The Linearized Theory of Wave Resistance

TECHNICAL AND RESEARCH BULLETIN NO.
1-18
The Linearized Theory of Wave Resistance

and Its Application to Ship-Shaped Bodies
in Motion on the Surface of a Deep,
Previously Undisturbed Fluid
by
J. K. Lunde
Skipsmodelltanken
Norges Tekniske Hogskole Trondheim
Skipsmodelltanken Medellelse Nr. 23
Mars 1953
English translation published in July 1957, by

The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
74 Trinity Place, New York 6, N. Y.
THE LINEARIZED THEORY OF WAVE RESISTANCE AND ITS APPLICATION TO
SHIP-SHAPED BODIES IN MOTION ON THE SURFACE OF A DEEP,
PREVIOUSLY UNDISTURBED FLUID
1. Introduction
The mathematical-hydrodynamical considera- when the ship is propellor-driven. This is
tions on the wave resistance of ship-shaped particularly true for single screw ships. The in-
bodies present, in this writer's opinion, the most fluence of the boundary layer on the wave resist- )
interesting problems met in theoretical Naval ance will finally be considered, with a discus-
Architecture. The first experimental towing sion of some results on the calculated resistance
tanks were designed primarily for research on to accelerated motion.
this aspect of ship resistance. A tremendous Although. it has not been the author's intention
amount of experimental work has been done, the to discuss the wave profile arising from the
data on which are available in the transactions motion of a ship, it could not be avoided at cer-
of the many engineering institutions. The goal, tain points in the following text. A general
to express the wave resistance of a ship as a discussion of the wave profile, however, has
function of its shape, has nevertheless not yet not been the author's primary aim in this paper.
been attained by the experimental method. On In a classical gaper over 50 years ago, Michell
the other hand it cannot be denied that system- presented an approximate hydrodynamical solu-
atic model testing is the most important method tion for a slender ship form in rectilinear, steady
of approach when considering improvements in motion on the surface of an ideal2 fluid [2]. For.
the resistance characteristics of a ship. many years this paper was unfortunately over-
It is not the author's intention to treat in de- looked and forgotten. From 1919 on, however,
tail the mathematical-hydrodynamical theory of Havelock reconsidered the whole problem after
the wave resistance experienced by a body mov- having published many papers- on wave profile
ing into still water. This has recently been and wave resistance for a pressure point, sub-
done ft', however, and anyone interested merged cylinder, sphere etc. Some years later
should refer to this publication. We shall rather Wigley began his work on a comparison between
first limit ourselves to discussing some of the measured and computed wave resistance for
physical considerations which have S led to the ship-shaped bodies. This led to a number of
development of the linear mathematical theory. valuable publications. Weinblum also tackled
It will be necessary in the course of this dis- the problem and has contributed a series of in-
cussion to give some of the mathematical ex- teresting papers since his first publication in
pressions, but without developing them. Certain 1929. Hogner's publications, in which he treats
conclusions to be drawn from these expressions the theory itself for both wave profile and wave
will then be discussed. Theoretical computations resistance, should also be mentioned. Somewhat
will thereafter be compared with the correspond- later Sretensky began his work on the theory,
ing experimental results. In this the writer will and still later others, e.g., Guilloton. It also
not make use of all the available publications appears that the Japanese have worked in this
but will quote _results which he believes to be field, particularly during the last War. Most of
typical.-, As it is not the author's intention tothese studies have not been published, or at
write a paper on the form of merchant ships, least they are not available outside Japan. It is
only some of the more _obvious conclusions will essentially, however, the work of the hydrody-
be mentioned in connection with the usual type namic scientists mentioned here, and particularly
of ship". It should be noted, however, that cer-
tain conclusions must be somewhat modified
2An ideal fluid is here understood to be a fluid without
internal friction. Such a fluid cannot, e.g., transmit shear-
iSee the list of references at the end of the paper. ing stresses.
3
4 LINEARIZED THEORY OF WAVE RESISTANCE
Havelock's, which has led to the comparatively many assumptions. Theoretical and experimental
clear understanding of the properties and defi-
work must necessarily be tombined to supple-
ciencies of this theory which we have today. ment each other, testing in practice the influence
It is not to be denied that the theory is based on of these approximations as far as this is possible.
2. The Velo city Potential
In the following we shall limit ourselves to whose shape is not known but must be deter-
motion in deep water, as the same problem in mined as part of the solution. Because of this
shallow water is much more complicated [1], [2], it is necessary, at least for the present, to line-
[3], r4], [5], [6], [7], [8], A solution of the shal- arize the problem. As the partial differential
low water problem, however, must be considered equation (2.14), however, for which we are re-
the more general, as it is possible to deduce quired to find a particular solution, is linear, it
from this the corresponding solution for deep is the condition (b) at the free surface of the
water or a canal where the water may be either fluid which has to be linearized. The problem
shallow or deep [1], [5], [9], [10]. We shall also may now be solved, at least approximately.
only consider a fluid which is inviscid and in- The complete velocity potential Oswill be
compressible. A body moving through such a built up from the velocity potential due to sources
fluid will then only experience resistance through and sinks': A source is a point at which fluid
the formation of waves. In Section 12, however, is created and from which it flows radially out-
the effect of the boundary layer will be discussed. ward into space. A sink is a point at which the
Since the motion of a body in a fluid must fluid vanishes, i.e., a negative source. The
begin at a certain point and at a certain time it stream lines for a source and a sink at rest in a
is natural to consider this problem first, although fluid are shown on Figs. 1 and 2, respectively.
it is not the easiest [1], [5], [11], [12], [13]. If the strength of a source is designated m, the
A slight reflection on the problem we are try- rate at which fluid volume streams from the
ing to solve theoretically will convince us it is
not simple, but that it does present many in- Streamlines Streamlines
teresting, mathematical difficulties. We are
asked to find a potential function which satisfies,
among others, the conditions (a) on the wetted
surface of the ship, and (b) on the free surface
of the fluid on which the constant atmospheric
pressure acts.
Let us consider (a) first. Instead of conceiv-
ingthat the ship moves rectilinearly into still
water, we assume it to be stationary with the
water flowing past it. This does not alter the
problem. The condition to be satisfied on the FIG. 1. Source FIG. 2. Sink
wetted surface of the ship is that the normal
component of the absolute velocity of the fluid 3Symbols used in this paper are defined in the Nomen-
must be zero everywhere on this surface, i. e., clature on page 62 et seq.
'The velocity potential 'D is a scalar function which
the velocity of the fluid is tangential to the describes the motion of the fluid. (Scalar functions are
wetted surface. To satisfy (a) it is therefore exclusively determined by stating their magnitude, i.e., with
real numbers. Mass, volume, temperature, density et al. are
necessary to know the shape of the wetted sur- examples of scalar quantities. When a function has sense
face. Yet this varies with the speed because (direction in space) and location (line of action) in addition
both sinkage and trim, e.g., are functions of the to magnitude, it is a vector quantity. Velocity, acceleration,
force et al. are examples of vector quantities.) The vele&
speed. Condition (a) is thereby considerably ty components of the fluid, u, v and w, at point P are there-
complicated. It is thus not quite correct to use fore given by = w =-1)z in the x,, 37,- and
the shape of the wetted surface when the ship z-directions, respectively, where loz =a/äx et al., the
coordinates of P and the time at which the components are
and fluid are at rest to satisfy condition (a) for to be measured, being inserted in 4D. By using the minus
the speeds which are of interest, although this sign indicated, p becomes the impulse which instantly
sets up the fluid motion from a condition of rest. Here p is
is usually done in practice when computing the the density of the fluid. For a potential motion ,D must
wave resistance. satisfy the so-called equation of continuity, which for an
Let us now consider (b). This condition is incompressible fluid may be written l'zz + 1Dzz = 0
where lbxx =aq/ax2 et_al. This equation may be inter-
given by a non-linear, partial differential equa- preted to express that matter may neither be created nor
tion which has to be satisfied at the free surface destroyed.
LINEARIZED THEORY OF WAVE RESISTANCE 5
Streamlines
FIG. 3. A source in a unifrom stream.

-_
source is here made equal to 4irm. Similarly.
the strength of a sink is designated -m. The FIGURE 4.
velocity potential at point (x,y,z) due to a source
at the origin is m/r, and for a sink -m/r, where closed surface of stream lines in Fig. 4 could
r2 x 2 + y2 + z2. If the source is now placed in
thus be the outer contour of a symmetrical body.
a uniform stream, the stream lines of the source By using several sources and sinks and/or by
itself, will be deflected as shown on Fig. 3. If varying their strengths, it is possible to vary the
a sink is located behind the source on Fig. 3, closed stream line contour, i.e., we can bring
and these are of equal strengths, +m and m, all out a number of bodies of different shapes, all
the water streaming from the source is again located in a uniform stream. To illustrate this
absorbed and the stream lines are as indicated Fig. 5 shows the stream lines about a body of
on Fig. 4. We note on this figure that there is rotation created by using a continuous distribu-
one completely closed surface of stream lines. tion of sources in the "entrance" and a corre-
As already mentioned, the condition must be sponding distribution of sinks in the "run".
satisfied on the surface of a body at rest in a That the surface of the stream lines shall be
uniform stream that all fluid motion be tangential closed, the sum of the strengths of the sources
to the surface of the body, i.e., with no compo- and sinks must always be equal to zero. Without
nent of the velocity normal to the surface. This this condition the water streaming from the sources
same, condition the stream lines must satisfy, to would not be absorbed again by the sinks, if
wit, that all motion be tangential to them. We these are the weaker.
may therefore conceive of an arbitrarily chosen An obvious next step is to assume that a ship
surface of stream lines as replacing the outer may be replaced by a distribution of sources and
contour of a body in an inviscid fluid. The sinks located on the wetted surface of the ship,
Sink distribution Source distribution

7
/.
FIGURE 5.
or, for a slender ship, on its vertical centreline trarily selected point P must consequently be
plane. Since the problem itself has been line- given by
arized, it is thus only necessary to first find the m
velocity potential of a source in rectilinear motion (2.10)
under the surface of the fluid. The velocity po- r, r,
tential of the ship as a whole is obtained by where x2 + y 2 + z + 02 and r22 = x2 + +
integrating or summing up, over the wetted sur- (z f)2 (see Fig. 6)5.
face of the ship, the potential for a source. This impulse leads to an immediate elevation
Such a summation or integration over a closed of the surface, which, as the source vanishes,
surface in space will, when the strength of the spreads as unrestrained ring-waves over the free
sources is assumed to be a function of, e.g., the surface of the fluid under the action of gravity.
slope of the surface at every point, automatically This is similar to a stone falling vertically dowr
lead to a total strength equal to zero of the source on the surface of a fluid at rest'.
distribution. A closed surface of stream lines At the arbitrarily selected time t the velocity
coinciding with the wetted surface of the ship is potential of these ring-waves will be given by
thus formed. In an ideal fluid, on the other hand, [1], [12]
there will never be the component of the wake
corresponding to that due the viscosity in a real
fluid. A source distribution such as implied, (2.11)
however, will approximate the two components of
- /2
Br
77 00
f
sin [(gK)1/2t] x
the wake which are due to potential flow and Lao o
wave formation, respectively. This approximation
is improved upon when we also consider the effect x cos [K(x cos 0 + y sin Mel' f)K1/2dK
of the boundary layer on these two components It may be shown that (2.11) represents ring-
of the wake. shaped waves which spread over the surface of
We will use a rectangular coordinate system the fluid, gradually decreasing in amplitude and
with the origin in the free surface of the fluid,
the x-axis positive in the direction of motion, increasing in length.
the z-axis positive vertically upward and the
Before we proceed further let us discuss the
y-axis normal to these in a righthand coordinate classical problem of a pressure point in recti-
system.
linear motion over the surface of a fluid along
Assume that a source of strength m is suddenly the x-axis. Instead of conceiving of this as a
formed at the point (0,0,f) in the fluid at time continuous process we may assume that the mo-
t = 0 and is active during the time interval an tion of the fluid has come about by impulses act-
This is an impulse, but no impulse forces act on ing on the surface of the fluid at points xi, x
the free surface of the fluid, only the constant x3, ... at the times t ta, t3, ..., where x, <
atmospheric pressure. The velocity potential < < .. and t, < t, < t, <.... Each of these
during the short interval of time Sr at the arbi- impulses causes a series of ring-waves. Due to
mutual interference they form a resulting wave
sFrom the footnote on page 4 we have that may be

interpreted as the impulse force which brings about the
fluid motion from a position of rest. We have meanwhile
contended that no impulse force pc2 acts on the free surface
of the fluid given by z = 0 during the time interval Er the
source is active. In the interval dr, for z =0, consequently,
We see that this condition is satisfied by (2.10)
when z = 0. The second term in (2.10), furthermore, is a
sink above the free surface of the fluid, i.e., the fluid
according to this term extends above and beyond that which
is to be the free surface. This presents no difficulties, as
Cauchy and Poisson discovered that every plane consisting
of fluid particles and which is horizontal when the fluid is
at rest, satisfies the condition for the free surface. Every
surface of stream lines in mathematical hydrodynamics may
therefore be presumed to represent the free surface. This
is analogous with the above, where we replaced the surface
of a body with a surface of stream lines.
°In many respects the motion occurring when a source is
suddenly formed in an infinite fluid and is active for a short
period of time, may be compared to the motion caused by a
FIGURE 6. gas bubble suddenly expanding to a certain size.
system consisting of transverse and diverging terms are the mirror image of the source, in the
components. These wave components have much free surface of the fluid.
in common with those we see astern a ship mov- It is quite easy to show that (2.12) satisfies
ing on the surface of deep water. If more and the conditions of the free surface of the fluid
more impulses now act, at the same time that the which for accelerated motion is given by
distance and the time interval between two suc-
ceeding impulses diminishes, we obtain the same (2.13) gy5. + c201, + 2cc1t-
ciSt, + = 0
fluid motion occurring when one individual pres- for z = 0. The velocity potential given by (2.12)
sure impulse moves rectilinearly over the surfacealso satisfies the equation of continuity for an
of the fluid. A specific velocity potential cor- incompressible fluid, to wit,
responds to each impulse and hence also a spe-
cific fluid motion. The velocity potential of the (2.14) Ckxx cky C6Z = °
continuous motion at time t is then given by the In both of these linear, homogeneous, partial dif-
sum of the velocity potentials of the individual ferential equations ck = &Wax and ck 020/8x2,
impulses which acted before the time t. The same .x XX
for example, while c = dc/dt.
is true for fluid motion [146]. Condition (2.13) is found by assuming that the
This method, which was used by Kelvin, may atmospheric pressure which acts on the free sur-
also be applied in the present case. We there- face of the fluid is constant, and by assuming
fore 'assume that the fluid motion set up when a that the square of the absolute fluid velocity may
source moves rectilinearly under the surface, be disregarded compared with the other terms
may be composed of an infinite number of sources which occur.
acting instantaneously and successively in the Steady motion signifies that the motion is in-
direction of motion. The fluid motion caused by dependent of time. In the present problem we
the motion of our source is then obtained by have such a motion only after the ship has been
summing up all the impulses before the time t at moving with constant velocity a-very long time.
which we wish to consider the motion. This argu- If we conceive of the motion of the source having
ment may be expressed mathematically, and we started with the velocity c, and that this there-
find that the velocity potential due the source is after is its constant velocity, we should be able
given by, as a first approximation, [1], [5], [12] to find the velocity potential for rectilinear,
(2.12) cb =
m(t)
71
- m(t)
72
+
g112
97
f
0
t
m(r)dr fIT
dO
steady motion from (2.12) by taking 'c constant,
integrating and letting t
171 911
We then obtain
4mK0
77/2
77"
(2.15) = sec20d0 x
T2 77
0
sin [/FT(t - r)] cos (Kji,)eK('f)Kil2dK
cos (Kx cos 0)
where
xfK 0
Ko sec' 0
cos (Ky sin 0) eK('DdK -
"al 2
7), x+ c(r)dr cos 0 + y sin 0 - timKo fsin (Ko x sec 0) X

