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PHYSICS ORDINARY LEVEL NOTES FOR GRADE 10-11

Topic 1: Scientific Processes

1.1 Mathematical requirements

During your Physics studies you will be required to manipulate experimental data. In these lessons you
will learn the basic mathematical procedures, which are required throughout the Physics syllabus.

1.1.1 Mathematical operations

 Add, subtract, multiply and divide rounding the answer correctly

The Number Line

A number line is a continuous line on which numbers are placed and it can be used in mathematical
operations especially sums involving negative numbers. Positive numbers are to the right of the zero
and negative numbers are to the left of the zero. Usually an outward facing arrow is placed on each
end depicting that the numbers could go on “forever” in each direction.

(a) Addition:

It is a summation process, and the answer of addition is called the sum. When you add two numbers
x and y, you start at x on the number line and move y places to the right if y is positive. If y is
negative, you move y places to the left.

E.g. 2 + 3 = 5

-2 + 4 = 2

Addition is commutative, the order of addition is not important.

Thus 2 + 3 is equal to 3 + 2, and -2 + 4 is equal to 4 – 2.

(b) Subtraction:

Subtraction is different from addition. The answer of subtraction is called the difference. When you
subtract two numbers x and y, you start at x on the number line and move to the left if y is positive. If
y is negative you move to the right on the number line, because subtracting a negative number is the
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same as adding the positive number. 2 – (-3) is the same as 2 + 3.

E.g. 2 - 3 = -1

1 – (-4) = 1 + 4 = 5

(c) Multiplication and Division:

Positive and negative numbers are multiplied and divided according to the following sign rules.

(+) x (+) = (+)

(+) x (-) = (-)
(+) ÷ (+) = (+)
(+) ÷ (-) = (-)
(-) x (-) = (+)
(-) ÷ (-) = (+)

Multiplication is multiple additions; therefore, it is like addition, commutative. (Changing the order of
something without changing the result). The answer of multiplication is called the product and the
numbers multiplied to give the product, is called the factors. Example: How many hours are there in
one year? Answer: We are asked to determine the product of the number of hours in a day and the
number of days in a year, which is 24 x 365 = 8 760.

Division is multiple subtractions and not commutative. Division means splitting item(s) into equal
parts or fractions. If we divide 100 by 5, it means that we split 100 into 5 equal parts and each part
is1/5 of 100. The answer is 20. The answer is called the quotient. Example: How long would it take a
motor vehicle travelling at 36 km/h to travel 8 640 km? Answer: In this case, we know that speed is
distance divided by time. From this we can work out that time taken must be distance divided by
speed. Therefore 8 640 ÷ 36 = 240.

1.1.2 Average, decimal numbers, fractions, percentage, ratios and reciprocals

 Use averages, decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios and reciprocals

(a) Averages:

When scientists want to ensure that their answers to problems are correct, they often repeat their
procedures. They then combine all of their answers to produce an average result. The average gives
them a good idea of what to expect should the procedure be repeated. Averages eliminate errors and
improve accuracy. When x different values are obtained from an experimental activity and you need to
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calculate the average, you find the sum of all the values and divide it by x. Average = sum of numbers
÷ amount of numbers.

Example

A number of samples with the same volume of carbon were collected and their masses determined
using a sensitive electronic balance. The results are given in the table below. Find the average mass
of the samples.

Sample number 1 2 3 4 5
Mass/g 36.6 41.9 38.7 37.2 36.4

Answer

Average = sum of numbers ÷ amount of numbers.

= (36.6+41.9+38.7+37.2+36.4)÷ 5
= 190.8 ÷ 5
= 38.16 g

If your measurement has units, the answer must also have a unit. In this case, the measurements were
in grams, so your answer must contain the unit, g.

(b) Decimal numbers

Decimal numbers are very important to scientists. The number of digits after the decimal point, called
decimal places, gives an excellent indication of the accuracy of the measurement. The more decimal
places, the more accurate the measurement. Decimals make it easier for us to compare
the magnitude of numbers. The decimal places start after the decimal point. E.g. 1.643 is a number
with 3 decimal places.

(i) Multiplying decimals numbers

When you have to find the product of decimal numbers, first ignore the decimal point and multiply the
numbers together. Once you have that answer, count the number of decimal places in the original
sum. Then, place a decimal point in that place in the answer.

Example:

The length and breadth of a classroom were measured as 8.73 m and 5.26 m respectively. Determine
the area of the floor in the classroom.

Answer:

Here we are asked to find the product of 8.73 and 5.26, so first we multiply 873 by 526 to give 453 198.
Now count the number of decimal places in the original sum. There are two in 8.73 and two in 5.26, so
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altogether there are four decimal places. Therefore, there must be four decimal places in the answer.
The answer is 45.3198 m2. Remember, the unit of area is m2. The number of decimal places in the
product equals the sum of the number of decimals of the factors.

(ii) Diving decimal numbers:

Change the decimals into whole numbers by multiplying the numerator and denominator with the
same factor.

Example:

13.014 ÷ 0.14

13.014 1000 13014

× = = 92.957
0.14 1000 140

(iii) Adding and subtracting decimal numbers:

We add or subtract decimal numbers by writing the numbers under one another; with the decimal
point in one vertical line.

Example:

Five students measured the length of a certain part of a stream. Each student measured a separate
section of the stream, with the total of their measurements being the total length of that part of the
stream. Their results are given in the table below. Find the length of the stream.

Student A B C D E
Measurement/m 5.25 6.1 3.723 9.07 2.5

Answer:

Units . tenths hundredths thousandths

5 . 2 5
6 . 1
3 . 7 2 3
9 . 0 7
2 . 5
Working _______________________________________________________
Answer 26 . 6 4 3

The length of that part of the stream was 26.643 m.

(c) Fractions:
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A fraction is a number written in the form a/b where a and b are integers. a is called the numerator and
b is called the denominator. When a < b, we call them proper fractions e.g. 1/2. When a > b, we call
them improper fractions e.g.4/3.

(i) Addition and Subtraction of Fractions:

To add or subtract fractions, we need to make sure that all the denominators are the same. If the
denominators are different, you should rewrite all the fractions with the denominator equal to the lowest
common multiple of all the different denominators. Then add the fractions.

e.g. 1/ + 3/ = 2 + 3/ = 5/ (LCM of 2 and 4 is 4)

2 4 4 4

(ii) Multiplication of Fractions:

Multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators, then simplify by dividing the numerator
and the denominator by the same factor.

e.g. 5/ x 4/ = 20/ = 10/

2 3 6 3

(iii) Division of Fractions:

To divide a fraction you need to multiply the first fraction with the inverse of the divisor.

e.g. 3/ ÷ 1/ = 3/ x 2/ = 6/ = 3/
4 2 4 1 4 2

(d) Percentages:

In industry, many items are compared in percentages, such as percentage profit, percentage purity,
percentage composition and efficiency. Your test results are usually reported to you as a percentage.
Use the following formula to calculate percentage:

𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Percentage = x
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝟏

Example:

An iron manufacturer produces 13 tonnes of waste material from 20 tonnes of iron ore. Calculate the
percentage purity of the iron ore.

Answer:

The percentage purity of the ore would be the percentage of iron produced from the ore. The amount
of iron is the difference between the amount of ore and the amount of waste.

Amount of iron produced = 20 - 13

= 7 tonnes
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𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Percentage purity of the ore = x
𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝟏

𝟕 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝟐𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒔 x 𝟏

= 35 %

(e) Ratios:

Ratios are used for comparison, sharing and planning. A ratio has no unit and it is the comparison
between similar things. Ratios are always given in its simplest form and no fractions or decimals may
occur in a ratio. The ratio 0.5:1.5 will be changed into 1 : 3.

Example:

The ratio of boys: girls in a class of 30 learners are given as 1:2. This means that for every boy in the
class there are 2 girls. The whole of the class of 30 pupils are divided into three parts of which 1 part
is boys and 2 parts are girls.

The exact number of boys in the class will therefore be 1/3 of 30 and the girls 2/3 of 30.

Thus, 10 boys and 20 girls.

(f) Reciprocals:

The reciprocal is the inverse of a number. The inverse of a whole number k is 1/k.

The inverse of a fraction a/b is b/a. Simply invert the number.

Examples:
1 2 8 3
The reciprocal of 2 is 2, because 2 = 1. The reciprocal of 223 , which is 3, is 8.

1.1.3 Direct and inverse proportions

 Use direct and inverse proportion

Proportions refer to ways in which variables are related. When two measurements have a constant
change relative to each other, we say the two measurements are proportional to each other. There are
two forms of proportion, Direct proportion and inverse proportion.

(a) Direct proportion is when one of the measurements increases, the other increases with a
constant value. When two variables are directly proportional and the one variable doubles,
then the other variable will also double.

x α y reads “x is directly proportional to y”. Then y = kx where k is

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𝑦
a constant and k = .
𝑥

e.g.1 worker (x) laid 400 bricks/hour (y)

k = 400/1 = 400
Two workers will then lay 400 x 2 = 800 bricks/hour
Plotting y against x will give a straight-line graph with gradient k.

