a certain level of input
MARKETING
When one takes sheep and goat farming as a business, the major objective is to make a profit.
One can make a profit by providing a quality product that meets the market requirements.
Therefore in simple terms, Marketing is identifying the needs of the customers/ buyers and then
supply a product (sheep/goats) that meets the required needs in the right quantities at the right
time and place.
Understanding sheep/goat marketing
Identifying needs: Buyers require sheep/goats of different ages, size, breeds, etc. Some
buyers such as the local traders are much concerned about the size while some buyers from the
urban, high value markets emphasize on quality.
Specific group of customers: Some of the specific sheep and goat markets are individual
traders, abattoirs, ethnic groups and export market.
Product: In the sheep/goat business the products that we can sell to the market are live
sheep/goats, meat, skins, milk, mohair and manure.
Right quantities: It is also important for farmers to be able to plan their production so that
they consistently supply the required quantities at specified time intervals This is key in
business as this helps towards building longstanding and mutually beneficial (win-win)
relationships with your buyers.
Right time and place: When we start our goats to organized high value markets, we need to
plan our production and logistics to meet the market requirements.
Obviously high market price will increase profitability. The price of sheep and goat is determined
by the interplay of demand and supply that may vary weekly, seasonally as well as religious
festivals and holidays.
Marketing analysis
Market analysis is used by beneficiaries to identify products and services, market demand,
consumers and competition to assess the feasibility of their business. In order to market a
product or service, it is necessary to tailor marketing and sales efforts to reach the specific
segment of the population that will most likely buy the product or service. Success depends on
the ability to understand the market and the needs and desires of customers. Conducting a
market assessment will facilitate sound decisions before starting a business and help in
successfully selling products
 Rapid market assessment can be made by the beneficiary to decide the price and when
to sell.
 Related to the availability of markets for inputs and products, market calendar, market
facilities and market information on sheep and goat transactions
Marketing Tips
 Sheep and Goat farmers should be able to negotiate for prices that are commensurate
with the quality of the animal.
 Farmers can come together as a group to strengthen their bargaining power.
 Farmers should gather up to date information about market trends.
 Produce good quality goats in the right quantities (optimum production).
 Farmers should avoid desperate/ distress selling.
 The farmer can sell directly or sell at an auction.
FINANCING SHEEP AND GOAT BUSINESS
Farmers should have an estimate of how much they require for start up costs and operating
expenses. They must produce a financial plan/budget. This will help the farmer to source for
funding. The plan should state how much money is needed for the following items:
 Infrastructure
 Breeding stock
 Feeds
 Labour
 Veterinary supplies
 Transport
It should also estimate income from the business.
Sources of Finance
 Family/Personal savings
 Loan from MFI
 Peer/Social group lending
 Credit scheme
 Donors
ASSUMPTIONS FOR SHEEP/GOAT PRODUCTION:
 Lambing/Kidding once per year
 Lambing/kidding: 150%
 Mortality: 10%
 Replacement of breeding stock: 20 %
 Adult Death Rate 5%
 Young male sheep/goats to be sold at 1 year (average age)
FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
Deals with the analysis of the profitability of the sheep/goat enterprises
To make money in a business you must make sure that the selling price of your product is more
than the cost of producing it
When you are running any business venture it is very important for any businessperson to
understand how much it costs to source or produce their products. The cost of the product
(sheep/goat) will assist you calculate a good selling price for it. Many people do not know the
cost of their products and sometimes the selling price of their products is too low, so that they
do not make money from their businesses.
Planning and budgeting of sheep and goat production
 Sheep and goat production planning is a program outlining all production activities drawn
up in advance
 Sheep and goat production planning includes taking an inventory of resources (feeds,
land, labor and capital), devising alternate uses for these resources, estimating costs
and returns associated with the alternate uses of these resources, and choosing the best
alternative of producing sheep and goats
 Budgeting is the process of estimating costs, returns and net profit of sheep and goat
enterprises. A budget is simply the plan translated into monetary form
 Costs are the total amount of funds used for the production of sheep and goats. Costs
can be categorized as variable and fixed costs
 Variable costs are costs incurred directly to the enterprise being budgeted, such as
feed, fuel, and hired labor. These costs vary with the level of output. Example, feed costs
to produce three sheep are less than feed costs to produce five sheep
 Fixed costs are costs that occur whether the enterprise is operated or not, so long as
one continues to maintain the production. Housing, equipment, land and depreciation are
examples of fixed costs
 Feed costs: Concentrates, grass and hay, mineral/supplements, grain, water, etc.
 Other variable costs: Medicines/vaccines, breeding fees, supplies, marketing,
transportation, utilities, labor, stock replacement, etc.
 The minimum price can be calculated in two ways:
1. The minimum price for the entire farming period, by taking into account the initial capital,
fixed costs and the cost of raising the animals
Minimum price per animal = initial capital (Birr) + Fixed Costs (Birr) + Production Cost (Birr)
Total Number of animal for sale
2. The price for one production process, for instance in the case of fattening, includes all costs
from buying the animals to selling them
Minimum price per animal = Production cost (Birr)
Total Number of animal for sale
Cashflow statement
The cash flow statement lists the inflows (revenue generated by the business) and the outflows
(expenses incurred by the business). The difference between the inflows and outflows give the
net cash flow. This net cash flow can be positive or negative. If it is positive that means the
project is making money but if it is negative it means the business is not generating enough
income. It should be noted that this net cash flow could initially be negative but increase
gradually to become a positive cash flow.
Table 3: Sample cash flow sheet
Month: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total
Sales:
Does
Bucks
Kids
Total Inflows
Capital Expenditure
Feed Costs:
Salt
Supplements
Health
Program
Deforming
Adults
Deworming
Kids
Transport
Supplies
Labour
Total
Expenditures:
Opening
Balance
Closing
Balance
CHAPTER EIGHT: BENEFITS OF SHEEP AND GOAT FOR HUMAN NUTRITION AND
HEALTH
NUTRITION AND HEALTH BENEFITS