0
1.12 x2 + y2 + (z f)2, r22 = + + (z - f)2 x cos (Koy see() gin 6) elco(z-n8"28sec1t9d0

and where x, y, z are measured relative to an where r, and r, have the same significance as
origin which lies in the free surface of the fluid previously and where Ko = g/c2.
above the source and which follows the source in This expression agrees with that which we ob-
its motion. In (2.12) c(t) is the rectilinear ve- tain by assuming steady motion from the start
locity of the source, assumed here to be a func- and solving the problem directly [1], [6]. From
tion of the time t. We may therefore say that (2.15) we see that the first two terms in the ve-
(2.12) is a general equation since we have only locity potential for a source in steady, rectilinear
assumed that the motion began at time t = 0 with- motion under the surface of the fluid may be in-
out establishing the velocity c or the accelera- terpreted as the velocity potential of the source
tion of the motion. In this equation the last two in an infinite, uniform stream and the velocity
potential of an equally strong sink in an infinite, file may, at least approximately, be formed by
uniform stream. The source and the sink repre- taking a long plank with the necessary number of
sented by the first two terms in (2.15) are lo- grooves and lowering it onto the surface of the
cated symmetrically with respect to the x-axis. fluid and introducing a vacuum in the grooves.
The last two terms in the equation are the mirror If the surface is now set free by the sudden re-
image of the source, in the free surface of the moval of the plank at time t= 0, the original dis-
fluid. turbance, hitherto contained at rest, begins sud-
As given by (2.15) the velocity potential sat- denly to divide into two wave groups moving in
isfies the condition at the free surface for steady opposite directions from the axis of symmetry.
motion, to wit, At B and C on Fig. 7 the surface profiles at time
t = 41Fr and t = 80-7, respectively, are shown.
(2.16) Orx5z' ° Let us examine point F, at A, B, and C and f at
for z = 0 and the equation of continuity (2.14). B and C. On A, F, is the visible, leading part of
The surface condition expressed by the linear, the wave profile moving to the right. On B and
homogeneous differential equation (2.16), and C, F, and f show the corresponding point at the
which may be derived directly, may also be found times 41/71 and WI., respectively, if it moves to
from (2.13), as all the terms which are derived the right with a velocity equal to half the wave
with regard to time are equal to zero for steady 'It is to be noted that when an isolated group of waves,
motion.' Terms we disregarded in (2.16) cor- all of about the same length, move on deep water, the ad-
respond to those we neglected in (2d3). In con- vancing velocity of the group as a whole is less than the ve-
nection with these terms Wigley has noted [6] locity of the individual waves comprising the group. If we
trace a particular wave we note that this advances through
that the square of the ratio of the absolute fluid the group, slowly dying out as it approaches the lead. Its
velocity (which is then due the wave motion) to previous place in the group is then taken over in succession
the ship's velocity will, for ships with a length. by other waves. These all move forward from the after part
of the group.
beam ratio of 8, vary from about 1/100 at high The simplest analysis of such a group may be based on a
velocities to about 1/40 at low velocities. This combination of two wave systems.
The profile t of a sine wave advancing in the positive
should suggest the magnitude of the terms we direction of the x-axis may be written as
have disregarded. C= a sin(Koz- nt)= a sin K0(x- ct)
Assume that a is the surface density of the
source strength at point (h,k, f) on the wetted where a is the amplitude of the wave, c = n/ K0 its velocity
of propagation, and X= 27t/K0 the wave length. From the
surface S of the ship. The velocity potential condition of the free surface we find that c2= g/Ko.
due the ship may now be expressed as Conceive now that two sine waves with the same ampli-
tude, but with different velocities of propagation (and hence
(2.17) (1:0= fqS(a,xh,yk, z+ f)dS different wave lengths), advance in the same direction and
are separately given by
where irk is given by (2.12) for accelerated motion a sin(Kox - nt), C2 = a sin[(Ko SK0)x - (n + Sii)t]
and by (2.15) for steady motion. In both of these The resulting wave profile is given as the sum of ti and
expressions m must be replaced with a, x with i.e.,
x h and y with y k.
There are probably those who have questioned =e=4L-Ft2 2a
cos[-1 (x8Ko-t8n] x
2
why a train of waves astern a ship, which began
to move at a given instant, becomes longer and x sin [Kox - nt)+ +(x81(.0-- tSri] .
longer although the waves appear to follow the If 8K0 and Sn are small quantities, 1(x81(0- tSri) will he a
ship with the same velocity. This constant small quantity compared to (Koz-nt); and we may quite ap-
lengthening of the train of waves is due the proximately set
group velocity.8 Let us conceive that the fluid A sin(Kox- nt)
surface, which is at rest, is everywhere hori-
zontal except over a very limited area where it where A = 2a cos 1-2-(x81(0- an). The resulting wave profile
is an advancing sine wave whose amplitude is not constant
assumes a wave-shaped character (see A on Fig. but varies slowly with both x and t, since SKo and Sn are as-
7). We shall assume that these waves are en- sumed to be small quantities. For constant t, consequently,
but for various values of x, there will be long stretches
tirely straight, and quite long in the direction where the amplitude A is almost equal to zero or to 2a. On
normal to the wave length. Such a surface pro- the fluid surface we note a series of groups which are sepa-
rated by virtually still water. The individual waves have a
piopagation velocity equal to c = n/Ko, while the maximum
2If x =Lx', z = and 0=Lc4,' are inserted in (2.16), value of A, and hence the group centre, has a propagation
tiC,V-i-F-acb'zi= 0 is obtained. This is now the surface velocity Sn/SK0, or, when the limiting value is taken,
condition. From this expression we see immediately that dn/dKo= c/2, where we have made use of the expression
Froude's number F = c110 appearss,. as a deciding param- c= n/Ko and c2' g/Ko. For deep water the group velocity
eter in the problem for steady motion L180]. is therefore equal to half the velocity of propagation.
- LINEARIZED THEORY OF WAVE RESISTANCE 9
FIGURE 7.
velocity (i.e., the group velocity for deep water) a velocity equal to half the wave velocity, i.e.,
or equal to the wave velocity. We note that there the group velocity for deep water. We note that
is a visible wave motion far ahead of F, on both F, on C coincides with visible, tracing part of
B and C, but only a small, although visible, wave the wave profile [80], [157]. It is thus apparent
motion ahead of f. The visible wave front thus that the tracing part of the wave profile moves
moves away from the axis of symmetry with a ye-- forward with a velocity equal to the group ve-
locity greater than the wave velocity. Gradually locity. A similar phenomenon occurs, for ex-
this velocity increases. Observe now the visi- ample, when a stone is dropped onto a water sur-
ble, tracing part of the wave profile designated face or when a wave generator in a tank is
F, on A, Fig. 7 for those waves which move to actuated. For a ship beginning its motion at a
the right. (It is obviously not correct to assume given instant we obtain, in a corresponding man-
that the steady wave profile shown on A divides ner, a train of waves where the leading part ad-
on the axis of symmetry when the fluid surface vances with the same velocity as the ship and
is released, and that the part to the right of this the tracing part with a velocity equal to the
axis moves to the right and the other part to the group velocity. As a result the train of waves
left) The location of F, after a time lapse 131,/zr stretches out astern the ship more and more as
is shown on C, if it has moved to the right with time goes on [115], [149], [161].
3. The Wave Resistance and Source Distribution

Assume that the motion is steady and that we velocity of the fluid at an arbitrary point on B,
have two infinitely large planes, A and B, fixed the work which the fluid to the left of B does on
in space normal to the direction of the ship, A the fluid to the right of B is given by pu per unit
afore and B astern. Let us consider the increase time and unit area. Summing up pu for the entire
in energy of that part of the fluid which is con- plane B, we may say that the work done at B per
tained between these planes, the free siirface unit of time, on the fluid limited by our planes,
and the wetted surface of the ship. Assume now is W(B). Similarly W(A) is the work done per unit
that E(B) is the total energy, both kinetic and of time at A. If R. is now the wave resistance
potential, flowing into this space per unit of time of the ship, and c its constant,. rectilinear ve-
through B. Let E(A), in a similar manner, be the locity, the ship does an amount of work on the
total energy flowing out per unit of time through fluid given by R.c per unit of time. But the to-
A. If p is the fluid pressure and u the horizontal tal work done per unit of time on the fluid under
consideration must equal its increase in total may now be written

energy per unit of time, and we have [1], [8], [14] 00
(3.10) Rwc +W(B) -W(A) = E(B)E(A) (3.14) Rw =16spica f(P + 12) cosh' udu
Plane A is afore the ship and plane B astern,
but are otherwise arbitrarily located. We may where
therefore assume that A is located infinitely far
ahead of the ship. Here the fluid is undisturbed =I cos
by the motion of the ship, and E(A) and W(A) will I sin [KO (x cosh u + y sinh u cosh u) x
approach zero. Infinitely far behind the ship the
fluid motion goes more and more over to free, un- X.eKOZ COSI? uds
restrained waves. A long time back these were (3.15)
formed by the ship, but they now advance ex- If we assume that a ship with a high speed-
clusively under the action of gravity. If we there- length ratio may be replaced by a limited number'
fore conceive of B being located infinitely far of sources and sinks, the wave resistance for
behind the ship and A infinitely far ahead of it, steady, rectilinear motion, in the same manner
(3.10) gives us as indicated above, is expressed by
1 CO
(3.11) = - (E - W )
(3.16) R. =16u fpKs2 (I za +J) cosh' u du
where E and W are computed from the wave mo-
tion or the velocity potential infinitely far behind where
the ship, where there are free waves [1], [4], [8],
COS
[131.' (3.17) ms sin x
The quantities E and W are now computed from
(2.15) and (2.17) remembering that we may disre-
gard all terms which approach zero when x ---) x iKo(hs cosh u + sinh u cosh u) x
From.(3.11) we thus find that the wave resistance
Rw for a ship in steady, rectilinear motion is Xe-K s .COSh2 u
given by
1,(2 Here the arbitrarily selected source s, of strength
(3.12) Rw = 167TPK02 (P2 + (Y) sec' 0d0 m is located at the point (A5, k3, [1], [15],
J [134 , [17].
There are also other methods by which the ex-
pressions for the Wave resistance may be found,
where K,, = g/c2 and but ultimately they all lead to the result given
Q
f cos
a sin {K, (x cos 0 + y sin 0) Beef)} x
by (3.14) and (3.15). [11. I-21. [3], [4], [5], [6],
[7], [8], [1]], [18], [19], [20], [21], [113], [117],
[118], [120], [1431, [159].
If we conceive of the ship as relatively slen-
(3.13) X SC° Z "Ca °as
der, we may assume as a first approximation that
the source distribution coincides with the verti-
This is the general equation for wave resist- cal centreline plane of the ship. In that event
ance when the ship is replaced by a continuous dS in (3.13) or (3.15) is to be replaced with dxdz.
distribution of sources and sinks, and .when it It may then be shown that the density of the
moves with a constant velocity c on deep water. source strength, as a first approximation, is
We have then assumed that the motion has been given by
going on for a long time.
For numerical computations it is an advantage
to set sec 0 = cosh u, such that (3.12) and (3.13)
(3.18) a=-
277
F = c- ay-
X
2tr
'This method has long been known for the two-dimensional where y = F (x,z) is the equation for the wetted
problem. Kelvin, far example, used it for two-dimensional surface of the ship [1], [6], [8], [18], [191, [201,
waves on running water (waves in a canal) [154], also [132].
[155], [156], [160], [161]. The corresponding, but considera- [120], [143]. In reality Equation (3.18) applies
bly more complicated three-dimensional theory was developed only when uF and wF z are small quantities (u
by Havelock [4]. and w are the components of the absolute ye-
locity of the fluid in the x- and z-directions, re- distance from the origin to S,. If (x + X, Tc, f) are
spectively). For slender ships F and u will be the coordinates of the source located in the
small quantities. The product uPx is therefore "compartment" being considered, it may be
a small quantity compared to the terms in (3.18) shown that [1], [8], [15], [16]
and it is justifiable to completely disregard this
term. Along the bottom of most ships, however, V12
Tz
F. will ordinarily not be a small quantity (a S2 S,
small F z is contingent on a large rise of the
floor). We have nevertheless disregarded tuF in It may also be shown that Te, Tare the same as
(3.18). To ascertain what effect this approxima- the coordinates for the centroid of the area 52 S,
tion had on the agreement between computed and in the y- and z-directions [1], [8], [16].
"measured" wave resistance, Wigley and Lunde This method offers certain advantages com-
conducted theoretical and experimental studies pared to the first. The strength of the sources
on two models with relatively moderate rises ofand sinks, and their location, is relatively easy
to find even if the lines of the ship cannot be
the floor and with Cz = 0.909 [22]. The greatest
value of F2 for these models was equal to 10. expressed by mathematical formulae. On the
These studies showed that the agreement was no other hand the method is characterized by large
poorer because of the flat bottom. Although only approximations. The number of sources and sinks
two models were tested it could reasonably be necessary, moreover, to achieve a relatively high
concluded from these studies that even if F. is accuracy compared with the first method, in-
a relatively large quantity along the bottom, of creases rapidly with decreasing Froude's num-
the more common merchant ship types, the verti- bers. Computations then become more time-
cal velocity of the fluid, to, is so much less that consuming, the smaller Froude's number. It
the product tvF may be disregarded [37], [117]. should be possible, however, to tabulate once
When (3.18) is used, y must be taken as zero and for all the functions which occur, markedly
in (3.13) and (3.15). By now setting X = sec 0 or reducing the labour with the numerical calcula-
= cosh u, this leads to Michell's formula for tions. At relatively large Froude's numbers only
the wave resistance [2]. a limited number of sources and sinks are neces-
It may also be shown thet P and Q (or I and sary to achieve high accuracy compared with the
are functions of the free wave profile infinitely first method. The method is therefore quite ap-
far astern the ship, and may consequently be plicable to what we may call the destroyer range,
found from this [1], [4], [8], [14]. the computation work for a limited number of
If, on the other hand, we use only a finite num- sources and sinks not being unreasonably large,
ber of sources and sinks, the ship must be di- relatively speaking.
vided into "compartments" by means of hori- The method with a finite number of sources
zontal and vertical planes longitudinal with the and sinks clearly shows that the parts of the
ship, and vertical planes transverse it. A source ship's wetted surface lying deepest under the
is then located in each such compartment. Let L.W.L. have the least effect on the wave resist-
S, and S2 (if .52 > S and the compartment lies in ance. From (3.17) we have that the I and J.-
the entrance, S, for ordinary ships will be nearer functions contain the factor eK f se o sh2 u where
midship than Si) be the cross-section areas of f is the depth of the source or sink under the
the end walls in such a compartment whose vol- surface of the fluid. The greater the fs, the
ume is V1_2 and whose length is x12. It may smaller the functions Is and and the smaller
then be shown that the strength of the source the contribution to the total wave resistance of
cated in this compartment is given by [1], [8], this source or sink. It has meanwhile been indi-
[15], [16] cated that f corresponds to the vertical distance
under L.W.I. of the centroid of the area given by
(3.19) m = -- S1) the difference between the cross-sections (.32
477 S1) in the "compartment" under consideration.
If S, > the expression for the strength is neg- Deeper lying parts of the hull have consequently
ative, indicating that we have a sink instead of a the least effect on the wave resistance. This
source. We assume that the origin of our coordi- should partly explain why Wigley and Lunde [22]
nate system lies amidship on the L.W.L. and that found that a flat bottom did not markedly impair
the axes have the same position in space as pre- the agreement between theoretical and experi-
viously. Consider a compartment in the entrance mental results. We also note that the contribu-
of the ship, assuming that X is the horizontal tion of the individual water lines to the wave
resistance, as a first rough approximation, will It can be mentioned as a curiosity that Have-
decrease as e2, where f is the depth of the lock [29] computed the wave resistance R. for a
water line under the surface of the fluid and c model whose surface was given by
the velocity of the ship. From this we could
easily draw the general conclusion that for the y=b --) (1 d2
least possible wave resistance the displacement
should be located as far as possible under the Results of these computations are shown as curve
L.W.L., i.e., as much U-shaped sections as pos- A on Fig. 8, on the basis of Froude's number F.
sible should be used. This will ordinarily be in He then computed the wave resistance for the
accord with experimental results, but in certain same model with the bottom up, such that the
cases where V-shaped sections are shown to be keel lay in the surface of the fluid_ when the
desirable, is this due a favourable interference model was at rest. The model surface was now
between the wave systems from the entrance and given by
the run of the ship. U-shaped sections would
partly nullify this favourable interference. In the y=b x2)(2 z
pressure measurements made by Eggert anti others d
dai
on models [23], [24], [25], [26], [Mu', we also
find confirmation for the great significance on Curve B on the same figure shows the result of
the wave resistance of the parts of the hull lying this computation. We shall later come back to
closest to the L.W.L. Already in the last the pronounced crests and troughs on the curves
century hydrodynamicists were aware of this. for computed resistance, but we note that there
Kelvin, for example, concluded his lecture on is a decided reduction in the wave resistance
"Ship Waves" (1887) by proposing that the dis- from moderate to high Froude's numbers when the
placement should be located as far as possible model moves with the keel up. At yet higher
below the L.W.L. for the least possible resist- Fronde's numbers than those shown on Fig. 8,
ance, as the wave motion was primarily a phe- however, the two curves will finally coincide.
nomenon of the free surface. He probably pre-
sumed that thus shifting the displacement would
not lead to an increase in the other components
of resistance. In this connection it is of interest
to recall R. E. Froude's rule: U-shaped sections
in the entrance and V-shaped sections in the run, 42
the latter to reduce the "separation resist-
ance."" [134]. t/3.9c9
Weinblum contends that a rule-of-thumb method
is useful when shifting the displacement verti- O./
cally [28]. If, for example, a certain part of the
displacement is shifted from the region near the
water line a distance d, vertically down, the ef-
fectiveness of such a shift will increase by the
ratio 0.2 as
d, d, F cb/417"
A. L FIGURE 8.
where A. = (2rt/ g)c2 is the wave length of the free, We also note from the figure that, practically
deep water waves corresponding to the velocity speaking, the crests and troughs for the two re-
of the ship c and where F is Fronde's number. sistance curves occur at the same Froude's num-
Effectiveness thus decreases with increasing ber. In many respects this concurs with both
Froude's number. theoretical and practical observations. A reduc-
tion in draught for one and the same model does
thThe relationship between the computed Wave resist- not essentially change the location of the crests
ance, the Lid-ratio and F for a full ship with rectangular and troughs on the resistance curve, but the ab-
cross-section is shown in [180]. Similar curves are also
found in [59].
solute value of the resistance will change and
IlTlie various resistance components are defined in Sec- the interference will be reduced with decreasing
tion 5. draught [28], [59], [89].
From (3.12), (3.13) and (3.18) we also note Froude investigated this coefficient in his fa-
that the wave resistance, when the velocity in- mous experiments with H.M.S. "Greyhound" [15],
creases, finally begins to decrease again after [153]. For retarding motion he found that C was
having reached an absolute maximum. We see about 0.20 for the loaded ship and about 0.16 for
that when K.= g/c2, eK°z 1 when c the ship in ballast. For the loaded ship in ac-
Although a varies with c, the ff expression celerated motion it was about 0.07. Because of
must be multiplied by Ic2 (g/c2 ) resulting in experimental difficulties these values are rather
the factor 1/c3 before the integral in (3.12). This uncertain, and actually apply only to this ship in
factor causes the wave resistance to approach shallow water [172]. On the other hand, for his
zero when c [2], [167]. This may naturally computations, Lackenby [90] used C 0.08, de-
be proven in a more satisfactory mathematical rived by Tupper from experiments conducted by
manner, but it is only of academic interest. Other von den Steinen [152]. Whatever now the value
phenomena which we have not considered occur of C for motion in the longitudinal direction of
with large, but finite, velocities, but we then no the ship, in the following we shall disregard this
longer deal with displacement ships. coefficient for steady motion as there is reason
It should be mentioned here that if (3.18) is to believe that the smallest values indicated
used for the density of the source strength for a above are the most correct. With increasing
continuous distribution along the vertical centre- length/beam-ratio, furthermore, C decreases. We
line of the ship, or if (3.19) is used for the source should meanwhile note this correction for later
strength when a finite number of sources and studies and evaluations of the theory of wave
sinks are used, we have in reality neglected the resistance."
inertia coefficient C for the fluid mass carried If we wish to use (2.12) and (2.17) to find the
along with motion in the longitudinal direction resistance for accelerated motion, it may ap-
of the ship." The effect of the inertia coefficient parently only be done by computing the resultant
may ordinarily be interpreted as an increase in pressure which acts horizontally on the ship.
the source strength above that found by means of For a slender ship the horizontal component of
(3.18) or (3.19). We arrive at this conclusion if the pressure acting on the element of surface
we consider an ellipsoid or a spheroid in steady, dh'df will be approximately given by
rectilinear motion (along its longitudinal axis) in
an inviscicl, infinite fluid. In such cases the ve- ak'
locity potential may be found without any ap- -p(h', 0, ,r) diidr
proximations and may be considered as a con-
tinuous distribution of sources and sinks. The where k' = F (h', 11 is the equation for the wetted
kinetic energy of the fluid mass carried along surface of the ship. The resistance, conse-
pd_
may also be computed from these exact velocity quently, is given by
potentials. The inertia coefficient is thereby ale
also obtained. If, on the other hand, we use (3.20) R -2ffp(h',0,-r) =
(3.18) for the approximate density of the source ah'
f ff i[w -
strength and compute the kinetic energy from the ffalc"
approximate velocity potential, we find that the 77- (-3-T, dh'd (f.
inertia coefficient is now equal to zero [1], [15].
Actually we should multiply, for example,
(3.18) by (1 + k), where the coefficient k varies ak
from point to point on the ship, but which for ,02]-2i=d df+ h[(h'-h)2+(f+
dh
bodies such as ellipsoids and spheroids is con-
stant and equal to the inertia coefficient C. To
show the magnitude of C for varying slenderness +
Pg ffae alc'
dh'd x
ratios L/B, some values for a spheroid will be
given. If L/B = 1.0, 4.99, 9.97; C is 0.5, 0.059
and 0.021, respectively. We have fewer and
partly less accurate data available for ships, but xll ak f5-fidhdf
0
c(r)dr f -Tr
cla x
12For a completely submerged body we may express the