(b) Inverse proportion is when one measurement decreases as the other increases. When
two variables are indirectly (inversely) proportional and the one variable is doubled, the
other variable will halve.
1 𝑘
y α 𝑥 reads “y is inversely proportional to x”. Then y = 𝑥 where k is

the constant of proportionality and k =xy.

e.g. If 2 workers take 10 days to build a room. How long will 4 workers take to build a room?
Let x be the number of workers and y be the time taken.

k = xy = 20
so y = k/x = 20/4 = 5 days
Thus, 4 people will take 5 days to build a room. Plotting y against x will give the following
curve.
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1.1.4 Indices and standard (scientific) notation:

 Use positive and negative, whole number indices and exponents in calculations

Consider the expression: am. This is a power of a, where a is the base and m is the exponent/ index.
If m is a positive number it means that a is multiplied by itself for m times.

e.g. 24 means 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16

Laws of Indices Applied in Calculations:

(a) Multiplying indices (exponents)

Law 1: am x an = a (m+n) (When exponents with the same base are multiplied, the exponents are
added together.)

Example 1:

24 x 22 = 24+2 = 26 .

Law 2: am x bm = (a x b) m (The exponents cannot be added together during multiplication if the bases
are different. If the exponents are the same, you multiply the different bases and raise the answer to
the same exponents)

Example 2:

22 x 32 = 62 = 12.

Law 3: am x bn = (am x bn) (If the bases are different and the exponents are also different, you multiply
one base by itself to the number of exponent times i.e. a x m times and multiply by the other base
multiplied by itself to its number of exponent times i.e. b x n times.)

Example 3:

Calculate 83 x 62.

Answer:

83 x 62 = 8 x 8 x 8 x 6 x 6 = 512 x 36 = 18 432 (Multiply 8 by itself 3 times and multiply 6 by itself 2

times).

Law 4: (am)n = am x n (When the exponent is raised to the power of another exponent, then the
exponents are multiplied together.
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Example 4:

(32)3 = 32 x 3 = 36 = 729.

(b) Diving indices (exponents)

Law 5: am ÷ an = a (m-n) (When exponents with the same base are divided the exponents are
subtracted.)

Example 1:

108 ÷ 106 = 10 (8-6) = 102 = 100.

Law 6: am ÷ bm = (a ÷ b) m (When the same exponents with different bases are divided, the different
bases are divided and raised to the same exponent. The exponents cannot be subtracted during
division if the bases are different. You divide the bases and carry the exponent.)

Example 2:

202 ÷ 102 = (20 ÷ 10)2 = 22 = 4.

Law 6: am ÷ bn = am ÷ bn (If the bases are different and the exponents are also different, you multiply
one base by itself to the number of exponent times i.e. a x m times and divide by the other base
multiplied by itself to its number of exponent times i.e. b x n times.)

Example:

23 ÷ 32 = 8 ÷ 9 = 0.889.

(c) Negative exponents

1 1
Law 7: a- m = 𝑎𝑚 or 𝑎−𝑚 = am (When the base is raised to a negative exponent, the answer is 1 divided
by the base raised to the positive exponent or 1 divided by the base raised to a negative exponent,
the answer is that base raised to the positive exponent)

Example:

1 1 1
3- 2 = 32 = 9 or 3−2 = 32 = 9.

(d) Zero exponent

Law 8: a0 = 1 (any number that has an exponent of 0 is equal to 1.)

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Example:

120 = 1 or 170 = 1 or 1 0000 = 1.

(e) Standard Notation/Scientific form/Scientific notation/Standard index/Standard form:

This notation is a convenient way of expressing very large or very small numbers. It takes the form of
A x 10n where 1< A < 10 and n is an integer and A is any real number.

e.g. the diameter of a hair is 0.00056 mm. In standard form the diameter of a hair is 5.6 x 10-4 mm.

1.1.5 Approximation:

 Make approximate evaluations of numerical expressions

Approximations are good estimates of an actual value. When you approximate a value, you estimate
it or give a value that is roughly correct. They help scientists in many situations, such as checking if the
amount of a substance is sufficient for a specific purpose. Estimation involves rounding off numbers
to a certain degree of accuracy i.e rounding complicated numbers to easier numbers before doing a
calculation.

 Rounding off to the nearest whole number – the first decimal place should be considered.
e.g. 3.4 rounds off to 3.
 Rounding off to the nearest ten - the units should be considered.
e.g.14 rounds off to 10.
 Rounding off to the nearest hundred – the tens should be considered.
e.g. 124 rounds off to 100.
 Rounding off to a certain number of decimal places, consider the place number on its right side.
e.g. 3.46732 rounded off to 2 d.p. is 3.47
 Rounding off to a certain number of significant figures, consider the number on its right side.
e.g. 1046.3 rounded off to 3 s.f. is 1050.

1.1.6 Using mathematical instruments.

 Use usual mathematical instruments (ruler, compasses, protractor, set square)

In this section you are going to learn how to use a protractor, set square, a pair of compasses and
rulers.

(a) Ruler:

Rulers are used to measure the distance between two points.

Rulers are calibrated in centimeters, which are displayed as cm, and in millimeters, which are
displayed as mm on the ruler.

10 mm = 1 cm
100 cm = 1 m
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To avoid a “parallax error”, you have to keep your eye on a line above the ruler so that the thickness
of the ruler does not create an error in positioning when measuring, see the example below for details.

The length from A to B is 149 mm = 14.9 cm.

(b) Pair of Compasses:

This instrument is used to draw circles, bisect angles and lines and to construct specific angles.

How to Bisect a Given Line:

Step 1: Extend the compass to more than half the line AB.
Step 2: Fix it at A and make an arc above line AB and another arc below line AB.
Step 3: Fix the compass at B and repeat step 2 such that the arcs intersect.
Step 4: Draw a straight line joining the intersection of the two arcs.

Now, line PQ divides line AB into two equal parts and line PQ is called the perpendicular bisector of
line AB.
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How to Bisect a Given Angle:

Step1: Extend the compass and fix the one leg at O. Draw an arc across OA at C and
an arc across OB at D.

Step 2: Fix the compass at C and at D respectively and draw arcs inside the angle
which intersects at E.

Step 3: Join O and E.

Now, line EO divides the angle AOB into two equal halves and EO is called the angle bisector.

(c) Protractor:

A protractor is a circular or semicircular tool, used to measure angles and circles. The unit of
measurement is displayed in degrees.

To Measure Angle AOB:

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Step 1: Take line OB as the reference line and O as the reference point.
Place the protractor so that the reference point and the reference line of the
Step 2:
protractor coincides with OB.
Step 3: Read the mark that coincides with the line AO on the protractor.

(d) Set Square:

A set square is mainly used to draw a 90˚ angles and are used in technical drawings. There are two
types of set squares: 30˚- 60˚ and 45˚- 45˚ which allow for the quick drawing of angles.

EXAMPLE OF HOW TO USE MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS:

Draw a perpendicular line at AB, 5 cm from A, using a pair of compasses.

Procedure:

 Use your ruler to measure 5 cm from A. Mark the point O.

 Fix the one leg of the compass to O. Draw curves on AB on both sides of O at P1 and P2 and
on the same distance from O.
 Extend the leg of the compass, then fix it onto P1 and draw an arc above line AB.
 Repeat this from P2.
 Draw a line from the intersection of the arcs to O. Line P3O is the required line.

Solution:
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1.1.7 Geometrical concepts:

 Explain the meaning of angle, curve, circle, radius, diameter, square, parallelogram,
rectangle, diagonal

In this section you are going to study the following concepts: angles, curves, circles, radius,
diameters, squares, rectangles, parallelograms and diagonals.

(a) Angle: An angle consists of two arms, called rays, which are joined together at a point called
the vertex. Angles are measured in degrees, using a protractor.

When two lines are joined at point O, as in the diagram above, each line can rotate around point O to
create an angle. The angle is the degree of separation of two straight lines which meet at one point.
The angle will be referred to as angle AOB. If the lines are on top of each other, there is no space
between them and the angle is zero degrees. If the lines are forming one line with the two parts opposite
of the point joining them, the angle is 180˚. When one line rotates completely about point O to reach
the other line again, it has moved through 360˚.

(b) Curve:

A curve describes a part of a circular path. It is a line where all the points on the line are equidistant
(same distance) from a given point celled the center of the curve. Graphs and diagrams may be made
up of more than one curve.

(c) Circle:

A circle is the locus (position/place) of points equidistant from a

single given point, the center of the circle. A collection of points
whose coordinates are continuous functions of a single
independent variable.
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(d) Circumference, C, is the distance around the circle.

Radius, r, is the distance from the center of the circle to any point on the circumference of the
circle. e.g. A to B or B to C is the radius.

(e) Diameter, d, is the straight distance from any point on the circumference of the circle, through
the center to another point on the circumference on the opposite side. e.g. A to C is the
diameter.

