EXERCISES TO PRACTISE YOUR WRITING

by Simon Moss

Introduction

If you want to excel in research, and indeed in your career, perhaps the most important skill
to develop is the capacity to write precisely, concisely, professionally, and engagingly. Many people
incorrectly assume the ability to write is inborn rather than modifiable. But, you can actually learn
to write in 6 to 12 months if you

 learn the principles about how to write effectively—primarily by reading materials you will
receive during your course
 practice these principles regularly, dedicating about four hours a week to this endeavour.

This document presents a series of exercises you should attempt, several times a week, to
practice and to develop these skills. This document is primarily designed to assist people who tend
to write grammatically but not always precisely, concisely, engagingly, or professionally. However, if
you do not write grammatically—perhaps because English is not your first language—you should
also consider these activities

 for about 30 to 60 minutes a day, read English alone and aloud rather than silently. When people
read aloud, many grammatical rules are naturally internalized
 dedicate about 30 to 60 minutes a day to websites that are designed to improve grammar in
English. Examples include www.5minuteenglish.com/grammar.htm or
www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar
 to arrange an appointment with a specialist, visit www.cdu.edu.au/academic-language-
learning/allsp/make-an-appointment. Click the button “Book for English language support”,
create a new user account, and then follow the instructions to book an appointment

1 Collating sentences

Many individuals, when attempting to write, cannot always retrieve the right word from
their memory. Consequently, they cannot write fluently and effectively. They are not as likely to
enjoy writing.
  On the CDU web, find the section on How to write more effectively.
 Then locate and skim the document on retrieving the right words. To achieve this goal, you
could search “retrieve” on this web page.

This document presents a series of words and phrases that can be helpful in particular
circumstances. To illustrate, early in your thesis, when you want to highlight the problem your
research is designed to address, you might use phrases like a disconcerting concern, a burgeoning
problem, and a key challenge. The document then presents sentences that utilise these phrases,
such as the proliferation of suicide is a burgeoning problem in Australia

Exercise 1.1. Use the words and phrases in this document to construct as many
sentences as possible that could be relevant to your research

• if possible, write at least 30 sentences

• you can, if you like, simply modify the examples that appear in this document
• you can record the sentences in the space below or in a separate Word or Excel
document
• you should arrange these sentences under headings, such as sentences about the
materials
 2 Writing paragraphs

Besides retrieving the right word, the main skill that differentiates advanced writers from
ordinary writers is their capacity to write cohesive paragraphs. You might assume this capacity is
simple. But actually, to achieve this goal, you need to be attuned to the range of paragraphs that
individuals can write.

 On the CDU web, find the section on How to write more effectively.
 Then locate and skim the document on constructing paragraphs

Exercise 2.1. Researchers differentiate several kinds of paragraphs, such as summaries

of one study, summaries of several studies, explanations, taxonomies, definitions,
descriptions of benefits and drawbacks, and justifications of approaches. Please write
at least two examples of five or more kinds of paragraphs that relate to your literature
review, methods, or other sections. Remember that

• paragraphs should usually comprise between 3 and 8 sentences—and certainly

more than 1 sentence
• paragraphs should usually include one topic sentence—a sentence that
summarises the entire paragraph
• if you like, you can use the sentences you wrote in the previous exercises to
 construct some of these paragraphs
• you can record the sentences in the space below or in a separate Word or Excel
document

Exercise 2.2. For each of these paragraphs, check and improve the topic sentence.
Specifically
  identify or write one sentence that outlines the main argument of each paragraph
—often the first sentence in this paragraph
 evaluate whether readers could understand the main argument of each paragraph
even if they read only the topic sentence
 if not, attempt to improve the topic sentence

3 Writing precisely

 On the CDU web, find the section on How to write more effectively.
 Then locate and skim the document on writing precisely