Sheep and goat kept by the poor can produce a regular supply of nutrient-rich Animal-
Source Food (ASF) that provides a critical supplement and diversity to staple plant-based
diets. There is great need to increase household understanding and increase of ASFs in
children and women‟s diet. Goat and sheep ASF is a good source for these populations.
 Meat and milk are guaranteed sources of high-quality protein and essential structural
fats
 Meat and milk are major source of highly bio-available (that is, easily absorbed and
used by the body) essential micronutrients, such as iron, zinc, vitamin A, and
calcium, that are either lacking or not as bio-available in many rural families‟ diets that
are predominantly composed of cereals
o Micronutrients also protect against infectious diseases and mortality
o Deficiency in some micronutrients increases vulnerability to some chronic
diseases
 Nutrients from ASL are essential to maintain adequate human growth and development
o Sufficient intake of meat and milk is strongly associated with significant
improvement in health, growth, and cognitive function (crucial to development of
young and school age children).
 Milk and meat can also help mitigate the effects of often large seasonal fluctuations in
grain availability
 Meat and milk are a dense source of high quality energy.
o Milk comprises all eight essential amino acids making it a high-quality protein.
 Meat and milk prevents malnutrition related disorders include:
Essential Micro-
Prevent from Source
Nutrients
Growth faltering, impaired development, impaired

Vitamin A Milk, liver
vision, blindness, impaired pregnant women
Meats contain heme iron

Young children: impaired growth poor cognitive
Iron (facilitates non-heme iron
development, and impaired immune function
absorption
Pregnancy complications, low birth weight, impaired
immune function, maternal and being at risk , infant
Zink Meat
mortality and morbidity, growth faltering in infancy
and childhood
Bone disease called nutritional rickets Calcium Milk
Stunted growth, skin lesions, soreness, burning of

the lips, mouth and tongue, burning and itching of
Riboflavin Milk, organ meats
the eyes, fear of light, anemia, and disease of nerves
system
Animal source foods of meat