fluid mass carried along as CpV where p is the density of 13Another method for determining the density of the source
the inviscid fluid,' the volume of the body, and where C strength by means of successive approximations is indicated
is here defined as the inertia coefficient of the fluid or, in [181]. This method, utilizing Taylor's hydrodynamic
simply, the inertia coefficient. If we conceive of the beam method for the design of water lines [182], gives (3.18) as
of the ship as approaching zero, C also approaches zero. the first approximation.
Do Guilloton was the first to propose and develop
fcos W(4 -r)] cos (Krode-K(C41)KdK an approximate method which may be used in
0 computing both the wave profile, the stream lines
and the wave resistance for all types of slender
where iTh= h'.- fc(r)dr cos 0, [11, [12]. ships in steady, rectilinear motion [32], [33],
[34], [35], [36], [166]. He conceived of the hull
being approximately divided into wedge-shaped
In (3.20) we note that the resistance of the in- elements of volume of a type similar to that
viscis fluid to the accelerated motion of the ship shown on Fig. 9. These elements of volume,
consists of two terms, to wit, the inertia resist- which have plane surfaces and are semi-infinite
ance of the fluid and the wave resistance, the in length are given by
first of these terms corresponding to the one in
(3.20) containing C. In the form that the coeffi- y .-kn(x+ b.) (a. - z)
cient for 6 occurs in (3.20) it may be interpreted where k = tcznatanf3. For a picture of how the un-
as the fluid mass carried along for a slender, derwater shape of a model may be replaced by
ship-shaped body (virtual mass). To the degree
of accuracy with which we operate, this coeffi-
cient takes into account the free surface, but
with the limitation that no waves are formed [1],
[12], [131, [1091. From the form of this term we
see that, strictly speaking, it applies only to
high velocities, a constant fluid mass is then be-
ing carried along. In (3.20) the inertia term is
consequently only a first approximation. If the
surface conditions of the ship are satisfied with
greater accuracy, we find that the mass carried
along varies somewhat with the velocity [13],
(see also Section 13).
We note further that (3.20) gives the resistance
of the inviscid fluid to the accelerated motion of
the ship, and not the resultant force which is
necessary during accelerated motion. The ship's
own mass does not then appear in (3.20).
We may also assume that the ship started its
motion with velocity c and that this thereafter is
its constant, rectilinear velocity. From (3.20)
we now obtain FIGURE 9.
(3.21) R
4gpct fr dr 2
dO (P2 (r) X wedge-shaped elements of volume, we consider
172
0 0 0
Fig. 10, the water line for an infinitely deep
model. The first wedge-shaped, semi-infinitely
x cos (Kc(t-r) cos 0] cos RIXt-r)]KdK long element of volume is in this case AOB, and
is positive. Next is CDB, which is negative.
where These two elements thus form the semi-infinitely
long body AODC. The third element is the nega-
(3.22) Kx cos 0} eKz dxdz tive EFC, while the fourth, EGA, is positive.
pl -ff ax
Q ay cos Isin
Together these four elements form the half-
and where we have replaced the coordinates h, waterline ODFGO. Let us now take. that part of
-f with x, ,z [1], [121. the hull whieh is indicated by the solid lines on
From (3.21) we obtain steady motion by in- Fig. 11, where we assume that ABMN is a part
tegrating for time and letting t We then of the vertical, longitudinal plane of symmetry of
find that (3.21) gives (3.12), with a given by the ship. This part of the hull is further sub-
(3.18). The term for wave resistance in (3.20) is divided by the section FDGH and a waterline
therefore apparently expressed with the same ac- CGIP. The ordinate OG is the basis for the first
curacy as the customary expression for wave re- element, which is ABDGEF and is semi-infinitely
sistance in steady motion. long in the AN-direction. At F, meanwhile, the
is only necessary to know the variation in pres-

0 sure along the hull due to the motion, since the
hydrostatic pressure for rest integrated over the
surface of the ship does not give the resultant
force. Guilloton therefore integrates the vertical
shift of the iso-pressure lines over the surface of
FIGURE 10. the ship, finding thereby the resultant component
width of the waterline will he FII, not FE. We of the resistance to the rectilinear motion of the
therefore subtract the element ACGEH which is ship.
also semi-infinitely long. Thereby the original It may be shown that there exists a relation-
part of the hull ABDGHF approximately appears, ship between the expression for the wave profile
but the outer contour of the section through NM for an isolated source and Guilloton's wedge-
is now MIL instead of MIK. To bring out the shaped elements [36] (see also Guilloton's dis-
part between the sections FDGH and NMIK we [33]).
cussion of [17] and Havelock's discussion of
must therefore subtract the wedge-shaped ele- It may further be shown that the wedge-
ment of volume based on the ordinates If and KL. shaped elements will give the same expression
By continuing in this manneradding and sub- for the, wave resistance and the wave profile
tracting elements of volumethe entire hull is along the centreline plane of the ship, as the
finally delineated, the bi-curved surface of which complete method described above, and where the
is now replaced by plane surface elements. Later shape is then replaced with a continuous dis-
Guilloton modified the wedge-shaped elements of
tribution of sources and sinks. The condition,
volume such that these now replace the continu- however, is that in both cases we replace the
ally varying waterlines with parabolic arcs, while water lines between the individual vertical sec-
the sections continue to be replaced by straight tions with parabolic arcs and the sections with
line segments. straight-line segments corresponding to the shape
of Guilloton's wedge-shaped elements.
In his classical publication Michell developed
Guilloton has also, as mentioned above, made
the velocity potential for a slender body in steady
motion as a function of the shape of the body, an attempt to use his wedge-shaped elements of
and it is this velocity potential that Gnilloton volume to compute the stream lines along the
uses for each of his elements of volume." As the
hull [35]. From the velocity potential for the
problem has been linearized, the velocity poten- elements of volume it is possible to compute
tial, and the wave profile, for each separate ele- the angle that the tangent to the stream lines
ment of volume may be added directly, giving forms with the hull at various points. If the
computation is made for a sufficient number
approximately the velocity potential and the wave of points on the hull, these tangents may be im-
profile for the ship as a whole. Guilloton gives
tables and curves which may be used to find the drawn. posed on the body plan and the stream lines
wave profile formed by each of the elements of
volume, and the vertical shift of the iso-pressure As in the method where a limited number of
lines in the fluid along the hull from their initial, sources and sinks are used, the computation work
horizontal position when the hull is at rest. The
wave profile, naturally, is also such an iso-
pressure line. Its initial, horizontal position
was the free surface of the fluid. In order to
compute the wave resistance in an ideal fluid it
"Michell's velocity potential for slender ships in recti-