To write precisely, you should first learn how to avoid ambiguous pronouns. Pronouns are
words that represent nouns or objects, such as it, this, or they. Sometimes, these pronouns are
ambiguous. The reader is not certain which object these words represent. Usually, the reader will
eventually decipher the pronoun—but this slight delay has been shown to diminish the credibility of
this writing. For example

 for several reasons, avoid the word it. You can sometimes replace it with a specific person,
group, or object. For instance, it is thought that could be replaced with researchers contend
that
 write a noun after the word this or these. For example, this shows could be replaced with this
finding shows.
 similarly, replace the word those with a specific noun. For example, those who like to read
should be people who like to read
 avoid the word one to indicate a person. To illustrate, one should read 10 books could be adults
should read 10 books
 avoid the word others; specify what others refers to, such as other people or other methods
 Exercise 3.1. To learn how to write unambiguous pronouns, improve the following
sentences. For example

 attempt to avoid the word it

 always follow the word this or these with a noun or object

Improve these sentences Write your answers here

It is argued that systematic reviews are more
informative than narrative reviews
Researchers often use software, such as
Rayyan, to assist their systematic reviews. It is
free.
When conducting systematic reviews,
researchers use an acronym called PICOS. This
usually represents problem, intervention,
comparison group, outcome, and setting
When conducting systematic reviews,
researchers need to stipulate inclusion criteria.
These include the interventions, comparison
groups, outcomes, and study designs
Those who conduct qualitative research may
conduct meta-ethnography instead of
systematic reviews
Although Smith (2000) recommends meta-
ethnography, others have developed
alternative techniques
When conducting systematic reviews,
researchers need to stipulate inclusion criteria.
They include the interventions, comparison
groups, outcomes, and study designs
When conducting systematic reviews, some
researchers contact relevant authors, which is
recommended.
 Exercise 3.2. To improve the sentences and paragraphs you have written

 check whether your pronouns, such as it, this, and they, are unambiguous; you can
use the find function in Microsoft Word to locate these words
 adjust the sentences whenever these pronouns may be ambiguous
 you can record some of the changes in the space below—to highlight some of the
principles you have learned.

To write precisely, you also need to avoid hazy verbs. That is, some verbs, including get,
make, and have, correspond to a variety of meanings. Therefore, if you use these verbs too
frequently, your writing may be hazy.

Exercise 3.3. In the document on writing precisely, improve all the sentences in the
box that begins with the example “They came in a bus”

Exercise 3.4. In the sentences and paragraphs you have written

 search the terms came, come, do, done, for, get, got, give, gave, has, have, had,
held, hold, look, view, seen, find, make, made, occur, put, run, ran, take, or took;
you can use the find function in Microsoft Word to locate these words
  sometimes, these words are acceptable; for example, the words has, have, and
had are acceptable if followed by an adjective but not if followed by a noun
 otherwise, replace these terms with a more precise verb or reconstruct the
sentence so the term is not needed
 you can record some of the changes in the space below—to highlight some of the
principles you have learned.

References to time, such as since or as, can also be ambiguous. Occasionally, these words
will obscure the meaning of a sentence

Exercise 3.5. In the sentences and paragraphs you have written

 search terms that are synonyms of because, such as since, as, or due to. Replace
these terms with because or because of.
 replace the term while with although, whereas, or and—except when this term
means at the same time as literally
 you can record some of the changes in the space below
 Quantities should also be written as precisely as possible. Phrases like a number of imply
uncertainty, impairing the credibility of your work

Exercise 3.6. In the sentences or paragraphs you have written

 search the following terms or phrases: a number of, lack, little
 replace these terms or phrases with more precise words
 attempt to locate, and then modify, other words or phrases that could be vague
 for example, avoid unnecessarily qualifying words that overemphasize an
argument. These words, such as very or extremely, are not precise and may
compromise the objectivity of your arguments.
 you can record some of the changes in the space below

Exercise 3.7. In the sentences or paragraphs you have written, apply some other
principles that have been shown to enhance precision. In particular
 if possible, insert the word only immediately before the term that needs to be
modified; when inserted in the wrong spot, the sentence may be misconstrued.
For example, he only ate one biscuit indicates he ate, rather than initiated another
act, on a biscuit.
 phrases like this method impacts their health could be replaced with this method
damages their health. That is, you should, whenever possible, indicate whether
 the relationship was positive or negative; otherwise, the sentence is too vague.
 therefore, search the words only and impact to identify sentences that might need
to be modified.
 you can record some of the changes in the space below

Exercise 3.8. In the sentences or paragraphs you have written, omit unnecessary
acronyms. That is
 avoid acronyms, such as PFG, unless they are vital—that is, unless you save many
letters and the acronym is used many times.
 even acronyms that you think are common may not be familiar to your reader
and, therefore, demand excessive effort to remember.