Anemia with large red blood cells, loss of nerve-fiber
Vitamin B12 and meat organs are only
covering of the central nerves system
source except some algae
FAMILY-MEMBER FOCUS
Children between 6-24 months and pregnant and lactating women are more vulnerable groups
for under-nutrition and need to be prioritized to meat and milk.
 Children 6-24 months require sufficient calories, proteins, and nutrients to drive their
rapid rate of physical and mental growth. Studies have shown that even at this early
age, children who receive nutritious diets will:
o have healthy growth and development
o have better performance at school
o won‟t be easily affected by different diseases; and
o will become productive citizens
 Pregnant and lactating women
o A pregnant women needs additional food for her and for her fetus
o A lactating women needs additional calories and nutrients to produce milk for her
infant
Households owning sheep and goats, or any livestock including poultry, need to prioritize the
caloric and nutritional needs of young children and pregnant and lactating women for the overall
success of the family.
INCOME, CHOICES AND FOOD SECURITY / NUTRITION
Availability of food is not sufficient for good nutrition. Good nutrition for all household members
requires:
 Appropriate choices about foods to consume
 Equitable distribution to all household members
 Understanding of children‟s, pregnant and lactating women‟s nutritional needs
 Appropriate feeding practices for children, pregnant and lactating women
When selling a goat or a sheep, how should a household prioritize these needs?
 Purchase diversified food that includes fruits, vegetables and legumes currently not
available in the house?
 Housing improvements?
 Tobacco?
 Electronic goods?
CHAPTER NINE: GENDER IN LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
GENDER ROLES AND THE DIVISION OF LABOR

Gender roles are the roles women and men fulfill in the society as defined by their virtue of
being female or male. In any society, men and women receive messages about their role and
division of labor from family, schools, media and society at large. Gender roles show society‟s
rule for how men and women are supposed to behave. These rules are sometimes called gender
norms. They dictate what is “normal” for men to think, feel and act and what is “normal” for
women.
Many of these differences are constructed by society, and are not part of our nature or
biological make-up. Many expectations are completely fine and help us enjoy our identities as
either a man or a woman. However, some of these expectations limit us from using our full
potentials as human being.
For example: If and how a father is involved in child feeding and care is not linked exclusively to
biological characteristics. Rather, it depends on how they themselves and women and men in
their society are raised. If they are raised to believe that men can also take care of children,
they will probably participate and enjoy rearing their own children.
Both men and women play multiple roles in society. These roles can be broadly categorized into
three;
I) Productive roles: Tasks that contribute to the economic welfare of the household
through production of goods. Women‟s role as producers is usually undermined and
undervalued.
II) Reproductive role: Activities performed for reproduction and caring for the household,
water & fuel wood collection, childcare health care, washing, cleaning etc.
III) Community management or socio-cultural activities: Activities primarily carried by
men & women to ensure the co-existence of themselves as well as their family in their
social environment. Examples of such activities include, iddir, mutual help among
neighbors/ relatives, community groups etc which boosts their social capital (FEMNET,
2006)
Men commonly focus on filling the productive roles and play their multiple roles sequentially.
Women in contrast to men, must play their roles simultaneously, and balance competing on
time for each of them. Because of this, women are routinely overburdened with triple roles.
There is a high probability that they face time related constraints in providing adequate care for
the children and seeking health care.
GENDER ANALYSIS
Gender analysis is a systematic effort to identify and understand the roles, needs, opportunities
and life circumstances of men and women, in a changing socio- economic context.
 It examines the differences in women's and men's lives, including those which lead to
social and economic inequity for women, and applies this understanding to policy
development and service delivery
 It is concerned with the underlying causes of these inequities
 It aims to achieve positive change for women(FAO, 1997))
There are different frameworks of gender analysis. These frameworks are applicable to different
situations based on the contexts since they have their unique features and relevance to specific
contexts.
The Harvard framework is one of the widely used gender analysis framework for collecting and
analysing data‟s on gender relations. This framework has four interrelated components:
 Activity Profile (Who does what?): What men and women (adults, children, and
elders) do, and where and when these activities take place
 Access and control Profile (Who has what?): Who has access to and control of
resources and services and services and decision-making, e.g. agricultural resources,
extension services, credit services etc
 Analysis of factors and trends (What is the socio-economic context?): How
activity, access and control patterns are shaped by structural factors (demographic,
economic, legal and institutional) by cultural, religious and attitudinal ones
 Program cycle analysis (What gender considerations are needed for the project:
Gender-sensitive project planning, design, implementation, and monitoring and post
evaluation.
One of the manifestations of power imbalance between men and women in any society relates
to the disparity in access to and control over resources. This has implication on women‟s
decision-making power/ability both within the household as well as in community structures
outside of the household.
 Access: to resources means having the opportunity to use resources without having the
authority to decide on the output and the exploitation methods
 Control: over resources or benefits means having full right to use and authority to
decide what the outputs should be and how it should be used.
GENDER CONSIDERATIONS IN LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
I) Identification of women‟s role: as livestock owner, animal health care provider, feed
gatherer, birth attendant, and user of livestock products and support to their
decision-making capacity are central to the effective implementation of gender
responsive interventions.
II) Women‟s safety: Gender roles in the provision of water and feed for livestock should
be considered. For instance, poor women and girls may not have equitable access to
water, or they could suffer exploitation or risk violent assault if they have to travel
distances to fetch water.
III) Women as animal health care providers. Women (and girls) are often responsible for
small and/or young stock, including the diagnosis and treatment of livestock
diseases. They should therefore be involved in animal health interventions and
training
IV) Women‟s workload: Although the position of women livestock keepers can be
improved through income-generating activities (i.e. processing and selling livestock
products, trees and forage products, and wildlife products), women‟s daily workload
is already extremely heavy, leaving little time to diversify or enhance their
livelihoods. Consequently, labour- and time-saving opportunities merit special
attention.
V) Women‟s access to assets: Women‟s economic and social empowerment is linked to
their access to productive resources and basic assets (water, land, fuelwood,
markets and knowledge), their participation in small-scale dairying and their role in
decision-making
VI) Women and market: Women need to become more market-oriented and identify new
economic opportunities. Their role in community decision making needs to be
strengthened.
VII) Role of social networks: Women‟s status and decision-making role within the family
depends on their access to and control of land, livestock and income and on the
presence of social support networks
VIII) Role of farmers' organizations: It is important to increase women‟s negotiating power
and decision-making role in farmers' organizations. Women‟s organizations and the
role of women in farmers‟ organizations should receive special support
KEY QUESTIONS FOR UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE GENDER PLAYS IN LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
 Which types of livestock do men and women own? What does ownership mean in your
home, community, culture, laws?
 How does women‟s access to livestock affect their decision-making power?
 Does owning land affect women‟s ability to own livestock?
 Which activities do men and women carry out, with which animals, and which products
are they responsible?
 What are the roles and responsibilities of men and women in the livestock system?
 Do women control the income generated by production and marketing of livestock
products?
 Does access to livestock affect women „access to other resources (such as credit,
pasture, water)?
 Do women have access to veterinary services?