The ratio of the circumference to the diameter is called Pi (π). Pi is a constant value of
3.14159265 and is independent of the size of the circle.

Formulae used for circle calculations:

C = πd or C = 2πr (for circumference)
A = πr2 (for area)

(f) Quadrilaterals:

A quadrilateral is a shape with four sides. The interior angles add up to 360˚.

(g) Rectangle:

Definition: A parallelogram with all angles 90˚.

Properties: * equal diagonals which bisect each other.

(h) Square:
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Definition: A rectangle with all four sides equal in length.

Properties: * diagonals bisect each other at 90˚

(i) Parallelogram:

Definition: A quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides equal and parallel.

Properties:

* Opposite angles are equal.

* Diagonals bisect each other, but do not bisect opposite angles.

(j) Diagonal:

A straight line drawn from one corner of a quadrilateral to the opposite corner.

1.1.8 Determining area and volume

 Recall and use formulae for the area of a square, rectangle, triangle and circle
 Recall and use formulae for the volume of a cuboid and a cylinder

To work out the area an object will cover, we can make use of two methods:

 method 1: using formulae

 method 2: placing the object onto a piece of block paper, tracing the outline of the object, then
counting the number of blocks the object covered. The area is then calculated from the number of
blocks multiplied by the area of one block.
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The different formulae you may come across in your studies are summarised in the following table.

Shapes Diagram Formula

Square Area = side x side
e.g. = 5 cm x 5 cm
= 25 cm2

Rectangle Area = length x breadth

e.g. = 8 cm x 3 cm
= 24 cm2

1
Triangle Area = 2 x base x perpendicular height
1
e.g. = 2 x 8 mm x 9 mm
= 36 mm2

Circle Area = π x (radius)2

𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
= π x( 2 )2
(𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)2
=πx 4
e.g. = 3.142 x (12 cm)2
= 452.448 cm2

1.1.9 Linear equations

 Solve equations of the form x = y + z and x = yz for any one term when the other two
are known

Linear equations are equations of the form y = mx.

Where y, m and x are well-defined quantities. In your studies, you will come across two types of linear
equations:

 x=y+z
 x=yxz

You will be given the value of two quantities and be asked to calculate the value of the third quantity.

These equations will be studied throughout this course.

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 F = ma (resultant force = mass x acceleration)

 v = fλ (wave velocity = frequency x wavelength)
 ρ = m/V (density = mass ÷ volume)
 v = s/t (speed = distance ÷ time)

Examples:

 The sum of two numbers is 36. One of the numbers is 15. Find the other number.

Answer:

Write down what is given in the form of an equation.

“The sum of two numbers is 36” means x + y = 36.
“One of the numbers is 15.” Let x be that number, 15. 15 + y 36.
Now, solve for y. Subtract 15 from both sides of the equation, like this: 15 + y -15 = 36 -15
This gives 21. y = 21
Always check your answer, by substituting it in the equation. 15 + 21 = 36
The answer is correct.

 The product of two numbers is 64. One of the numbers is 4. Find the other number.

Answer:

Write down what is given in the form of an equation.

“The product of two numbers is 64” means x x y = 64
“One of the numbers is 4.” Let x be that number, 4. 4 x y = 64.
4𝑥𝑦 64
Solve for y. Divide both sides of the equation by 4, like this: 4 = 4 .
This gives y. y = 16.
Always check your answer, by substituting it in the equation. 4 x 16 = 64.
The answer is correct.
 A Bus with a mass of 15 000 kg, accelerates at 5m/s2. Calculate the net force acting on the bus.

Answer:

Use F = ma

F = 15 000 x 5
= 75 000 N

 The speed of sound is 330 m/s.

Calculate the distance travelled by the sound in 3 seconds.
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Answer:

Use v = s/t
330 =s/3
s = 330 x 3
= 990 m

 You are given the equation v = u + a + t. You are also given the following information: v = 136; u =
20; a = 10. Find the value of t.

Answer:

Write down what is given in the form of an equation: 136 = 20 +10 + t.

You have the following: v = u + a x t and v = 136; u = 20; a = 10.
Subtract 20 from both sides to get the term, t, by itself, like this: 136 – 20 = 20 + 10 x t – 20
This gives: 116 = 10 x t.
116 10 𝑥 𝑡
Solve for t. Divide both sides of the equation by 10. 10 = 10
This gives t. t = 11.6.
Always check your answer, by substituting it in the equation. 20 + 10 x 11.6 = 20 + 116 = 136. The
answer is correct.

1.1.10 Pythagoras’ theorem

 Recall and use Pythagoras’ theorem for a right angled triangle.

Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician who lived around about 2 500 years ago. One of the
mathematical theorems ascribed to him is the Pythagorean Theorem.

The theorem states:

“In a right-angled triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of
the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.”

States: The square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides.

(opposite) b c (hypotenuse)

a (adjacent)

c2 = a2 + b2 OR
a2 = c2 - b2 OR
b2 = c2 - a2

 This method can be used for any vectors that are at right angles to each other.
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Example

1 A girl walks 3.0 m due East from point A, stops and then walks, 4.0 m due North. How far is
the girl from her starting point?

4.0 m

A B
3.0 m E
Solution: Using Pythagoras’s Theorem

AC2 = AB2 + BC2

= (3.0m)2 + (4.0m)2
= 9 m2 + 16 m2
= 25 m2
AC = 5.0 m

To find the direction, use Trigonometry (SOHCAHTOA)

4
Tan Ө (CAB) = 3

Ө = tan-1 1.333

To calculate the magnitude of the resultant vector, use Pythagoras.

Ө = 53o

2 A bird flies 4 km due North then 3 km due East. Find the resultant displacement of the bird
from its starting point.

Solution:

Draw a sketch.
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Resultant displacement:

(dR)2 = 42 + 32
dR = √16 + 9
dR = √25
dR = 5 km

To determine the direction of the resultant displacement, use trigonometry.

𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
Tan x = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

3
Tan x = 4
x = tan-1 0.75
x = 36.9°

Thus: The resultant displacement = 5 km at a bearing of 36.9°

3. Determine the missing length in each of these triangles.

Answers:

(1) a2 = (100m)2 – (29m)2 (2) b2 = (203m)2 – (88m)2

= √10 000 − 841 = √41209 − 7744
= √9159 = √33465
a = 95.7 m. b = 182.9 m.

(3) c2 = (49m)2 – (47m)2 (4) d2 = (71.5m)2 – (33.6m)2

= √2401 − 2209 = √5112.3 − 1129.0
= √192 = √3983.3
c = 13.9 m. d = 63.1 m.
 22

1.1.11 Navigation: Taking bearings

 Recognise and use points of the compass (N, S, E, W), take bearing and apply the rules
for bearing taking

Have you ever wondered how the early navigators found their way around the world when at sea? They
could use the position of the stars but, more importantly, they used the magnetic compass to find north.
In this section we will learn about geographical navigation. You will learn how to use a magnetic
compass (north, south, east, west) and take bearings.

Taking bearings

Taking bearings enables you to describe the geographic location of a place with respect to another
place. We do this by measuring angles. We measure the angle of bearing relative to north. A magnetic
compass is usually used to give a bearing. It consist of a pointer, which is a magnet that is free to rotate
about a given point (pivot).

Compass:

A magnetic compass is used to give a bearing. It consists of a pointer, which is a magnet that is free
to rotate about a given point. The pointer always indicates north.

(a) (b)

(a) The four cardinal directions are north, west, south and east.
(b) We use a compass to give a bearing.

We measure the bearing of any place using magnetic north. The angle of bearing is always measured
clockwise relative to north. Bearings are always written as 3 digit numbers. If the angle is 60˚, the
bearing is given as 060˚.
 23

In the figure above:

 The bearing of B from A is the angle between the line AN and AB.
 The bearing of A from B is the angle between BN and BA, measured clockwise.
 The bearing of A from C is the angle between north and the line CA, measured clockwise.

Example 1:

A plane flies; 5 000 km due east from airport A to airport B. From airport B, it flies 1 800 km due south
to town C. Find the bearing of:

(a) town A from B

(b) town B from town A
(c) town A from C.

Answer:

Show this information on the diagram.

(a)

The bearing of town A from town B is 180o + 90o = 270o.

(b)
 24

The bearing of town B from town A is 090o.

(c)

Since the diagram represents a right-angled triangle, we find the angle x using the tan ratio.
5 000
Tan x = 1 800; this gives x = 70o.

If we subtract 70o from 360o, we get 290o. Therefore, the bearing of town A from town C is 290o.

Example 2:

The diagram shows the position of three towns: A, B and C.

Determine the bearing of :

(a) town A from C.

(b) town C from B
(c) town A from B.

Answers:

(a)
180o + 60o = 240o. The bearing of town A from town C is 240o.
 25

(b)

At B, the angle is 270o +300o. The bearing of town C from town B is 300o.

(c)

The bearing of town A from town B is 270o.

Example 3:

To get to work, you must drive from point A, 8 km due South, to point B. You then you have to drive 4
km due west to point C. If you have to measure (or calculate) the bearing of B from A, draw a north at
A and measure the angle clockwise from this line to B.