4 Writing concisely

If you can write concisely, you will enjoy several benefits. First, the number of words you
are permitted to include in abstracts, papers, theses, grant submissions, and other works are often
limited. If you can write concisely, you will be able to include more information and arguments,
despite these limits. Furthermore, if you write concisely, your work seems sharper and thus more
compelling.

 On the CDU web, find the section on How to write more effectively.
 Then locate and skim the document on writing concisely
 To write more concisely, you need to identify, and then to delete, unnecessary words. These
exercises will help you achieve this goal.

Exercise 4.1. In the sentences and paragraphs you have written

 search phrases that tend to be redundant such as in order, it is noteworthy that, it
is important to note that, in shape, in size, in duration, a total, and a sum of.
 as usual, you can use the find function in Microsoft Word to locate these words
 if possible, delete these phrases
 you can record some of the changes in the space below

Tautologies—phrases in which one word implies another term—also increase the length of
paragraphs unnecessarily. Examples include summarize briefly or 12 midnight. Summarise implies
the outline is brief. Midnight implies the time is 12.00. These tautologies can be condensed.

Exercise 4.2. In the sentences and paragraphs you have written

 search possible tautologies, including summarises briefly, close proximity,
consensus of opinion, might possibly, might perhaps, reason why, actual fact,
absolutely essential, carefully scrutinised, I personally, final conclusion, past
history, past achievements, reverted back, warn in advance, postpone until later,
rarely ever, 12 midnight
 note that some of these words might not be consecutive, such as summarise this
paragraph briefly; therefore, rather than only use the find function, you might
need to scrutinize your paragraphs carefully to identify these tautologies
 reduce each tautology to one word if possible
 you can record some of the changes in the space below
 Some common phrases, although not tautologies, can be shortened. For example, despite
the fact that can be truncated to although.

Exercise 4.3. In the sentences and paragraphs you have written

 search phrases that can usually be condensed, including in the near future, in the
process of completing, at the present time, until such time as, on a daily basis, in
the course of, for the most part, each and every, in the vicinity of, for the purpose
of, with respect to, despite the fact that, arrive at the conclusion that, in the event
that, of the opinion that, it is possible that, as to whether, take into consideration,
and can lead to increases
 phrases like in regard to, in respect to, in relation to, or in terms of can often be
replaced with one simple word—such as “on” or “about”— or omitted altogether,
particularly if the sentence is slightly modified. To illustrate, the sentence he
spoke to me in relation to my job could be he spoke to me about my job. Or the
sentence in terms of food, chocolate is my favourite could be chocolate is my
favourite food.
 sometimes, you can omit therefore, thus, or related words. In particular, do not
use these words if they precede a phrase that does not necessarily follow from the
previous phase. For example, in the sentence cats are shy and therefore dogs are
confident is unsuitable; the second phrase about dogs does not necessarily follow
from the first phrase.
 as you read your sentences or paragraphs, attempt to locate other phrases that
could perhaps be condensed
 condense these phrases
 you can record some of the changes in the space below
 Sentences that include particular words or phrases, such as there, can often be shortened.
For example, there are researchers who claim that coffee is healthy could be reduced to researchers
claim that coffee is healthy. Similarly, there has been an increase in obesity levels could be reduced
to obesity levels have increased. Some other phrases also indicate the sentence can be shortened.
To illustrate

 the phrase aim to can usually be omitted. Rather than this study aims to examine this issue, you
can write this study examines this issue.
 the phrases lead to and results in often indicate the sentence could be shorter. For example,
both this method leads to an increase in prices and this method results in an increase in prices
could be reduced to this method increases prices.