linear, steady motion should be the same as Havelock's
given by (2.15), (2.17) and (3.19), the latter with the source
distribution on the vertical centreline plane of the ship. It
has meanwhile never been proven that they actually agree
with each other everywhere in the fluid, although Wigley has
attempted the proof [6]. The wave profile along a plane co-
inciding with the vertical centreline plane of the ship; and
the expression for the wave resistance, however, the
same for the two velocity potentials. (Note:are'The statement
in this foot-note is no longer true, see R. Timman & G.
Vossers in International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 2, No.
6, 1955. J. K. Lunde.) FIGURE 11.
with Guilloton's procedure increases with in- resistance. Eggert's pressure measurements, in
creasing number of elements of volume. In Guil- any case, appear to indicate this [23], [24]. Ex-
loton's tables the underwater shape of the ship periments on two models with the same under-
is therefore divided into five parts, with water water hull, but with different shapes above the
line planes located one-fifth the ship's draught L.W.L., meanwhile, showed no essential differ-
from each other. The tables simplify the com- ence in the resistance [37]. We must show
putation work itself, but this writer has not used caution, however, in drawing hasty conclusions
the method and is not acquainted with the pre- from results with only two models. On the other
cautions to be observed. Neither can he comment hand, these results agree in many respects with
on the accuracy which may be obtained in prac- the conclusions possible from Havelock's theo-
tice compared with the complete method. retical investigations on the reflection of straight,
It will be quite natural for engineers to conceive transverse waves [8], [38], [39]. He assumed
of the resistance being computed by an integra- that these waves met a body whose water line',
tion of the horizontal fluid pressure over the for the sake of simplicity, was composed of
wetted surface of the ship. One may therefore straight-line segments. The studies showed that
ask why this method was not used in the first the body had an insignificant effect on the height
example where we had steady motion and where of the passing waves, an effect which could be
the complete velocity potential was used. To disregarded as a first approximation.
this is to be said that integrating pressure over Nor may it be said that Guilloton's method
the wetted surface necessitates satisfying the actually considers the hull above the water ad-
condition at this surface with great accuracy. If jacent to the water line on which the ship floats
this is not done, we have no assurance afore- during motion. It is true that the pressure is
hand that the formula found for the wave resist- integrated over the entire wetted surface, but the
ance will agree with that found by considering velocity potential for the individual elements of
the energy in the waves infinitely far behind the volume is nevertheless Michell's, and this is not
ship. When the pressure method is used, the modified because of the effect of the waves on
velocity potential must consequently be ex- the motion. Guilloton's method, meanwhile, made
pressed with greater accuracy than with the energy possible for the first time, without great diffi-
method. It appears that the expression for the culty, the finding of the wave resistance and the
velocity potential becomes considerably more profile for displacement ships whose shape
complicated when we attempt to introduce greater could not easily be expressed by mathematical
accuracy [11], [13], [30], [31], [141], [168], [169], formulae. It should be added, however, that for
[170]. such ships Weinblum used approximate mathe-
Similar objections may also be made to Guil- matical formulae in the form of polynomials and
loton's' method described above. thus found the wave resistance for the corre-
The advantage of the energy method compared sponding distribution of sources and sinks. We
to other known approaches is that we need only have seen above that the method using a finite
know the velocity potential in the form it has number of sources and sinks, also is suitable for
infinitely far astern the ship. The potential such ships. Nor do the computations for the wave
thereby "purges" itself of most of the super- profile by the latter method offer any particular
fluous terms, and only those remain which are difficulty [6], [17], [68] (see also page 18).
essential to the wave resistance. In other methods From the formulae it would appear that the
it is not always clear, without a more thorough wave resistance is apparently symmetrical, i.e.,
analysis, which terms effect the final result and they will yield the same wave resistance whether
which may be disregarded from the beginning [1]. the ship now moves forward or astern with the
It may be of interest to mention that an almostsame velocity c. A ship which is not symmetri-
analogous method may be used to find the in- cal about its midship, however, will assume
duced resistance for flight. various positions when it moves forward or astern
We note that the theory developed above on with the same velocity. As a result the equation
the basis of sources and sinks does not take y = F (x, z) for the ship's surface in the position
into account that part of the ship lying above the it assumes during motion will be different for the
water line on which it floats at the velocity for two directions, except possibly for the smallest
which we compute the wave resistance. It should velocities. From (3.18) and/or (3.19) we note
be quite natural to assume that also that part of that the source strength is then also different,
the hull lying closest to, but always above, the and we may conclude that the integral for the
water line will have a certain effect on the wave wave resistance will not give the same resist-
ance for forward and astern motion. This does ship is not expressed by means of mathematical
not apply to completely submerged bodies, and formulae. It will meanwhile be necessary to re-
we have here an example of the "reversibility call Weinblum's [28] recent statement: "Accord-
paradox" well-known in aerodynamics [40], [41], ing to D. W. Taylor's own statement [48] he
[42], [43], [44], [45], [46]. We shall come back developed 'Mathematical formulae, not with the
to this in Section 12, as there is reason to be- idea that they give lines of least resistance but
lieve that the boundary layer also plays a sig- simply to obtain lines possessing desired shape.'
nificant role in this regard. It is not unusual in This statement is important; contrary to some
modal testing to find models which show no attempts to ascribe magic properties to certain
essential difference in resistance regardless of analytically defined curves like trochoids, sine
the direction they are towed. curves, etc., the principle of systemization is
Naval architects occasionally assume that it put forward as the decisive argument for their
is necessary to disregard the sinkage and trim adoption." The difficulty is rather mainly due
of a ship in motion in order to arrive at the ex- all the variables which occur in the problem.
pressions given above for the wave resistance. Many of the common quantities which occur in
This is not true. No such assumption is neces- the design of the lines of a ship, and which are
sary, but the equation y = F (x, y) for the wetted used for practical reasons, are not independently
surface of the ship must be given for the position variable. To establish an acceptable theory it
it assumes at the velocity for which we wish to is absolutely necessary to make theoretical com-
compute the wave resistance. When we so often putations for models with mathematical lines,
disregard sinkage and trim in using the formulae, not because, as many presume, it is then possible
is this due exclusively to the difficulty and labour to perform the computations, but because the
connected with the computations of such sinkage form is now exactly determined by a limited
and trim [47]15 If we therefore disregard sinkage number of independent variables and because
and trim, y = F (x, z) must be the equation for every change in the form is then precisely de-
the wetted surface of the ship when it floats at fined. This appears to be the only way in which
rest in a fluid. a theory may be built up. As has been done in
All who work at an experiment tank will soon practice, one should first employ as simple
note that even experienced designers often ex- mathematical forms as possible, to develop the
press their astonishment and occasionally their computation method itself and to find the strength
doubt that the wave resistance will vary so much and weaknesses of the theory in general. With
for apparently small changes in the lines of the this in mind Weinblum developed equations for
ship, changes which do not effect the form pa- the surface of different models [121], [122],
rameters which are deemed to play a deciding [125]. These should then be suitable for a sys-
role, while in other cases showing no essential tematic study of the wave resistance and possibly
variation. Theoretically this appears to have its lead to shapes of ships with the least resistance.
natural explanation. From (3.14), (3.15) and He also found that the apparent advantage of
(3.18) we see that the wave resistance is a com- using trigonometric expressions for the surface
plicated function of the squares of the water line of a model instead of algebraic polynomials was
angles measured at every point on the wetted misleading.
surface. Integrals also occur in the formula for With some simplified assumptions it has been
the wave resistance, and these may, even when possible to establish a linearized theory for the
they give approximately the same final result, wave resistance, as indicated above. We must
permit of quite a variation in the water line angle nevertheless be constantly on watch against
measured at all points on the hull. oversimplification in hydrodynamics. We must
From the above it is quite clear that the main likewise be extremely careful about physical
problem mentioned in the introduction, to wit, to arguments, which from time to time may lead us
express the wave resistance as a function of the astray. There are examples of this in the argu-
shape, is unsolvable as long as the shape of the ments: "Small causes, small effects" and "Sym-
metrical causes, symmetrical effects." As a
13At a session of the Sixth International Congress of striking example of how erroneous the last as-
Applied Mechanics in Paris in 1948, Havelock gave a lec- sumption may be, should be mentioned the
ture in which he presented a theory for computations of experiment with a small gas bubble rising in a
trim, with some numerical results for a model. Most of the
papers at the meeting were unfortunately not published, viscous, infinite fluid. If the bubble is quite
among them Havelock's. This writer has however had an small, and the fluid at rest (except for velocities
opportunity to see the results of Havelock's computations,
and these agree well with the measured variations of trim. induced by the bubble due to its motion), we
might assume that the bubble is spherical because natural analogy whatsoever." At the stern the
of the surface tension, at least we might assume boundary layer makes its influence felt, and if
that it is symmetrical about a vertical axis we take this into account it is reasonable to
through its centre. We could therefore assume assume that the theoretical infiniteness here
that the bubble would rise along a straight, ver- may be surmountable. We have also not mentioned
tical path. But it may be shown that this is not the modifications of the source distribution nec-
the case for Reynold's numbers greater than 50. essary because of the wave motion on the surface
The path it then follows is actually a vertical of the fluid, [11], [30], [141]. In most of the
spiral [49]! cases where the theory has been applied this
Oseen has been aware that arbitrary, small modification has been disregarded.
causes may influence the final result [50]. He It should perhaps be mentioned that a source
pointed out that the presence in the differential of finite strength, in motion along the surface of
equations of arbitrary, small terms of a higher the fluid (or immediately under this) theoretically
order may change the character of the solution. gives a wave profile which has an infinite height
It need not follow, for example, that the solution, vertically above the source, but which is other-
when the coefficient of certain terms tends to wise everywhere finite. The same occurs if we
zero in a differential equation, approaches the consider a continuous distribution of sources
solution when these coefficients are made equal along a vertical line ending in the free surface.
to zero. It must not be assumed, however, that On the other hand, if we consider a continuous
this applies generally. As nunierous, minute in- distribution of sources over a vertical plane
fluences effect the experiments, we would not be whose upper edge, for example, lies in the sur-
able to compute the results aforehand if Oseen's face of the fluid, the theoretical wave profile is
observations were generally applicable. Results everywhere finite, as mentioned above. If a
of many experiments may be predicted with cer- finite number of sources and sinks is then used
tainty, and we must conclude that the observations instead of a continuous distribution, the vertical
of Oseen probably are limited to certain types of sub-division of the hull mentioned on page 11.
partial differential equations. must not be such that sources and sinks with
There are many theoretical difficulties in the finite strength are located on or directly under
mathematical development of the theory of wave the free surface of the fluid, if the theoretically
resistance, discussed in the foregoing, which computed wave profile along the hull is to be
are neither mentioned nor indicated. We do not, compared with that measured. Any lack of
for example, treat the difficulties arising when a agreement between the two profiles may mean-
body cleaves the free surface of the fluid, which while be reduced by using more sources and
is of course the case with a ship, and where we sinks in the longitudinal direction (see Havelock's
naturally carry the continuous distribution of and Wigley's discussions of [171). Apparently
sources and sinks up to this surface. This has we need not take the same precaution when we
probably something to do with the known mathe- compute the wave resistance, since we have
matical infiniteness of the vertical component of shown that this may be found from the motion far
the fluid velocity at the bow and stern contours. astern the hull where the wave profile from the
The theoretical wave height is nevertheless various distributions more and more approach
everywhere finite, and agreeing relatively well each other.
with that measured. Somewhat speedy ships From the above the various steps in the theo-
have often more or less of a vertical sprout of retical development may be summed up for steady
water at the bow contour, and it is conceivable motion as follows: First, find the fluid motion
that it is this which identifies itself in the theory occurring because of the motion of the ship, al-
with a mathematical infiniteness here. It is though completely disregarding the formation of
known that by replacing the water lines at the waves. Next, find the waves formed by this fluid
bow contour by, for example, part of a parabolic motion, disregarding now the ship's presence in
arc, such that the angle of the water line is now the fluid. Then, find the effect of the ship itself
in reality zero, this theoretical difficulty dis- on the formation of the waves in question. In
appears without the modification causing any this manner, at leant theoretically, the velocity
change in the theoretical wave resistance [34], As mentioned on page 4 a source is a point where a
[36] (see also Wigley's discussion of [17]). In fluid is created, and from which it streams radially, while a
itself this would indicate that the difficulty is sink is a point where the fluid is annihilated. As a finite
due the use of sources and sinks, which is of volume of fluid flows from this point per unit of time
(source), the velocity at the point itself must be infinitely
course an artificial phenomenon without any large.
potential may be found to the degree of accuracy the expression for the wave resistance is now
desirable for the problem, in that the approxima- the same as that found for a pressure distribution
tion procedure is assumed to converge. In practice acting on a limited area of the surface of the
we find that the third step already offers con- fluid when the relationship between the source
siderable difficulty. In most cases, therefore, strength a and the pressure density p is given
we are satisfied with the first two steps, leading by [19], [79], [13], [116]
to the integral form in accordance with (3.12) 277g pa = cPx
and (3.13). On the other hand, it is possible to
obtain a concept of the effect of the third step A very narrow ship, and a ship with a very
on the wave resistance. Havelock has investi- small draught, may be considered as the two
gated, as previously mentioned, the effect of a limiting cases for the theory. The similarity be-
slender ship-shaped body on the passing waves tween the equations for wave resistance for
[8], [38]. He found that the change in height these two limiting cases for steady motion led
due the presence of the body was completely Bogner to attempt finding synthetically the
insignificant. For a slender ship it does not general expression for the wave resistance whose
therefore appear as if the third step will play a limiting value yielded these two expressions for
deciding role, at least not on the wave resist- resistance, and which also gave the formula for
ance, which of course is dependent on the wave wave resistance for a completely submerged
motion infinitely far astern the ship. ellipsoid, as this formula has much in common
The results we have arrived at may only be with the other two. Hogner has therefore pro-
used for computing the wave resistance for dis- posed a so-called "interpolation formula" which
placement ships and not for speedy motor boats gives the correct expression for the wave resist-
or similar vessels. Because of their special ance in these three cases, but which in itself is
shapes these latter give rise to a water sprout empirical. We shall not dwell further on his
at, for example, the forward shoulder." Neither argument, but only refer to [19], [112], [117],
may the source density be expressed by means [118], and Hogner's discussion of [112].
of (3.18) when the ship has a square stern, since It is often an advantage to introduce dimen-
(3.18) will here be infinitely large. In reality it sionless coordinates in the expressions for the
is doubtful if sources and sinks may at all be wave resistance and in the equation for the wet-
used for ships with square sterns. The same is ted surface of the ship. If we set e= x/1, n =
true for Guilloton's method for sub-dividing the y/b, C z/d, where 21, 2b, d are the length,
hull into wedge-shaped elements of volume. width and draught of the ship, respectively, we
In the foregoing we have only discussed the find for a slender ship that (3.12) and (3.13) may
theory of wave resistance in connection with now be written
It should meanwhile be
displacement ships.
apparent that a general expression for the wave
resistance for steady motion also applies to a R, =
4
77
Kgpl&? f 7r/2
(P12 + a) sec' Od0
ship with quite a small draught and almost flat (3.23) 0
bottomed, provided only the sections and the
water lines are continuous. The density of the
source strength will in this case not be given by
(3.18) but by, as a first approximation,
c az
a = 2ff
-- ax
(3.24) P'}.
Q ff
0
dc sin /Koesec 0} x
COB{e
X edKoe sec2 Ode
where we not insert dx dy in (3.13) or (3.15) in- where 77= F() is the dimensionless equation
stead of dS and where z (x, y) is the equa- for the wetted surface of the ship. We have here
tion for the wetted surface of the ship [191, [117], assumed that the source distribution is located
[118]. If the draught of the ship is so shallow on the centreline plane of the ship.
that it may be everywhere disregarded (z made From (3.23) and (3.24), here applicable to
equal to zero in (3.13) or (3.15)), we find that steady motion, we see that the width 2b does not
occur in the integrand, but among the constants
"A speedy motor boat may, as a first approximation, be EIS 1,2 in front of the integral sign. The wave re-
replaced by a pressure distribution acting on a limited part sistance varies with the square of the beam of
of the free surface of the fluid and in motion on this sur-
the ship. if Ri is therefore the wave resistance
face. Consult [79], where a relatively complete literature
reference is also even. for a ship I, whose water line ordinates B1 mess-
ured in the direction of the beam are twice as If systematic variations in draught, length
great as the corresponding ordinates Bll for ship and/or shape are made and the corresponding
II, it follows that R.,' = 4 From (3.24) we variations in the wave resistance computed, it is
see that the functions Pi and Q, are the same for customary to give the results in the form of curves
these two ships, but from (3.23) we have that as a function of these variations. Yet we must
Rua B", Rw11 B112. Since 81= 2 Bib we get remember that these three quantities occur in the
R1= 4R11. The result applies only when the integrand, and we have consequently no actual
sources are located on the plane of the centre- justification for exterpolating such a curve, nor
line, and is consequently an approximation." are we actually justified in drawing up such a
In (3.23) and (3.24) we note that the draught, curve unless the variations occur in small incre-
length and underwater shape of the ship occur in ments. In practice it is customary to draw up the
the integrand. In contrast to the question of beam curve for even a few observations, and exterpo-
it is therefore not immediately possible to ascer- lating, arguing that it gives a picture of the quan-
tain what effect variations in these quantities tities playing a deciding role. It is well to be on
will have on the wave resistance, aside from gen- guard, however, against misleading results found
eral considerations which we have already indi- in this manner. To use systematic series for
cated for the case of vertical distribution of dis- other purposes than to establish approximately
placement. Complete calculations must be car- the most desirable main dimensions and the best
ried out for such variations in each individual location of the centre of buoyancy for ships with
case before their effect may actually be different section shapes, is also quite unjusti-
established. fied, seen theoretically.
4. The Components of the Wave Profile and the Wave Resistance for Steady, Rectilinear Motion
It is appropriate to briefly mention the compo- This model is assumed to have an infinitely large
nents that the wave profile may have, and the draught. Wigley found that theoretically the
possible terms in the wave resistance. Wigley wave profile for this model consisted of the fol-
was the first to show that it was possible to com- lowing components (See Fig. 12):
pute the wave profile for infinitely deep bodies
in rectilinear, steady motion [51]. Shortly after- Two positive components (i.e., they both
wards Havelock presented a more general theory start with a wave crest), starting at the bow
[8], [52] (see also [14], [74], [81], [110], [114], and stern contours, respectively. These
[115], [119]). Later Guilloton developed an ap- components are exclusively due the finite
proximate method based on his wedge-shaped angle of the waterline oc at these two loca-
elements of volume and which could then be used tions.
for all types of slender, displacement ships." Two negative wave systems starting at the
Let us first consider a model whose water lines forward and after shoulders, respectively.
are composed of straight segments and whose These components are exclusively due the
wetted surface is given by sudden change in the angle of the waterline
at these two locations on the model.
x A local, non-wave-shaped disturbance which
y= b , a<x<1 rapidly dies out With increasing distance
1a from the model. This component, which is
(4.10) y=b ,a<x<a ordinarily the most difficult to express by
1+ x mathematical functions, is the least im-
y=b , <x<a portant and does not share in the total wave
a resistance. Because of this component,
however, the wave profile at the bow is
1'See also footnote on page 54. The author has made continuous with the free, undisturbed sur-
the computations for two destroyers where the beam of the face of the fluid afore the model.
one was 50% greater than the other. A limited number of
sources and sinks was used, most of them located out from These components compose to form the result-
the centre line plane of the hulls. It was shown that even
now the theoretically computed wave resistance varied ing wave profile. Far astern the model, the trans-
approximately as the square of the heath. verse wave profile goes more and more over to
19A corresponding method may easily be developed on the sine waves with continuously decreasing ampli-
basis of a finite number of sources and sinks, although we tude and with a wave length corresponding to the
must be aware of the danger in locating any of the sources
and sinks too close to the free surface, as mentioned on ordinary, unrestrained deep water waves which
page 18. advance with the same velocity as the model.
Wave heights on this figure are shown to a scale

72 times the length.
\
s
N Computed Wave Profile
Measured Wave Profile
\
/
--- ---
/
/ ....---- N.
/ /
\
N / E
*o '5 2
in
o In
Ca Bow Component
Stem Component
ilkAlb& /
...i..
..." --.."5.,
\.
A11116.-
/. ri ....
\/
%
. After shoulder
Disturbance Component
-..-... ......
Forward Shoulder Component

Waterline of Model
FIG. 12. Decomposition of the theoretical wave profile and comparison with the measured.
Froude's number = 0.238.
This wave length occurs, practically speaking, and which also has an infinitely large draught,
already at a distance astern the model corre- we find that the wave profile consists of the fol-
sponding to about two complete waves. lowing components (see Fig. 13):
As the length and the height of the wave vary
with the velocity of the model, the inferference Two positive components starting at the
between the wave components will vary with the bow and stern contours, respectively. These
velocity. The wave resistance, meanwhile, is a components are in turn exclusively due the
function of the profile, and the resistance curve finite angles of entrance and run Ct at these
must consequently oscillate, but nevertheless in- two locations on the model. In other words,
crease, with increasing Froude's numbers. these are the same components which will
For this model the angles of entrance and run, form if the water lines here are composed of
and the change in the angles at the forward and straight segments with the same angle of
after shoulders, are equally large. As the com- entrance and run.
ponents in a and b are due these angles, the in- Two components which are due the curva-
dividual components will have, as a first approxi- ture of the water lines between the bow and
mation, both the same wave length and height, the forward shoulder and between the after
and will also be given by the same mathematical shoulder and the stern. The one component
functions, positive for the components in a and is negative and starts at the bow contour,
negative in b. while the other is positive and starts at the
If we now consider a model [8], [53] whose stern contour. These components have rela-
wetted surface is given by tively little effect on the wave profile at
lower Froude's numbers, the profile then
aj being primarily established by the compo-
y= b a<x<11- a nents in a. At higher Froude's numbers,
however, they are brought to bear for this
(4.11) y=b a < x< a model.
Two components which are due the curva-
y=b
x+a
la<x<a ture of the water lines, but which start as a
positive system at the forward shoulder and
Wave heights on this figure are shown to a scale

