Complete Module Ed 1

Ed 1- The child and adolescent learners and learning principles
PART 1
INTRODUCTION
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MODULE1
BASIC CONCEPTS ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Learning outcomes:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
 analyze the basic concepts on human development;
 apply the knowledge about human development in teaching and learning situation;
 appreciate your parents effort in guiding you throughout your development process.
What is human development?

According to Santrock, 2002, human development is the pattern of movement or
change that begins at conception and continues through the life span. Development includes
growth and decline. This means that development can be positive or negative.
Human development follows pattern of movement or change. Before you become a
baby, you developed in your mother’s womb as fetus first. As expected during your
development you went on changes that are expected by anybody. You crawl first before you
learn to run. Your development begins at the moment the sperm cell of your father enters the
egg cell of your mother and it will end upon your death.
Development does not only about growth like gaining weight, getting taller and/or having
teeth for babies, (this is how development is in positive way), development also happens when
you aged and you loss your hair and your teeth (this is development can be negative). There
are some major principles of human development which will help you understand our topic
better.
PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Principle1-Development is relatively orderly.
As I mentioned in my example, as a human you learn how to crawl first before you can run
because we follow a pattern of human development. These are:
A.) Proximodistal pattern
This explains the motor development of a human. The muscular control of the trunk and
the arms comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers. It is the center to outward
direction of motor development. As you can see in the picture the baby first develop their chest
muscle that is why baby just lay on their back until their arms muscles will develop so that they
can crawl, then follows their legs muscles for them to be able to sit, stand, walk and run.
B.) Cephalocaudal pattern
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During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top. This means that
improvement in structure and function come first in the head region, then in the trunk, and last
in the leg region. This is from head to toe pattern of development as illustrated in this picture.
Principle 2- While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of

development processes and the rate of development are likely to vary among individuals.
Individuals will encounter factors that make them different from other individuals like the
environment and/ or heredity. As a result, we can expect individual differences in
developmental characteristics and variation in the ages when people will experience events
that will influence their development.
Comparing the two pictures, it shows that the children at picture number one grow in a
peaceful and loving family. Probably her development is faster and favorably compare to the
child in the picture number two because development varies depending on the heredity and
environment.
Principle3-Development takes place gradually.
While some changes occur in the flash of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or
year for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of developmental
characteristics. Development cannot happen overnight.
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It is slow and gradual like what illustrated in this picture. It takes years before an
individual reach each developmental stage. In this picture it takes years before an infant will
develop into a toddler, teen and adult. Development will not happen with just a blink of an eye
or overnight. We grow and develop gradually.
Principle 4- Development as a process is complex because it is the product of
biological,cognitive and socio-emotional processes(Santrock,2002).
 Biological processes involve changes in the individual’ s physical nature. Your brains
develop, you will gain weight and height. You will experiences hormonal changes
during puberty. All of these changes happen in your body is an example of biological
process of development.
 Cognitive process involves changes in individual thought, intelligence and language.
When you were an infant what you utter are just sounds, then you learn to utter a
word, the word become phrase, the phrase become sentence until you learn to
incorporate the things you have learned to your language. You eventually learn to
memorize a poem, solve complex math problems and to play games like chess which
uses your cognitive ability. These developments involve your cognitive aspect of
development.
 Socio-emotional process involves changes in the individual’ s relationship with other
people, changes in emotions and personality. When you were a baby you were very
attached to your mother, then your playmates came during your school age, the
attachment lessen. Now that you are teenager or young adult, your favorite companion
are your friends and peers. Then maybe time will come that you will fall for someone
and started a family, your attachment will shift to your own family. Some of you might
experience betrayal and will choose to grow old alone. All of these changes belongs to
the socio-emotional process of development.
 These biological, cognitive and socio-emotional process are inextricably intertwined.
While the processes are studied separately, the effect of one process or factor on a
person’s development is not isolated from the other processes. For example, if
someone is undernourished because he/she has a poor and troubled family, they could
be emotionally troubled as well and may result to his/her poor performance in school.
See how a biological process, affects the cognitive process in which in turn, affects the
socio-emotional process.
APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

According to Paul Baltes (Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development gives the
five characteristics of life span approach. Development is lifelong, it does not end in adulthood
but ends upon the death of the person.is development is multidimensional it consists of
biological, cognitive and socio-emotional dimensions as we discussed in the principles of
human development. Then, development is plastic it is possible throughout the life-span.
Development is contextual, meaning the person is a product of his/her environment.
Lastly, development involves growth, maintenance and regulation, and these three are the
goals of human development. Do you believe that you show extensive change from birth to
adolescence or you believe that even in adult age you are still undergoing development? Let
us see if what is your approach to human development. There are two approaches to human
development first if you believe that development takes place extensively from birth to
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adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in old age, your approach to human
development is traditional.
In contrast if you believe that even in adulthood developmental change takes place as it
does during childhood. That there is no dominant stage of development, your approach is
lifespan. When we say life span meaning from the moment you were born until the time of your
death.
MODULE 2
ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Learning outcomes:
At the end of this module, you should be able to take an informed stand/position on the three
(3) issues on development.
Each of us has his/her own way of looking at our own and other people’s development. These
paradigms of human development while obviously lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us with a
conceptual framework for understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come up with
their own models of human development. Back up bysolid research, theytake stand on issues
on human development.
THREE ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT 
1. Nature versus Nurture
The degree to which human behavior is determined by genetics/biology (nature) or learned
through interacting with the environment (nurture).
Nature 
 Behavior is caused by innate characteristics.
 The physiological/biological characteristics we are born with. 
 Behavior is therefore determined by biology. 
 Also, a Determinist view- suggests all behavior is determined by hereditary
factors: Inherited characteristics, or genetic make-up we are born with. 
 All possible behaviors are said to be present from conception. 
 Genes provide the blueprint for all behaviors; some present from birth, others
pre-programmed to emerge with age. 
 Is a developmental approach: E.g. Piaget: children’s thought processes
change at predetermined age-related stages changes in age are related to
changes in behavior?
Nurture 
 An individual’s behavior is determined by the environment- the things people
teach them, the things they observe, and because of the different situations
they are in.
 Also, a determinist view- proposes all human behavior is the result of
interactions with the environment. 
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 Behaviorist theories are nurture theories: - Behavior is shaped by interactions

with the environment.  Born an empty vessel- waiting to be filled up by
experiences gained from environmental interaction. 
 No limit to what they can achieve: -Depends on quality of external influences
and NOT genes.
 The quality of the environment is KEY -You can become anything provided the
environment.
Nature Nurture Interaction
Behavior is often a result of the interaction between nature and nurture. An individual’s
characteristics may elicit particular responses in other people e.g. Temperament: how active,
responsive or emotional an infant is influences in part determines their caregivers’ responses.
Gender: people tend to react differently to boys and girls due to expectations of masculine and
feminine characteristics.
Aggression: Displaying aggressive behavior create particular responses from other people.
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity
Continuity and discontinuity are two competing theories in developmental psychology that
attempt to explain how people change through the course of their lives, where the continuity
theory says that someone changes throughout their life along a smooth course while the
discontinuity theory instead contends that people change abruptly. These changes can be
described as a wide variety of someone's social and behavioral makeup, like their emotions,
traditions, beliefs.
Furthermore, continuity and discontinuity disagree with one another in how they assess the
changes that someone undergoes throughout the course of their life. The continuity theory
examines the way someone changes in a quantitative and continuous respect. Discontinuity
theory, on the other hand, looks at these changes through the lens of a qualitative analysis
with an emphasis on the discontinuous nature of how someone changes.
Developmental psychology encompasses a very wide array of observations related to how
people think, behave and interact with their environment as well as other people. This field, at
first, was focused on how young children develop but, in recent years, it has expanded past
the pediatric setting to encompass studies of how people change throughout the course of
their entire lives, up until the point of their death.
Is child development continuous or discontinuous?

Not all psychologists, however, agree that development is a continuous process. Some view
development as a discontinuous process. They believe development involves distinct and
separate stages with different kinds of behavior occurring in each stage.
3. Stability versus Discontinuity

Deals with the issue of whether or not personality traits present during present during infancy
endure throughout the lifespan. The stability-change debate describes the developmental
psychology discussion about whether personality traits that are present in an individual at birth
remain constant or change throughout the life span. For example, does a naturally extroverted
and talkative baby remain that way for their entire life?
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PART 2
THEORIES
OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
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MODULE 3
Several theories have been developed used to research child development. These
theories are used to explain child development. The theories are important because they
propose ideas or explanations to describe development and to predict kinds of behaviors.
Teachers are ought to study these theories to understand child and adolescent behaviors in
the teaching field. Let me discuss the theories of development.
SIGMUND FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Learning outcomes:
At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

a. ) summarize the different stages of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Development;
b. ) explain the implications of Freud’s theory to education.
ABOUT THE PROPONENT
Name: Sigismundo Schlomo Freud

Date of birth: May 6, 1856
Died: September 23, 1939
Spouse : Martha Bernays
Education: University of Vienna
An Australian neurologist and the founder of
psychoanalysis.
“Sigmund Freud believed that people are born with biological drives that must be redirected to
make it possible to live in a society” (Papalia et. Al, 2008). He proposed that development
happens throughout five stages in a child’s life.
Sigmund Freud believed that behavior and personality were derived from the constant
And unique interaction of conflicting psychological forces that operate at three levels of
awareness. He believed that each of these parts of the mind plays an important role in
influencing behavior.
In order to understand Freud’s theory, it is essential to first understand what he believed

each part of personality did, how it operated, and how these three elements interact to
contribute to the human experience. Each level of awareness has a role to play in shaping
human behavior and thought.
Freud delineated the mind in the distinct levels, each with their own roles and functions.
Three Levels of Mind
 Conscious is a level of mental life that are directly available to us. The awareness of our
own mental process (Thoughts/ feelings).
 Preconscious consists of facts stored in a part of the brain, which are not conscious but
are available for possible use in the future (E.g. A person will never think of her home
address at that moment, but when her friend ask for it, she can easily recall it).
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 Unconscious it contains all the urges or instinct that are beyond our awareness but it
affects our expression, feeling, action (E.g. Slip of tongue, dreams, wishes).
Three Fundamental Structures of the Human Mind
According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he
proposed as the three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego.
Conflicts among these three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of
them “desires,” determines how we behave and approach the world. What balance we strike in
any given situation determines how we will resolve the conflict between two overarching
behavioral tendencies: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives vs. our
socialized internal control over those drives.
Conflict within the mind: According to Freud, the job of the ego is to balance the
aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the moral control of the superego.
a.) The Id
The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification
of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious
thought). For example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely
take the ice cream for itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that it is rude to take something belonging
to someone else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream.
b.)The Superego
The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many people
call their ” conscience ” or their “moral compass.” It develops as a child learns what their
culture considers right and wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it would
not take their ice cream because it would know that that would be rude. However, if both your
id and your superego were involved, and your id was strong enough to override your
superego’s concern, you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you would most likely feel
guilt and shame over your actions.
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c.) The Ego
In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational,
pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and
partly unconscious. It’s what Freud considered to be the “self,” and its job is to balance the
demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. So, if you walked past the
stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego would mediate the conflict between your id (“I
want that ice cream right now”) and superego (“It’s wrong to take someone else’s ice cream”)
and decide to go buy your own ice cream. While this may mean you have to wait 10 more
minutes, which would frustrate your id, your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part of the
compromise– satisfying your desire for ice cream while also avoiding an unpleasant social
situation and potential feelings of shame.
Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult
personality and behavior are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout
childhood. He believed that a person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and that
imbalances in this system can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and
depression) and unhealthy behaviors.
Defense Mechanism
Mechanism Description Example
Repression An unconscious mechanism During the Oedipus Complex,

employed by the ego to keep aggressive thoughts about the
disturbing or threatening thought same sex parents are repressed.
from becoming conscious.
Denial Involves blocking external events Smokers may refuse to admit to

from awareness. If some situation is themselves that smoking is bad
just too much to handle, the person for their health.
just refuses to experience it.
Projection Involves individuals attributing their You might hate someone, but
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own unacceptable thoughts, your superego tells you that such

feelings, and motives to another hatred is unacceptable. You can
person. solve the problem by believing
that they hate you.
Displacement Satisfying an impulse (E.g. Someone who is frustrated by his

aggression) with a substitute object. or her boss at work may go home
and kick the dog.
Regression This is a moment back in A child may begin to suck their

psychological time when one is thumb again or wet the bed when
faced with stress. they need to spend some time in
the hospital.
Sublimation Satisfying an impulse (E.g.

aggression) with a substitute object
in a sociably acceptable way.
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Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in

which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous
areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly
sensitive to stimulation.
During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and
genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of
pleasure.
The psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind
behavior.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the

age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue
to influence behavior later in life.
Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or
stifle development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual
stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result.
If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A
fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at the
oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral
stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.
The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through
the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital
for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible
for feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this
oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become
less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the
individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in
problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.
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The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control
leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the
toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel
capable and productive.
Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as
the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative

outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-
expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or
destructive personality.
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an
anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and
obsessive.
The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years

Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is
on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between
males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the
mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to
possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears
that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration
anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience
penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis
envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this
stage.
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Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both

inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience
feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred
to as womb envy.
The Latent Period
Age Range: 6 to Puberty

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and
adults outside of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The
stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more
concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development
of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for
children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in
immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.
The Genital Stage
Age Range: Puberty to Death

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the
final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the
rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the
welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a
balance between the various life areas.
If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now
be well-balanced, warm, and caring.
Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the
ego and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are
ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and
wants.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic
urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.
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MODULE 4
ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
Learning outcomes:
 summarize the Erikson’s 8 stages of development;
 compare and contrast Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory to Erikson’s
psychosocial theory of development;
 cite the importance of Erikson’s theory of development in teaching and learning
process.
ABOUT THE PROPONENT
Name: Erik Erikson

Date of birth: June 15, 1902
Died: May 12, 1994
Spouse : Joan Erikson
Education: Bismarck- Gymnasium Karlsruhe
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Developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly regarded

and meaningful theory. Life is a continues process involving learning and trials which
help us to grow. Erikson’s enlightening theory guides us and helps to tell us why.
So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Much

like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory

described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was
interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development
and growth of human beings.
Erikson’s stages of psychological development are a very relevant, highly

regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving learning and
trials which help us to grow. Erikson’s enlightening theory guides us and helps to tell us
why.
Introduction of the 8 stages:
1. Psychosocial (“psycho‟ relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc. and „social‟
which means the external relationships and environment). Biopsychosocial, in which
“bio” refers to life as in biological.
2. The theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality
and behavior, and also facilitating personal development – of self and others. It can
help the teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time
understanding of the various environmental factors that affect his own and his
students‟ personality and behavior.
3. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength
which will help us through the rest of the stages of our lives.
4. Malignancy – it involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative
aspects of the tasks, such as a person who can’t trust others.
5. Maladaptation – is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and too
little of the negative such as a person who trusts too much.
6. Mutuality – reflects the effect of generation on each other, especially among families,
and particularly between parents and children and grandchildren.
7. Generativity – actually a named disposition with one of the crisis stages
(Generativity v Stagnation, stage seven), reflects the significant relationship between
adults and the best interest of children - one’s own children, and in a way everyone
else’s children – the next generation, and all the following generation.
STAGE ONE - INFANCY (0-18 MONTHS)