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Sheep and Goat Production Handbook

LIST OF FIGURES & TABLES

Table 1: Three stages of birth in does and ewes ................................................................ 10

Milk Variety: Goat Cow Sheep Camel Human

Protein (%) 3.0 3.0 5.85 3.35 1.1

Iron 0.07 0.06 0.2

Ash (%) 0.79 0.92 0.80

Energy (kCal/ liter) 622 1080 670

Inadequate animal healthcare

Low product quality

Stage One Stage Two Stage Three

Providing assistance during parturition

Figure 3: Normal Presentations during birthing

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF NURSING/LACTATING EWES AND DOES

Figure 5: Udders damaged by disease or natural birth defects

MANAGEMENT OF NEWBORN ANIMALS (LAMBS AND KIDS)

Milking technique - squeeze

Figure 8: Squeeze technique for milking goats and sheep

Clean milk production is crucial for the safety and

Importance of building sheep and goat house:

 factors: Livestock housing should not be placed within 10 meters of springs,

Permanent confinement (zero- Exercise yard, feed

Night housing with day-time

Figure 13: Placement for elevated water or

Figure 12: Height recommendation for

SHEEP AND GOAT FEEDING HABITS

Calcium and phosphorus

First 3 months of pregnancy

The last two months of

 Napier grass is propagated easily.

SICK SHEEP AND GOAT: HOW TO IDENTIFY?

Healthy lambs/kids: Unhealthy lambs/kids are:

GOOD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND DISEASE PREVENTION

Importance of vaccination programs

Stages Case Definitions

Stage 2: Post mortem case definition Stage 3: Prevention methods

 Usually you see the parasites in the  Avoid contaminated feeds

Stages Case Definitions

Stage 1: Clinical case definition Effects of External Parasites:

Ticks External parasites are responsible for a

 Attachment to the host causes irritation

o Some insecticides should not be used

CHAPTER SEVEN: SHEEP AND GOAT ECONOMICS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING

SHEEP AND GOAT FARMING AS A BUSINESS

NUTRITION AND HEALTH BENEFITS

Growth faltering, impaired development, impaired

Meats contain heme iron

Bone disease called nutritional rickets Calcium Milk

Stunted growth, skin lesions, soreness, burning of

Animal source foods of meat

GENDER ROLES AND THE DIVISION OF LABOR

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