12 times the length.
111111111
Mill"Ill In
Local Disturbance
Waterlines of Model
FIG. 13. Decomposition of the theoretical wave profile and comparison with the measured.
Froude's number = 0.512.
a negative system at the after shoulder. and that the entrance angle of the waterline plays
These components, which have little effect a deciding role in the wave formation for moder-
at lower Froude's numbers, nullify each ate Froude's numbers.
other more and more at higher Froude's num- A similar analysis has been made for a series
bers. If the parallel mid-section is removed, of models [54] whose shape is given by
these components disappear completely for
this model. x'
d. A local disturbance with the same proper- (4.12) y b + (a 1) a2
ties as those for the model given by (4.10).
At lower Froude's numbers the components b where a2 had the magnitudes 1, 0.6, 0.2,
and c play a subordinate role for this model. This +0.2 and +0.6.
is in accord with practical observations which It is easily shown that the wave systems which
show that the wave formation for a ship with are due the variation in the waterline angle, are
parabolic waterlines is mainly concentrated in positive when this suddenly increases and nega-
the region nearest the bow and stern contours, tive when it suddenly decreases.
Weinblum, quoting Havelock, notes that this de- For the model given by (4.10) Wigley found
composition of the resulting wave profile is partly that the wave resistance for rectilinear, steady
the result of the considerations necessary to ar- motion consisted of the following components
rive at as simple an integration as possible, and (see Fig. 14):
that therefore a somewhat different interpretation
and decomposition is possible [28]. For the A component which is due to the finite angle
of entrance, a component which is due to the
models this writer has studied, it does not appear
that this opinion is valid, although we must be sudden change of angle at the forward shoul-
der, a component which is due to the sudden
aware that every small part of the wetted surface change of angle at the after shoulder, and a
contributes to the wave formation.
component which is due to the finite angle of
We should note, meanwhile, that the models we
discussed have vertical sides and an infinitely run. These components act as if they exist
independent of each other. They increase
large draught. In other words, their similarity to proportionally with the sixth power of the
ordinary ships is limited. It is rather certain velocity for this model.
that the above conclusions must be modified when
the question arises of shapes of ordinary ships. Inteifetence between systems with the same
Yet there is nothing which indicates that the design, i.e., between bow and stern, and be-
tween forward and after shoulders.
composition into the general components would
be changed, but rather that the significance of the Interference between systems with opposite
individual components for the resulting wave pro- sign, i.e., between bow and forward shoul-
file will be modified when models more resem- der, between after shoulder and stern, be-
bling ships are considered. tween bow and after shoulder, and between
One is then inclined to ask why such models forward shoulder and stern.
have been used. The answer is, it may be shown For this model the first two interference types
that the wave profile for these models, at least in c will be the most important at relatively large
along the plane through the centreline of the Froude's numbers. Since the distance of separa-
model, may be expressed by Bessel functions tion is least between these four components, the
and other known functions of a similar type. This interference occurs between wave components
is not the case with ordinary shapes when the which have lost no essential wave height be-
complete velocity potential is used. It is this cause of a large separation, and which would
consideration of the computation work which then give the viscosity of the fluid time to make
has led to the selection of these special model its influence felt.
types. If we now consider a model with draught d and
Wigley has compared the computed and meas- given by [54]
ured wave profile for these two, and other models
x4
[22], [54], [55]. In all the computations the (4.13) y = b (a2 --
models are assumed to be infinitely deep. The d2
p p
y-ordinate, furthermore, is made equal to zero,
i.e., the theoretical wave profile is given along we find that the wave resistance is due the fol-
the centreline of the model and not along the lowing components:
side of the ship. This has been done to limit the Two components which are due to the finite
computation work. Considering that it is not angles of entrance and run. These com-
practically possible to build models exception- ponents, which increase evenly with
ally deep and that the wave profile is measured Froude's number, act as if they exist inde-
along their sides, it must be said that the agree- pendent of each other.
ment between the theoretically computed and the Two components which are due to the curva-
measured profile is good. Lack of agreement is ture in the entrance and the run. These
ordinarily first important along the run, which is
to be expected, since it is first here that the vis- components also act as if they exist inde-
pendent of each other.
cosity and the boundary layer actually begin to Interference between the components men-
play a part. The height of the computed profile tioned in a and b.
along the run is therefore often greater than the
height of the measured profile. From these com- At relatively small Froude's numbers the wave
parisons it would appear that a decomposition of resistance due to the finite angles of entrance
the resulting profile, as indicated above, is and run of the waterlines play a big role, but at
justified. higher Froude's numbers the other components
Interference
Sum of the resistance components ( rd due between bow
the waterline angles at bow, forwa shoulder, and after
after shoulder and Stern. shoulder; or
between forWard
_
Shoulder and
stem
Total On.
Interference
. between the shoulders
Interference
between bow and stein
Interference between bow

and faiward shoulder; or between
after shoulder and stem.
FIG. 14. Decomposition of the wave resistance.
begin to make their influence felt. The shape of of the resistance of the forebody, the resistance
the waterlines is also a deciding factor for the of the afterbody, and the interference between
contribution of the individual, terms on the total the systems of the forebody and afterbody (see
wave resistance. We note that the models given by also Section 9). We should note, however, that
(4.13) have considerably more in common with among the components of the wave resistance
ordinary types of ships than those which were there is not one which corresponds to the local
used in the discussion of the wave profile. disturbance mentioned under the components of
The wave resistance could also be composed the wave profile.
5. The Assumptions made by Froude

Before attempting to draw any general conclu- and computed wave resistance, we should briefly
sions front a comparison between "measured" review the assumptions made when the total re-
sistance of a ship is determined for rectilinear, components of resistance are not effected by the
steady motion. "scale effect" when transferring from model to
Froude developed his method, which is used in prototype, can only be discussed quite superfi-
model testing to determine the total resistance, cially by means of theoretical hydrodynamics.
on the assumption that it was possible to estab- We should also note that in aerodynamics, quite
lish the frictional resistance but not possible to in contrast to Froude's method, the frictional and
compute the wave resistance. He further pre- the "separation" resistances are combined.
sumed that the various "resistance components," To this is added the uncertainty accompanying
into which the total resistance was presumed de- the frictional computations being used. Long ex-
composed, could quite simply be added to give a perience has shown that these give practically
good approximation of the total resistance. This applicable results. It is something else when we
would presume that the inter-dependent effect of require that the wave resistance be separated
these components, relatively speaking, must be out as accurately as possible.
the same for model and prototype. He further as- These incomplete comments should serve to
sumed that the "separation resistance"2° and the show how difficult it is to compare "measured"
"form resistance" (and a smaller portion of the and computed wave resistance with any great ac-
frictional resistance) could be combined with the curacy. On the other hand, at least theoretically,
wave resistance as a "residual resistance," even it is now possible to find the wave resistance
if "separation resistance" is due, among other even in an actual fluid, by a separate measure-
things, to the viscosity of the, fluid, and "form ment of the frictional resistance [56]. To this
resistance" is due to the difference in form be- writer, however, it appears as if this method will
tween a ship and a flat plate with the same length not yield the wave resistance due the shape of
and area of wetted surface, both in motion in an the model under water, as in a frictionless fluid,
infinite fluid."' The "residual resistance" found but rather as a result of an underwater shape,
by Froude's method thus contains resistance modified by the boundary layer. We shall again
components which quite definitely do not follow refer to this_in Section 12. It is quite probable
his .transference law. For relatively full ships, that it will take a longtime for a practical method
therefore, we cannot expect that the "residual to be developed, and we cannot yet speak of a
resistance" will yield anything but a concept of measured wave resistance in the strictest sense
the wave resistance. The same applies to all of the word."
types of ships at low Froude's numbers. These It would appear to this writer that the best pro-
assumptions have meanwhile led to a practical cedure in comparing "measured" and computed\
technique universally used in shipbuilding. (See resistance, will be to compare separately the
also Section 12.) computed results for various models and the
When we start considering the problems theo- measured results for the same models. In other
retically by means of hydrodynamics, the picture words, it is the difference between the computed
changes. The determination of the frictional re- resistance for two models which should be com-
sistanee by means of the Navier-Stokes equations pared with the difference between the "meas-
(for laminar flow), for example, is a more diffi- ured" wave resistance for the same two models.
cult problem than the wave resistance in an in- By this method of comparison the effect of the
viscid fluid. In an actual fluid, furthermore, the "form resistance" and the "separation resist-
formation of waves is a problem which has not ance" will apparently largely be eliminated under
yet been studied theoretically to any appreciable the presumption that the form and the main di-
extent.- The hypothesis then, that-the individual mensions of the modeLs do not significantly de-
,
viate from each other. On the other hand we
""Separation resistance" is here defined as the differ. should also be aware that such a procedure partly
ence between the total resistance of a body in a fluid with- eliminates the simplified assumptions which are
out free surface and its actual frictional resistance. For a
body moving in an inviscid fluid the "separation resist- necessary for the development of the theoretical
ance" will be equal to zero. This is so because, in an in- solution of the wave resistance problem. Since
viscid fluid, the resultant pressure on that part of the body it is of great interest to know the effect of these
lying afore the largest cross-section is as great as, but acts
directly opposite to the resultant pressure acting on that assumptions, neither is this procedure completely
part of the body lying astern the largest cross-section. In
addition to the separation, the increasing thickness of the
boundary layer in the run plays a certain role in this com-
ponent of resistance. 22Iii the discussion of [148] Weiublum reported that at-
Another definition of "form resistance" is used in tempts are now being made to arrive at a practically appli-
aerodynamics. cable method.
6. Comparison Between "Measured" and Calculated Wave Resistance

for Steady, Rectilinear Motion
As the simplest case of computing the wave [22], [51], [53], [541, [55], [60], [61], [62], [63],
resistance, let us assume that the ship is divided [64], [65], [110], [111], [112]. The results of
into two parts at the midship-section. From these computations were then compared with the
(3.16), (3.17) and (3.19) we then find that the results of experiments conducted with the same
wave resistance is given by models.
To study the effect that reasonable variations
.4gpKog
(6.10) R= in the lines had on the wave resistance, Wigley
made the computations for a series of models
1. [64] given by
in' (1-KoLc cosh u) x z2 z2 z4
(6.11) y=b - -d-2-) (1 p) aa a4
x 2K0 f "5122 u cosh' zidu From (6.11) we note: The models are symmetrical
about the midship-section; they have vertical,
where K.. g/c2, A is the area of the midship- straight-lined bow and stern contours; and all
sectiOn and f the vertical distance of the centroid the waterlines are obtained directly from the
of the midship-section under the L.W.L. L.W.L. by multiplying the ordinates of this wa-
This integral is too simplified to have any terline with the corresponding value of (I ?AP)
practical value, and it will also magnify the for the individual waterlines (affinite transforma-
humps and hollows in the resistance curve due tion of the waterlines). All sections are found
to the 'interference. Equation (6.10) is neverthe- from the midship-section by multiplying the ordi-
less of theoretical interest, as it shows the nates of this with the corresponding value of
factors of great significance for the wave resist- (1 - 282)(1 + a212 / l2 + a4x4 /l4) for the individual
ance, to wit, the area of the midship-section A, sections (affinite transformation of the sections).
the prismatic length LC p, and the distance f of The curve of the section areas has a shape cor-
the centroid of the midship-section under the responding to that of the L.W.L. By using the
parameters, a, and a., and varying these inde-
If (3.14), (3.15) and (3.18) are used in the the- pendently of each other, a large number of dif-
oretical computations of the wave resistance, we ferent models, is obtained.
will find that (3.15) may be integrated for models 'Symmetrical models were used since the com-
with mathematical shape, but that this is not the putations for the wave resistance were then
case with (3.14). The integration with respect to somewhat simplified. For such models the func-
u must be done graphically, for example. An ex- tion P in (3.13) or in (3.15), both containing a
ception to this occurs when the models have cosine factor, will be equal to zero. In a later
vertical sides and an infinitely large draught. publication [65] Wigley compared the computed
The result in such cases is given in Bessel, or and "measured" wave resistance for a series of
similar functions. By means of these functions, unsymmetrical models.
which he himself partly tabulated, Havelock com- Main dimensions, coefficients, etc. for the dif-
puted the wave resistance for a number of in- ferent models given by (6.11) are shown in Ta-
finitely deep models with vertical sides but with ble.
varying waterline shapes and varying lengths of The midship-section of the models,is shown on
the parallel midship-section [18], [571, [58]. Fig. 15 and the L.W.L. is indicated on Figs. 16,
Havelock also computed the wave resistance for 17 and 18.
one model with vertical sides but with varying
draughts [59]. Some conclusions on the effect
of the shape of the waterline on the wave resist- L.W.L.
ance may reasonably be drawn from these re-
sults, but it is naturally difficult to make a com- The Models
2038 A,B,C and D
parison with towing results. These studies were
meanwhile the beginning of all the comparisons
which have later been made. The Models
Wigley was the first to complete the theoreticel 7805 A and B, 829,
/846 A and k 1970 A,B and C
computations of the wave resistance for slender,
but nevertheless more ship-shaped bodies [61, FIG. 15. CO for the models.
Dimensions:
LLwr., la /4001#
23 = 475,ct
a sot".
'm 354) ad
C-0,600
Model
2038 R /as° a
13 9,30 45
C _ 6.3° 1 4)
.11 34° 0,5
LWZ.
FIG. 16. L.W.L. for the models 2038 A, B, C and D.
In many respects the models 2038 A, B, C and distribution, found from the equation of the model
D may be compared with cruisers and destroyers when these were at rest in the fluid, was used in
(without square sterns), but Ce for these is the theoretical computations of Ow and wc.
somewhat greater than for the models. From Fig. 20 we see that it is not until F 0.36
Some typical results are shown on Pig. 19 as that the trim makes itself felt, while the sinkage
0-curves on the basis of Froude's number F. increases gradually with Froude's numbers.
These curves have not been corrected for varia- From these, and other similar results we may
tions in the wetted surface due to sinkage and draw the following, general conclusions:
trim for different Froude's numbers, but they are The computed resistance at the first hump' is
corrected for temperature variations in the water less than that found through experiments, except
of the tank and given for 15°C, the accepted possibly for models with unusually low Cp.
standard temperature. On Fig. 19 OR desig- Wigley assumes that this is due his neglecting
nates the "residual resistance" expressed as sinkage and trim in the theoretical computations.
0-values, found in the usual manner, and by At the Froude's numbers here relevant these are
[66], [67];
ance; and
8
using Froude's "0"-values for computing friction
w is the computed wave resist-
wc the computed wave resistance
The crest on the 0-curve at F"' 0.5 is here called the
first, that at F 0.3 the second; etc. This deviation from
corrected for the effect of viscosity on the wave customary practice is necessary since, theoretically, there
are an infinite number of peaks between 0.5 for a
formation. We shall come back to this viscosity body moving in an inviscid fluid. They decrease in magni-
correction in Section 12. A continuous source tude, however, with decreasing Froude's numbers.
Dimensions:
Lz.wL = &too/A
= 150 fi
= /,oe .44
699/6a
C = a 7ocr /970
/970a
1970e
Model
MIIMG
" - Man.
-
r=tarirri
LL 8.0 ft.
FIG. 17. L.W.L. for the models 1970 A, B and C.
Dimensions: ft****
Apo iel.
aLLWL /,5oKit
d = hop "4
Model Ix Cp
go ./805.B
--# -AP
60- 0
rriirni 0.5:7
A533
NN
02 1.5 0.40
/0 R TM a 4
--, -A /6.7 a a 0.767
LLypi, 8.0 ft.
FIG. 18. L.W.L. for the models 1805 A, B; 829; 1846 A, B.
large quantities, relatively speaking, and most namacists nevertheless maintain that there is
often greatest for the models with the greatest reason to believe that the computations in this
Cp. range yield results which are closer to the actual
At velocities in the neighbourhood of the sec- wave resistance for quite slender models than
ond and third humps the agreement between the the values of "residual resistance" found in the
values depends on Cp, L/B and B/d. The the- usual manner.
ory overestimates the resistance of full ships In the range between the third crest and
with large angles of entrance. These two humps, F.'-' 0.18 the Computed humps and hollows will,
and to Some extent even more the first hollow, in general, also be partly exaggerated, but not
are exaggerated in the theoretical computations. as much as the second and third humps and the
The remarkable interference which the theory in- corresponding hollows.
dicates in this range, and which will lead to ad- There is a phase displacement of the humps
vantageous characteristics of resistance, is not and hollows on the computed resistance curve
realized in practice. We also note that the large compared with the experimental. It has been in-
variations in trim Start at Froude's numbers cor- dicated that this is due to the effect of the bound-
responding to those which give the first hollow ary layer which causes an extension of the wave-
in the resistance curve, i.e., F = 0.33 to 0.36. forming part of the hull.
At low Froude's numbers, about F 0.18, it is In connection With the wetted surface Wigl6y
quite difficult to separate out the "residual re- mentions that it increases with the velocity,
sistance" and thereby making a comparison roughly speaking, within the speed range used
with the computed resistance. Some -hydrody- and. that the increase at- the greatest Froucle's
TABLE I
-
L in B in d in The Parameters in (6.10) A in