.
Psychosocial Crisis (TRUST versus MISTRUST)
The goal is to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity for
mistrust. If the primary caregivers, like the parents can give the baby a sense of
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familiarity, consistency, and continuity, then the baby will develop the feeling that the
world is a safe place to be, that people are reliable and loving.
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Please understand that parents should have to be perfect. In fact, parents who
are overly protective of the child will lead the child into maladaptive tendency which
Erikson calls sensory maladjustment: Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot
believe anyone would mean them harm, and will use all the defenses at their command
to find an explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong. Worse, if balance is
tipped way on mistrust side. They will develop the malignant tendency of withdrawal,
characterized by depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.
Virtue
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of Hope.
STAGE TWO - EARLY ADULTHOOD (18 MONTHS-3 YEARS)
Psychosocial crisis (AUTONOMY versus SHAME AND DOUBT)
In this stage Erikson believes that the child may develops a sense of doubt and
shame manifested in feelings of worthless and incompetence if the parents discourage
them in trying to do something on their own. We should keep in mind that even
something as innocent as laughing at the toddler’s efforts can lead the child to feel
deeply ashamed and to doubt his or her abilities. Unrestricted freedom or having no
sense of limit will also lead to shame and doubt.
Nevertheless, a little shame and doubt is not only inevitable, but beneficial.
Without it, the child will develop a maladaptive tendency Erikson calls impulsiveness, a
sort of shameless willfulness that leads you, in a later childhood and even adulthood, to
jump into things without proper consideration of your abilities. But too much shame and
doubt will lead to malignant tendency called compulsiveness: feels as if their entire
being rides on everything they do, and so everything must be done perfectly.
Virtue
If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and doubt, you
will develop the virtue of willpower or determination.
STAGE THREE - PRE-SCHOOL (3 - 6 YEARS)
Psychosocial crisis (INITIATIVE versus GUILT)
In this stage the child begins to explore his social and physical worlds
discovering what he can accomplish. The task is to learn initiative without too much
guilt. Erikson refers to this as a time for developing a sense of initiative or a positive
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attitude of personal accomplishment. At this time, the child gradually becomes aware of
the various social roles presented by his environment. In Erikson’s view, the basic
influence during this period is the child’s families who can help him learn to be
responsible for his behavior and actions. Erikson also includes Oedipal experience in
this stage.
Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Erik calls
ruthlessness. To be heartless or unfeeling or be “without mercy”. Sociopathy is the
extreme form of ruthlessness. Too much guilt will lead to inhibition. The inhibited person
will not try things because “nothing ventured, nothing lost” and, particularly, nothing to
feel guilty about.
Virtue
A good balance leads to the psychosocial strengths of purpose or courage.
STAGE FOUR - ADOLOESCENCE (6 - 12 YEARS)
Psychosocial Crisis (INDUSTRY versus INFERIORITY)
The task is to develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an excessive sense
of inferiority. The child’s world broadens technical skills are learned and feelings of
competence, enlarged. Children enter new world of the neighborhood and the school. In
Erikson’s view, when children come to believe that they cannot achieve according to
their school, family, or peers, their sense of mastery will give way to personal inferiority.
Thus, they become incapable of facing the transitory adolescent years which lie directly
ahead. Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept.
Too much industry will lead to narrow virtuosity. We see this in children who
aren’t allowed to “be children” the ones that parents or teachers push into one area of
competence, without allowing the development of broader interests. Too much inferiority
will lead to inertia. This includes all of us who suffer from the “inferiority complexes”
Alfred Adler talked about.
Virtue
A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority – that is,
mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble. Then we have
the virtue called competency.
STAGE FIVE - YOUNG ADULTHOOD (12-18 YEARS)
Psychosocial Crisis (IDENTITY versus IDENTITY DIFFUSION)
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The task during adolescence is to achieve identity and avoid role confusion. Ego
identity, according to Erikson, is characterized by an identity – formation crisis. The
question “Who am I and what can I do when I become an adult?” confronts the
adolescent. His struggle is based not only on societal demands as an emerging adult,
but also on the pubescent age. Since an adolescent spends more time with his friend,
the peer group now becomes an essential source of general rules of behavior.
If the child developed too much ego identity it will lead to malignant tendency
fanaticism. A fanatic believes that his way is the only way. But a person who lack of
identity will to repudiation. To repudiate is to reject. They reject their membership in the
world of adults and, even more, they reject their need for an identity.
Virtue
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson called fidelity.
STAGE SIX - MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (19-40 YEARS)
Psychosocial Crisis ( INTIMACY versus ISOLATION)
In this stage, the task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed to

remaining in isolation. Intimacy is the ability to be close to others. The individual
develops a warm and intimate relationship with another person. If such sense of
intimacy is not acquired during this time of life, a sense of isolation develops instead.
Such attitude is reflected in the ability to trust others in a close and intimate manner.
Erik calls the maladaptive form promiscuity, referring particularly to the tendency
to become intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth to your intimacy. The
malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to the tendency to isolate oneself from love,
friendship, and community, and to develop a certain hatefulness in compensation.
Virtue
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you for the rest
of your life the virtue Erikson calls love.
STAGE SEVEN - MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40-65 YEARS)
Psychosocial Crisis (GENERATIVITY versus STAGNATION)
The middle years of stage comprise the productive years of adulthood. In this
stage, the individual’s productivity is gauged by his contributions to his family and to
society. According to Erikson, the person who fails to develop this sense of generativity
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becomes preoccupied instead with his personal needs and interests with his personal
needs and interests or both with a sense of self-absorption or stagnation.
Too much generativity will lead to overextension. Some people try to be so

generative that they no longer allow time for themselves, for rest and relaxation. If the
person has little generativity and too much stagnation, the person will develop
rejectivity.
Virtue
But if you are successfully at this stage, you will have a capacity for caring that
will serve you through the rest of your life.
STAGE EIGHT- MATURITY (65 ABOVE)
Psychosocial Crisis (EGO INTEGRITY versus DESPAIR)
In the last stage, a person comes to terms with the temporal limits of his life (late
adulthood). It is the fulfillment and culmination. In Erikson’s view, it is the achievement
of a sense of integrity resulting from identification with mankind. If a person, however,
develops an attitude of regret and fear of the end of life, then a sense of despair
emerges instead.
The maladaptive tendency in eight stage is presumption. This is what happens

when a person “presumes” ego integrity without actually facing the difficulties of old age.
Disdain is the malignant tendency in this stage by which Erikson means a contempt of
life, one’s own or anyone’s.
Virtue
Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength Erikson calls wisdom.
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MODULE 5
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Learning outcomes:
 summarize the Piaget’s stages of development;
 compare Piaget’s theory the theories of Freud and Erikson;
 design learning activities to the learners’ cognitive stage.
ABOUT THE PROPONENT
Name: Jean Piaget

Date of birth: August 9, 1896
Spouse : Valentine Châtenay
Education:University of Neuchâtel
A developmental psychologist and epistemologist
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic field of

educational psychology. This theory fueled other researches and theories of
development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.
Basic Cognitive Concepts
Schema. The cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt to and

organize their environment.
Assimilation. The process of fitting new experience into an existing created schema.
Accommodation. The process of creating a new schema.
Equilibration. It is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.
PIAGETS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Stage 1: Sensori-motor Stage
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 The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage when a
child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes
more organized in his movement and activity.
 The term sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and
muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and
the world.
 In working with children in the sensori-motor stage, teachers should aim to
provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play
with.
 Object Permanence- This is the ability of the child to know that an object still
exist even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor
stage
Stage 2: Pre-Operational Stage
 The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old, roughly
corresponding to the preschool years.
 Intelligence at this stage, the child can now make mental representations and
is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the symbols. This stage is
highlighted by the following:
 Symbolic Function
This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a thing that
represents something else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be
understood as representing a real object like a real MRT train.
 Symbolic function gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7
years.
 Example: Riel, a two-year old may pretend that she is drinking from
a glass which is really empty. Though she already pretends the
presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass.
 Egocentrism
 This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to
assume that everyone also has his same point of view.
 The child cannot take the perspective of others.
 Example: You see this in five year-old boy who buys a toy truck for
his mother’s birthday.
 Centration
 This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect
of the thing or event and exclude other aspects.
 Example: When a child is presented with two identical glasses with
the same amount of water, the child will say they have the same
amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses is
transferred to an obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might
say that there is more water in taller glass. The child only focused
or “centered” only one aspect of the new glass, that it is a taller
glass.
 Irreversibility
 Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their
thinking. They can understand that 2+3 is 5, but cannot understand
that 5-3 is 2.
 Animism
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 This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or

characteristics to inanimate objects.
 When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply,
“Mr. Sun is asleep.”
 Transductive reasoning
 This refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that is
neither inductive nor deductive.
 Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular i.e., if A
causes B, then B causes A.
 Example: Since her mommy comes home everyday around six o’
clock in the evening, when asked why it is already night, the child
will say, “because my mom is already home.”
Stage 3: Concrete-Operational Stage
 This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only
in terms of concrete objects.
 This covers approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary
school years.
 The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
 Decentering
 This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different
features of objects and situations.
 No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or
dimensions. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing
with concrete objects and situations.
 Reversibility
 During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow
that certain operations can be done in reverse.
 For example, they can already comprehend the commutative
property of addition, and that subtraction is the reverse of addition.
They can also understand that a ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur
can again be rolled back into a ball of clay.
 Conservation
 This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like
number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a
change in appearance. Because of the development of the child’s
ability of decentering and also reversibility, the concrete operational
child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but
narrower container is still the same as when the water was in the
shorter but wider glass.
 The children progress to attain conservation abilities gradually
being a pre-conserver, a transitional thinker and then a conserver.
 Seriation
 This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based
on one dimension such as weight, volume, or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage

 Covering ages between 12- 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They
can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize.
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 Hypothetical Reasoning
 This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a

problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final
decision or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete
objects. The individuals can now deal with “What if” questions.
 Analogical Reasoning
 This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and

then use the relationship to narrow down possible answers in
another similar situation or problem.
 The individual can make an analogy.
 Example: if United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to
__________?
 The individual will reason that since UK is found in the continent of
Europe, then the Philippines is found in what continent? Then Asia
is answer. Through reflective thought and even in the absence of
the concrete objects, the individual can now understand
relationship and do analogical reasoning.
 Deductive Reasoning
 This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a

particular instance or situation. For example, all countries near the
northpole have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North
pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature.
MODULE 6
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Learning outcomes:
 summarize the stages of moral development;
 differentiate the Kohlberg’s Theory from other theories of development
 cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as a
teacher later on.
ABOUT THE PROPONENT
Name: Lawrence Kohlberg

Date of birth: October 25, 1927
Died: January 19, 1987
Spouse : Lucille Stigberg
Education:University of Chicago
American psychologist
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Individuals, when conformed by situations where they used to make moral

decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. Kolhberg was interested in
studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his theory in the findings of
Piaget in studying cognitive development. our ability to choose right from wrong is tied
with our ability to understand and reason logically.
Theory of Moral Development
He based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children.
A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also
interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario. One of
the best-known stories of Kohlberg’s (1958) concerns a man called Heinz who lived
somewhere in Europe.
Three Levels
Level One – Preconventional Morality
 (age 4 - 10)
 a person is motivated by obedience to authority.
 commonly associated with young children
 involves little thought about morality.
 moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of
following or breaking their rules.
Stage 1 – Obedience & Punishment

 Earliest stage of moral development
 Common in young children
 children see rules as fixed and absolute
 Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 – Individualism and Exchange/Mutual benefit

 children account for individual points of view and
 judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.
 Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it
serves one's own interests.
Level Two – Conventional Morality
 (age 10 - 13)
 people focus on following social norms and customs.
 begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.
 reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs
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Stage 3 – Interpersonal Relationships/social approval

 also known as “good boy-good-girl” orientation.
 Focused on living up to social expectations and roles.
 Emphasis on conformity being nice.
 Consider how choice influence relationship.
 Emphasizes the maintenance happy interpersonal relationships and
pleasing others.
 A need to avoid rejection, dissatisfaction or disapproval from others.
Stage 4 – Maintaining Social Order/Law and order

 consider society as a whole when making judgment.
 focus on maintaining law and order by following rules, doing one’s duty
and respecting authority.
 Please individual to maintaining social order by following social norms,
customs and laws.
 Becomes aware of the wide range of society to avoid guilt.
 A need to not be criticized by a true authority figure.
Level Three – Post-Conventional Morality
 (adolescence - adulthood)
 people look beyond convention to determine moral norms and appropriate social
interactions.
 judgment is based on self-chosen principles
 moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.
Stage 5 – Social Contract & Individual rights

 begin to account the differing values, opinions and beliefs of other people.
 Laws are important but members of the society should agree upon these
standards.
 becomes aware there are times when they will work against rules or the
interest of particular individuals
 emphasis on the social contract and the maintenance of individual rights
Stage 6 - Universal Principles

 reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning
 follow these internalized principles of justice, even if it’s against the law
 moral judgment is motivated by one's own conscience
 People have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or
may not fit the law.
 search for universal principles
MODULE 7
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY
26
Learning outcomes:
 summarize the Vygotsky’s theory of development;
 distinguish Vygotsky’s theory from other theories;
 explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.
ABOUT THE PROPONENT
Name: Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Date of birth: November 17, 1896
Died: June 11, 1934
Spouse : Roza Noevna Smekhova
Education: Shaniavskii Moscow City People's
University
Soviet psychologist
The key theme of Vygotsky theory is that social interaction plays a very important
role in the cognitive development. He believed that individual development could not be
understood without looking into the social and cultural context within which development
happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term appropriate assistance given by the teacher to
assist the learner accomplish a task.
When Vygotsky was a young boy, he was educated under a teacher who used the
Socratic method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach that
allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of
understanding. This experience, together with his interest in literature and his work as a
teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in
cognitive development. his theory became known as the socio-cultural theory of
development.
Social Interaction
 Piaget’s theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was more social.
 Piaget worked on Piagetian tasks focused on cognitive development
 Vygotsky gave more weight on social interactions that contributed to cognitive
development.
 Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in
social activities.
Cultural factors
 Vygotsky believed that culture played a crucial role on the cognitive development
of children.
 Piaget believed that as child matures, he goes through universal stages of
cognitive development.
27
Language
 Opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
Learners can use language to understand and know the world and solve
problems. Language serves as social function but it also has an individual
function.
 For Vygotsky this “talking-to-oneself” is an indication of thinking goes on in the
mind.
 Eventually will lead to private speech, a form of self-talk that guides the child’s
thinking and action.
Zone of Proximal Development

 Zone of actual development is the child attempt to do the skill alone. And he may
not be immediately good at it, so he may perform a certain level of competency.
 But with the guidance of more knowledgeable other (MKO), the competent adult,
the child can perform a higher level of competency.
 The difference between the child can do alone and what the child can do with the
help of competent adult is what Vygotsky referred to as zone of proximal
development.
 The ZPD provides a learning opportunity where competent adult helps the child
develop.
Scaffolding
 The support or assistance that the child needs to accomplish a task that he
cannot accomplish alone.
 it is not about doing the task while the child watches.
 The competent adult is needed to bridge the gap between the learners’ current
skill level and the desired skill level.
 When the learner can do the task alone this is called scaffold and fade-away
technique.
 Scaffolding, when done appropriately can make the child confident and
independent.
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MODULE 8
BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Learning outcomes
a. describe each of the layer s of Bronfenbrenner’s Biological Model;
b. identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s development;
c. use the biological theory as framework to describe the factors that affect a
child and adolescent development.
ABOUT THE PROPONENT
Name: Urie Bronfenbrenner