Give the bearing from A to B and A to C on a diagram.

 26

Answer:

Since the diagram represents a right-angled triangle, we find angle x by using the tan ratio.

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
tan x = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
4
tan x = 8
tan x = 0.5
x = tan -1 0.5
x = 26.6° or 30o

The bearing of A to B = 180°

The bearing of A to C = 180o+30o = 210° or 180o + 26.6o = 206.6o.
 27

1.2 Scientific skills

1.2.1 PLANNING AND CONDUCTING INVESTIGATIONS

 Predict the hypothesis or aim of the investigation in relation to dependent, independent

and control variables

(a) THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

To start an investigation, you need to know what you would like to discover. Let us for instance say that
you are interested in solar cookers. It is important to ask the right question to start your investigation.
We will call this the ‘big question’. This may be “Why are solar cookers coated with black inside?”

Once you know what your question is, it is a good idea to think what its possible answer could be. We
call this the ‘Hypothesis’. Perhaps you could think. “A black color for the inside of a solar cooker speed
up the process of cooking.”

In determining a hypothesis, you should do research to discover what other scientists have found out
in similar situations. Your research could include visiting the local library or surfing the internet.

(a) Visit the library (b) Use the internet

Now that you have the basis for your investigation you need to test whether your hypothesis is correct.
To do this you need to identify what factors could possibly affect your results. These factors are called
variables. The variables might include issues such as the different colors for the inside of a solar
cooker, temperature inside the solar cooker and the amount of time to roast a piece of meat inside a
solar cooker.

In testing the hypothesis it is important to know what variables you want to change and what variables
should be kept constant. It too many variables are allowed to change, you will not know which variable
has the greatest effect. For this reason you should only allow one variable to change. This is called
‘keeping the test fair’.

In the example above, the variable might be the inside color of a solar cooker. This variable that we
control is called the ‘independent variable’. Now you need to know how to measure the effectiveness
 28

of the test. This might be done by measuring how long it takes a piece of meat to roast using a specific
color inside a solar cooker. The time taken to roast the meat is called the ‘dependent variable’. We
call it the dependent variable, as it depends on the independent variable, which is the inside color of a
solar cooker.

We now have the basis for our investigation. What do we need to carry out the investigation? This leads
us to ask: “What materials or apparatus do we need?” In the example, this could be:

 a solar cooker that is painted black inside.

 Same type of solar cooker that is painted silver inside.
 Same type of solar cooker that is painted white inside
 Four pieces of meat, of equal size.
 Stopwatch.

We also have to establish a control experiment against which we can compare the results. This control
experiment would be a solar cooker with a red painted color inside. We prepare four identical solar
cookers with black, silver, white and red inside. The solar cookers and the size of the meat should be
identical, to ensure that the test is fair.

Once we have set up our investigation we take our initial observations, which are called the ‘Zero
Reading’. From here onwards, it is important to keep track of the progress. This can be done by
tabulating our measurements, by drawing sketches or by taking photographs. Once we are satisfied
that we have sufficient data, we need to be able to compare the results. This may be done by drawing
graphs. As with all graphs the independent variable, the inside color of the solar cooker, must be
placed on the x-axis and the dependent variable, the time taken to roast a piece of meat, must be
placed on the y-axis.

Looking at the results we should now be able to determine whether our hypothesis was correct or not.
If it was not correct we should think about revising our hypothesis and testing our new hypothesis. If it
was correct we might think about how to improve the results even further.

Solar cookers
 29

(b) MAKING OBSERVATIONS

 Make observations accurately

Observations are essential when we conduct scientific investigations. We often confuse observations
and conclusions. A typical observation may be bubbles forming throughout a clear liquid at a
temperature of 100 oC. These are things that we can see by looking at the liquid and the thermometer.

We may suggest as a conclusion to our observations that the liquid is water. If we are also able to
observe that the liquid turns white anhydrous copper sulfate blue we can, with a clearer conscience,
conclude that the liquid is pure water. We can use all five senses to make accurate observations.
However, at school you will be forbidden to taste anything in the laboratory. This is for safety reasons.

Senses we can use in the laboratory

(a) Sight (b) touch (c) hearing (d) smell

Some further examples of observations and related conclusions are shown in the table below.

Observation Possible conclusion

A strong-smelling gas that turns moist red The gas is ammonia
litmus paper blue.
A cylinder that is placed on a surface starts to Gravity is applying a force, causing the object to
roll. move.
When a burning splint is put into an inverted jar The gas is hydrogen
containing a gas, a pop sound is heard.

You can see that for all of these observations we have made possible conclusions. Observations are
accurate as these are things that can be seen, smelt, heard or felt. Conclusions are not necessarily
accurate, but may be verified by further testing.

(c) HANDLING APPARATUS AND MATERIALS SAFELY

 Use appropriate techniques; handle apparatus/ material competently and have due regard
to safety

A scientist must always ensure that investigations are conducted safely. Our aim should be to improve
situations for ourselves and for others around us, so safety will be one of our priorities. We need to
identify any possible hazards and ensure that the possibility of accidents or injury is reduced.
 30

Many possible hazards can occur when farming. This ranges from potentially dangerous animals such
as snakes and pests such as rats in the crop, to falling over a root, to cutting a hand when feeling the
quality of a crop, to fainting when nobody is around to help or to call for assistance. For this reason
always think of the possibilities and ensure that people know what you are doing and where you might
be at a specific time. A first-aid kit, a hat, sun screen and a bottle of water are important items if you
are working outside.

The first aspect of safety is planning. If you have planned well you reduce the risk of unnecessary
incidents. Make sure you include in your planning informing other people about what you envisage
doing. It is always a good idea to do investigations with a friend so that if one of you has a problem the
other person can get the necessary assistance.

Now that you are ready to commence ensure the area where you are going to do the investigation is
clear of obstacles. If there are obstacles that cannot be removed, mark them clearly. Collect the
apparatus you will need to conduct the investigation. This will include safety apparatus for each device
such as goggles, gloves and a laboratory coat.

(a) Always wear a white coat and safety goggles (b) Use tongs if you heat materials.

Wear gloves if you are going to touch materials

If you are going to use chemicals make sure that you are aware of all hazards regarding their use and
possible accidents. Neutralizing agents and a fire extinguisher should always be near at hand. It may
be necessary to clean away spills, so a supply of water and cloths or paper toweling should also be
available.

Once you have completed your investigation ensure that you pack away the chemicals in their correct
storage place. Clean all apparatus and wash the test tubes prior to storing them. Leave the place clean
and ready for future use.

(d) VARIABLES

 Distinguish between dependent, independent, and control variables

When doing investigations it is necessary to identify the different things that may affect the outcome of
your investigation. These are called variables. You will need to consider a range of variables, ranging
 31

from some that you cannot control, such as the temperature or the humidity in the laboratory, to others
that you can control, such as the original length and thickness of a piece of rubber.

Suppose you are to investigate the following hypothesis:

“The extension caused when different loads are applied to a piece of bicycle tube depends on
the width of the tube.”

The apparatus needed to test your hypothesis

The variables you might consider could in include:

 the length of the piece of bicycle tube.

 the thickness of the bicycle tube
 the color of the bicycle tube.
 the way in which the bicycle tube is supported
 the way in which the loads are attached
 the way in which the extension is measured.
 the loads that are to be attached
 the width of the bicycle tube
 the extension caused by the addition of loads.

We divide these variables into three different variables or groups. The first group of variables are ‘fixed
variables’ or ‘constant variables’. These are the things which you would like to keep constant throughout
the experiment, for example:

 the length of the piece of bicycle tube.

 the thickness of the bicycle tube
 the color of the bicycle tube.
 the way in which the bicycle tube is supported
 the way in which the loads are attached
 the way in which the extension is measured.

The second variable is called the independent variable. This is the variable that you change i.e the
quantity you choose to change during your investigation. In this case it would be:

 the width of the bicycle tube

 32

The third variable is called the dependent variable. The value of this variable depends on the value of
the independent variable. i.e the quantity you get in response to changing the independent variable. In
this case the dependent variable is:

 the extension caused by the addition of loads

When doing an investigation you want to ensure that the test you do is fair. This means that, where
possible, the only variable that differs between the experiments you conduct is the variable that you
want to test. This is called the independent variable, because you will change it. The dependent variable
is the measurement you take in order to compare the results of the experiment. The first group of
variables, fixed or constant variables, should be exactly the same each time you conduct your
experiment.

One important experiment that you should always set up is a control experiment. The control
experiment will be the experiment for which you remove the independent variable completely to see
what would happen naturally. This may be the ‘zero reading’, which is the reading you will take before
starting any experiment. You can then compare all your results against the control, or the zero reading.