Model ft. ft. ft. lbs.
CZ.2
1805B 16 1,5 1,0 -1,0 0,533 0 533 0,355 8,65

1805A 16 1,5 1,0 0,587 4-,3 0,8 586 0,391 8,19
1:129 16 1,5 .1,0 -0,2 0,640 1,5 639 0,427 7,89
1846B 16 1,5 1,0 0,2 0,693 12,7 2,4 692 0,462 7,57
1846A 16 1,5' 1,0 0,6 0,747 16,7 3,2 746 0,498 7,33
1970A 16 1;5 1,0 0,0625 0,4375 0,700- 15,7 3,0 699 0,4.67 7,52
1970B 16 1,5 1,0 0,4375 -0,4375 0,700 10,7 2,0 699 0,467 7,54
1970C 16 1,5 1,0 0,8125 -1,3125 0,700 5,3 1,0 699 0, 467 7,56
2038A 16, 1,75 0,5 -0,875 0,875 0,600 - 12,5' ,350 ,0,400 7,92
203813 /6 1,75 0,5 -0;6875 0,4375 0,600 9,3 1,5 350 0,400 7,?4
2038C 16 1,75 0,5 -0,5000 0,600 6,3 1,0 350 0,400 7,97
2.638D 16 1,75 0,5 -0,3125 -0,4375 0,600 3,0 0,5 350 0,400 7,99
(
C)R from experiments

computed without
z correction
a
Model 25 C 44
V.-0 vvc computed with
----,.... -.......
*--**-7.--..,"-,
829 /6 -15- 1.0 44 a" 15 correction

/970 c 16 1.5 /.0 _0/.1 1.0
3-3 ° 10
, 8039 G 16 /.75 /.5 _-?-/j 43° Lo
08
,.
ir ow
, rir-- 889
"14111144
u,
I Model
424 /
0,2
I.
....., Fr
........___Pd
0
RN,.
FIE
r
Model /970C R from experiment
0.6 ! 0J
,. comput without
r
E....- correction
ME
...........
_._ ......._
c computed with -A...-. ......-
correction
0.6
MI
, -
IA7d
IIIWw- . -...a..-.
Mo del ZO.38 C
0,Af0 0,E0 C! a &ea.=
FIGURE 19.
numbers in these experiments was 5%. Be mean- the same characteristics. Broadly speaking the
while assumes that the correction because of viscosity correction improves the agreement at
this does not have any great theoretical signifi- low Froude's numbers, but at velocities corre-
cance, in that we do not know the actual relative sponding to F greater than 0.35 the correction is
velocity between the models and the fluid. without significance.
In Figs. 21, 22, 23 and 24, in accord with that It is not the author's intention to discuss the
which is mentioned in Section 5, the difference properties of the individual model§ since the
in OR, 0 to and © for various model § is form of the models, for example, has little practi-
compared. We see immediately that the theoretical significance. It i6 sufficient to mention that
cal and measured curves compared have in part the models 2038 A, B, C and D which have some
ecue
B
1s a ' C
a
48 OA 480 0.20 0. 432 4 4 1740 452 q.155

FA' r42.
FIGURE 20.
similarity to cruisers and destroyers, clearly greater than about 1.0 we find, similarly, that the
shows the importance of drawing the displace- wave resistance is proportional to the square of
ment out toward the bow and stern and reducing the displacement of the model. It is well known
the shoulders at large Fronde's numbers. Model from practice that the magnitude of the displace-
2038 A in this family, in particular, shows quite ment has much to say on the resistance of the
excellent results in the destroyer range. model at large Froude's numbers [133].
It may be shown from the integral for the wave Weinblum made similar comparisons [37], [120],
resistance that the wave resistance at Froude's [126], [127], [128], [129], [1301, [131], [1321,
numbers less than about 0.1 is proportional to [134], [139], [143],[1451", and has discussed the
aclvantages of Yourkevitch's lines on the wave
( t ' = tanaa. We may also obtain this result by resistance [144] and the choice of hollowed or
b1
considering the corresponding source distribu- straight waterlines [142].

tion. The source strength is proportional to the
Some theoretical computations of the wave re-
sistance
tangential angle alone the sides of the model. sinks have using a finite number of sources and
also been made [6], [8], [15], [161,
i.e., proportional to tan a at the bow contour it- [17]. For such
self. At small velocities the bow itself will be computations (3.16) and (3.17)
must be used.
that part of the ship forming the waves. The were compared with The results of these computations
wave resistance therefore approaches that re- found in the usual manner the "residual resistance"
sistance which is due a concentrated source at models. Lunde also studied from experiments with
the effect of a
the bow_ and whose strength is proportional to space-distribution of sources and sinks for a
tan oc. It must consequently be proportional to
tan' OC.At the low Froude's numbers here relevant
the wave resistance is meanwhile insignificant 24Some of these publications are of a more general char-
in the total resistance. At Froude's numbers acter and partly recapitulate earlier published results.
destroyer model and found a somewhat improved Hogner has presented an interesting, but sim-
agreement at large Froude's numbers [16], while plified theory for the effect of infinitesimal
Wigley and Shearer used the method to compute changes in form on the wave resistance of a hull
profiles [6], [17], [68]. Guilloton, on the other [150]. As the problem itself is not linear, how-
hand, has used his method in the computations ever, and since we may not disregard the wave
for both profile and resistance [32], [33], [34], interference between the different parts of the
[149]. hull, it is not possible to delineate the effect of
It is of interest in this connection to mention a finite change in form at one location on the
Emerson's two publications [69], [70], where he hull independent of the effect which this causes
indicates a relationship between the resistance on other parts of the hull. For infinitesimal
characteristics for ordinary merchant ships and changes in form the problem may nevertheless
the curve showing variations in tangential slope be assumed linear, and a theory may then be de-
at every point on the curve of the section areas. veloped for computing the increase in the wave
This curve for the variation in slope is naturally resistance per unit of volume variation in the
equivalent to the strength distribution for sources displacement (i.e., 8R/80 at different sections
and sinks along a line passing approximately on the hull. We may thereby draw the so-called
through the centre of buoyancy of the ship and "influence lines" which designate ER /8C7 at
parallel to its centreline. various arbitrarily chosen locations on the wetted
modo h ES d C tv K° i C A) Line Types

/805 23 /6 1.6" /0 443 00 a0 0,533 Quite hitilow
R /46 AS 10 - CIO /5 0,587 Slightly hollow
829 /6 th" to 1/4. 80 /.0 4640 Straight
42
Difference in 0
0./
829 '905R
(Corrected for variation
in wetted surface)
-0.i "... .0%**
Measured
Computed with correction
. Computed without correction
Difference in 0
©/805.9- /805
- (Corrected for variation in wetted
surface)
//'
e/er
_
428 /. 0 12 1.fr 1:6
4fi
-
4/ 4.3 + 0.15 46
eksir
FIGURE 21.
Model ei Cal Oe . I Col Line Type.

829- /6 45 /0. 4/..3 8 /.5 404.0 Straight
/846 IP /6 1.5 1.0 .947 /2.7° _2. f 4603 0....
/846 /9 /0 _/.5 ZO /..7 /47_' ..3, z 46+7 vry CO...
- Compahrd. with cerredion

Computed without em.//rVon
45 -
Differenat in 0
044
Q/846R(D/114,68
(Corradad fai variation in
urfae.)
eu-
Difference in 0
423
D,48
(Cormeted far variation in
ieittird
o.e43P. -
cY/127
/.
QS 46
FIGURE 22.
I ._ .23 a-
C f# al rp
/9 70 09 /6- - _45 /0. 1,3 /57° 3. 0 0.7 . Ca crila
/070.a /6 /.5 40 2.47 4:27° d. 0 0,7 - -Straight .
.1970 C /6 -AS ZO a../.3. 83 ° /.-0 07 . . Concave
-- Maczumd
Conput.dMith coimation
Cornmrted wttireat caavectian
an-
\\ 0
\\ Difforenci in
1`)97023C1/9700
\\.\\
c/vr.
ad, 4810
1
42 44
I
16
1
48
,
.1
cia a3 a*
rAfr
FIGURE 23.
Model Line Types

LaIMIIIIIIUMELAIIILIAI IIMElli convex
038 a 1E.MILLAMIBILMOUIE61WEIMILL7:111970E=11
0 ILIIIIIIMIICM11/311 6.3° 1.0 '.6 i.hti concave
i . *.-LazimuumajzunAlEzmi 00 Ex111111EM Concave -
Computed with correction

-- Computed without correction
Difference in c
(454038.8.-4030C
Difference in c
0
40.38C ©aa3t2D
-4/
46 10 ha 1,4
I I
/.13
I
0.3
I
45 a6
42 Oh
F= c/c5-02"
FIGURE 24.
surface. These curves show at a glance what Bogner made the computation for a very simple
areas on the hull should be modified to produce a model with infinite draught [1501, but promised
more favourable resistance result, and they also to apply the theory to more ship-shaped hulls in
permit of estimating both the tendency and the a later publication.
magnitude of these variations of resistance. This writer is always interested in observing
Experimentel results
0. 0 Computed results
t-
- -
4/07 /.5 210' as .3
FIG. 25. Reynolds Number.
the reactions of different engineers when draw- midship-section with parabolic ends. The sides
ing up their first C) R-curves from measured were vertical and the radius at the bilge 1/64".
model results when pronounced humps and hol- Although in many ways extreme with respect to
lows are discernible. There is a tendency to model form, humps and hollows, it has neverthe-
draw a mean curve which reduced the humps and less theoretical interest. We note a relatively
hollows. To illustrate how pronounced the humps good agreement between "residual resistance"
and hollows may be on the "residual resistance" computed from experimental measurements using
curve, a result of measurements and computa- Schoenherr's coefficients of friction [72] and the
tions made at the David W. Taylor Model Basin theoretical wave resistance. A corresponding
is shown on Fig. 25 [71]." The model was de- comparison is shown in [184].
signed to study the increase in frictional resist- It is also known that models of submarines,
ance caused by various ronghnesses and differ- and other bodies of similar shape, in surface
ent types of paint. It was 6.7" wide midship, position have a resistance curve with quite
21' long, 4' deep, and had a EY-long parallel pronounced humps and hollows.
7. Bulb ous Bow

If a ship has a bulbous bow, the tangent to the depth under the surface of the fluid [741. As a
entrance angle of the individual waterlines at the very rough, first approximation a bulb may be
bulb is ordinarily a large quantity, and expression replaced with a sphere, i.e., a doublet. There
(3.18) for the source density may actually not be- is, of course, interference between the wave pro-
used in this range. We may however, use (3.19) files caused separately by the sphere and the
for determining the strength of the individual hull. This is decisive for any eventual reduction
sources when the ship is replaced by a finite in the wave resistance of the ship, and not, as
number of sources and sinks. It is consequently is often heard, for the displacement of the wave
possible to compute the theoretical wave resist- profile of the bow, which is then assumed to
ance by means of (3.16) and (3.17), even for change the so-called wave-making length of the
ships with a bulbous bow. Wigley has meanwhile hull. A better approximation is obtained by re-
described another procedure to be prefered here, placing the bulb with a spheroid or an ellipsoid,
in that it offers a practical explanation of the dependent on its shape.
effect of the bulb on the wave resistance of the Wigley conceived, as a first approximation, of
ship [731. This author believes however, that computing the wave resistance for the ship as if
Wigley's method is characterized by larger ap- it did not have a bulbous bow and thereafter
proximations than the procedure indicated above. correcting this result for the known resistance of
A sphere in rectilinear motion or at rest in a a sphere, spheroid or ellipsoid, dependent on
uniform stream without free surface may be re- which of these best fitted the shape of the bulb.
placed by a doublet26. If the sphere is in motion As the P- and Q-functions in the integral for
far enough below the free surface of the fluid, it wave resistance (3.12) or the I- and /-functions in
may approximately even now be replaced by a (3.14) each occur to the second power, the wave
doublet. Havelock has shown that the wave sys- resistance, as a first approximation, will consist
tem for a sphere always starts with a wave trough of the wave resistance for the ship without bulb
immediately behind the centre of the sphere plus the wave resistance of the bulb itself (with-
independent of the velocity of its motion or its out a hull) plus a positive or a negative term
vhich expresses the interference between the
IsSee also [17$1, where the theoretical computation work hull and bulb. Because of these second power
is mentioned.
"We conceive of a source and a sink of the same strength terms it will be erroneous to only add the wave
being located in a uniform stream without free surface, and resistance for the hull and bulb, a result which
that the connecting line, assumed positive from the sink to will always indicate an increased wave resist-
the source, is opposed to but parallel the velocity of the
uniform stream. If the distance between the source and the ance. As all the equations given in Section 2
sink approaches zero at the same time that their strengths are linear we may add separately the velocity
increase such that the product of the distance and the
strength (the moment M) is maintained constant, a doublet potentials of the hull and the bulb. The wave
is obtained as the limiting value. A doublet in a uniform profiles for these two may consequently also be
stream has the property that one of the stream Line surfaces added. It was indicated on page 11 that P and Q
forms the surface of a sphere. A sphere located in a uni-
form stream may consequently be replaced by a doublet.(or I and 1) are functions of the wave profile
infinitely far astern the ship. We may find the
By varying the moment M of the doublet, spherical surfaces
of varying radii are obtained. The result is the same wave profile as indicated above, by addition, and
whether the doublet is at rest in a uniform stream or is
moving with the same rectilinear velocity in a fluid at rest. from this also the form of the interference term.
tr.
This result Wigley used in his analysis. By case must be treated individually. Wigley indi-
using models whose wave resistance had been cates that the depth under the surface of the
computed earlier, and bulbs which could approxi- fluid of the highest point on the bulb should at
mately be replaced by spheres, spheroids or least be equal to its diameter. [73]. If it is
ellipsoids and whose wave resistance was also located quite deep it has little or no effect on
previously known [1], [3], [4], [8], [11], [18], the wave resistance.
[75], [761, [77], there remained only to compute From Wigley's and other studies we may state
the interference term found from the resulting the following, general conclusions on the effect
wave profile. of a bulbous bow for the wave resistance of a
The first shape Wigley treated, but which had ship:
only theoretical interest, had a wedge-shaped A bulb will, in general, improve a Poor ship
entrance and run, and an infinite draught. He form proportionally more than a good form. This
conceived of a sphere located a distance d, afore does not apply when the poor, properties of the
the bow contour and at a depth f below the L.W.L. ship are due too large a t-value. In most cases
It was shown that the interefrence term had the a bulb does not improve a very good ship form.
greatest negative value when d, = 0. In other The theory does indicate that a bulb should be
words, the best result is here obtained when the used when full ships are driven at greater speeds
centre of the sphere lies on the bow contour. It than the "economical".
was otherwise apparent that the reduction in the The advantages of a bulb disappear at the
wave resistance for all other locations than the lowest Froude's numbers, although the lower
optimum was always proportionally less at rela- limit depends on the shape of the ship. For
tively small Froude's numbers. It may also be hollow lines the lower limit is about F = 0.2, or
shown that the same conclusions apply ordinarily slightly less, but for straight lines it lies in the
for normal ship forms. range F = 0.24 to 0.26. The theory indicates
With decreasing values of f, the interference that the upper limit is about F = 0.6, or slightly
term increases in magnitude. If this term is less, dependent on the form of both the ship and
negative it is therefore obvious to assume that the bulb.
the bulb should be located as close to the L.W.L. Best results are customarily obtained when
as practical. The wave resistance of the bulb the centre of the bulb lies almost on the bow
itself increases with decreasing f, and this in- contour, i.e., the bulb protrudes ahead of the bow
crease may nullify the reduction due the interfer- contour.
ence term. It does not appear possible to express The shape of the bulb itself is significant for
generally the optimum depth of the bulb, but each the result [137].
8. Interference, Wave Resistance and Wa ye Profile For Steady, Rectilinear Motion