Date of birth: April 29, 1917
Spouse : Liese Price
Education: University of michigan, Harvard University,
Cornell University
Russian-born American psychologist
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian born American developmental psychologist

who is most known for his ecological systems theory of child development. He came up
with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the different factors that exert influence on
an individual’s development. It points out the ever-widening spheres of influence that
shape every individual, from his/her immediate family to the neighborhood, the country,
even the world.
Bronfenbrenner’s Model is also Known as Bioecological System
This theory presents the child development within the context of relationship
system that comprise the child environment.
Microsystems
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 Is the layer nearest the child. It comprises structure which the child directly
interacts with. They are called immediate environment.
 It includes one’s family, school and neighborhood.
 Does the child have strong and nurturing relationships with the parents and the
family?
 Are his/her needs met?
 The child affected by the parents care and love and child give back the love by
smiling is called bi-directional influences or mutuality.
Mesosystem
 This layer serves as the relationships between two or more microsystems such
as what is learned at home culturally. They are called connections.
 Interactions between the parents and teachers the parents and health services
the community and the church
Exosystem
 Environment that affect how one develops that is out of their control. They are
called indirect environment.
 workplace, mass media, city government are examples of this system.
Macrosystem
 Is a large cultural and social structural element of the environment that shape
human development. They are called social and cultural values.
 Example: in US students are more independent compared to Asian students.
Chronosystem
 Big events in the world that help psychologist understand the affect it will impact
in a person’s development through time. They are called Changes Over Time.
 Example: A family through a divorce A nation going to war
The Role of Schools and Teachers

“The instability and unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a
child’s development” Researchers tell us that the absence or lack of children constant
mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects on their development.
Bronfenbrenner’s Theory reminds the school and teachers of their very important role.
WHAT IF…. - If there is lack of support, care and affection from the home? - If there is a
serious breakdown of the basic’s relationships in a child’s life? - What can the school,
the teachers in particular do?
THIS THEORY HELPS… This theory helps teacher look into a very child’s
environmental systems in order to understand more about the characteristics and needs
of each child, each learner. The school and the teachers can contribute stability and
long-term relationships in the home.
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PART 3
DEVELOMENT OF
THE LEARNERS AT
VARIOUS STAGE
31
MODULE 9
PRE- NATAL DEVELOPMENT
Learning outcomes:
At the end of this module you will be able to:
 summarize the changes occur during the pre-natal development;
 explain the stages of pre-natal development;
 appreciate the value of life.
All the developmental theories that we discussed dwelt on the developmental
process after birth. None of them was concerned with what development went on before
birth. To make the description of human development complete, it may be good to
understand the beginnings of the child and the adolescent.
That which is the other’s womb is indeed a developing human being. An unborn baby of
eight weeks is not essentially different from one of eighteen weeks or twenty-eight
weeks. From conception the zygote, the embryo and the fetus are undeniably human
life.
To understand better our lesson, please do the following activities:
 Film Viewing
Please watch the film “The Silent Scream” in Youtube. Write a 100-word
reflection about the video you have watched and send your output in our google
classroom.
 Video Watching
Watch the video about Stages of Pre-natal Development and the Tetralogy and
Hazards to Pre- Natal Development on this link and take note all the important
information.
After you have watched the video and the film. Answer the following activities
and send your outputs in the google classroom.
ACTIVITY 1- GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
A. Give the three stages of pre-natal development and write a brief definition or
explanation about each stages using this graphic organizer
32
B. Give 5 hazards of pre- natal development using a web diagram.

C. Create a collage to illustrate what you have learned in the video.
Congratulations you have successfully completed Module 10!
MODULE 10
PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, SOCIO- EMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT OF
INFANT AND TODDLERS
Learning outcomes:
At the end of this module you should be able to:
 summarize the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development of infants
and toddlers;
 describe the changes happening in infant and toddlers’ physical, cognitive, and
socio-emotional development;
 draw implications of these principles and processes to parenting and caregiving.
INTRODUCTION
We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We shall continue to
trace the developmental process by following the infant or the baby who is just born up
to when he reaches age 2. The period that comes after pre-natal stage is infancy which,
in turn, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the first
two years of life.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
As you learned in Unit 1, Module 1, the cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal
growth from conception to 5 months when the head grows more than the body. This
cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies to the development of the fetus also applies
in the first months after birth. Infants learn to use their upper limbs before their lower
limbs. The same pattern occurs in the head area because the top parts of the head the
eyes and the brain - grow faster than the lower parts such as the jaw. The proximodistal
trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus grows from the
inside of the body outwards.
Height and Weight
33
 It's normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within
a couple of weeks of birth. That is due tothe baby's adjustment to neonatal
feeding. Once they adjust tosucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly.
 Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six
months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed
babies.
 In general, an infant's length increases by about 30 percent in the first five
months.
 A baby's weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second
year of life.
 Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a
natural curve of steady development.
Brain Development
 Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are the
spreading connections of dendrites to each other. (Please watch the video for
brain development)
Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are covered and
insulated by layers of fat cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth. The process
of myelination or myelinization increases the speed at which information travels
through the nervous system.
 At birth, the newborn's brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the
second birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight. Shortly after birth, a
baby's brain produces trillions more connections between neurons than it can
possibly use. The brain eliminates connections that are seldom or never used
(Santrock 2002). The infant's brain is literally waiting for experiences determine
how connections are made.
 A study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenzweig in 1907 revealed that the brains
of rats that grew up in the enrich environment developed better than the brains of
the animals reared in standard or isolated conditions. The brains of the 'enriched'
animals weighed more, had thicker layers, had more neuronal connections and
had higher levels of neurochemical activity. Such finding implies that enriching
the lives of infants who live in impoverished changes in their development
(Santrock, 2002).
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a depressed
environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by Santrock, 2002).
Motor development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin for reflexes,
to gross motor skills and fine motor skills.
Reflexes
 The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and serve
as survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes
which are present at birth will generally subside within a few months as the baby
grows and matures.
 There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that
babies have are:
34
Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of an
infant's mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch
unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some infants and they may
need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is most evident when an infant's cheek is stroked.
The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch and opening
their mouth for feeding.
Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The strength of
this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight in their grip.
Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant respond by
curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant will
respond by spreading out their toes.
Startle/Moro Reflex: Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by throwing

their arms and legs out, and throwing their heads back. Most infants will usually cry to
pull their limbs back into their bodies.
Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an infant's middle or lower back is
stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby being will respond by curving his or her body
toward the side which is being stroked.
Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are placed on
their abdomens. Whichever side the child's head is facing, the limbs on that side will
straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl. (http://www.mamashealth.com/child/
inreflex.asp)
Gross Motor Skills

Study the Figure below. See how you developed in your gross motor skills.
It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the
infant's first year of life. This dramatic motor development is being able to grab things off
the cabinet, to chase the ball and to walk away from parent.
Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles
controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb. The development of these skills allows one to
be able to complete tasks such as writing, drawing, and buttoning.
The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve precise eye-
hand coordination. The development of reaching and grasping becomes more refined
during the first two years of life. Initially, infants show only crude shoulder and elbow
movements, but later they show wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination of the
thumb and fore-finger.
Sensory and Perceptual Development

The newborn senses the world into which he/she is born through his/her senses
of vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Ideally, as he/she advances physically his/her
sensory and perceptual abilities alsomdevelop.
What are some research findings regarding newborns’ visual perceptions? Can
newborns see?
 The newborn's vision is about 10 to' 30 times lower than normal adult vision. By 6
months of age, vision becomes better and by the first birthday, the infant's vision
35
approximates that of an adult. (Banks & Salapatek, 1983 cited by Santrock,

2002)
 Infants look at different things for different lengths of time. In an experiment
conducted by Robert Fantz (1963 cited by Santrock, 2002), it was found out that
infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles rather
than at color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that "pattern
perception has an innate basis (Santrock, 2002). Among the first few things that
babies leam to recognize is their mother's face, as mother feeds and nurses
them.
Can newborns hear?

 The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the baby.
When in the womb, the baby hears his/her mother's heartbeats, the grumbling of
his/her stomach, the mother's voice and music. How soothing it must have been
for you to listen to your mother's lullaby. Infants sensory thresholds are
somewhat higher than those of adult which means that stimulus must be louder
to be heard by a newborn than by an adult.
Can newborns differentiate odors?

 In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) "young infants who were
breastfeed showed a clear preference for smelling their mother's breast pad
when they were 6 days old. This preference did not show when the babies were
only two days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience to
recognize their mother's breast pad odor."
Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?

 They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator of
stress) after a circumcision than prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al, 1997 cited by
Santrock, 2002). Babies respond to touch. In the earlier part of this Module on
motor development, you learned that a newborn automatically sucks an object
placed in his/her mouth, or a touch of the cheek makes the newborn turn his/her
head toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to
suck.
Can newborns distinguish the different tastes?

 In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies made different facial
expressions when they tasted sweet, sour, and bitter solutions (Rosentein and
Oster, 1988, cited by Santrock, 2002).
 When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near-term fetus, increased
swallowing was observed.
 This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present before birth.
Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are infants capable of
intermodal perception?
 Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information
about two or more sensory modalities such as vision and hearing.
 In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979). it was found out that as early
as at 3 1/2 months old, infants looked more at their mother when they also heard
her voice and longer at their father when they also heard his voice.
 This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming
through various modes gets sharpened considerably through experience.
36
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the way a baby thinks.
This includes his/ her language, communication and exploration skills. Examples of
cognitive activities include paying attention, remembering, learning to talk interacting
with toys and identifying faces.
Please review our past lesson the Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory.
Focus on sensori-motor stage of cognitive development. It was discussed about how
infant acquire knowledge by schema.
Theories of Language Development

 The Behaviorist Approach: Children acquire language through the principles of
reinforcement; successful utterings are reinforced and strengthened, incorrect
ones that do not gain approval are forgotten.
 The Nativist Approach: Noam Chomsky proposed that humans are biologically
predisposed to learn a language.
 Language acquisition device (LAD): a hypothetical brain mechanism proposed
to explain human acquisition of the syntactic structure of language
 The Interactionist Approach: Sometimes called cognitive functional linguistics,
this approach argues that language development is both biological and social.
Children are motivated to learn language by their desire to communicate with
others.
Acquiring Language
 Newborn infants are able to discriminate and categorize a variety of
characteristics of the human voice and patterns of speech.
 Cooing: At about 2 months, they produce one-syllable vowel sounds.
 Babbling: By 6 months, consonants are added and repetitive syllables mimicking
human speech are produced.
The Role of Experience in Language
 At birth, infants exhibit a universal capacity to detect phonetic differences in the
world’s languages; experience alters this capacity, so that by 1 year of age, the
infant is no longer universally prepared for all languages.
Social Interactions and Language
 Social interaction is essential for learning language; therefore, the people in an
infant’s life are critical in helping facilitate the infant’s language development.
 Infant-directed speech: a special way of speaking that caretakers use to address
infants; characterized by careful pronunciation, slow pacing, exaggerated
intonation, and short sentences featuring much repetition.
Raising a Bilingual Child
 Bilingual children tend to have a smaller vocabulary in each language than those
who speak only one, but they tend to perform better on a range of intelligence
tests and school achievement.
 Evidence indicates that exposing infants and toddlers to more than one language
may be a positive practice.
37
What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Cognitively?

LANGUAGE (RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE)
 Watches primary caregiver intently as she speaks to him/her
 Understands "No"
 Points to family member when asked to do so
 Points to 5 body parts on him/herself when asked to do so
 Follows one-step instructions without need for gestures
 Points to 5 named pictured objects when asked to do so
LANGUAGE (EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE)

Standards 1: The child is able to use words and gestures to express his thoughts
and feelings.
 Makes gurgling, cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds
 Uses gestures (e.g, stretching his/her arms, pointing) to indicate what
he /she wants
 Repeats sounds produced by others
 Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons
 Uses animal sounds to identify animals (e.g., meow-meow for cat)
 Uses environmental sounds to identify objects/events n the environment
(e.g., boom for thunder)
 Speaks in single words
 Says "yes" and "no" appropriatelyW
 Uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he/she wants
 Responds to simple questions with single words
 Uses pronouns
 Uses possessive pronouns
 Says what he/she wants without accompanying this with gestures
 Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood
PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (MATCHING)

Standards 1.1: The child is able to match identical objects, colors, shapes,
symbols.
 Able to match 2 identical objects (e.g, 2 spoons, 2 balls)
 Matches identical objects
 Matches identical pictures
PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (ROTE SEQUENCING)

Standards 1.2 The child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers in sequence
 Counts from 1 to 5 with errors, gaps or prompts
Domain: Cognitive Development

ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL
Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at
age-
expected levels.
 Looks steadily at novel stimuli (eg., rattle, dangling toy)
 Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these
(e.g.. pulling apart)
 Looks with interest at picture books
 Able to sit through an entire meal without fussing
38
 May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus

 Resists interruption while engaged in play
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT FORMATION)

Standards 1: The child develops basic concepts pertaining to object constancy,
space, time, quantity, seriation, etc. and uses these as the basis for understanding how
materials are categorized in his/ her environment.
 Experiments with new objects or toys by banging or putting them in his
mouth
 Looks in the direction of a fallen object
 Looks for partially hidden objects
 Looks for completely hidden objects
 Can tell whether something is hot or cold
 Hands over 1 object when asked
 Can tell which is shorter of 2 items
 Can tell which is taller/longer of 2 items
 Can tell which is bigger of 2 items
 Can tell which is nearer of 2 items
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES

(CAUSE- EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS)
Standards 1: The child is able to understand the cause -effect relationships.
 Acts on an object to achieve an objective (eg., shakes rattle)
 Uses an object to get something he/she wants (e.g, spoon to reach an
object)
 Asks "Why?" questions
 Understands reasons behind daily practices (eg, washing hands belfore
meals)
 Understands reasons behind safety rules & practices at home (e.g, why
one must not
 play matches)
 Knows where to return most of his/her things
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCES: EPISODIC MEMORY)

Standards 1: The child is able.to recall people he has met, events, and places he
has been to.
 Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met
several times but who does not live in his/her home
 Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of a familiar place besides his/her
hoe
 Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there before
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT-BASED KNOWLEDGE: SEMANTIC MEMORY)

Standards 1: The child is able to store verbal information in short and long term
performed.
 a recognizable tune
 Memorizes some gestures of action songs
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (LOGICAL REASONING)

Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e., reasons why
these happen) and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the facts presented to him.
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (PLANNING AND ORGANIZING)

39
Standards 1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity.
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CREATIVE THOUGHT)

Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas or concepts, or new
associations between existing ideas or concepts.
 Enjoys constructing objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.g.,
blocks, clay, sand, paper
 Uses toys or objects as symbols in play (e.g., pretends empty milk can is a
drum)
 Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g., big empty box as
house?
What infants and toddlers can do Cognitively?