Summary

 Observations and procedures must be carried out carefully to ensure that results are as accurate
as possible.
 Safety is a primary concern, therefore handle apparatus/materials competently.
 The independent variable is the one that you control.
 The dependent variable is the one you will use to confirm the effect of a change in the independent
variable.
 The constant variables are the variables that will not change from one experiment to the next.
 A hypothesis is a good guess of the possible answer to the Big Question. This provides the aim of
the investigation in relation to dependent and independent variables.
 A test is made fair by identifying an appropriate control, which would occur naturally.
 Before you start any experiment you must take a zero reading. You will need to compare the results
you obtain against the zero reading.

 The important steps in planning and conducting an investigation are shown in the flow diagram
below:
 33

Ask a question

Do background research

Construct a hypothesis

Develop an experiment

Identify variables and device a fair test

Check if experiment works

Troubleshoot procedure No Yes

Check method and apparatus

Analyze data and draw conclusions

Do results confirm hypothesis?

Yes No Form a new hypothesis and

experiment again.

Produce report
 34

1.2.2 Recording data

(a) Sources of information

 Locate, select and organize information from a variety of sources

 Record results of experimental investigations in a logical manner (tables or graphs) and
explain the importance of units and recording results of experimental investigations

When conducting an investigation you will need to look at a variety of sources. To begin with, you need
to do research at a library or on the internet. You may also need to speak to specialists to find out any
information that has already been gathered regarding your investigation. We call this background
information.

(i) Library (ii) By using the internet (iii) by consulting specialists

When you find appropriate information, you should either write what you have read in your own words,
or at least refer to the author or website where you obtained your information. It is important that you
do not copy the information and claim that it is your own original work. This is called plagiarism and can
have serious consequences.

It is also important that you let readers know that you have used reliable sources to do your background
research. This makes your information more plausible. For this reason, you must include a bibliography,
which is very important part of your document. A bibliography is a section in your work that makes it
easy for the reader to find the sources where you got your information.

Other sources of information are your observations. These may be placed into the document in the
form of sketches, photographs, descriptions, tables or graphs. It is very important to understand that
scientific observation can only happen through your senses. These are sight, hearing, touch, smell and
taste. But never taste anything unless your teacher tells you that it is safe to do so. Often, the conclusion
and observation are given in the same sentence, but you must learn to distinguish between an
observation and a conclusion.

In the table below you will find some examples of observations and conclusions.
 35

Observation Conclusion
Bubbles form in the water and there is a white The water is boiling.
vapor above the water.
The solid ice is changing into a liquid. The ice is melting.
Heat is felt and light is seen It is an exothermic reaction.

When you carry out your investigation you will be changing the independent variable and noting the
effect that it has on the dependent variable. This is referred to as the data. It is always useful to record
the data in the form of a table.

(b) Using tables and graphs

 Present each column of a table by heading it with the physical quantity and the
appropriate unit, e.g. time/s(units should be in the heading of the column and not in the
measurements in the column)
 Use column headings of the table to be directly transferred to the axes of a constructed
graph

Presenting Data in a Table:

To demonstrate the use of a table to present data, we are going to study the following activity where
learners investigated the behavior of a steel spring.

Aim of Investigation:

What will the effect of different weights be on the extension of a steel spring?

Apparatus and equipment needed:

Steel spring.
Ruler.
Set of equal weights.
Scale pan or a hanger.
Card to make a pointer.

Procedures:

 Arrange the apparatus as shown in the image below.

 36

 Note the position of the pointer with no masses in the pan.

 Put one of the weights in the pan and take the pointer reading again.
Subtract the first reading to see how much the spring stretched. This increase in length is
called the extension.
 Repeat the previous step adding a few more weights, one at a time, until you have enough
readings to plot a graph.
 Record your results in a table.
 Plot a graph of the results.
 Write a conclusion on your investigation

Observations:

The steel spring stretched with each mass that was added.

NOTE: Observations happen through your senses, which are sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. Do
not confuse observations with conclusions. An example of a conclusion will be: “the water boiled”,
the observation will be:” bubbles were seen in the water and steam formed above the water”.

Results:

The data is presented in a table, using headings and units.

Number of masses Scale reading/cm Extension/cm

0 15.5 0.0
1 17.1 1.6
2 18.6 3.1
3 20.1 4.6
4 21.7 6.2
 37

Using Data to Plot a Graph:

When you have to plot a graph of extension against number of masses, you have to plot the extension
values (cm) along the y-axis and the number of masses along the x-axis. The dependent variable is
plotted on the y-axis (vertical axis) and the independent variable on the x-axis (horizontal axis).

Graph of Extension of a Steel Spring against a Number of Masses

SUMMARY

DRAWING TABLES

When you draw a table, take the following into account.

 Each table should have a title, such as ‘the name of the dependent variable vs. the name of the
independent variable’.
 Tables may be horizontal or vertical.
 The table outline has to be drawn in pencil, with a ruler.
 If the table is horizontal, each row should have a title that includes the units of measurement.
 If the table is vertical, each column should have a title that includes the units of measurement.
 The independent variable is normally recorded in the first row (or column) of the table.
 The entries in the body of the table should be written in pen.
 There should be no units next to the entries; in other words, no units in the body of the table.
 We use the solidus (/) to separate the item being measured from its unit.
 The number of digits or significant figures of the entries should be consistent.
 38

1.2.3 Drawing graphs and tables

Graphs are an important tool you can use to analyze experimental data. They provide visual evidence
of the data which makes it easy to compare and predict results.

(a) Accuracy in tables and calculations

 Record entries in tables with constancy in terms of decimal places for initial readings
and significant figures for calculations

Before we draw graphs of the information we must collect the information. The way in which we go
about collecting this information will affect the accuracy and clarity of our graphs. Consider the following
table:

Time/min 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Temperature 1st set/ oC 93 77.6 66 55 47 40 34.7 26 25
Temperature 1st set/ oC 98.25 82 70 60.85 52 45 38 32 29
Average reading/oC 95.625 79.8 67.5 57.925 49.5 42.5 36.35 29 27

The following information has been recorded correctly:

 the headings in the rows are correctly labelled together with the unit.
 There are no units in the body of the table, as they are all in the headings.

However, we also note that:

 There are a different number of significant digits in the body of the table
 The number of significant digits in the average readings also differ.
It is important that we record the readings with consistent accuracy. If our accuracy changes, we
might have a problem in deciding:

 Which level of accuracy is correct.

 Whether we wrote down the values correctly.

One way of improving the accuracy of measurements is to take more than one set of measurements
and then find the average. We should, however, ensure that the accuracy of the calculation remains
within limits of the accuracy of the measurement. In the table we have two sets of readings, so that
accuracy of the average may lie to the nearest half of a measurement, 0.5 oC. The table should then
perhaps look as follows:

Time/min 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Temperature 1st set/ oC 93 78 66 55 47 40 35 26 25
Temperature 1st set/ oC 98 82 70 61 52 45 38 32 29
Average reading/oC 95.5 80.0 68.0 58.0 49.5 42.5 36.5 29.0 27.0
 39

(b) Drawing graphs

 Select suitable scales and axes for graphs

 Plot the independent variable on the x-axis (horizontal axis) and plot the dependent
variable on the y-axis (vertical axis)
 Label each graph with the appropriate heading (by convention always the dependent
versus independent variable)
 Label each axis with the physical quantity and the appropriate unit, e.g. time/s
 Draw the graph as the whole diagrammatic presentation. It may have one or several
curves plotted on it, which should be labelled
 Draw appropriate lines through relevant points being a straight line or smooth curve
 Present points on the curve as crosses (x) or encircled dots (ʘ). If a further curve is
included, vertical crosses (+) may be used to mark the points

We are going to use an example to illustrate how to draw a graph. Suppose a group of students
wanted to determine how the temperature of water changes with time. They set up the following
experiment:

The apparatus the students used

They repeated the experiment twice and obtained the following set of results.

Time/min 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Temperature 1st set/ oC 93 77 65 55 47 40 34 26 25
Temperature 1st set/ oC 98 82 70 60 52 45 38 32 29

We are going to draw the graph of the above results on axes. But in drawing the graph we need to
follow the set of guidelines outlined below.

Important guidelines for drawing graphs

Title

The title of the graph always follows this format: ‘the name of the dependent variable vs. the name of
the independent variable’. In our example, it will be Temperature vs. Time.
 40

Independent axis

The independent axis is always the horizontal or x-axis. This contains values of the variable that you
change. In our case, it will be Time.

Dependent axis

The dependent axis is always the vertical or y-axis. This contains the values of the variable that changes
when you change the independent variable. In our case, it will be Temperature.

Labels

You have to label each axis. The labels on the axes consist of the name of the variable, followed by a
solidus (/), then the unit in which the variable is measured, for example ‘Temperature /oC’.

Range

The range of values is the difference between the largest value and the smallest value. You use this to
work out the scale for each axis. In our example, the range will be: x-axis = 16-0 = 16; y-axis = 98-0 =
98.

Scale and size

You determine the scale on each axis by dividing the range for that axis by the space, or the number
of blocks, available. It is easiest to use a scale that relates to the number of blocks on the graph paper
provided. If you do this, the size of the graph will be as large as it possibly can be.