Exercise 4.4. In the sentences and paragraphs you have written

 search words or phrases that indicate the sentence could be shorter, including
there, aims to, aim to, leads to, results in, has an effect on, and have an effect on
 shorten the sentences that include these words or phrases
 you can record some of the changes in the space below

5 Writing professionally and correctly

 To improve the credibility of your work, you should correct errors that are likely to elicit
doubt in your reader. Even trivial errors, such as confusing which, that, and who, include and
comprise, as well as affect and effect—can exasperate pedantic examiners and reviewers
Specifically

 use the word who after humans and that after nonhumans. For example, the woman who
yawned looked tired, but the dog that yawned looked tired.
 use fewer for number, such as fewer people, and less for amount, such as less water. If you are
able to count an object, use fewer rather than less
 do not use plural pronouns, like they, to represent singular nouns, like one person. You should
not write a child should be told they are special. To avoid this problem, you should often use
plural nouns in general—such as children should be told they are special
 if writing formally, avoid contractions such as don’t or can’t

You should also avoid expressions that might be perceived as offensive or inappropriate. That is,
you need to demonstrate a sensitive and professional style. For example

 do not reduce people to a label. For example, rather than ten dyslexics, eight schizophrenics,
and five normal completed the study, you could write ten people diagnosed with dyslexia, eight
people diagnosed with schizophrenia, and five people not diagnosed with a mental illness
completed the study.
 if you do need to utilize a label, ask the individuals to indicate the appropriate term and, in
general, utilize more specific labels. You might prefer to write ten people who identified as
Yolnu completed the study rather than ten Indigenous people completed the study—although ask
relevant members of the community first.

 On the CDU web, find the section on How to write more effectively.
 Then locate and skim the documents on writing formally and professionally

Exercise 5.1. To write more professionally and correctly, improve the following
sentences
 Improve these sentences Write your answers here
The teaching method which the researcher
examined was developed last year
The researchers that apply grounded theory
can adopt a positivist, constructivist, or
postmodern theoretical perspective
Researchers who conduct phenomenology
often interview less participants than
researchers who conduct grounded theory
Constructivist grounded theory is different than
traditional grounded theory
The relationship between the age of
participants and their mood was insignificant,
r(20) = .024, p > .05
This finding proves that age is not related to
mood
The data was stored in a locked cabinet
The participants comprised of 10 men and 20
women
The 30 participants included 10 men and 20
women

Exercise 5.2. In the sentences and paragraphs you have written

 search words or phrases that are sometimes used incorrectly or inappropriately
such as which, that, who, fewer, less, different than, insignificant, prove, fact, data
was, comprised of, and comprises of
 check these words or phrases were used correctly and appropriately—and modify
otherwise
 you can record some of the changes in the space below
 6 Using punctuation correctly

If you do not use punctuation effectively and correctly, your work is likely to seem hazy and
imprecise, even if you use the right words. Yet, many writers do not use punctuation correctly. This
set of exercises will help you insert commas, colons, semi-colons, em dashes, and other punctuation
correctly.

 On the CDU web, find the section on How to write more effectively.
 Then locate and skim the documents on punctuation

Exercise 6.1. In the document on punctuation, improve the punctuation in the box
that begins with the example “The strong brawny man cried during the movie”.

Exercise 6.2. In the sentences and paragraphs you have written, check you have
utilised the first 20 to 30 commas correctly. That is, check these commas
 separate items in a list, such as adjectives or nouns
 surround phrases that can be shifted elsewhere—especially conditional phrases
that begin with terms like if, when, before, during, after, or at and indicate the
circumstances in which something is true, or
  separate two independent clauses—that is, parts that could be complete
sentences

You should then

 delete commas that do not correspond to one of these three principles

 record some of the changes in the space below

Some writers confuse ; called a semi-colon and : called a colon. In general

 use a semi-colon to separate two independent clauses, such as the dog barked loudly; the cat
scampered away. The semi-colon is like a full-stop but informs the reader the clauses are closely
related
 also, use a semi-colon to separate items in a list, but only if one or more items contains a comma
 use a colon before clarifying an unfinished claim or presenting a list: This sentence illustrates the
point. The colon informs the reader you will now clarify the previous words.
 but omit these colons unless the flow of this sentence suddenly breaks. For example, omit the
colon in the sentence “The seven dwarves are: doc, grumpy, happy, sleepy, dopey, bashful, and
sneezy”.