Domain: Cognitive Development
ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL
Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at
age-expected levels.
 Looks steadily at novel stimuli (e.g., rattle, dangling toy)

 Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (eg, puling
apart)
 Looks with interest at picture books
 Able to sit through an entire meal without fussing
 May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus
 Resists interruption while engaged in play
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT FORMATION)

Standards 1: The child develops basic concepts pertaining to object constancy,
space, time, quantity, seriation, etc. and uses these as the basis for understanding how
materials are categorized in his/ her environment.
 Experiments with new objects or toys by banging or putting them in his
mouthn
 Looks in the direction of a fallen object
 Looks for partially hidden objects
 Looks for completely hidden objects
 Can tell whether something is hot or cold
 Hands over 1 object when asked
 Can tell which is shorter of 2 items
 Can tell which is taller/longer of 2 items
 Can tell which is bigger of 2 items
 Can tell which is nearer of 2 items
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CAUSE- EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS)

Standards 1: The child is able to understand the cause -effect relationships.
 Acts on an object to achieve an objective (e.g, shakes rattle)
 Uses an object to get something he/she wants (e.g., spoon to reach an
object)
 Asks "Why" questions
 Understands reasons behind daily practices (e.g, washing hands before
meals)
 Understands reasons behind safety rules & practices at home (e.g., why one
must not play matches)
 Knows where to return most of his/her things
40
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCES: EPISODIC MEMORY)

Standards 1 The child is able to recal people he has met, events, and places he
has to performed.
 Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met several
times but who does not live in his/her home
 Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of a tamiliar place besides his/her
home
 Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there before
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT-BASED KNOWLEDGE: SEMANTIC MEMORY)

Standards1: The child is able to store verbal information in short and long -term
memory
 Hums a recognizable tune
 Memorizes some gestures of action songs
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (LOGICAL REASONING)

Standards1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e., reasons why
these
happen) and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the facts presented to him.
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (PLANNING AND ORGANIZING)

Standards1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity.
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CREATIVE THOUGHT)

Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas or concepts, or new
associations between existing ideas or concepts.
 Enjoys constructing objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.g, blocks,
clay
sand, paper)
 Uses toys or objects as symbols in play (e.g., pretends empty milk can is a
drum)
 Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g., big empty box as
house)
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Simply but, socio-motional development has something to do with the
development of a person’s ability to master one’s emotion and the ability to relate to
others. It necessarily includes temperament, attachments and social skills.
Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human
development. They are so-called the formative years that is why, parents and other
caregivers at this stage of human development play a significant role in the
development of infants and toddlers.
As the poem "Children Learn What They Live" expresses, the kind of home and
school environment that parents and teachers produce determines to a very great
extent the quality of the development of children.
Let us discuss those elements that have something to do with the wholesome
socio-emotional development of children.
ATTACHMENT
 For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish an
enduring emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain
41
closeness to a specific figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is the

social phenomenon of attachment.
 According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings of
attachment occur within the first 6 months of a baby's life with a variety of built-in
signals that baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged. The baby cries, gazes into
her mother's eyes, smiles, etc. In the next few months, the baby develops in her
degree of attachment to her parents. She smiles more freely at them than at any
stranger whom she seldom sees. This is what Bob Greene must have
experienced.
 The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is a lot of
responsive interaction with the baby (K.Pasek and R.Golinkofi, 2003). Babies
thrive on social
 interaction when it is in response to their social bids. Babies seem to let us know
when they want to interact or not. The timing of the caregiver's response to the
baby is important.
 Other relevant and interesting research findings cited by K.Pasek and R.
Golinkoff,, (2003) in their book "Einstein Never Used Classcards" are given
below:
 What is absolutely central to babies' emotional well-being is not so
much feeding but the consistent involvement of caregivers. Being
fed by your mother is not what attached you to her. It is consistent,
close nurturing that matters in early relationships.
 Children who have good attachment relationships as infants make
better adjustments in a number of areas in future life. But re-
member, having a good attachment in infancy gives you a great
start but can't carry you through life. You have to be treated
sensitively and responsibly as you grow up if you are to develop
favorably.
 Infants attach to more than one caregiver and they are developing
emotional relationships with multiple caregivers at once.
 Even when children are in child care for more than 30 hours and
cognitive well-being than does the child care arrangement. Parents
matter and children are attached to parents even when children are
in child care.
 Parents and caregivers help children regulate their emotions by
working with them and by serving as their models.
TEMPERAMENT
 Another factor related to the infant's socio-emotional development is
temperament. Temperament is a word that "captures the ways that people differ,
even at birth, in such things as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention
span, persistence, and ability to regulate their emotions" (K. Pasek and R.
Golinkoff, 2003). Every baby expresses personality traits we call temperament.
How a child responds emotionally to objects, events, and people is a reflection of
his individual temperament.
 Researchers Thomas, Chess, and Birch described nine different temperament
categories (Honig, 2010, Secure Relationships: Nurturing Infant-toddler
Attachments in Early Care Settings.)
These include:
 Activity level
 Mood
 Threshold for distress
42
 Rhythmicity
 Intensity of response
 Approach-Withdrawal
 Distractibility
 Adaptability
 Persistence
To determine a child's temperament, make the following observations:

Activity level. Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a
lot and, as toddlers, are always on the move. At this stage, they must be watched
carefully.
The mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely
attached emotionally to their teachers, others have a low-key mood and look more
solemn or unhappy.
Child's threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive. They become
upset very easily when stressed. Other babies can more comfortably wait when they
need a feeding or some attention.
 The rhythmicity of children. Some babies get hungry or sleepy on a
fairly regular and predictable basis. Other babies sleep at varying times,
urinate or have bowel movements at unpredictable times, and get hungry
at different times. They are hard to put on a “schedule.”
 The intensity of response in each baby. When a baby's threshold for
distress has been reached, some babies act restless. Others act cranky or
fret just a little. Still others cry with terrific intensity or howl with despair
when they are stressed. They shriek with delight and respond with high
energy when reacting to happy or challenging situations.
 Approach to new situations. Some infants are very cautious. They are
wary and fearful of new teachers, being placed in a different crib, or being
taken to visit a new setting. Other infants approach new persons, new
activities, or new play possibilities with zest and enjoyment.
 Distraction. Some children can concentrate on a toy regardless of
surrounding bustle or noise in a room. Others are easily distracted.
 Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or difficult
situations with distress, but recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new
situations with difficulty or after a very long period.
 Child's attention span. Some children have a long attention span. They
continue with an activity for a fairly long time. Others flit from one activity
to another.
 Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrists Alexander Thomas
and Stella Chess studied babies' temperament and clustered
temperaments into 3 basic types: 1) the easy child; 2) the difficult child;
and 3) the slow-to-warm -up child and those that did not fall under any
of the 3 basic types. The easy child" easily readily establishes regular
routines, is generally cheerful, and adapts readily to new experiences.
The "difficult child" is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new
experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely to new things
while the "slow-to warm-up-child" shows mild, low-key reactions to
environmental changes, is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new
experiences.
The Emergence of the Moral Self

43
 A sense of morality presupposes awareness of the existence of moral standards

and the ability to evaluate oneself against standards. Once children can
recognize themselves as entities, they become capable of self-evaluation and
self-description against a set of standards. In the research conducted by
Professor Deborah Stipek and her colleagues at the University of California, Los
Angeles, (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff) about 50% of the 19- to- 24 month olds and
80 % of the 25-to-29-months old and almost all 30-to-40-month-olds are capable
of self-evaluation. These age groups of babies therefore
 Children who aren't capable of self-evaluation and self-description don’t have the
capacity to experience a sense of shame and remorse. Moral behavior cannot
occur when children do not recognize themselves as social beings whose
behavior can be evaluated against some standard." (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff
2003)
 It is not then surprising why some babies show their parents they have done
something wrong sometimes even with laughter or at other times with no
particular emotion. It is not because they are bad babies. It is simply because
they are not yet able to hold a standard in mind and evaluate situations in terms
of these standards.
The Development of Emotions

Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddler's emotional development
and social development:
Early infancy (birth-six months)

 It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if adults, using
adult facial expressions as the standard, simply superimpose their own
understanding of the meaning of infant facial expressions.
 Between six and ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by
other pleasure-indicative actions and sounds, including cooing and mouthing.
This social smile occurs in response to adult smiles and interactions.
As infants become more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in response
to a wider variety of contexts. They may smile when they, see a toy they have
previously enjoyed. Laughter, which begins at around three or four months,
requires a level of cognitive development because it demonstrates that the child
can recognize incongruity. That is, laughter is usually elicited by actions that
deviate from the norm, such as being kissed on the abdomen or a caregiver
playing peek-a-boo. Because it fosters reciprocal inter actions with others,
laughter promotes social development.
Later infancy months (7-12)

 During the last half of the first year, infants begin expressing fear, disgust, and
anger because of the maturation of cognitive abilities. Anger, often expressed by
crying, is a frequent emotion expressed by infants. Although some infants
respond to distressing events with sadness, anger is more common.
 Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare an
unfamiliar event with what they know. Unfamiliar situations, or objects often elicit
fear responses in infants. One of the most common is the presence of an adult
stranger, a fear that begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of
this stage is called separation anxiety. Infants seven to twelve months old may
cry in fear if the mother or caregiver leaves them in an unfamiliar place.
Socialization of emotion begins in infancy. It is thought that this process is

significant in the infant's acquisition of cultural and social codes for emotional display,
44
teaching them how to express their emotions, and the degree of acceptability
associated with different
types of emotional behaviors.
Another process that emerges during this stage is social referencing. Infants
begin to recognize the emotions of others, and use this information when reacting to
novel situations and people. As infants explore their world, they generally rely on the
emotional
expressions of their mothers or caregivers to determine the safety appropriateness of a
particular endeavor.
Toddlerhood years (1-2)

During the second year, infants express emotions of shame or embarrassment,
and pride. These emotions mature in all children and adults contribute to their
development.
Emotional understanding
During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are learning to
verbally express their feelings. This ability, rudimentary as it is during early toddlerhood,
is the first step in the development of emotional self-regulation skills.
In infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional
states. If they are uncomfortable they may be able to communicate this state by crying,
but have little hope of alleviating the discomfort on their own.
In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate their
emotions with the emergence of language providing an important tool to assist in this
process. Being able to articulate an emotional state in itself has a regulatory effect in
that it enables children to communicate their feelings to a person capable of helping
them manage their
emotional state. Speech also enables children to self-regulate, using soothing language
to talk themselves through difficult situations.
 Empathy, a complex emotional response to a situation, also appears in
toddlerhood, usually by age two. The development of empathy requires that
children read others’ emotional cues, understand that other people are entities
distinct from themselves, and take the perspective of another person (put
themselves in the position of another). (Source: http://psychology/jrank.org).
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person's psychosocial development)
apply at the periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they are discussed below:
Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)

 Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
 Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erik Erikson's centers around the infant's basic needs being met by
the parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food,
sustenance, and comfort. The child’s relative understanding of world and society come
from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to
warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one of
trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's
basic need a sense of mistrust will result. According to Erik Erikson, the major
developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary
caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food
45
comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust- that others are dependable and reliable. If
they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust- that the
world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly dangerous place.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

 Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
 Main Question: "Can do things myself or must I always rely on others?"
 Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they
begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide strong base of security
from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience help
foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill
the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges.
As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become
capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash
and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient
behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy- a sense of being able to handle many
problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let
children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-
sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle
problems (en.wikipedia.org.wiki.Erikson's- stages-of-psychosocial-development)
MODULE 11
DEVELOPMENT OF PRE- SCHOOLERS
(EARLY CHILDHOOD)
Learning outcomes:
 summarize the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development of
preschoolers;
 describe the changes happening in preschooler’s physical, cognitive, and socio-
emotional development;
 draw implications of these principles in teaching preschoolers.
INTRODUCTION
The preschooler years is commonly known as "the years before formal schooling
begins." It roughly covers 3-5 years of age. Although it is known as the years before
formal school, it is by no way less important than the grade school years. The preschool
years is very important as it lays foundation to later development. At this stage,
preschoolers achieve many developmental milestones. As such, pre-service teachers
who might be interested to teach and care for preschoolers need to be knowledgeable
about them to be truly an intentional and effective teacher.
46
Big Ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers

 There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers.
 The preschoolers' physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross
and fine motor skills.
 Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age.
 Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the
preschoolers.
 Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and development
of preschoolers.
 Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive well with the
appropriate adaptations made in the classroom, materials and activities.
Significant Changes in Physical Growth

 Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is much slower in
pace than in infancy and toddlerhood. At around years of age, preschoolers
move, from the remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward a slenderer
appearance of a child. The trunk, arms and legs become longer.
 The center of gravity refers to the point at which body-weight is evenly
distributed. Toddlers have their center of gravity at a high level about the chest
level. This is why they have difficulty doing sudden movements without falling
down. Preschoolers on the other hand, have their center of gravity at a lower
level, right about near the belly button. This gives them more ability to be stable
and balanced than the toddler. The preschooler moves from the unsteady stance
of toddlerhood to more steady bearing. They no longer "toddle'"', that wobbly way
that toddlers walk.
 By the time the child reaches three years old, all primary or "baby or milk" teeth
are already in place. The permanent teeth which will begin to come out by age
SIX are also developing. The preschooler years are therefore a time to instill
habits of good dental hygiene.
Gross and Fine Motor Development
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles.
These gross motor skills are categorized into three: locomotor, non-locomotor and
manipulative skills.
Locomotor skills are those that involve going from one place to another, like
walking, running, climbing, skipping, hopping, creeping. galloping, and dodging.
Non-locomotor ones are those where the child stays in place, like bending,
stretching, turning and swaying.
Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles
in the arm, hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skills included here are picking,
squeezing, pounding, and opening things, holding and using a writing implement. It also
involves self-help skills like using the spoon and fork when eating, buttoning, zipping,
combing and brushing
By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold a pencil with
their thumb and fingers, draw pictures, write letters, use scissors, do stringing and
threading activities. They can also do self-help skills like eating and dressing up
independently. Significant progress in fine motor skills can be expected of preschoolers
especially if they are aptly supported and appropriate activities are provided for them.
Handedness, or the preference of the use of one hand over the other, is usually
established around 4 years of age. Earlier than this, preschoolers can be observed to
47
do tasks using their hands interchangeably. We can observe a preschooler shifting the
crayon from left to right and back again while working on a coloring activity.
Preschoolers' Artistic Development

At the heart of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other
forms of artistic expressions. This form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers.
Viktor Lowenfeld studied this and came up with the stages of drawing in early childhood:
Stage 1. Scribbling stage. This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later
become circular markings. Soon, discrete shapes are drawn. The child may start to
name his/her drawing towards the end of this stage.
Stage 2. Preschematic stage. May already include early representations (This also
becomes very significant when we discuss about cognitive development). At this point
adults may be able to recognize the drawings. Children at this stage tend to give the
same names to their drawings several times. Drawings usually comprise of a prominent
head
with basic elements. Later, arms, legs, hands and even facial features are included.
Stage 3. Schematic stage. More elaborate scenes are depicted. Children usually draw
from experience and exposure. Drawings may include houses, trees, the sun and sky
and people. Initially, they may appear floating in air but eventually drawings appear to
follow a ground line. Important to remember is that the preschoolers representations or
drawings does not only involve fine motor skills, but also cognitive skills. Children's
drawings allow us to have a glimpse of how they understand themselves and the world
around them.
Preschoolers Nutrition and Sleep

The kind of nutrition a preschooler gets has far-reaching effect on his physical
growth and development. The preschooler's nutritional status is the result of what
nutrients he or she actually takes in checked against the nutritional requirement for
his/her age. Obviously, having too much or too little both have their negative effects.
It is important for preschoolers to get sufficient amount of rest and sleep.
Preschoolers benefit from about 10-12 hours of sleep each day. It is when they are
asleep that vital biological processes that affect physical and cognitive development
take place. During sleep, especially in the dream state (rapid eye movement stage),
growth hormones are released. Blood supply to the muscles are likewise increased
helping preschoolers regain energy. At this state while dreaming, increased brain
activity is also attained.
Preschoolers' Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking

There are two substages of Piaget's preoperational thought, namely, symbolic
substage and intuitive substage. In the symbolic stage, preschool children show
progress in their cognitive abilities by being able to draw objects that are not present, by
their dramatic increase in their language and make-believe play. In the intuitive
substage, preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning and ask a litany of
questions. The development in their language ability facilitates their endless asking of
questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable cognitive development, their
improved cognitive processes still show some aspects of immaturity or limitations.
Brain Connections in the Preschool Years
48
Because of fascinating developments in neuroscience, brain development of

young children have been of great interest to of early childhood. Brain research findings
point us to more effective ways to care for and teach preschoolers. From science
lessons you had in high school or even in elementary, you will remember that our brain
is composed of numerous cells called neurons that connect to each other to function.
Cell connections are what we call synapses, sometimes also referred to as synaptic
connections. Did you know that:
 the human brain contains some 50 billion neurons at birth?!
 by age 2, children have developed half of the brain cell connections that will be
made during one's lifetime?
 around 6 years of age the brain develops for more sophisticated thinking
patterns?
As future teachers, always be aware of your defining role in providing a quality
environment that will lead to optimum brain development for preschoolers.
Language Development
Young children's understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech.
As children go through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language
increases (morphology, semantics. pragmatics).
Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play. Children rapidly
conclude that sounds link together to make words and words represent ideas, people,
and things. Throughout the preschool years, children's language development becomes
increasingly complex in the four main areas:
 phonology (speech sounds
 semantics (word meaning)
 syntax (sentence construction)
 and pragmatics (conversation or social uses of language)
As they advance in age and as they continuously interact with people, preschool
children expand rapidly in their vocabulary through fast mapping, a process by which
children absorb the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in
conversation. Preschool children combine syllables into words and words into
sentences in an increasingly sophisticated manner.
From an expanded vocabulary and improved grammar, preschool children learn
to use language successfully in social contexts (pragmatics). With an expanded
vocabulary and improved grammar, grammar, preschool children become skilled
conversationalists and often initiate conversation.
Language and Social Interaction

Vygotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate
socially
regulatory fashion called inner speech or private speech (Santrock, 2002).
For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is an
important tool of thought during early childhood. Full cognitive development requires
social interaction and language. Children must use language to communicate with
others before they can focus on their own thoughts (Santrock, 2002). This implies the
importance or
interaction of preschoolers with caregivers for language development.
Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory

The Information Processing model is another way of examining and
understanding how children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes children's
mental processes through the metaphor of a computer processing, encoding, storing,
49
and decoding data. The preschoolers' attention span lasts longer than that of toddlers.
The child's ability to pay attention changes significantly during the preschool years.
The Young Children's Theory of Mind

Theory ot mind refers to individuals’ thoughts about how mental processes work
(Santrock, 2002).
 By the age of 2 or 3, children become aware that the mind exists. They
refer to needs, emotions, and mental states. When a preschool child says,
“I forgot my doll", "I want my ice cream"- these imply that he/she is aware
that a mind exists. Cognitive terms such as know, remember, and think
usually appear after perceptual and emotional terms, but are used by age
3 (Santrock, 2002).
 As their representation of the world and ability to remember and solve
problems improve, children start to reflect on their own thought processes.
They begin to construct a theory of mind or a set of ideas about mental
activities (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).This develops
markedly between the ages of three and five. It includes awareness of
one's own thought processes, social cognition, understanding that people
can hold false beliefs, ability to deceive, ability to distinguish appearance
from fantasy from reality (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).
 How do children manage to develop a theory of mind at such a young
age? Various speculations and research findings suggest that social
experience is very important. Social experience includes 1) early forms of
communication, 2) imitation, 3) make-believe play, 4) language, 5) social
interaction. (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007)
Socio-emotional development is crucial in the preschool years. We hear a lot of
parents and teachers and preschool administrators say that attending preschool is more
for "socialization" than for formal academic learning. There is wisdom in this. During the
preschool years, children learn about their ever widening environment (Remember
Bronfenbrenner?) Preschoolers now discover their new roles outside their home. They
become interested to assert themselves as they relate with other people. A lot of very
important social skills they will learn during the preschool years will help them
throughout life as adults. These skills can even determine the individual's later social
adjustment and
consequent quality of relationships in adult life.
Big Ideas on Preschoolers' Socio-emotional Development

1. The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler.
2. A healthy self-concept is needed for preschoolers to interact with others.
3. Environmental factors influence gender identity in young children.
4 Preschoolers' social development is shown through the stages of play
5. The care-giving styles of parents and teachers affect the preschoolers socio
emotional development.
6. Preschoolers are interested in building friendships.
Preschoolers' Initiative
Erikson's view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional and social changes that
happen during the preschool years. Preschoolers deal with the psychological conflict of
initiative versus guilt. Erikson believed that healthy preschoolers develop initiative, the
50
tendency of preschoolers to want to take action and assert themselves. They will learn
to create, invent, pretend, take risks and engage in lively and imaginative activities with
peers. When parents, teachers and other adults support these attempts and provide a
stimulating environment, the preschooler's sense of initiative will grow. On the other
hand, if the adults show overprotection, extreme restriction and criticisms, the
preschooler will develop guilt.
As preschoolers go through the conflict of initiative vs. guilt, they show so much
energy in doing imaginative play activities. Every place becomes a playground to
explore, every single thing an interesting piece to tinker with. Adults sometimes get
exasperated over this behavior and begin to see the preschooler as "naughty or
"makulit".
Some parents and teachers then become overly restrictive, resorting to threats,
intimidation and other scary tactics that disrespect the preschooler just to establish
"control". Consequently, the child may develop excessive guilt. Although a good amount
of guilt helps in making children take responsibility for their behavior, excessive guilt
hampers emotional growth.
The key thing to remember is to apply judicious permissiveness. This involves
setting realistic boundaries that keep preschoolers safe and respectful of self and
others, while allowing them greater opportunity to explore, take risks and to engage in
creative processes. Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense of initiative in an
affirming
encouraging and stimulating environment.
Self-Concept and the Preschooler

By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they
are a separate and distinct person. With their ability to make representations, they can
now think and reflect about themselves. Self-concept refers to the way one sees
himself, a general view about one's abilities, strengths and weaknesses. The
preschooler's self-concept mainly emotions and attitudes. One will hear a preschooler
say, "Kaya ko na” “Ako lang magsuot ng shoes ko." An important aspect of self-concept
is self-esteem, which specifically refers to one's judgments about one's worth.
Preschoolers are naturally positive. Usually they will tend to evaluate their skills high
and underestimate the tasks. They are confident to try again even if they don't succeed
with something. However, they may become negative because of repeated frustration
and disapproval. Preschoolers need a lot of patience and encouragement from adults.
Environmental Factors and Gender in the Preschoolers Socio-emotional

Development
As the preschooler's ability to create schemas develop, they become capable of
gender typing, the process of forming gender roles, gender-based preferences and
behaviors accepted by society. They come to form gender stereotypes. Preschoolers
begin to associate certain things like toys, tools, games, clothes, jobs, colors or even
the view of oneself actions or behaviors as being only for boys" or "only for girls."
Consequently, they form their own gender identity, the view as being masculine or
feminine. Gender typing and gender identity are influenced by environmental factors
such as the family, teachers, peers and the mass media. This is where
Bronfenbrenner's model comes into play. Different spheres of influence determine the
preschooler's development of a gender schema. Differences in parental expectations
and behavior towards daughters and sons affect gender typing and gender identity.
More often, boys are expected to show more emotional control and be more competitive
while their gender schema. This includes their relatives, teachers, classmates, girls are
expected to be warm and soft and demure. Parents also expect their children to play
with toys that are right" for their gender.
51
Mass media and ICT which include television, movies, the internet, computer
games also offer various images of what it means to be a boy
or girl.
Preschool teachers should think thoroughly on how to present notions of what
boys and girls can do especially in the discussion about occupations or community
helpers.
Parten's Stages of Play

Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social dimension. As
the preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases. Mildred Parten,
in the 1930's did a study on children's play behavior which led to Parten's Stages of
Play. The stages describe the play development of children and the gradual increase of
social interaction as they go through these stages. It begins with the very young child's
unoccupied stage, then solitary play, then parallel play, associative and cooperative
play. Play becomes an important venue for the child's development of social skills like
entering or joining a play situation, taking-turns, sharing, helping, saying sorry, and
working together. Play is indeed the child's major business!
PARTENS STAGES OF PLAY
1. Unoccupied
The child appears not to be playing but directs his attention on anything that
interests him.
2. Onlooker
The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to them but does not
enter into play with them.
3. Solitary Play
4. Parallel
The child spends time watching others play. Play
He may talk to them but does not
enter into play with them.
The child plays with toys similar to those near him, but only plays beside and not
with them.
5. Associative Play
The child plays with others. There is interaction among them, but no tasks
assignment, rules and regulation are agreed.
6. Cooperative
The child plays with others bound by some agreed upon rules and roles. The goal
is maybe to make something, play a game or act out something.
Friendships in Preschool
52
As they continue to grow, preschoolers become interested in having friends. This

should be encouraged in the preschool years as friendships benefit the preschoolers’
development by providing stimulation, assistance, companionship, social comparison
and affection (Kostelnik, 2010). Through friendships, preschoolers are able to practice
different social roles like being a leader, a follower, someone who takes risks and
someone who helps out and comforts. Friendships are very important because they
provide added sense of belongingness and security. In the preschool years, parents
and teachers must expose children experiences that help them learn skills in
establishing friendships, maintaining positive relationships and resolving conflicts.
Parents and teachers, when seeing preschoolers in a fight", should not just say "Tama
na..ano ba yan. isa pa ha. Tama na, friends na kayo.Say sorry na." Responses like
those do not foster social skills among preschoolers. Parents and teachers need to take
time and process with children how to resolve conflicts.
Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the children.
Caregivers here refer to both parents and teachers and even other adults that care for
the child. Baumrind gave a model that describes the different types of caregiving styles.
This was based on a longitudinal study that looked into the adult authority and the
development of children that Baumrind conducted which began in the 1960's. Decades
later she identified varying degrees of demandingness and responsiveness as
determinants of four styles of caregiving. Marion (2007) expounded on these
determining factors. responsiveness refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain to
expression of affection and communication. It refers to how warm, caring and respectful
the adult is to the child. It involves openness in communication and the willingness to
explain things in ways that the child will understand. Demandingness refers to the level
of control and
expectations. This involves discipline and confrontation strategies.
BAUMRIND CAREGIVING STYLES
Authoritative Permissive
high demandingness/ low demandingness/
high responsiveness high responsiveness
Authoritarian Negligent
high demandingness/ low demandingness/ low
low responsiveness responsiveness
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Baumrind Caregiving Styles and their Effects on Children
Caregiving Style Description Effects on the

Preschooler
Authoritative  Expect behavior  Makes the preschooler
(high demandingness, high appropriate for the child feel safe and secure
responsiveness)  Maintain reasonable  Teaches the child to
and fair limits take responsibility for
 Closely monitor the his/her actions
activities of the child  Develops good self-
 Warm and nurturing control
 Have realistic  Develops a realistic
expectations of the child view of oneself
 Communicate  Builds the child capacity
messages in a kind firm for empathy
and consistent manner
 Discipline approach
focuses more on
teaching and punishing
Authoritarian  Set subjective or  Lead to aggressive
(high demandingness, low unreasonable limits behavior of the child
responsiveness)  Communicate  Brings about poor self-
messages control
 Strive to have strong  Results in poor self-
psychological control esteeem
over the child
 Do not supervise
children’s activities very
well and get upset if
they make a mistake
 Use corporal
punishment, sarcasm,
withdrawal of love,
threats
 Not able to teach
children a better way to
behave

Permissive  Permit the preschoolers  Has difficulty in
to regulate their own controlling his/her
(low demandingness, high behavior and make their impulses
responsiveness) own decisions even  Tends to be dependent
when a preschoolers  Tends to be demanding
are not ready to do so of their caregivers
 Do not set rules or very  Tends not to persist or
few if any easily gives up on a
 Do not demand good tasks
behavior or task  Does not easily follow
accomplishment  Maybe rebellious
 May lack confidence in  \Does not handle
their ability to influence frustration well
the child  Has inadequate
 Maybe disorganized in emotional control
managing the family  Difficult in school
household/class performance
Shows undemanding,
indifferent and rejecting
actions towards the When parents behavior
child is to be extreme or if the
 Has little commitment to child may have:
their roles as parents/
caregivers  Attachment problems
 Maybe depressed and  Delayed cognitive
over burdened by many development
54
concerns like poverty,  Poor social and

marital problems, or emotional skills
absence of support from  Delinquent behavior
others later in adolescence
MODULE 12
DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOLERS
(MIDDLE CHILDHOOD)
Learning outcomes:
At the end of this module you will be able to:
 identify the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes occur in primary
schooler;
 give the different milestones in physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional state of
primary schooler.
INTRODUCTION
Middle childhood is the stage when children undergo so many different changes
physically, emotionally, socially and cognitively. This is the stage between 6 to 12 years
old. Children in this stage receive less attention than children in infancy or early
childhood. The support of the family and friends of the child is very important during this
phase of development.
Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this stage,
physical development involves: (1) having good muscle control and coordination, (2)
developing eye-hand coordination, (3) having good personal hygiene and (4) being
aware of good safety habits.
Height and Weight

In this development stage, children will have started their elementary grades,
specifically their primary years Grades I to 3. This period of gradual and steady growth
will give children time to get used to the changes in their bodies. An average increase in
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height of a little over two inches a year in both boys and girls will introduce them to
many different activities that they can now do with greater accuracy.
Most children will weight gain aaverages about 6.5 pounds a year, have slimmer
appearance compared to their preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation
and location of their body fats. A child's legs are longer and more proportioned to the
body than they were before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much
changes in the body will take place:
 exercise
 genes
 foods
 medical conditions
 climate
 diseases illnesses
Bones and Muscles

Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years. This is thebest time to
teach children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them have strong, healthy
bones throughout their lives. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity,
can substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood.
Because children's bones have proportionately more water and protein-like
materials and fewer minerals than adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly
help them in strengthening bones and muscles.
Motor Development
Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their
bodies. Most children have a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle
strength and skills. They enjoy doing real-life tasks and activities. They pretend and
fantasize less often because they are more attuned with everything that is happening
around them.
Children in this stage love to move a lot - they run, skip, hop, jump, tumble, roll
and dance. Because their gross motor skills are already developed, they can now
perform activities like catching a ball with one hand, tying their shoelaces, they can
manage zippers and buttons.
Performing unimanual (require the use one hand) and bimanual (require the
use of two hands) activities becomes easier. Children's graphic activities, such as
writing and drawing, are now more controlled but are still developing. They can print
their names and copy simple designs, letters and shapes. They hold pencils, crayons,
utensils correctly with supervision.
Motor development skills include coordination, balance, speed, agility and power
Let us look into the definitions of the different motor skills. Coordination is a
series of movements organized and timed to occur a particular way to bring about a
particular result (Strickland, 2000). The more complex the movement is; the greater
coordination is required. Children develop eye-hand and eye-foot coordination when
they play games and sports. Balance is the child's ability to maintain the equilibrium or
stability of his/her body in different positions. Balance is a basic skill needed especially
in this stage, when children are very active. During this time, children have improved
balancing skills. Static balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position,
like balancing on one foot. Dynamic balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium while
moving (Owens, 2006). Speed is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest
possible time while agility is one's ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the
56
body. These skills are extremely important in most sports. Power is the ability to perform
a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.
All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports.
Development of these skills may spell the difference between success and failure in
future endeavors of the child.
Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to cognitive development.
According to him, intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring balance in the
relations between the person and the environment. Everything that a person
experiences is a continuous process of assimilations and accommodations. Piaget
described four main periods in cognitive development. For Piaget, intellectual ability is
not the same at different ages.
Jean Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage

Concrete operation is the third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
It spans from ages 7 to approximately 11 years. In this developmental stage, children
have better understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to think logically about
concrete events, particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty understanding
abstract or hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time at problem-
solving.
 Logic
Concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already make use of
inductive logic. Inductive logic involves thinking from a specific experience to a general
principle. But at this stage, children have great difficulty in using deductive logic or using
a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.
 Reversibility
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of
reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being
able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. (For example in
arithmetic, 3 + 4 =7 and 7- 4 =3).
Cognitive Milestones
Elementary-aged children encounter developmental milestones. They develop
certain skills within a particular time frame. The skills they learn are in a sequential
manner, meaning they need to understand numbers before they can perform a
mathematical equation. Each milestone that develops is dependent upon the previous
milestone they achieved. Up until age 8, a child learns new skills at a rapid pace. Once
they reach the age of 8, the skills they learn start to level off and it usually is a steady
increase of new skills.
Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell left from right. They are
able to speak and express themselves develops rapidly. In school, they share about
themselves and their families. During play, they practice using the words and language
they learn in school. They start to understand time and days of the week. They enjoy
rhymes, riddles, and jokes. Their attention span is longer. They can follow more
involved stories. They are learning letters and words. By six, most can read words or
combinations of words.
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Information-Processing Skills
Several theorists argue that like the computer, the human mind is a system that
can process information through the application of logical rules and strategies. They
also believe that the mind receives information, performs operations to change its form
and content, stores and locates it and generates responses from it.
The developmental theorist, Erik Erikson, formulated eight stages of man's
psychosocial development. Each stage is regarded as a "psycho-social crisis" which
arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be achieved.
Preschool children belong to the fourth stage of Erikson's psychosocial stage.
Here, children have to resolve the issue on Industry VS. Inferiority.
Erik Erikson's Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development

Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve
in this stage. Industry refers to a child’s involvement in situations where long, patient
work is demanded of them, while inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a
feeling of failure when they cannot finish or master their school work.
In this stage, children, will most likely, have begun going to school. School
experiences become the priority, with children so busy doing school work. The
encouragement of parents and caring educators helps to build a child's sense of self-
esteem, strengthening their confidence and ability to interact positively in the world.
Understanding the Self

One's self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as beliefs regarding
personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals and roles. What does
the comic strip depict? It also involves a sense of belonging and' acceptance, a sense
of good and a sense of being capable of doing good.
Having a healthy self-concept does not mean that a child thinks he is better than
others. It means that he likes himself, feels accepted by his family and friends and
believes that he can do well.
Primary school children's self-concept is influenced not only by their parents, but
also by the growing number of people they begin to interact with, including teachers and
classmates. Children have a growing understanding of their place in the world. They
already know that they can please their parents and teachers. They are comfortable and
show confidence in doing things they are good at, but also show frustration in things
that they find difficult.
School Years
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to become
increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with social interactions. They are not
focused on themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and desires of others.
The issues of fairness and equality become important to them as they learn to care for
people who are not part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty and dependability
are being considered as well as responsibility and kindness.
Building Friendships
"What is a FRIEND? A single soul dwelling in two bodies."-Aristotle
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Making friends is a crucial but very important part of children's social and
emotional growth. As soon as they are able to walk and talk, they will tend to show
natural inclination to be around other children.
Children, during this stage, most likely belong to a peer group. Peer groups are
characterized by children who belong approximately to the same age group and same
social economic status. It is found along the stages of childhood through adolescence.
But for children, until the age of seven or eight, they think of themselves more than that
others. They may play well with groups but may need some time to play alone.
Primary school children prefer to belong to peer groups of the same gender.
Many children will use their surroundings to observe and mingle with other children.
Some will see this as an opportunity to make friends while others remain a bit of a loner.
Antisocial Behavior
Some adult may perceive that some children's behavior towards other children as
antisocial. When children poke, pull, hit or kick other children when they are first
introduced, it is fairly normal. Remember that children at this stage are still forming their
own world views and other children may seem like a curiosity that they need to explore.
Parents and teachers can help children make friends. You can consider the following:
 Expose the children to kid-rich environments (e.g. playgrounds, park).
 Create a play group in your class and let the children mingle with their
classmates.
 When your children hit other children, remind them that their behavior hurts
others.
 Coordinate with the parents and other teachers so that the children will have
greater opportunity to interact with other children.
Self-control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride in their ability to do
things and their capacity to exert effort. They like receiving positive feedback from their
parents and teachers. This becomes a great opportunity for parents and teachers to
encourage positive emotional responses from children by acknowledging their mature,
compassionate behaviors.
After you have read and analyze the module. It is time for you to apply your
knowledge to these activities. Good luck!
ACTIVITY 1
List down 5 milestones occur in each developmental areas of primary schooler.
COGNITIVE PHYSICAL SOCIO-EMOTIONAL
59
MODULE 13
PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE,
SOCIO-EMOTINAL DEVELOPMENT OF
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLER
(Late Childhood)
Learning outcomes:
 summarize the aspects of development occur in primary schooler;
 enumerate ways on how teachers can promote creativity in the learning
environment, learning activities and instructional materials.
 determine the qualities of family life that affects the development of the child.
Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be in a hurry. They get so
busy with their school work, interacting with their friends, exploring other possible
activities, but this period of physical development seems to take on a leisurely pace. On
the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of boys in terms of
physical maturity. Puberty may begin early. Budding breasts for girls which is the initial
sign of puberty. Some girls may also art with their menstrual period as early as 8 and
some as late 13. Many of the bodily structures like the liver, muscles, skeletons, kidneys
and face follow a normal curve of development for both girls and boys. Other structures
like the brain, intestines and other organs and bodily systems mature at their own time,
thus, affecting growth patterns.
Children gain an average of 7 pounds in weight, and average of 2 % inches in
height and an average of an inch in head circumference each year. Children at this
stage have growth spurts. Sudden boost in height and weight, which are usually
accompanied by increase in appetite and food intake. Increase in body fats also occurs
in preparation for the growth that occurs during adolescence. The body fat increase
occurs earlier in girls and is greater in quantity.
Girls appear to be "chubby'" while boys tend to have more lean body mass per
inch of height than girls. These are all normal part of development. These differences in
body composition become very significant during adolescence.
At this stage, children may become very concerned about their physical
appearance. Girls, especially, may become concerned about their weight and decide to
eat less. Boys may become aware of their stature and muscle size and strength. Since
this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must be very conscious
about their dealings with these children. Appropriate activities must be designed so that
children will be guided into the right direction.
Children must be given opportunities to engage themselves in worthwhile
activities that:
 promote healthy growth
 give them a feeling of accomplishment
 reduce the risk of certain diseases
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This stage is also characterized by advanced development of their fine and gross
motor skills. Muscle strength and stamina increase as they are offered different physical
activities. Children may become more interested in physical activities where they can
interact with friends and family. Activities which they can share with parents (e.g. biking,
running, playing basketball) show children that exercising can be fun.
Since children in this stage are already in their late childhood, rapid development
of mental skills is evident. According to Jean Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can
now organize thoughts effectively, although, they can only logically perceive the
immediate situation. They can apply what they have learned to situations and events
that they can manipulate.
Thus their reasoning and logical thinking are still very limited. But with proper
guidance and nurturance from parents, teachers and the rest of the community, these
children can easily succeed in their intellectual endeavors.
Initial Cognitive Characteristics

Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can
now utilize. Their thinking skills have become more effective as compared during their
primary years. Their school work is now more complicated. Reading texts have become
longer, problem solving has become an everyday part of their lives.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning give them chances of thinking about what
they want and how to get it. They now become very interested in talking about the future
or even their potential careers. They developed special interest in collections, hobbies
and sports. They are even capable of understanding concepts witithout having direct
hands-on experiences.
Reading Development
Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word attack. Because of
the presence of previous knowledge, they now have a wide vocabulary. which enables
them to understand the meanings of unknown words through context clues (This is the
"Reading to Learn" Stage in reading development.) They are no longer into the fairy
tales and magic type of stories but are more interested in longer and more complex
reading materials, e:g. fiction books and series books.
Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared to younger
children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much is required by the given
task. In terms of school work, older children can concentrate and focus more for longer
period of hours especially if they are highly interested in what they are doing.
Creativity
Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity is innate in
children, they just need a little guidance and support from parents, teachers and people
around them. They are usually at their best when the work is done in small pieces.
Creativity in children in encouraged when the activities:
 encourage different responses from each child.
 celebrate uniqueness.
 break stereotypes.
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 value process over product.

 reduce stress and anxiety in children.
 Support to share ideas, not only with the teacher / parent but also with
other children.
 minimize competition and external rewards.
The Impact of Media

The impact of the use of television and other media like the computer has gained
popularity because students are given more opportunity to:
 communicate effectively in speech and in writing
 work collaboratively
 use technological tools
 analyze problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for
 achieving those goals
 seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to meet their goals
Media and Aggression

Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the results of media.
According to the Public Health Summit in 2000, the following are some of the negative
results of media:
 Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behavior.
 Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who suffer from
violence.
 Children may view the world as violent and mean, becoming more fearful
of being victim of violence.
 Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment and real life.
 Children will view violence as an acceptable way to settle conflicts.
The school and the home provide children with unlimited lies with the access to
media, not only televisions and computers, but also videos, movies, comic books and
music lyrics. The responsibility now lies with the parents, teachers and the whole
community. It should be a collective effort among the factors working together to
support children in every aspect of development.
Having a role model is extremely important for children at this stage of transition
(from childhood to adolescence). It gives children an adult to admire and emulate. Role
models also provide them with motivation to succeed. One of the most important roles
of teachers is to become a very good role model to children.
Teachers...
 need to be an eager participant in children's growth and development.
 must understand how to use the children's natural curiosity to
 help make the appropriate developmental leaps in their skills and
abilities.
 must create an atmosphere where risks can be taken and discoveries
made while children remain safe.
At this period of socio-emotional development, children are spending less time in

the home. The bulk of their time is spent outside the home, either alone or with other
children, rather than with adults. Older children have already familiarized themselves
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with other children. They are already used to interacting with different ages and gender.
For many of them, these social networks are not only sources of social support but
also different forms of learning.
Understanding Self-Competence, Self-Identity and Self-Concept

One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of development
is the acquisition of feelings of self-competence. This is what Erik Erikson referred to
when he described the developmental task of middle childhood the social crisis industry
versus inferiority. Industry refers to the drive to acquire new skills and do meaningful
"work".
The child should have a growing sense of competence. The child's definitions of
self and accomplishment vary greatly according to interpretations in the surrounding
environment. Varied opportunities must be provided in order for children to develop a
sense of perseverance. They should be offered chances to both fail and succeed, along
with sincere feedback and support.
During late childhood, children can now describe themselves with internal and
psychological characteristics and traits. They most likely employ more social
comparison distinguishing themselves from others. In dealing with other children, they
show increase in perspective-taking. This ability increases with age. Perspective taking
enables the child to:
(a) judge others' intentions, purposes and actions,
(b) give importance to social attitudes and behaviors and to
(c) increase skepticism of others' claims.
Emotional Development
Similar to the other areas of development, children in this stage, show improved
emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one emotions can be
experienced in a single experience. The may also show greater ability to show, or
conceal emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine empathy.
Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children’s emotional
intelligence (EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feelings of oneself and others and
use this to guide and motivate behavior. Emotional Intelligence has four main areas:
 Developing emotional self-awareness
 Managing emotions (self-control)
 Reading emotions (perspective taking)
 Handling emotions (resolve problems)
Building Friendships
As children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in peer
interaction increases. For them, good peer relationships are very important. The
approval and belongingness they receive contribute to the stability and security of their
emotional development. Peer size also increases and less supervision by adults is
required. At this stage, children prefer to belong to same-sex peer groups.
Family
Family support is crucial at this stage which characterized by success and failure.
If children do not find a supportive family when they find their interest (e.g. in hobbies
like riding a bike or playing a musical instrument) they can easily get frustrated. If
families are seen as a primary support system, failures and setbacks become temporary
After you read and analyze this module, I am sure you are ready to answer the
activities that will test what you have learned. You may start now. Good luck!
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MODULE 14
PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, SOCIO-EMOTINAL
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS
Learning outcomes:
 identify the adolescence three aspects of development;
 summarize the developments happen in physical, cognitive, and socioemotional
development of adolescence;
 share your own developmental experiences at this stage.
Defining Adolescence
The period of adolescence begins with biological changes of puberty and ends
with the role and work of adult life. The specific ages for this period varies from person
to person but distinct phases have been identified. The advent of puberty may come
early for some and late for some others. But everyone goes through these stages.
These stages are:
 early adolescence characterized by puberty mostly occurring between
ages 10 and 13;
 middle adolescence characterized by identity issues within the ages of 14
and 16; and
 late adolescence which marks the transition into adulthood at ages 17 and
20.
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive and socio-
emotional changes, physical transition being particularity coupled with sexual
transformation. All the while, the aspect of individuality in adolescent development is
unique to each individual, although there are common issues that depend on race and
culture, inclusive of dependence versus independence, changes in parent-adolescent
relationship, exploration, need for more privacy and idealization of others
Pubertal changes
In all cultures, biological change comprises the major transition from childhood to
early adolescence. This is manifested by a change in physical appearance, a more
rapid rate of development (next to the speed of growth of the fetus in the uterus) known
as growth spurts. The phenomenon commonly results in a feeling of awkwardness and
unfamiliarity with bodily changes,
In addition, alterations in sleeping habits and parent-adolescent relationship may
be experienced accompanying puberty changes. The growth spurts Throughout life, the
growth hormone conditions gradual increases in body size, and weight, but hormone
flooding occurs during adolescence causing an acceleration known as the growth spurt.
Body changes include change in body dimensions (leg length, shoulder width, trunk
length). In particular, spurt in height is ascribed to trunk growth rather than leg growth
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In girls, the growth spurt generally begins at age 10 reaching its peak at age 1
and-a-half. and decreasing at age 13, while slow continual growth occurs for several
more years. Boys begin their growth spurt later than girls at around age 12, reaching a
peak at 14 and declining at age 15 and-a-half.
At age 16 and 4, girls reach 98 percent of their adult height, while boys do so at
age 17 and ¼. Growth in height is conditioned by stages in bone maturation. The
muscles also grow in terms of size and strength, while a similar spurt occurs for weight,
muscle size, head and face maturation, and especially the development of the
reproductive organs.
Briefly, all the muscular and skeletal dimensions appear to take part in the growth
spurt during adolescence.
Sexual maturity
The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is complex. Hormones
are recognized to be powerful and highly specialized chemical substances that interact
with bodily cells. The triggering hormones of the hypothalamus glands on hormones of
the pituitary glands signals the entire process of sexual maturation. During the process,
gonadotropic hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary, which lies beneath the
base of the brain and are situated approximately at the geometric center of the human
head. Gonads, which are the ovaries in the female and the testis in the male, are then
stimulated by the gonatrotopic hormones, in turn stimulating their own hormones. When
the male testis is stimulated by the gonadotropic hormones, testosterone is secreted,
while estrogen is secreted when the female ovary is stimulated.
Secondary male sex characteristics are stimulated by testosterone, comprised
by the growth of the testis and scrotum (recognized to be the first sign of puberty), penis
and first pubic hair; the capacity for ejaculation, the growth spurt, voice change, facial
hair development/ beard growth, and continuing growth of pubic hair, The acceleration
of the growth of the penis precedes the growth spurt in height. Pubic hair growth
precedes the first appearance ot facial hair growth. Occurring late in puberty, the
lowering of the voice, caused by the enlargement of the larynx and double lengthening
or the vocal cords, is viewed to be the most obvious aspect of adolescent development.
In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast enlargement, the
appearance of pubic hair, the Widening of the hips, a growth spurt, and menarche (First
menstruation). The elevation of the female breast is the first external Sign of puberty in
girls, while the growth of the uterus and vagina accompanies continued enlargement of
the breast. Generally, girls achieve menarche beginning 11 to 11.5 years (5 percent), up
to 12 and 12.5 years (25 percent) and at age 13 (60 percent). There are, however,
differences in reaching menarche in accordance with ethnic differences. Studies show
that African American and European American girls may exhibit secondary sex activities
as early as 8.87 years and 9.96 years; menarche as early as 11.6 years and 12.4
years, respectively.
In contrast with menarche, spermache signals the first sign of puberty and
sexual maturity in boys. At about age 12 or 13, boys experience the enlargement of the
testis and the manufacture of sperms in the scrotum, most likely experiencing their first
ejaculation of semen-a sticky fluid produced by the prostate gland. The need to
discharge semen occurs more or less periodically following pressure caused by the
production of seminal fluid by the prostate gland. Nocturnal emissions or "wet dreams"
occur during sleep often caused by sexual dreams.
Masturbation or manipulation of physical sexual organs is caused by conscious
fantasizing, both among boys and girls. It is important to note that science and religion
differ in their regard to masturbation. Modern medical science sees it as an inevitable
transitional phenomenon among adolescents. On the other hand, religion generally
regards it as gravely sinful, ascribing sin even to sexual fantasies. To view the issue
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objectively, a guilt complex on the matter is unhealthy to growth. On the other hand,
habitual masturbation is an aberration when it can inhibit the growing adolescent from
confidence in heterosexual (male-female friendship) relationship. In the end, while the
growing youth need not feel guilty about natural sexual urges, they need to be
forewarned about habitually giving in these urges. Outgrowing the acts of masturbation
is wholesome especially during adulthood when males and females need to relate to
each other in a mature relationship.
The secular trend