Plotting points

Plot the points on your graph clearly using encircled dots (ʘ) or crosses (x). If more graphs are to be
drawn on the same axes, use different marks.

In our example:

 Title = Temperature vs. Time.

 Independent variable = Time
 Dependent variable = Temperature
 Labels: x-axis = Time/s ; y-axis = Temperature/oC
 Range: x-axis = 16-0 = 16; y-axis = 98-0 = 98.
 Scale: = On the x-axis there are 8 blocks, so 16÷8 = 2, so one block
represents 2 min. On the y-axis there are 10 blocks, so 98 ÷10 =
9.8, so one block represent 10 oC.
 41

Drawing the line or curve

A graph with a smooth curve

When drawing the line or curve through the points, take the following into account.

 The line that you draw should show the general pattern that the results take; it may be a straight
line or a gentle curve.
 If you are asked to draw the best straight line through the points, do not worry if you cannot draw a
single line through all the points. Try to draw the line so that the points are evenly scattered on
either side. It is easiest to use a transparent ruler to find the best position for the line.
 If you are asked to draw a curve, make it as smooth as possible. Avoid sharp angles, unless there
is obviously a very sudden change in direction as in the following graph.
 42

(c) Determining the gradient of a graph

∆𝒚
 Calculate the gradient (slope) of a straight-line graph as m = ∆𝒙

The gradient, or slope, of a straight line graph is a measure of how much the line goes up or down for
every unit it goes across. We use this formula to calculate the gradient:

𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ∆𝒚
Gradient = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, which can also be written as m = ∆𝒙

Finding the gradient of a straight line

Suppose we have to find the gradient of the straight line below.

A graph used to calculate the gradient of a line

 Choose any two points on the line. In our example, we chose the start and the end of the line.
 43

 Draw a right-angled triangle, with the line as the hypotenuse.

 Use the scale to find ∆𝒚 on the y-axis and ∆𝒙 on the x-axis.

- ∆𝑦 = 60 – 30 = 30 mm
- ∆𝒙 = 70 – 10 = 60 g

∆𝒚
 Calculate the gradient, using m = ∆𝒙

𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒎
= 𝟔𝟎 𝒈

= 0.5 mm/g
Summary

 The accuracy of measurements in a table must be constant.

 The accuracy of calculations done using measurements must be within the limits of the accuracy
of measurements.
 Give the graph a heading or a footnote, stating clearly what the graph is about.
 Label the axes and state the units being represented.
 The title of a graph is always ‘the name of the dependent variable vs. the name of the independent
variable’.
 The independent axis is always the horizontal axis. This contains the values of the variable that
you change.
 The dependent axis is always the vertical axis. This contains the values of the variable that
changes when you change the independent variable.
 The labels on the axes consist of the name of the variable, followed by a solidus (/) and then the
unit in which the variable is measured.
 It is important to work out the range so that you can work out the scale for each axis.
 You determine the scale on each axis by dividing the range for that axis by the space, or the
number of blocks, available.
 Plot the points on your graph clearly using encircled dots (ʘ) or crosses (x).
 The gradient measures how much the graph goes up or down for every unit it goes across.
 44

1.2.4 Basic units and derived units

Introduction

Units are extremely important in everyday life. If we are not told the unit we may make an assumption
which is incorrect. For example, if you are in the United States you might hear someone talk about the
day’s temperature being 104. Coming from Namibia you know that this is impossible as water boils at
100. The problem is that neither of you are using the same unit of temperature. The first unit is in
degrees Fahrenheit (oF) and the second in degrees Celsius (oC). In this topic you will learn more about
basic and derived units.

(a) The relationship between length, surface area and volume.

 Explain and use the relationship between length, surface area and volume and their
units on metric scales

Length: the measurement of distance between two points (i.e. distance between any two points).
Rulers are used to measure length. Length is measured in meters (m). Very small distances of a few
millimeters or less cannot be measured accurately with a ruler. To measure the thickness of wire you
would need to use a micrometer screw gauge. How to use a micrometer screw gauge will be
explained later.

Surface area: the outside layer of an object (i.e. Surface Area is the total area of the surface of any
two - or three - dimensional structure. Area is the surface covered by any two-dimensional shape). Area
is measured in square meters (m2).

Volume: the amount of space an object occupies (i.e. the space occupied by any three-dimensional
structure.)

Shapes Diagram Formula

Square Area = side x side

Rectangle Area = length x breadth

1
Triangle Area = 2 x base x perpendicular height
 45

Shapes Diagram Formula

Circle Area = 𝜋 x (radius)2

𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2
=𝜋x( )
2

(𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)2
=𝜋x 4

Cuboid Volume = base area x height

= length x breadth x height

Cylinder Volume = base area x height

= 𝜋 x (radius)2 x height

(𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)2
=𝜋x x height
4

Example 1

Study the diagram below and then answer the questions that follow. Each block measures 1 cm by 1
cm. The diagram is not drawn to scale.

(a) Determine the length of side AB.

(b) Find the length of side BD.
(c) Calculate the area of rectangle ABCD.
 46

Answers

(a) From the drawing we see there are 12 blocks in side AB. Each block has a length of 1 cm. The
length of AB must then be 12 cm.

(b) From the drawing we see there are 12 blocks in side DC. Each block has a length of 1 cm. The
length of DC must then be 12 cm. There are 10 blocks in side BC. Each block has a length of 1
cm. The length of BC must then be 10 cm. The length of side BD must then be 12 cm + 10 cm
= 22 cm.

(c) The area is the product of length and breadth of the rectangle.

So area = length of AB x length of BD

= 12 cm x 10 cm
= 120 cm2

The units used for length and area differ. Length is measured in centimeters (cm), while area is
measured in square centimeters (cm2).

If we consider volume, we know it is length x breadth x height. Because we are multiplying the units
three times with one another, the unit for volume will be the cube of the unit used for the length. In this
case it would be cubic centimeters, (cm3).

Example 2

The following drawing shows a set of stacked blocks.

Calculate the volume of the stacked blocks.

Answer

You will recall from earlier studies that the volume of a block is calculated by the formula:
Volume = length x breadth x height
The volume of one block in the diagram above is therefore:
Volume of block = 1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm = 1 cm3
The volume of all the blocks stacked as shown will therefore be:
Volume of stacked blocks = number of blocks in stack x 1 cm3
= (10 x 4) in each layer x 4 layers x 1 cm3
= 160 cm3
 47

(b) SI units and derived units

 identify the correct SI unit and derived units (see annex C)

ANNEX C: Units of the common physical quantities

1. Numbers The decimal point will be placed on the line, e.g. 52.35. Numbers from 1000 to 9999
will be printed without commas or spaces. Numbers greater than or equal to 10 000 will be
printed without commas. A space will be left between each group of three whole numbers, e.g.
4 256 789.

2. Units Learners should be able to state the symbols for the following physical quantities and
where indicated, state the units in which they are measured. The acceptable method of stating
units will be in the form such as m/s or m s-1 for meters per second. The solidus (/) will be used
for a quotient and indicate units in labels of tables and graphs e.g. distance/cm).

Note: The units of Physical quantities written in words should be in lower case.

No QUANTITY USUAL SYMBOL USUAL UNIT

1 length l, s, h, d km, m, cm, mm
2 mass m kg, g, mg
3 weight w N
4 time, period t, T h, min, s, ms
5 area A m2 , cm2 , mm2
6 volume V m3 , cm3
7 density ρ kg/m3 , g/cm3
8 speed u, v km/h, m/s, cm/s
9 acceleration a m/s2
10 acceleration of free fall g N/kg or m/s2
11 gravitational field strength g N/kg or m/s2
12 force F N
13 work done W, E J
14 energy E J
15 power P W
16 pressure P Pa, N/m2
17 moment M Nm
18 torque 𝜏 tau
19 momentum p kg m/s
20 temperature T, θ °C, K
21 heat capacity, latent heat C, L J
22 specific heat capacity c J/(kg ˚C)
23 specific latent heat l J/kg
24 focal length f cm, mm
25 angle of incidence i degree, °
26 angle of reflection, refraction r degree, °
 48

No QUANTITY USUAL SYMBOL USUAL UNIT

27 critical angle c degree, °
28 potential difference/voltage V V, mV
29 current I A, mA
30 electromotive force (e.m.f). ε V
31 resistance R Ω
32 charge Q C
33 wavelength ʎ m, cm
34 refractive index n (no unit)
35 frequency f Hz

SI UNITS

You have already came across the word SI units, but what does it really mean? The SI units (from the
French Systѐme international d’unitѐs) is an international system of units based on the metric system.
It is the mostly widely used system of measurement around the world. The system contains seven base
units, 22 named units, and many more unnamed derived units. The system uses a set of prefixes to
the unit names and unit symbols for multiples and fractions of the units.

We only concentrate with six of the seven base units in our studies. These are shown in the table below.

Quantity Symbol SI unit Abbreviation

Length l (or s) meter m
Time t second s
Electric current I ampere A
Temperature T kelvin K
Mass m kilogram kg
Amount of substance n mole mol

The seventh unit, the candela, is used for light intensity, which we do not study at this level.