To study the wave interference between the resistance. Formulae for wave resistance given
entrance and run in general, Froude conducted above may also be used in this case. As pre-
model experiments varying the length of the viously mentioned, Havelock has computed a
parallel midsection [102]. Similar studies were model with varying lengths of the parallel mid-
later made by others [103], [104]. Results of section and with an infinite draught [57], [110].
these experiments show that when the "residual An infinite draught was selected to ease the
resistance" for constant velocity is drawn up on numerical computations themselves. The results
may therefore not be directly compared with ex-
the basis of the length of the parallel midsection,
for example, the curves are wane-shaped. Certain perimental data, but the curves for the theoretical
lengths of the parallel midsection, for a given wave resistance show characteristics similar to
speed thus yield a favourable wave interference. those found from model tests. Much higher humps
Since the run does not significantly effect the and deeper hollows occur on the theoretical
wave-forming properties of the entrance, at least curves. This may be traced to the infinite
when the parallel midsection is long enough, a draught assumed for the model, and the disregard-
favourable resistance result is essentially due a ing of the boundary layer effect (see Section 12).
reduction of the wave resistance of the run, i.e., These results may be used to explain generally,
a favourable interference between the wave sys- for example, why a motorboat entering the wave
tems of the entrance and run. Theoretically the system astern a passing, more speedy craft often
presence of a parallel midsection does not offer is drawn along. The two boats correspond ap-
any difficulties in addition to those already proximately to the entrance and run mentioned
mentioned in connection with the theory of wave above, and when the following motorboat is drawn
along this is due a favourable wave interference when it found itself in a sector bounded by two
for it. Barillon's classical experiments should straight lines with a point of intersection in the
be mentioned in this connection [105], [117], bow of the leading model, each forming an angle
[124]. He maintained that the discussion of re- of 19°28' with the plane of symmetry of this
sults for models with varying lengths of midsection model. To be subject to interference the follow-
was difficult, since it was not possible to measure ing model must thus find itself in the sector
separately the resistance components corre- where the waves of the leading model are most
sponding to the individual wave systems [106]. strongly felt. The development further shows
It would therefore be preferable to let one model that there are other forces acting on the following
move in a field of independently formed surface model, even when outside of this sector, but
waves. In one run, for example, this field could these non-oscillating forces are of small magni-
consist entirely of diverging waves, in another, tude and rapidly die out with increasing distance
of transverse waves. It should thus be possible, between the models (see Section 11). An addition
at least approximately, to find the different com- to these components is the oscillating interfer-
ponents of resistance corresponding to the wave ence component when the following model finds
systems. Barrillon's experiments showed that itself in the sector in question.
not only was it possible to eliminate partially or Owners of motorboats, thinking of a regatta,
entirely the total resistance of the model by are probably interested in learning that, if a boat
adapting the field, but it was also possible to "hangs" itself on the wave system astern another,
obtain a forward motion with constant velocity this will not have an effect on the resistance
under the action of a force directed against the characteristics of the leading boat when the
motion. In discussing the experiments Barrillon distance between them is reasonably large.
maintained, on the basis of the results, that the Discussions of the wave resistance problems
interference between the diverging wave systems in the professional literature from abroad include
was just as important as the interference between from time to time a proposal for a more thorough
the transverse. analysis of the wave profiles for various models,
From time to time the discussion flares up in the better to understand the problems. It is not
the professional literature about the over-simpli- practically possible to measure a wave profile
fied theories which are based on considerations with anywhere near the same degree of accuracy
of the transverse waves, and why these do not as for the total resistance. This is partly due
give exactly the Froude's number at which the to it not being necessary nor hardly practical to
individual crests and troughs occur, particularly wait until the water is absolutely smooth between
at high velocities. The answer, as indicated by each run and also due to the oscillatory motion
Barrillon in 1926, is that the interference be- of the model about its mean velocity during a
tween the diverging wave systems may not be run. Let us however disregard the measurement
disregarded. The theoretical explanation, given difficulties. The question is, is it possible to
Some years later, will be mentioned in Section 9. estimate the effect that a smaller variation in
Barrillon's experiments also showed that when the measured profile along the side of the ship
two models are towed in tandem, with the same will have on the wave resistance. We have al-
velocity, the results correspond to those found ready seen in Section 4 that one of the components
by using varying lengths of the parallel mid- of the wave profile is the so-called local disturb-
section. The resistance for the following model ance, which rapidly dies out with increasing
is thus an oscillating function of the distance distance from the hull-and which does not partici-
between the models. The effect of the following pate in the wave resistance. We have further
model on the leading one, furthermore, could not seen that it is only those components in the
be measured when the distance between the two wave profile which remain when we let x
exceeded 1 metre (each model was 2 metres long). which have a part in the wave resistance.
On the following model the effect was quite therefore the wave profiles behind the two modelsIf
considerable, even for a distance between them approach each other more and more the greater
of 14 metres. This effect decreased slowly with the distance from the models, the wave re-
increasing distance between them. sistance for the two models will also be the
Havelock was the first to consider theoretically same. On the other hand, it is not absolutely a
the problem of a body moving in the wave system condition that the wave profile along the sides
left astern by another [8], [20], [107], [108]. The
of the two models be identical for the wave
results of these studies, which agree with the resistances to be the same. Let us examine two
experimental data, showed that the following specific examples. It may be shown that a pres-
model was only exposed to an interference effect sure distribution given by p = pgr3f/V2 +VA,
(7)2 x2 ± acting on the free surface of the of the resistance characteristics of the ship, but
fluid and 'moving with the velocity c, has the he will point out that any exact and successful
same resistance as a sphere of radius r moving analysis on the basis of profile measurements is
with velocity c under the surface of the fluid at still difficult. In this connection reference should
a depth f.. The same may be proven for a sphe- be made to two of Guilloton's publications [148],
roid [l], [75], [78], [79], see also [116], [126]. [158], where he attempts to determine the wave
It may also be shown that the wave profile for resistance on the basis of practical measure-
the body and the pressure distribution giving the ments of the wave profile, his method previously
same wave resistance, are by no means identical mentioned combining approximately the theo-
at the disturbance, but that they approach each retical wave profile of a model with its theoretical
other with increasing negative values of x. wave resistance. Repeated applications of the
It therefore appears difficult to judge, with any method will probably show if it is accurate enough
great accuracy, what effect smaller variations in to be used in the present case. It apparently
the wave profile along the side of the ship will takes into consideration the local disturbance,
have on the wave resistance since the profile since the resulting fluid pressure corresponding
here contains terms which do not have any effect to this quantity is completely neutralized. Yet it
on the wave resistance itself. If such profile should be noted that this is not the case for an
measurements are to be of real value, we must actual fluid. The fluid pressure, furthermore, per
first subtract from the profile that or those terms unit area is integrated over the underwater shape
which have no effect on the wave resistance. of the hull in determining the wave resistance,
The remaining profile will first then be a direct and not over the wave-forming underwater shape
function of the wave resistance. It is not this (see Section 12). This also implies approxima-
writer's intention to contend that measurements tions.
of wave profiles do not give a certain indication
9. The Part of the Wave Resistance Caused Separately by the Transverse
and Divergent Waves for Steady, Rectilinear Motion
We consider a model whose form is given by cated amplitude factor. If in the same manner we
study the wave profile for models with different
x2 shapes, we will always find that far astern the
(9.10) y = b_(1 model it will consist of sine or cosine waves or
a direct sun] of these two.
The model is consequently symmetrical about the We will assume that an individual sine wave
midship-section and has an infinitely large with a straight crest (two-dimensional) advances
draught. It may be shown that the wave profile with the velocity c along the x-axis. If the co-
f
quite far astern the model is given by [8], [141 ordinate system follows the motion, the profile is
7112
given by C= sin Ko x where the amplitude of the
8 bca wave = 1. On the other hand, if the direction of
(9.11) C = -- [cos (Kal sec 0) motion of the wave forms the angle 0 with the
gl
-77/ 2
x-axis, i.e., the directional angle of the wave is
6, the profile relative to a coordinate system
c2
0 sin (Kal sec 0) x moving along the x-axis with velocity c is given
gl by
x sin [1(0 sec20 (x cos 0 + y sin 0)1d0 (9.13) C= sin (x,y) p
Or Lt.
(x,y) = Ko see° (x cos 0 + y sin 0)
77/ 2
where c cos 9 is the velocity with which the wave
(9,12) f(0) sin (x,y) do, advances and where the wave length A. is given
by A = (21rac)cos20. If we now have waves of
the same type as (9.13), but moving in all possi-
(x,y) = Ka sec20 (x cos 0 + y sin 0) ble directions 0, including 90° on both sides of
the x-axis, the resulting wave profile is given by
where the 'samplitude factor f(0) is dependent on 7r/2
0, the form of the model and its velocity. In this (9.14) sin (x,y) dO .
case the Wave profile far astern the model thus
consists of sine waves with a relatively cornpli-
In (9.14) we have assumed that the amplitude From (9.12) and the development indicated
of the wave components is the same for all direc- above we see that the wave system far astern the
tions. We may assume, however, as the final model may be built up of an integral summation
generalization, that the amplitude factor for each of sine and cosine components with straight
component is a function of the direction of mo- crests, moving in all directions within the range
tion of the component. -90° 4 O90°.
Instead of (9.14) we now obtain We may obtain a concept of how the components
7r/2 in (9.14) form the known wave system far astern
(9.15) C=f a ship by letting the crest of the wave for each
f(0) sin (x,y) d0 .
separate component be designated by a straight
7r/ 2 line. If we choose 0 = 0 0, 10°, 20°, ... 90° and
designate the wave, crests of the corresponding
In the same manner we find that the cosine components with straight lines as shown on Fig.
system is given by
26, curves of involution are formed aa indicated
TT/ 2
on both Figs. 26 and 27. These curves designate
(9.16) C F(0) cos (x,y) d0 the points on the surface of the fluid where the
wave crests (troughs) of the individual compo-
- rf/2 nents (two-dimensional) may be added to give the
and that a combination of these two may be most prominent part of the wave system. For
written points which do not lie in the areas closest to
17/2 the curves of involution, the crests and troughs
of the respective components approximately nul-
(9.17) C= f(0) sin (x,y) dB + lify each other. Viewed theoretically it is more
- 77/ 2
satisfactory to find the equation for the curves of
17/2 involution and to draw the curves from this [1],
[8], [791, [80], [81], [82], [113], [114]. These
fF(0) cos (x,y) clO curves have a form similar to the wave system
far astern a ship, to wit, curved, transverse por-
777 2
tions and curved, diverging parts", but they do
where f(0) and F(0) are the amplitude factors. not completely coincide with the corresponding
Components
t4440,4*%*
14,
Wove Crests of
Transverse Waves
\ Wave Crests of
Divergi Waves
FIG. 26. Curves of Involution.

'LINEARIZED THEORY OF WAVE RESISTANCE 39
the wave resistance due the transverse wave sys-

tem indicates the location of the humps and hol-
lows for Fronde's numbers up to about 0.40.
Above this value the contribution of the diverg-
ing wave system to the total wave resistance be-
gins to play a greater part. It is also theoreti-
cally apparent that the various theories for de-
termining the humps and hollows on the resistance
curve, and which are essentially based on con-
FIG. 27. Curves of Involution. siderations of the transverse wave system, never
can delineate the Froude's number at which the
curves for the wave profile. This follows from first hump occurs. These theories will neverthe-
the involution curve's not showing any phase less be of practical value at lower Froude's num-
displacement between the diverging and trans- bers, but they do not have any actual theoretical
verse portions, while there is such a displace- interest.
ment between the corresponding parts of the wave If we refer back to (3.12) and (3.13) we see
profile." For comparison, therefore, Fig. 28 now that the total wave resistance of the wave
shows curves through the most prominent parts of components whose directional angle is approxi-
a wave system behind .a pressure point, [1], [14], mately 0, and which is formed by the point ele-
[81], (99], [113], [147]. ments on the surface of the ship, is given by
It is easy to show that a straight line through 16ff
Kop a
(r + Qa) sec' Ode .
those points where the transverse and the diverg-
ing waves together cause the most prominent The complicated integral expressions for P and
waves, forms an angle of 19°28° with the direc- Q are due the interference between the elementary
tion of motion [1], [8], [14], [811" It may also wave systems formed at various points on the
be shown that the transverse waves far astern a surface of the ship. According to (3.13) and (3.18)
ship are composed of components whose direc- the expression P2 +Q3 for a small area dA at
tional angles go from 00 to ±35016,, and the di- point (0,0,-z) on the surface of the slender ship,
verging waves of components whose directional forming the angle Cl. with the vertical centreline
angles 0 go from ±35°16' to ±900. Since 6 in plane, will be given by
the integral for wave resistance (3.12) is the c 2
same directional angle, we may divide the inte- P' Htan'ae- 2K0 z sec2Oj,4.
gration range, 0 to ir/2, for this integral into two 217
portions, to wit, 00 to 35°16' and 35°16' to The complication due the interference has now
90°. The first limits delineate the wave resist- disappeared with respect to the angle Kox sec O.
ance due the transverse wave system alone, and The total wave resistance, which is due the small
the last limits the contribution of the diverging area dA alone, is given by
wave system to the wave resistance. Such com-
putations have been made by Wigley for a model tr/2
4Pe tan2Ct e-2K05 sec20 sec' Ode.
given by [1], [8], [64] dA
ITC
z2
y=b
d' /2 This expression applies only to the area dA at
The result is shown on Fig. 29. We note that the particular point (0, -z). For any other point
Wave Crests of the
Diverging Waves
"If ',instead of (9.14) we use (9.15), which is more general
because of the amplitude factor, this will not in itself alter ''''.1411111.4,140Aer
the form of the curves of involution. The same analysis may OF. Wave Crests of the
naturally also be made for both (9.16) and (9.17). /Sear Transverse Waves
asThis has been overlooked by most writers even though
the formulae they arrive at show a phase displacement. Fig.
3 in [99] thus designates curves of involution and not curves
4 44-10
through the most prominent parts of the wave profile behind a
pressure point, as mentioned in the text. The same applies
to Figs. 3.25, 3.26 and 24.7 in [147]. Fig. 2.61 in [179] is
correct, however. It is necessary to note that the graphical
procedure mentioned above implies forming three-dimensional
waves by means of two-dimensional. FIG. 28. Curves through the most prominent parts of
"We obtain other results for shallow water [79],[821. the wave system.
LINEARIZED THEORY OF WAVE RESISTANCE
/.3
12- if
Equation of the model: 6 z,(,- FAnaz)
I V2 length at L.W.L.
6 beam at L.W.L. Total 0
cl = draught
628 /7
h.147.5",/
eic 1044
Transverse Waves
arat= /6
7
/./
_,....<® DiVerging Waves
.2-
F CAW
Q/5 420 4125 44.9 c45. d4o ci*slao 410
FIGURE 29.
(x, 0, z) on the wetted surface of the slender From (9.18) we see that the wave profile is
ship the expression cos2(Kox sec 0) must be composed of four components, two starting at the
added to the integrand. bow (the terms which contain the factor x + 1)
We saw in Section 3, in the development of and two starting at the stern (the terms contain-
(3.11) for steady motion, that there was a certain ing the factor x 1). The first two are simple
relationship between the wave resistance and the sine waves with a constant amplitude factor for
wave motion or the wave profile far astern a ship. a given velocity and are due the finite angle at
It should therefore be of interest to discuss the the bow and stern. The other two are cosine
expression for both the profile far astern an in- waves with the amplitude factor (c4/ gal2) cos O.
dividual model and its wave resistance. Although one starts at the bow and one at the
We consider the model given by (9.10). The stern, they are due the curvature of the sides of
wave profile quite far astern the model where the the model. If the waterlines for this model had
local disturbance is insignificantly small, is been hollow, such that the waterline angle at
given by (9.11), and which may also be written both the bow and stern contour was equal to zero,
the first two sine waves would drop out.
7T/2
4b [e Of great interest is the mutual interference be-
(9.18) C= sin (x 1,y) + tween these four wave components, being de-
ITJ gl pendent on the velocity of the model. If we so
2
desire, we can select a velocity such that the
c wave crests of one component coincide with the
- sin (c + 1,y) + e12 cos 0 cos (x 1, y) wave troughs of another. It is meanwhile easier
gl
to discuss this in connection with the expression
C4 for the wave resistance.
cos 0 cos (x + 1, d0
In the previous discussion of the wave profile
we have assumed that the models had an infinite
where, for example, draught. We may meanwhile discuss in general
(x 1, y) = K. sec20 [(x 1) cos 0 + y sin 01. the effect of the draught of the model on the wave
profile. Assume for the sake of simplicity that duced by the factor cos20, equal to zero for 0 =
the model has vertical sides and a flat, hori- 900. The effect of reducing the draught of a
zontal bottom. If its draught is d, (9.18) must model is first felt on those components which
be multiplied by the factor 1 _ e-1Codsec2C9 after have the greatest wave lengths, and it is those
the integral sign. Since Kod gd/c2, this factor which together form the transverse waves.
varies with the velocity c of the model. Fig. 30 The expression for the wave resistance for
shows curves of the factor for different Kod- this model may be written [8], [14]
values in the range 00 0 90°. A vertical line 32 b2c1 2 c2 2 8 1c2\4
has also been drawn for 0 = 35°16' , i.e., the (9.19) R=
range 00 z 0 35°10 corresponds to the compo- T P 3 1 15 gl
rir/ 2
( C2) 3
Cosa 0 cos (21c1 sec 0) d0
0097116 gl Jo
0 AFOJEI
a7
7r/2
2V3 cos40 sin (2K0 sec 0)de -
OMNI 0
r7r/2
cos' 0 cos (2Kol sec 0) del
a gll
(_c2\4
/5° -
0
-41.120.see'ti
eurver av /-e lop for4e4:Fe Irod-eveder. If we now compare (9.19) with (9.18), we note
FIC. 30. Curves of 1-- e-Kod ec219 for various from the powers to which cV(gl) is to be raised
Kod-values. that the first term in (9.19) represents the wave
resistance due the bow and stern wave compo-
nents which together form the transverse waves nents as if they existed independent of each
and 35°16' 0 900 to those which form the di- other, while the second term is due the curvature
verging waves. From the diagram it is now clear of the sides of the models. The last three terms
that if the draught is decreased for a given ve- represent the effect of the mutual interference
locity, the transverse waves rapidly decrease. between the four wave components in (9.18). The
This is connected to the phenomenon that a wave first of these is thus the interference between
on the surface, practically speaking, only agi- the bow and stern wave components, the second
tates the fluid down to a depth equal to half a the interference between the bow or stern with
wave length. Of the components which together the entrance or the run, while the third is the in-
form the wave profile astern a model, those which terference between the two wave components
move in the same direction as the model have the which are due the curvature of the sides of the
greatest wave length, while the others whose di- model or, if one wish, the interference between
rectional angle is 0, have their wave lengths re- the entrance and the run.
10. Ship-Shaped Bodies Having a Minimum Wave Resistance