The striking tendency for children to become larger at all ages has been
perceived during the past one hundred years. Known as the Secular Trend, the
phenomenon reflects a more rapid maturation compared with that occurring in previous
millennia. In 1880, for example, the average age at which girls had their first menstrual
period in well- nourished industrial societies was 15 and 17 years. This is not true,
however, in depressed societies wherein this period is a bit later at about 15.5 years.
One hundred years ago, boys reached their adult height at ages 23 and 25 and
girls at ages 19 and 20. Today, maximum height is 14 for girls. reached between 18 and
20. The occurrence of the 20 years for boys and 13 and he secular trend is ascribed to
many factors, among which are: the complex interaction of genetic and environmental
this provides influences, improvement in health care, improved Iiving conditions, and the
control of infectious diseases. Better nutrition is a major since this provides more protein
and calories for humans from conception upwards. But while Third World countries are
still experiencing their secular trends, industrialized countries appear to experience the
levelling off in the achievement of physical maturation and greater height and weight at
earlier ages.
Adolescent sleeping habit

Studies show that teenagers are not getting enough sleep and would want more
sleep. Actually, lack of sleep is likely caused by changes in adolescent behavioral
patterns. Teens often stay up late because they enjoy it, especially with the advent of
Internet music listening, video watching, message/photo/e-cam communication, chatting
and blogging. About 90 percent of teenager high school student report going to bed
later than midnight. Socializing with peers add to the problem, causing difficulties in
waking up early and causing teenagers to struggle to stay alert and function
productively.
Shorter sleep time also contributes to increased levels of depression, daytime
sleepiness, and problems with sleeping. The school and teachers should therefore take
time to impart healthy sleeping habits, to prevent fluctuations in moodiness and anemic
conditions among teens.
Exploration
Instinctively, adolescents become aware of changes in sexuality, thus
undergoing a period of exploration and adjustment. Learners from sectarian (religious
and gender exclusive) schools are more likely to consider sexual openness to be
dangerous, if not sinful. The case is not perceived among non-sectarian or gender
mixed schools, although more dangers exist relating to heterosexual relationship and
early pregnancy among students in non-exclusive schools.
The drug culture, especially in urbanized communities, presents a serious danger
to students who are undergoing the exploratory phase of adolescent development.
Pluses and minuses in early or late maturation

Early or late maturation deserves due consideration, as this can be a factor for
adolescent acceptance and comfort or satisfaction with his/her body image. Among
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girls, physical changes are more dramatic, but perceptions of not being well developed
as compared with their peers can be a cause for timidity or shyness, if not frustration. In
the case of late maturing boys, the slack in growth in body build, strength, motor
performance and coordination may inhibit their performance in curricular and extra-
curricular activities, such as in sports. Being physically weaker, shorter and slimmer
would make them less apt to be outstanding in leadership activities and in sports. On
top of these, late maturing teens are seen by their peers as being more childish, more
inhibited, less independent, less self-assuring, and less worthy of leadership roles.
Meanwhile, teens who develop faster than their peers may be overly conscious
of this phenomenon. It helps to know that early maturing teens undergo a more
intensive growth spurt than late maturing teens. It can be a great plus for boys, who
become bigger than their age, more muscular, more physically attractive and more
athletic. It is obvious that the early maturing teens can gain social advantage, in -
esteem and greater inner poise. But there are also some disadvantages, such as
greater expectation on the part of others, resulting in lessening the experience of
freedom in more steady growth.
The ideal masculine and feminine physiques

Most adolescents desire an ideal body," which is the same as being physically
attractive or handsome in face (features of the eyes, nose, lips, hair, etc.) and in body
(tall and muscular for boys and tall and slender for girls).
In the developed countries like the U.S., about 10 percent of adolescents have
been known to take anabolic steroids in tablet or in injectable form for cosmetic and
athletic performance purposes. It is important to forewarn adolescents about the severe
harmful effects of long term use of steroids: liver dysfunction, cancer, and damage to
the reproductive system. Short-term effects, are hair loss, severe acne, high blood
pressure, shrunken testicles and low sperm production. Girl users develop irreversible
masculine characteristics, such as growth of facial hair. Steroids may also foster
aggressive and destructive behavior. Finally, giving up the drug may lead to depression
and suicide.
Adolescents and nutrition

Necessary for adolescent years are sufficient amounts of vitamin B12 (found in
animal proteins), calcium, zinc, iron, riboflavin and vitamin D. Magic diet schemes
suggested by advertising and magazines to lose weight, give a radiant hair, whiten the
skin, etc. should be met with caution. The vegetarian fad can also be disastrous
especially to adolescents who need vitamins. minerals and protein which vegetable
diets cannot provide. Vegetable intake is good, but this should be balanced with food
intake to form high-quality nutrition including eating protein sources such as milk, dairy
products and eggs. It is a recognized fact that teens are the poorest eaters among age
groups, as they often skip meals, frequently take snack foods (hamburger, fries, pizza,
soft drinks, etc.) at fast-food eateries.
The ideal body

lt's important that adolescents feel confident about their body image. The
physical features of the human body (facial looks, body size, color of skin, etc.) depend
on genetic heritage which must generally be respected. However, with advancement in
hair and skin technology, change in hair color and skin are no longer impossible.
There is more to body image than physical looks and these concern good habits
in relation to:
 Cleanliness and grooming
 Proper wearing of clothes following current styles
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 Erect bodily posture

 Eye contact while communicating
 Decorum (good form and confidence) and decency
Similarly remarkable as the physical changes in the transitional period of
adolescence, are changes in thinking patterns. These changes are marked by the
acquisition of new cognitive skills due to the brain's increasing in weight and refining
synaptic connections (technically known as the corpus collosum) which join and
coordinate the two hemispheres of the brain. Another brain development is the process
of continuous concentration of the brain cells in the prefrontal cortex and related
temporal and parietal areas (technically known as myelination). This second
development covers the brain systems whose executive functions relate to attention,
verbal fluency, language and planning.
Through brain scanning, three peaks in brain maturation have been identified by
neurological scientists and these are at age 12, age 15, and age 18.5, coinciding with
the operational thinking processes of logical reasoning Accompanying brain changes in
cognitive capability, the adolescent begins to acquire spatial awareness and formulate
abstract or general ideas involving numbers, order, and cause-effect. All these changes
propel the adolescent from the world of the sensible and concrete 'thoughts to the world
of the possible and the universal (abstract ideas, such as on the generally good, true
and beautiful).
Piaget's Formal Operational Thinker

Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking which demonstrates
how the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows him/her to go beyond the sensible
and concrete to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical, multidimensional and possible.
In this realm of thought, the adolescent begins to attain subtlety in thinking, entering the
sphere of possible and futuribles. More specifically, formal operational thinking consists
in:
 propositional thinking-- making assertions outside visual evidence, and
stating what may be possible in things not seen by the eyes (for example,
whether an unseen object is red or green, big or small, flat or round);
 relativistic thinking-subjectively making an opinion on facts- involving
one's own bias, prejudice of distortion of facts-which may be either right or
wrong (for example, arguing for or against the superiority of the races,
whether white, brown, yellow or black);
 real versus possible-examining a situation and exploring the possible in
terms of situations or solutions (e.g. possible success in implementing a
student project or a school policy).
For Piaget one indication of the presence of formal operational thinking is the
ability of the adolescent thinker for combinational analysis, which is his taking stock of
the effects of several variables in a situation, testing one variable at a time, and not
randomly. An application of a situation which requires combinational analysis laboratory
experiment activity wherein high school students test chemical elements singly
and in combination resulting in an understanding of chemical changes.
A new thought capacity, known as Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning, emerges
in the adolescent reasoning from general facts/situations to a particular conclusion. The
school pendulum experiment is an example of deducing from variables and generating
and recognizing a truth, expressed by the transitional process of deriving a conclusion
from a hypothesis.
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Scientific evidence shows that while adolescents may obtain the capacity for
formal operational thinking, only experience and education will allow them to actually
practice it. School math and science courses such as in performing Physics-type
problems (balance scales, pendulums, projections of images and shadows, etc,)
certainly help in actualizing formal operational thinking, although only 40 to 50 percent
of adults in Western cultures have shown evidence of success in formal cognitive
thinking processes.
Outside formal operational thinking which can be developed by mathematical and
science studies, the adolescent enters into a new capability which makes him a
Problem-Solving Thinker. This involves identifying problems and seeking new and
creative solutions for them. The problem-finding thinker is one who is able to rethink and
reorganize ideas and ask important questions, even defining totally new problems not
previously seen.
The adolescent may further experience an increase in depth of thought. Thus,
he/she is able to bring what is logically "best" for everyday life, whether or not this may
be the objectively correct solution or response to a situation or problem.
Siegler's Information-Processing Skills

As in information-processing theorist, Robert Siegler views the influence of the
environment on thinking. He sees cognitive growth, not as stages of development, but
more of a sequential acquisition of specific knowledge and strategies for problem
solving. He observes the quality of information the adolescent processes, and those
information influences him/her in his facing tasks at hand through strategies or rules. In
his experiments, Siegler used rule models in relation to balance, weight, distance,
conflict-weight, conflict-distance, and conflict balance problems. He examined the
correct and wrong answers to each of the problems, drawing out rule models in thinking
and knowing.
Thereupon, adolescents may show:
 speed in information processing, coupled with greater awareness and
control and acquired knowledge base-a more efficient kind of thinking
compared with that of the child
 complexity by way of considering longer term implications and
possibilities beyond the here-and-now, and
 increased volume of information processing, coupled with longer
memory span.
Metacognition
Among the developmental cognitive advances in adolescence is metacognition.
This involves the ability to think above thinking, evidenced by awareness of and
capacity to identify one's own thinking processes or strategies--perception,
comprehension, memory and problem solving.
The knowledge acquired through experience is stored in long term memory and
now becomes more declarative (I know that"), as well as procedural (" know how").
Thus, the learner becomes aware of his/her poor memory, such that the adolescent
may be prodded to muster cognitive capacity to supplement poor memory by employing
a memory aid, for example, a list of things to do and a mnemonic device. The learner
may also spend time with and attention to a material to be learned, demonstrating
higher thinking skills.
Another important information-processing trend is the adolescent's ability to
acquire an increased amount of knowledge and skills along many areas or domains.
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From a novice, he/she becomes a near-expert. Information is also processed more

rapidly, while showing increased levels of memory performance.
Overachievers
Achievement and IQ tests are standard measurements of the leaner’s abilities,
as well as potentials for success in given areas. While IQ tests alone do not measure
the great number of abilities that are part of human intelligence, they are still relatively
good predictors of success in school achievement. Indirectly, IQ tests are a beneficial
instrument in identifying learning deficiencies in leaners. Listed as characteristics of
overachievers are:
 Positive self-value (self-esteem, confidence, optimism)
 Openness to authority (responsive to expectations of parents and
teachers)
 Positive interpersonal relations (responsive and sensitive to feelings of
others)
 Less conflict on the issue of self-autonomy (feels freedom to make right
choices, initiates and leads activities)
 Academic orientation (disciplined work habits, high motivation to discover
and learn, interest in study values and varied fields of study)
 Goal-orientation (efficiency and energy in organizing, planning setting
target, prioritizing long-term goals over short-term pleasures)
 Control over anxiety (well composed and relaxed in performing organized
tasks)
Underachievers
Individuals whose performance are below the measured IQ levels are labelled
underachievers. In spite of possible potentials to learn and their grades and scores in
the top quarter on measured academic ability, their grades are below their measured
aptitudes for academic achievement. Under achievement becomes more pronounced
with the beginning of adolescent years in high school when class work becomes more
demanding
As to types of underachievers, the withdrawn underachievers are described as
having a more pronounced tendency to be passive (their overt behavior being
submissive and docile). They follow the path of no-resistance, not reacting against given
assignments and actually following school regulations. Generally quiet, they tend not to
participate in class activities. Meanwhile, the aggressive underachievers tend to be
talkative, if not disruptive and rebellious.
Parental involvement
There are many theories on underachievement, but generally the influence of
parents appears to be the dominant influence on the adolescent's achievement level,
more than peer group influence. A summary of differences between parents of high
achievers and underachievers will help teacher educators understand the significance
of parental involvement in adolescent learning and involvement in school activities.
Generally, parents of high achievers demonstrate:
 Positive attitudes about learning, school, teachers, and intellectual
activities, such as by exposing their children to stimulating books, word
games, wholesome sports, travel, etc.;
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 Harmonious and supportive relationship, inclusive of open, free and

enjoyable interaction within the family;
 Their own capabilities for success, conflict management, independent
choice with which children can identify;
 Encouragement and support for their children's achievement without
undue pressure,
 Active involvement in the school program and in parent-teacher-
community activities.
Meanwhile, parents of underachievers show little or none of the above traits,

while possibly showing:
 Indifference and disinterestedness in academic and extracurricular

activities of their children;
 Authoritarian, restrictive and rejecting attitudes or the opposite, namely
being excessively lax so as to leave their children on their own without any
involvement or support;
 Excessive indulgence, solicitousness, and protectiveness, thus stifling
their children's self-initiative.
Possible adolescent behavior during cognitive growth