DERIVED UNITS

A large number of units have been created, based on the SI units. This makes life easier in that we
do not have to write out the full combination of SI units for these special quantities. Some examples
are shown in the table below:

Quantity Symbol Defining Name of Abbreviation Full

equation unit combination
Force F F = ma newton N kg.m.s-2

Work W W = Fs joule J N.m

1
Energy Ek and Ep Ek= 2mv2 joule J N.m
Ep= mgh
 49

Quantity Symbol Defining Name of Abbreviation Full

equation unit combination
𝑊 𝐸
Power P P= 𝑡 =𝑡 watt W J/s
𝐹
Pressure p p=𝐴 pascal Pa N/m2
Electric charge Q Q = It coulomb C A.s
𝑊
Potential difference V V= 𝑄 volt V J/C
𝑄
Capacitance C C=𝑉 farad F C/V
𝑉
Resistance R R= Ohm Ω V/A
𝐼

Some other examples are shown below:

Quantity Symbol Defining equation Derived unit Alternative writing

𝑠
Velocity v v=𝑡 m/s m.s-1
𝑣
Acceleration a a= m/s2 m.s-2
𝑡
𝑚
Density 𝜌 𝜌= kg/m3 kg.m-3
𝑉
Momentum P P = mv kg.m/s kg.m.s-1
𝑛
Concentration c c=𝑉 mol/dm3 mol.dm-3

(c) PREFIXES

 Explain and use multiple prefixes (mega, kilo) and sub-multiple prefixes (centi, milli,
micro, nano) of units

The metric system consists of multiples and submultiples, based on the decimal system. An easy way
to remember the order of the most commonly used section of the system is the mnemonic:

keep Her Down my dog chases mice

The table below shows how the mnemonic is used:

Mnemonic keep Her Down my dog chases mice

Prefix kilo Hector- deca- deci- centi- milli-
Symbol k- h- (da or D-) d- c- m-
Example km= Hm= dam= dm= cm= mm=
kilometer hectometer decameter decimeter centimeter millimeter
Multiple x103 x102 x101 x10-1 x10-2 x10-3
 50

Other important multiples and submultiples in the metric system

Prefix mega-
Symbol M-
Example Mm=megameter
Multiple x 106

Prefix micro- nano-

Symbol 𝜇- n-
Example 𝜇l = microliter nl=nanoliter
Multiple x 10-6 x 10-9

(d) CONVERTING BETWEEN PREFIXES

Remember the mnemonic table below:

Mnemonic keep Her Down my dog chases mice

Prefix kilo Hector- deca- deci- centi- milli-
Symbol k- h- (da or D-) d- c- m-
Example km= Hm= dam= dm= cm= mm=
kilometer hectometer decameter decimeter centimeter millimeter
Multiple x103 x102 x101 x10-1 x10-2 x10-3

Length

To change units of length, move the comma the same number of places as the change in units. For
example: complete 23.5 dam = ……………….. km. From the table we see that, in order to move from
deca- to kilo-, we must move two places to the left. The decimal point must then also move two places
to the left. The answer is 23.5 dam = 0.235 km.

Area

Area is measured in square units, so to change units of area, move the decimal point double the number
of places as the change in units. For example: complete 1.56 km 2 = ……………. dm2. From the table
we see that, in order to move from kilo- to deci-, we must move four places to the right. The decimal
point must then move double this distance, in other words, eight places to the right. The answer is then
156 000 000 dm2.

Volume

Volume is measured in cubic units, so to change units of volume, move the comma three times the
number of places as the change in units. For example: Complete 17.2 mm3 = ………………… m3. From
the table we see that, in order to move from milli- to meter, we must move three places to the left. The
decimal point must then move three times this distance, in other words, nine places to the left. The
answer is 17.2 mm3 = 0.000 000 017 2 m3.
 51

How do liters compare with cubic meters?

1 milliliter = 1 cubic centimeter (1 ml = 1 cm3)

1 liter = 1 000 cubic centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter (1 l = 1 dm3)
1 000 liters = 1 000 cubic decimeters = 1 cubic meter (1 000 l = 1 m3)

Mass

To change units of mass, for example from kg to g, follow the same rules as for changes in length.

Time

Converting time

There are 60 seconds in one minute and 60 minutes in one hour.

• To change hours to minutes, multiply by 60 and minutes to seconds by multiplying by 60.
• Change hours to seconds by multiplying by 3 600.
• Change seconds to minutes by dividing by 60 and minutes to hours by dividing by 60.
• Change seconds to hours by dividing by 3 600.

Converting km/h to m/s and vice versa:

We know that 1 km = 1 000 m and that 1 h = 3 600 s. So, 1 km/h = 1 km ÷ 1 hour = 1 000 m ÷ 3 600
s. Simplifying this gives us: 1 km/h = (1 ÷ 3.6) m/s. From this we can create a conversion triangle to
convert km/h to m/s and vice versa.

Converting speed

To convert m/s to km/h: we multiply by 3.6.

To convert km/h to m/s: we divide by 3.6.
 52

(e) THE GREEK NUMERICAL PREFIXES

The following Greek numerical prefixes are often used in scientific terms:

Prefix Meaning
Uni- or mono- One
di- Two
tri- Three
tetra- Four
penta- Five
hexa- Six
hepta- Seven
octa- Eight
nona- Nine
deca- Ten
poly- Many

(f) SCIENTIFIC NOTATION (STANDARD FORM)

 Use standard notation

Scientific notation is a way of expressing numbers, in which the number always has one digit before
the decimal point and is followed by a power of 10 in index notation to show its magnitude (size). In
index notation, we show the decimal point by writing the power that 10 is raised to, for example:

m = n x 10p, where m is a very small or very large number; n is a number between 1 and 10 and p is
an integer.
 If the number m is less than 1, p is negative.

Number Scientific notation

0.005 6 5.6 x 10-3
0.020 1 2.01 x 10-2
0.1 1 x 10-1
0.000 000 061 6.1 x 10-8

 If the number m is larger than 1, p is positive.

Number Scientific notation

5 600 5.6 x 103
207 2.07 x 102
260 000 000 2.6 x 10-1

 In Science we often deal with very large numbers or very small numbers. Writing in standard form
saves time and space and many prevent confusion. For example, the Avogadro constant is
602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000. This is a very large number! In standard form it is 6.02 x 10 23.
 53

 Standard form also makes it easier to do calculations if we follow e few simple steps.

Example 3

Find the product of 5.4 x 106 and 2.5 x 10-3.

Answer

The calculation is: (5.4 x 106) x (2.5 x 10-3)

We first rearrange the numbers to get the digits and the powers together.
The sum then becomes: (5.4 x 2.5) x (106 x 10-3)
We first multiply 5.4 x 2.5 to get the answer 13.5.
We then do 106 x 10-3 to get 103.
The answer should therefore be: (5.4 x 106) x (2.5 x 10-3) = 13.5 x 103.
But when we write a number in standard form, there must only be one unit in front of the decimal
point. The answer is therefore 1.35 x 104.

(g) ROUNDING NUMBERS

 Round a value correctly to an appropriate number of significant figures when

required

Rounding means making a number simpler, but keeping its value close to what it was. The
result is less accurate, but easier to use. Here is how we round:

 Decide which is the last digit to keep. Leave this digit the same if the next digit is less
than 5. This is called ‘rounding down’.
 Increase the last digit by 1 if the next digit is 5 or more. This is called ‘rounding up’.

Example 4

A piece of wood 2 m in length must be cut into three sections of equal length. Find the length of
each section to the nearest millimeter.

Answer

Diving 2 m by 3 gives an answer of 0.666666666… m. This number is a recurring number with

no end to the number of digits in the answer. The third digit after the decimal point indicates the
millimeter reading. Rounding off to the third digit, we look at the number up to the fourth digit
(0.666 6). Because the last digit (6) is 5 or greater, we must round up. The length to the nearest
millimeter is therefore 0.667 m or 667 mm.

Rounding decimals

First work out which number will be left.

 Rounding to tenths: leave one number after the decimal point.

 Rounding to hundredths: leave two numbers after the decimal point.
 54

 Rounding to thousandths: leave three numbers after the decimal point and so on.

Example 5

 Look at the number π = 3.14159265. 3.14159265 rounded to hundredths is 3.14, as the next
digit (1) is less than 5. 3.14159265 rounded to thousandths is 3.142, as the next digit (5) is 5
or more.
 To round to a required number of decimal places, count the equivalent number of digits from
the decimal point: 3.14159265 rounded to four decimal places is 3.1416, as the next digit (9)
is 5 or more.

Rounding whole numbers

When we round numbers to the nearest tens or hundreds, we replace the last digits with zero.

Example 6

Looking at the number 27 812.818:

27 812.818 rounded to units is 27 813, as the next digit (8) is 5 or more.

27 812.818 rounded to tens is 27 810, as the next digit (2) is less than 5.
27 812.818 rounded to thousands is 28 000, as the next digit (8) is 5 or more.