Exercise 6.3. In the sentences and paragraphs you have written, check you have
utilised semicolons and colons correctly. For example, search these semicolons and
colons. Then
 if a semi-colon is used to separate two independent clauses, check each clause
could be complete sentence
 if a semi-colon is used to separate items in a list, check that at least one of these
items contains a comma
  if a colon is used, check the sentence would not be grammatical if the colon was
removed.
 you can record some of the changes in the space below

Writers also often use other punctuation, such as brackets, quotation marks, and slashes
incorrectly or excessively. For example, unless citing references, writers should not use too many
brackets. In particular

 anything not important enough to include in the text should be omitted

 anything important enough to write should be included in the text—and perhaps surrounded by
commas or em dashes—like in this sentence
 em dashes are large dashes that are created from two hyphens and no spaces

Exercise 6.4. In the sentences and paragraphs you have written, check you have
utilised brackets, quotation marks, slashes, and italics correctly. In particular
 besides citations, remove as many brackets as possible

Quotation marks
 in scientific writing, avoid using quotation marks, except to signify actual quotes
 for example, do not use quotation marks to earmark approximate or informal
terms, but instead use the most precise word.
 in general, include quotes only when the precise wording is vital; otherwise
paraphrase, because too many quotes may be perceived as lazy

Slashes
 avoid the overuse of slashes. For example, write people can eat, drink, or both
 instead of People can eat and/or drink.
 the problem with slashes is they may be ambiguous—and can mean and, or, a
combination of, and so forth.

Italics
 in scientific writing, instead of quotation marks, use italics to indicate words that
are foreign or used in a different context to usual.
 you might, for example, write “Participants read the words and and if”. The and is
not used in the usual way and so italics are appropriate.
 do not use italics to emphasize an argument; the words alone should be sufficient.
 you can record some of the changes in the space below

7 Optimise your sentences

Some kinds of sentences, such as active voice, are easier to read and to appreciate than
other kinds of sentences. These exercises will help you optimise the sentences and paragraphs you
have written.

Exercise 7.1. If any of the sentences and paragraphs you have written comprise
several items or parts, check the grammar is parallel. That is
 each item or part should conform to the same basic grammar.
 for example, each item or part could begin with a noun, begin with the word “to”,
and so forth.
 the sentence the man drove to the park, ran to the shops, and then walked home
 demonstrates parallel grammar
 in contrast, the sentence the man drove to the park, he started running to the
shops and then home he went does not demonstrate parallel grammar
 you can record some of the changes in the space below

 On the CDU web, find the section on How to write more effectively.
 Then locate and skim the documents about sentences

Exercise 7.2. Check the sentences you have written are complete. Specifically
 search whereas and although; ensure the sentences that include these words
compare two objects or concepts.
 identify sentences that begin with numbers, such as first. Read these sentences in
isolation of other sentences to check these sentences are indeed complete
 To optimise your sentences, you might consider some other advanced principles. In
particular, you could

 write active voice rather than passive voice; importantly, the subject—the person or object that
initiates some action—should be explicit rather than implied
 if general, do not begin consecutive sentences with the same word or phrase, unless you want to
create a particular effect.
 unless your writing is advanced, primarily write short sentences. Each sentence should present
one very specific argument. The next sentence should extend this argument slightly and so
forth. That is, your arguments should evolve very gradually.
 if your sentence includes a conditional clause, like this sentence, include this conditional clause
early rather than late in the sentence.
 include words or phrases that connect consecutive sentences or paragraphs. Connecting words
include similarly, likewise, furthermore, in contrast, however, nevertheless, and indeed.