Accompanying cognitive growth are possible behaviors which need to be
understood for proper guidance of the adolescent:
 Egocentrism. This is the tendency among adolescents to think too much of
themselves, such as to be too sensitive to social acceptance of their appearance,
actions, feelings, ideas, etc. Feeling they are being watched like an actor on a
stage, they keep an imaginary audience making them anxious about what to
wear, how to behave, etc. One egocentric strain is one’s feeling exaggeratedly
self-important, leading to dangerous situations such as entering into early boy-girl
relationships, reckless escapades and adventures.
 Idealism. The adolescent opens thought on the possible imagining what is far-
fetched and less ideal to situations at home, in school, and in society. Imagining
the world of the impossible (as a utopia or heaven on earth), the adolescent may
become discouraged as social realities (e.g. family discords) fall short of the
ideal.
Developing occupational skills

Generally, the high school curriculum tends to focus on academic cognitive
learning, neglecting attention to occupational skills. In the Philippines, there is evidence
that high school graduates lack skills to directly enter the labor sector. Generally,
college education is viewed as the path to occupations and careers in life.
Unfortunately, even college graduates are viewed to lack occupational skills needed for
employment in the present-day commercial and industrial sectors. The possible
mismatch between academic preparation and the professions need to be examined.
Schools which are diploma mills certainly do not contribute to social progress.
Today, experts believe that high schools can go more along the area of
developing occupational skills than they are currently providing adolescent students in
high school. It is important therefore, at least to guide students on their future career
choices to view how personality types match occupational interests and potential skills.
Theorist John Holland has identified basic personality factors matched with attitude and
work preferences. These personality factors are as follows:
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 Realistic-This personality type prefers practical tasks, often requiring

physical labor and motor coordination, and less of interpersonal skills, e.g.
in construction (carpenters, drivers, etc.)
 Investigative-They prefer to think rather than act, being interested in
tasks that use conceptual skills, e.g. in the field of the sciences and
technology (chemists, Scientists, technologists, etc.)
 Social-They are social and tend to engage in interpersonal situations and
social interaction, e.g. in the social sciences (social workers, physicians,
broadcasters, ete.)
 Conventional-They prefer structured tasks, and can subject their needs
to those of others, e.g. in office jobs (clerks, manual workers, etc.).
 Enterprising- They are skilled and constructive in thoughts and actions,
and are capable of leading others, e.g in business, industries (sales,
enterprises, etc.)
 Artistic-They prefer unstructured tasks and may show ability for self-
expression, e.g. in the arts (artists, musicians, performers, etc.)
It is understood that early enough, an adolescent may show various personality

factors making him capable of performing more than a single task. Thus, we have cases
of physicians entering into business ventures, scientists enjoying artistic pursuits and
the like.
Adolescents can show abilities for gainful work, such as those who work part-
time or full-time in fast-food restaurants as kitchen help, in retail stores as sales clerks,
and in offices as messengers and utility personnel. High school students who work can
benefit by acquiring the attitudes and abilities needed for gainful occupation. These are:
 Self-reliance (working without being stressed)
 Ability to manage money (not spend money on luxuries, much less on
alcohol or drugs)
 Social responsibility (cooperation and respect for others including
superiors)
 Mature work orientation (pride in the work done, quality work)
 Personal responsibility (Independently competing tasks)
 Positive attitudes about work (it is not a burden, but a gainful and
wholesome activity that contributes to personality growth)
Extracurricular activities
School activities outside the subjects for classroom study are mechanisms for
further development of the adolescent student, allowing the acquisition of new attitudes
(such as discipline and motivation), knowledge (such as of organization, sports, etc.),
and skills (organizing planning time-managing, athletics, etc.).
Extracurricular activities are an avenue for leadership, although there is need to
caution students on devoting more time than necessary to these tasks since their more
important curricular or study work may suffer. For example, joining a stage club may be
so engrossing especially to the artistically bent, such that studies may be neglected
causing lower academic achievement.
During adolescence, the teen shows manifestations of growth as he/she begins
to have friends in school, attends parties, goes to discos and keeps intimate friends with
the same or with the opposite sex. These external manifestations are signs of socio-
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emotional growth which usher in self-knowledge, self-identity, social relationships, and

what scholars see as an intensification of stereotypical gender roles (males tend to be
different from females).
Adolescence, as can be expressed in the book “The Tale of Two Cities," can be
the best of times… the worst of times." While it is a time of excitement, discovery and
joy, it can also open undesirable experiences related to adolescent anxiety, concerns
and troubles. Hanging out, frequenting parties, and feeling first loves are typical to
adolescents, but are atypical to other age groups. Meanwhile, juvenile violence and
drug use frequently occur during teenage years. Fortunately, most adolescents go
through happy times and are able to get themselves together to be able to go through
the next stage of development in adulthood through college educaton.
Self-Understanding
Physical and cognitive developments do not come in isolation, but are
accompanied by growth in self-image and maturation of feelings among adolescents.
The formation of a self-concept is of paramount significance since this relates to
enduring traits that make the person fully human. Inhumanity, as sadly demonstrated by
the egotistic, the cruel and the despotic (think of Herod, Hitler, Stalin, etc.) have caused
much suffering and sadness to mankind in human history.
In early adolescence (10-13 years), the teen begins to acquire a reflective idea of
one's self, not only in terms of the immediate present which younger children also see,
but in terms of their past and their future. During adolescent years, the teen also begins
to see his/her role and importance to society. This development requires self-thought or
introspective thinking along generalized ideas, such as in thinking that one is bright,
flexible, intelligent, etc.
From self-image, there is the all important value known as self-esteem. This is an
appreciation of who one is, regardless of possible limitations or deficiencies in bodily
and mental qualities. In the end, it becomes useless and unhealthy to seriously
compare ourselves with others in self-pity (e.g. not being as good looking or not having
high class grades as the other fellow). One can only think of unlimited number of
personages who are incomparable in physical traits (such as the beautiful people of the
celebrity world) and in intellectual acumen (Aristotle, Einstein, Bill Gates, etc.). Since the
growing youth ordinarily cannot be these people, making CompariSons of self with
others is really a futile exercise.
Developing self-esteem
Some scholars see the roots of self-esteem in the mother-child relationship. Thus,
boys develop a masculine trait in self-esteem since there is more distancing between
mother and son, compared with the closer emotional connection between mother and
daughter. The high involvement and intrusion by mothers in the lives of their daughter
are observed to cause delay in the development of self-individuation among girls. As
girls begin to separate themselves from the matrix of emotional connection with their
mother (7-11 years), they gain strength also and begin self- confidence, trusting their
own feelings and knowledge. They also begin to engage more freely in sports and the
arts with more courage competence and energy. But at age 14 (middle adolescence),
the danger surfaces for girls to lose their assertiveness, as their personality becomes
more self-conscious and deferential, It appears that at this stage development, girls
tend to lose their flexibility, optimism and spirit of adventure. These are useful ideas that
can serve as safeguards to ensure the proper directions for reorienting youths during
their adolescent growth. It does appear, however, that the effects of adolescent
transitions and acquisition of self-esteem are mixed. More important to note are some
established facts, namely:
73
 Self-esteem means appreciation of one's self or self-love, regardless of genetic

potential endowments (physical, mental, emotional).
 Potential endowments can be developed to a great extent through family
formation, school education, and social influence.
 The personal attitude-and-will to grow depends on the individual, although
motivational influences can help progressive growth (coming from parents,
siblings, friends, teachers, etc.).
 Popularity and external appearance (such as body physique, comely looks),
admiration by others, social position and prestige, are among the many external
factors that contribute to self-esteem but these are passing or vanishing
contributions to growth. They may last for many years, but in the end, self-
esteem has to grow from internal appreciation of oneself, factors regardless of
external circumstances in life.
 Self-appreciation, self-reliance, autonomy, energy, courage, and other internal
positive motivators are more permanent which can lead the adolescent to the
progressive self-concept he/ she needs in adult life.
Friendship and intimacy

Teenage friendship is a social system which can be wholesome in terms of
sharing of thoughts and feelings, caring for one another, and responding to one
another’s deeper psychological needs.
Several types of friendship can be distinguished:
 acquaintances who meet periodically;
 companions who share common' interest through regular contacts, and
 intimates or best friends with depth of self-disclosure/feelings/ caring, romantic
partners in intimate heterosexual relationship.
Intimate friendships are viewed to be especially important during early
adolescence. Compared with those who have not been involved in
intimate friendship, adolescents who have friendships characterized by compassion,
openness and satisfaction tend to be more sociable and more competent, while being
less anxious, depressed and hostile. The intimate parent-child relationship appear to
also wane as adolescents develop intimate friendship with a romantic partner.
Identity issues
The active search which adolescents engage in to try to gain a new
understanding of self along sexual, occupational, religious, political self-image is
referred to as identity issues. This process ushers in a sense of confusion as
adolescents bring together all the things they have learned as sons/daughters, students
and friends and try to make sense of their self-image.
Phases of identity status

John Marcia expanded on Erikson's theory on identity by identifying tour phases
in the attainment of an identity status. Commitment and crisis are two dimensions that
combine to define these stages:
 Identity foreclosure. This is the case of an adolescent who is a follower, finding
security in others not in his/her self. The adolescent makes a commitment before
asking about alternatives. This commitment arises from values or expectations of
other people (such as a parent, relative or friend), which may be premature as
foreclosure is rooted in commitment to obey, follow a strong leader, respect
authority--a most vulnerable kind of self-esteem develops.
74
 Moratorium. This is the case of an adolescent searcher. The adolescent enters

a crisis by becoming aware of alternative roles, values and beliefs. Thus, he
explores and experiments becoming a prober and critic without any permanent
commitment to follow authority or be part of a system. The moratorium status is
viewed as a most sophisticated mode of identity search and achievement.
 Identity achiever. This is the point where the adolescent fully finds
himself/herself. An optimal sense of identity is experienced. One feels at home
with one's body, with one's knowledge and awareness of where one is and where
he/she is going in addition to the possible recognition for deeds done. Identity
seekers have looked at alternatives and have made their choice with an optimal
feeling of themselves.
 Identity diffusion. This is the case of the adolescent failing to find
himself/herself. There is hardly a knowledge of who one is, uncertainty running
through episodes in life. ldentity-diffused persons lack goal orientation, direction
and commitment. While they may have expressed interest in a future career, they
are vague about it and are unaware even of the advantage and disadvantages of
the work they want to do.
Promoting a sense of identity

Overall, the ingredients that make up an optimal sense of personal
identity are:
 inner confidence about self-competence and ability to learn and master new
tasks;
 ample opportunity to try out new roles either in one's fantasy or in actual practice,
and;
 support from parents and adults.
Clearly, parental relationship plays an important role in self-identity development.
In fact, parental indifference and rejection create inner tension among children affecting
their individuation.
Moral development
Lawrence Kholberg laid down three stages of
moral reasoning among adolescent:
1. Conventional level
At this stage, the adolescent is able to understand and conform to social
conventions, consider the motives of peers and adults, engage in proper behavior to
please others, and follow the rules of society. The focus of thinking of the teen is
towards mutual expectations, relationships and conformity with others. Instead of
stealing an object, he/she may think of other options to acquire that object, such as by
asking or saving money to buy the thing. Doing good and being good spring from a
desire to be a good person by keeping rules ana respecting authority, summed up in
following the Golden Rule (do unto others what you want others to do unto you).
2. Post-conventional level
At this stage, the adolescent wishes to conform to:
 law and order (don't steal because it is against the law)
 the social contract (rights such as life and liberty must beupheld to uphold the
welfare of the majority in society), and
75
 universal ethical principles (the universal principles of justice,equality of human

rights, freedom of conscience, etc.)
Development of guilt
Guilt is a sense of feeling responsible for one's actions, particularly when harm
has been done to oneself or others. On the negative side, guilt can threaten self-image,
such that if one is unable to thresh out guilt feelings, there can be serious problems in
adjusting to normal living. Guilt that causes anxiety and fear can usher in a complexity
of illnesses, ranging from chronic fatigue to escapism (e.g. use of drugs to forget the
guilty feeling).
On the positive side, guilt makes us aware of possible wrongdoing, serving as a
regulator for individuals to be more responsible in upholding esteemed social values.
Inaction to change behavior adds to the initial guilt feelings.
 Anticipatory Guilt is felt when the child sees consequences that are detrimental
to oneself or others (e.g. stealing an item may cause others to grieve losing a
prized possession).
 Survivor Guilt is experienced when one feels blameworthy regardless of
involvement. (e.g. lingering feeling of baseless guilt).
Influences in moral behavior

Peers can encourage positive behaviors (e.g. example of good study habits),
although they can also encourage misconduct or inappropriate behaviors (e.g. use of
illegal drugs). Peer influence should not be underestimated. Compared with the
influence of peers, the influence of parents is more pervasive. The quality of parent-
child relationship is most positive control, competence, non-oppressive level parental
control.
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Ed 1- The child and adolescent learners and learning principles

What is human development?

PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Principle 2- While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of

APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

 Behaviorist theories are nurture theories: - Behavior is shaped by interactions

Is child development continuous or discontinuous?

3. Stability versus Discontinuity

SIGMUND FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

ABOUT THE PROPONENT

Name: Sigismundo Schlomo Freud

In order to understand Freud’s theory, it is essential to first understand what he believed

Three Levels of Mind

Three Fundamental Structures of the Human Mind

c.) The Ego

Mechanism Description Example

Repression An unconscious mechanism During the Oedipus Complex,

Denial Involves blocking external events Smokers may refuse to admit to

own unacceptable thoughts, your superego tells you that such

Displacement Satisfying an impulse (E.g. Someone who is frustrated by his

Regression This is a moment back in A child may begin to suck their

Sublimation Satisfying an impulse (E.g.

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year

Erogenous Zone: Mouth

The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years

Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death

ABOUT THE PROPONENT

Name: Erik Erikson

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly regarded

So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Much

Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory

Erikson’s stages of psychological development are a very relevant, highly

Introduction of the 8 stages:

STAGE ONE - INFANCY (0-18 MONTHS)

STAGE TWO - EARLY ADULTHOOD (18 MONTHS-3 YEARS)

Psychosocial crisis (AUTONOMY versus SHAME AND DOUBT)

STAGE THREE - PRE-SCHOOL (3 - 6 YEARS)

Psychosocial crisis (INITIATIVE versus GUILT)

STAGE FOUR - ADOLOESCENCE (6 - 12 YEARS)

Psychosocial Crisis (INDUSTRY versus INFERIORITY)

STAGE FIVE - YOUNG ADULTHOOD (12-18 YEARS)

Psychosocial Crisis (IDENTITY versus IDENTITY DIFFUSION)

STAGE SIX - MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (19-40 YEARS)

Psychosocial Crisis ( INTIMACY versus ISOLATION)

In this stage, the task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed to

STAGE SEVEN - MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40-65 YEARS)

Psychosocial Crisis (GENERATIVITY versus STAGNATION)