Rounding to significant digits

To round to a given number of significant digits, count the digits from left to right, and then round
off from there. 1.239 rounded to 3 significant digits is 1.24, as the next digit (9) is 5 or more. 134.9
rounded to 1 significant digit is 100, as the next digit (3) is less than 5. 0.0165 rounded to 2
significant digits is 0.017, as the next digit (5) is 5 or more.

Summary

 Area = length x breadth

 Volume = area x height = length x breadth x height
 SI units are standard units used in Science and are accepted internationally.
 Scientific notations or standard notation is a system of writing numbers in the form n x 10p,
where n is a number such that 1 ≤ n <10 and p is an integer.
 Rounding makes a number simpler, but still keeps it close to its actual value. The result is
less accurate, but easier to use.
 55

(h) ACCEPTABLE METHODS OF STATING UNITS

 Use acceptable methods of stating units, e.g. metres per second or m per s to be
written as m/s or m. s-1 (note: The solidus (/) will be used for a quotient and indicate
units in labels of tables and graphs, e.g. distance/cm)

The unit “meter per second” can be indicated by m/s or ms-1. The solidus”/” indicates a quotient.
This means that metre is divided by seconds or that metre is multiplied by the inverse of seconds.

This is the case in many different units, e.g.

 an acceleration of 10 m/s2 or 10ms-2,

 a pressure of 45 N/m2 or 45 Nm-2.

1.2.5 ERROR, ACCURACY AND UNCERTAINTY

(a) Precision and Accuracy

 Explain that precise measurements are all close to one another and that accurate
measurements have an average close to the true value

(i) Accuracy

Accuracy is a measure of how close the experimentally determined value is to the true value.

Which one of the two test tubes would you use with greater confidence to establish the volume of the
liquid? The second one of course!

Possible readings will be:

test tube 1 = 46.7 cm where the 7 is an estimation of the first decimal place,
test tube 2 = 46.75 cm where the 5 is an estimation of the second decimal place.
 56

In the first test tube the error would be in the estimation of the first decimal place (± 0.1 mm) , whereas
for the second test tube the error would be in the estimation of the second decimal place (± 0.01 mm).
Higher accuracy can be achieved by using test tube 2. The measurement obtained by using the first
test tube has a lower number of significant figures than the measurement obtained by using the second
test tube.

(ii) Precision

Precision is an indication of how easy it would be for you to get the same result from experimental data.
i.e. Precision is the reproducibility of experimental data; the ability of a given method or operation to
give the same result or closeness of experimentally determined values. This indicates the ability of a
given method or operation to produce the same result every time it is repeated. High precision indicates
consistency in work, not necessarily a high level of accuracy. The examples below will help you to
understand the difference between accuracy and precision.

Example 1

A diagrammatic representation of the difference between precision and accuracy

The diagram shows three sets of experimental data. The first set of results is accurate and precise, the
results are close together around the true value. The second set is precise but not accurate, close
together, but not close to the true value. The third set is both imprecise and inaccurate, not close
together, nor close to the true value.

Example 2

Two dart players tried to hit the bull’s eye (centre) of the dartboard. The results were as shown.
 57

Player 1 is more precise, because the repeated throws are more or less in the same spot.
Player 2 is more accurate, because the repeated throws are all closer to the bull’s eye.

(b) Errors in measurement

 Explain that any measurement may involve error, which is the difference between the
measurement and the true value

Error is the difference between the measurement and the true value. Any measurement may involve
errors.

(c) Uncertainty

 Explain uncertainty as the interval on either side of a measured value within which the
true value is expected to lie

Uncertainty is the interval on either side of a measured value within which the true value is expected to
lie. Every measurement has a certain amount of uncertainty. For example, most rulers have
measurements in millimetres. The closest you can get to reading a measurement accurately would be
to the nearest millimetre. This means that there is an error of 0.5 millimetres on both sides of the
reading. But there is also uncertainty in whether the ruler has been calibrated correctly.

Measurement uncertainties can come from the measuring instrument, from the item being measured,
from the environment, from the person doing the measurements, and from other sources. However,
following good practice (such as ensuring that the measuring instrument is calibrated correctly, that
calculations are accurate and that data are recorded and checked accurately) can reduce measurement
uncertainties.

Is the length of the block 5.6 cm or 5.7 cm?

(d) Anomalous or inconsistent results

 Handle and process experimental observations and data, including dealing with
anomalous or inconsistent results

An anomaly is a result you would not expect, something out of the ordinary. It is something inconsistent
with the trend, or pattern that would normally occur. Suppose you usually get 90 % for your tests in
Physics. Your friends would wonder what went wrong if you suddenly got 35% for a test. Although it is
always possible that this could be the correct result, you would probably like to check that your test was
marked correctly. Perhaps there may have been something wrong with the test, or perhaps you were
ill on that day that you wrote it. The best way to check the result would be to do further investigation.
This may mean having to repeat the test.
 58

(e) Working with results and drawing conclusions

 Evaluate presented results or experimental data by applying scientific knowledge and

interpret and draw appropriate conclusions from practical observations and data in
relation to the hypotheses

When you have completed your investigation, how will you interpret the results you have obtained? The
best way is to compare all of the results with one another. This may entail drawing a graph, in the case
of numerical data, or by comparing by other means, such as photographs, in which the results are more
visual. The method you use to draw your comparisons will depend on your original hypothesis.

(f) Sources of errors

 Discuss trends in results and suggest sources of error (random and systematic errors)

When carrying out experiments and making measurement errors can occur, which lead to inaccuracies.
For this reason scientists need to ensure that the results they obtain are reliable. It is essential that they
limit errors or, in other words, increase the accuracy of results. An error may be defined as an incorrect
answer, or incorrect operation.

Absolute error

An absolute error tells you the range of possible values for your measurement. For example, you could
measure a length of 10 cm to ∓ 0.5 cm. This does not mean that your measurement is out by half a
centimeter, but that it could be out by half a centimeter. The actual length could be anywhere between
9.5 and 10.5 cm. Quoting an error is not an admission of poor measurement on your part. It is just
acknowledging the limitations in the method of measuring and of the measuring instruments.

Relative error

Although absolute errors are useful, they do not necessarily give an indication of the importance of an
error. A relative error is an error expressed as a percentage or ratio of the absolute error. Relative error
is defined as follows:

absolute error
Relative error = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 x 100 (to change to percentage)

This is a more useful way of expressing an error, due to the fact that absolute errors do not necessarily
give an indication of the importance of an error. For example, an error of 1 cm is very significant in a
measurement of 2 cm, but virtually irrelevant in a measurement of 10 m.

There are two main sources of errors, namely

 Systematic or determinate errors

 Random or indeterminate errors
 59

Systematic or Determinate errors

Systematic or determinate errors are errors caused by, for example, using a faulty equipment; they are
the same throughout the investigation. We can determine the source of systematic errors and therefore
we can correct them relatively easily. They are therefore also called determinate errors. These errors
occur consistently and may happen, for example, when we use an incorrectly standardized solution or
when we use a balance that is not zeroed, or if we use the wrong analytical method. Such errors are
easily noticeable and can be corrected by checking the concentration of a reactant, or using a balance
that has been correctly zeroed.

Random or Indeterminate errors:

Random errors are an indeterminate errors, for example, taking one of the measurements incorrectly.
You are often unable to determine the source of random errors. There are therefore also called
indeterminate errors. One example is taking a reading incorrectly. If the readings are constantly done
incorrectly the results may be precise, but not accurate.

How to read the meniscus correctly

The diagram above shows a learner looking at the reading on a measuring cylinder. The three positions
of the learner’s eye show the three possible angles that the learner could be looking from.

Which position do you think is correct? If you said the middle one, you are correct. Well done.

It is important that your eyes be level with the bottom of the meniscus. If your eyes are below or above
the level, you will take an incorrect reading due to the error of parallax. The eye must be kept level with
the meniscus, taking the reading when the eye is in line with the bottom of the meniscus as in the case
of water and other liquids. If reading a substance such as mercury then the center curve meniscus will
be at the top.
 60

We can reduce the number of random errors by the following ways:

 by being more carefully when taking readings

 by repeating the process several times, then taking an average of the results.
 by allowing an experienced analyst to take readings.

(g) Possible improvements to reduce errors

 Suggest possible improvements to reduce errors

Scientists need to work very accurately and measure quantities very precisely. Think of what could
happen if a pharmacist measured the incorrect quantity of drugs for a medicine or an engineer made
an important part of a machine the wrong size. Small mistakes can have very large effects on the
findings. Here are a few ways of preventing errors in experimental work:

 Repeat measurements several times and work out the average of all readings.
 Make sure you know how to operate the apparatus you are planning to work with, for example a
stopwatch, before doing an experiment in which you have to take readings.
 Avoid the error of parallax.
 Make sure you record your readings correctly.
 Make sure you round off numbers correctly.
 Be careful when you change readings from one unit to another unit, for example, from kilograms
to grams or from meters to centimeters.