When in Steady, Rectilinear Motibn
With all studies of the resistance properties of dynamic equations for a viscous" fluid. Since
a ship, one of the purposes is to be able to pre- the wave resistance is that component of resist-
dict that form which gives raise to the least total ance which is most sensitive to changes in shape,
resistance to its motion in a fluid for a given ve- it has been contended that it is this component
locity, displacement, etc. For such a form the which in all essentials causes the optimum shape
lines with minimum resistance will obviously to vary with the velocity [28]. From this it might
vary with the velocity. The problem may be be obvious to assume that the optimum shape for
stated and formulated generally, but even if we
assume that the wave resistance and frictional this"Inwriter
connection with the hydrodynamic equations of motion
prefers the designation "viscous fluid" rather
resistances may be added directly we are no than "real fluid" since the equations have been developed
nearer a solution if we 'cannot solve the hydro- on the basis of certain assumptions regarding the fluid.
wave resistance would also be a rough, first ap- origin midships. If we now assume a symmetrical
proximation of the optimum shape for the total re- model whose equation therefore only contains
sistance. We may therefore possibly assume that terms which are symmetric about the midship-
the essential information for a ship with minimum section, and add to this asymmetric terms (i.e.,
total resistance may be found by determining the terms consisting of functions of x raised to odd
shape for minimum wave resistance. It has been powers), we obtain asymmetric models, all with
maintained that this is an assumption in agree- the same displacement as the original symmetri-
ment with Froude's procedure for model testing cal one. Quite generally we may say that Fx in
[28]. We should meanwhile note that model test- (10.11) in its dependence on x for these asym-
ing treats "residual resistance" and not wave re- metric models is a sum of an even function F1
sistance. The problems are therefore not en- and an odd function F x.. Due to the equations of
tirely analogous. It is also known that the prob- the models F,, has consequently two parts, one
lem of minimum wave resistance leads to ship which is symmetric about the midship-section
shapes with a very favourable interference be- and one which is asymmetric. From (10.11) we
tween the different wave systems. In practice, see that the P-function is dependent on F,,1 and
however, this interference is not realized pri- the Q-function on F,,, since the integral of
marily due the effect of the boundary layer. To F,, cos (K,,x sec 0) and of F,,1 sin (Kox sec 6)
this writer the problem of minimum resistance in between the limiting values of x corresponding to
an ideal fluid would hence appear as an academic the bow and stern contours is equal to zero. For
problem with little practical significance at pres- the symmetrical model, however, F,,1 does not
ent. In Section 12 it will be shown that the occur, while Fx is the same as for the asym-
boundary layer modifies the lines of a ship so metrical models. The P-function for this model
that a symmetrical shape about the midship- is thus equal to zero while the Q-function is the
section, for example, is not a symmetrical shape same as for the asymmetrical models. In (10.10)
hydrodynamically speaking. In practice we must the wave resistance for the asymmetrical models
therefore apply with caution those conclusions is given as the sum of two positive quantities
possible when treating the problem of minimum (since they occur to the second power), one de-
resistance in an ideal fluid. pendent on F.1 and one on Fx.. For the sym-
It is immediately apparent that some restric- metrical model only that quantity occurs which is
tions must be imposed, for example, on the dis- dependent on F... As a result, for those models
placement and/or the main dimensions and the whose equation contains the same symmetrical
shape of the sections, as we otherwise obtain tents but different asymmetrical terms, that shape
the trivial answer that a vanishing wave resist- which is symmetric about the midship-section
ance requires a vanishing displacement or that will have the least wave resistance at all
the ship should be made as deep as possible velocities.
(preferably infinitely deep) and the displacement We can illustrate this with an example. Let a
concentrated as far as possible under the surface symmetrical model be given by
of the fluid.
From an inspection of the integral for wave re- (10.12)
xa )
F, = y = A (1 + .
sistance we may find one condition that makes
the resistance in an ideal fluid a minimum [34]
(see also Havelock's discussion of [34]). This The asymmetrical models, for example, may then
condition is apparently independent of the ve- be given by
locity. From (3.12), (3.13) and (3.18) we have, x2 xa
for a slender ship (10.13) F,= y = A (1 + a1 p a7
(10.10) R., -4pgic,
f (122 + (P) sec' Od0 where A = b (1- z2/d2) and where the symbqls are
IT the same as those used above and explained in
the list of symbols appended. In (10.13)
A (1 + aax2 /12) are thus the symmetrical terms
P}=_IfF C OS 7,0 sec 0) sec2 Ocixdz
Q x sin and hence the symmetrical parts of the hulls of
(10.11) the models, while Aa,x3 /13 is the asymmetrical
term, i.e., the asymmetrical part of the hull. By
where we integrate over the vertical centreline varying the constant a, various asymmetrical
plane of the ship. models are obtained, but as long as A, a, and
We disregard sinkage and trim and locate the are the same in both (10.12) and (10.13) all these
models have the same displacement. From (10.12) section, that the model which is symmetric about
we now obtain F1 = 2Aaix/P= Fixu, since x the midship-section has the least resistance.
occurs to the first power making F1 asymmetri- It was implied above that the discussion only
cal about the midship-section. In the same man- has academic interest. Some may nevertheless
ner we obtain, from (10.13) possibly maintain that for large Froude's num-
bers the conclusion should be generally valid,
x2
A (F 2x + F 2zi)
since the wave resistance is now a very large
F2x = A 2a2 /3 3a, part of the total resistance and since the bound-
ary layer now has a smaller effect. This argu-
where F2xu = F1 and F 2x1 =3Aaax2/13. As ment will not hold since we cannot disregard
mentioned above, the asymmetrical part Fxu is sinkage and trim at such large Froude's numbers.
thus the same for both the symmetric and the On the other hand, we may say that the condition
asymmetric model s. 31 for a symmetrical model to have the least resist-
If these functions are now inserted in (10.11) ance is not that the underwater shape of the
we obtain, for the Symmetrical model model be symmetrical when the model is at rest,
2Aa, but that its underwater shape be symmetrical for
P2=0, Q2- that position it takes at various velocities. The
condition of symmetry is thus no longer inde-
pendent of the velocity, but a function of Froude's
fix sin (Kox sec ...)eKoz
0
sec' edxdz x
number since the model occupies different posi-
tions at different speeds.
The condition of symmetry, meanwhile, does
ff
and for the asymmetrical models
not enlighten us on the form of the sections, the
3Aa, distribution of displacement nor the magnitude of
P2 = - xa cos (Kox sec O el""ec2edxdz the coefficient which should be selected. Wein-
/3
blum was the first to tackle this part of the prob-
2A a, lem [120], [123] (see also [117], [121], [127],
Q2 = X sin (Kox sec 0)elc0 "eca eclx dz [129] and for bodies of rotation [133], t1621). By
expressing the symmetrical model series by means
since the other integrals which occur, to wit of an algebraic polynomial with two independent
2Aa2 1M x cos (Kox sec el"' se`"dxdz
variables, and by establishing the shape of the
body he was able, for example, for this series, to
find the best distribution of displacement and
3Aa, hence the lines, for different velocities. [123].
x2 sin (Kox sec 0)eic02 Sec9c1xdz To solve the problem he made use of Ritz's
1 method, which, however, may only be used for a
are equal to zero when we integrate between the limited group of functions. In another example he
limits of -1 and +1 for x, corresponding to the investigated the best body shape [1231. The sym-
stern and bow contours, respectively. We note metrical model series was in this case also given
further that Q, = Q2. As P and Q, meanwhile, oc- by means of an algebraic polynomial. In these
cur to the second power in (10.10), we obtain in Iwo cases the solution of the minimum problems
the integral for wave resistance (10.10) for the is limited since we have only found the best
asymmetrical models an integrand which is the shape among those given by the same algebraic
sum of two positive functions. For the symmetri- polynomial. We have no guaranty, in other words,
cal model, on the other hand, we obtain only one that the best shape found within the series is ac-
positive function which is equal to one of the two tually the optimum shape of all conceivable
positive functions for the asymmetrical models. models with the same limitations [281 (see also
The integrand in (10.10) for the asymmetrical Wigley's discussion of [34]).
models, which is positive over the entire range An article by von Karman [1351 and one by
of integration, is thereby greater than for the Pavlenko [163] gave rise to a long discussion on
asymmetrical models. We may consequently con- the use of the calculus of variation in the case
clude that for a series of models with the same considered. We shall not here dwell on this dis-
displacement, main dimensions and midship- cussion but only refer to the published comments
1281, [1281, [1331, [1391, [1621, [164], [165].
uNote that Fx=aFiax. If Fx is an even function it is Guilloton has meanwhile indicated a method by
designated by F,i; if odd. Fxu which the minimum problem for slender models
may be solved generally, a method which has not consists of replacing the lines with a Fourier
the limitation that certain algebraic polynomials series and summing up the contribution of the in-
are used to establish the lines [34]. His method dividual elements to the total wave resistance.
11. The Influence of a Vertical Wall on the Wave Resistance for Steady, Rectilinear Motion
Havelock has treated the problem of a small tance but on the opposite side of the wall. The
sphere submerged in a fluid with a free surface result mentioned above will hence also be the
and moving with constant velocity along a vertical wave resistance of a sphere which moves with
wall [1], [8], [20]. In this case the wave resist- the same velocity parallel an equally large sphere.
ance may be expressed with the aid of tables of In other words the result shows that the wave
Bessel functions. Numerical computations show resistance for both increases with decreasing
that the wave resistance, which is least when distance between them.
the distance b between the wall and the sphere The analysis is also extended to a slender
is infinitely large, increases with decreasing ship which moves along a vertical wall, or two
values of b. The rate of increase, meanwhile, identical ships which move parallel to each other
is quite small when b is large, but rises rapidly with the same velocity [1]. Although no numerical
as b approaches smaller values. computations have hitherto been made, the for-
The condition at the wall, namely that the mulae apparently indicate that the wave resist-.
normal fluid velocity is zero, is satisfied by ance for each ship will increase with decreasing
conceiving of a sphere located at the same dis- distance between them.
12. The Influence of the Viscosity on the Wave Profile and the Wave Resistance
It is necessary to diecuss the effect that the We did not mention in Section 2 that we actually
individual assumptions have on the computed assume that the linear surface condition may be
wave resistance and, if possible, to further pro- satisfied by the mean fluid surface, i.e., for
posals for improving the agreement between the z = 0, instead of by the actual surface given by
computed and the "measured" wave resistance. z = C. This assumption therefore requires that
We have already mentioned in Section 2 that the waves be relatively long compared to their
the surface condition has been linearized by height. Wigley has noted that the ratio of height
disregarding the square of the absolute velocity (from wave trough to crest) to length of the waves
of the fluid particles compared to the other terms formed by a model, varies from 0.01 at low veloci-
in the condition. Even if we were able to find ties to 0.04 at high velocities [55]. The assump-
the velocity potential which satisfies the actual tion that the surface condition may be satisfied
non-linear surface condition, there is apparently by the mean fluid surface is therefore not un-
nothing which indicates that this in itself will reasonable, at least not for relatively slender
reduce the magnitude of the pronounced humps models.
and hollows in the theoretical resistance curve In Section 3 we saw that neglecting the term
so that in this respect it will better agree with teFz did not lead to any serious disagreement
the "measured". The same considerations also between the computed and the "measured" wave
apply with respect to the condition which must resistance, even if Fz may be a large quantity
be satisfied at the wetted surface of the ship." for more flat-bottomed models. It was also
mentioned in that Section that uFx was to be
32It may be of interest to quote what Havelock wrote in disre:rded. If we assume that the source dis-
1931 [771: "For a ship model with fine ends and the usual
ratios of length to beam and draught, experimental results tribution is located on the centreline plane of
have shown that the theoretical expressions form at least the model, we have, from (3.23), (3.25) and the
a good first approximation. A more exact solution of the discussion that followed, that the wave resistance
theoretical problem for a surface ship of simple form moving
in a frictionless liquid is desirable, but it presents con- varies as the square of the beam. Wigley [60],
siderable difficulties. As regards comparison with ex- [61] has shown that for 16 L /B 8 this result
perimental results, such a solution would probably not agrees relatively well with the experimental
improve the present position appreciably, on account of
the effects of fluid friction in the actual problem." results, although these show that the "re,s'i-
r\
ual resistance!' 'does not- vary exactly 0-the. are in many respects more satisfactory than
, square of the beam, but-that R,«,671 where n < comparisons between computed and "measured"
The wider the model, the -less accurate the wave resistance for models with different beams,
"residual resistance" as a measure of,the wave since, as previously mentioned, it is not possible
resistance, but the results mentioned- appear to from the experimental data to exactly separate
indicate that it is not unreasonable to neglect out the wave resistance. At the same time we
UFx (in the case Of Model I mentioned' on page must not forget that all spheroids have a "water-
19; Fx is doubled compared to the same quantity line angle" of 90° at the "bow", tending to
for Model II). It is true that we have also neg- exaggerate the disagreement since equation
lected the term wFz, but the study mentioned on (3.18) for the source density actually does not
page 11 indicates that this term does not haVe apply for large variations in the angle. The
anY.serious effect on the wave resistance. quantities may therefore be assumed to have a
These last two assumptions may also be veri- maximum percentage error, essentially caused
fied by considering a spheroid or an ellipsoid. by neglecting the term uFx, the term wF z having
Havelock has-namely shown that it is possible apparently little effect on the agreement, as we
to find the velocity potential, and thereby the have seen. This percentage error also includes
wave resistance, for such bodies moving far the effect of the inertia coefficient (which we
under the surface of the fluid, without the neces disregard when (3.18) is used, but which de-
sity of assuming that uFx and wF z are small creases rapidly with increasing slenderness
quantities [1], [18],. [75], [76], J771. Wigley com- ratio (see page 13)).
puted, for some-spheroids, the relationship between It is not absolutely necessary to discuss the
Havelock's rather exact formula- and (3.14), the direct effect of the terms uFx and wFz on the
source density in the latter being given by (3.18) wave resistance. We could apparently, equally
well, consider bodies located in a uniform stream
[601. For spheroids with L /B = 5.99 and 6.25,
(3.14) resulted in a wave resistance which was without a free surface. The studies would then
6-8% less than Havelock's, and for aim at finding what deviations from the exact
L /B
.about 5-6%. less. (Similar computations have fluid motion a neglecting of the terms uFx and
also been made by Havelock for ellipsoids. [71.) wFz would lead to. In many respects this would
The relative magnitudes were virtually independ- be a more convenient procedure, but there would
ent of variations in velocity. These comparisons yet remain a study or an evaluation of the effect
that these deviations from the exact motion would
uMumford has given an empirical curve for the exponent have on the wave resistance. It is then possible
n as a function of the speed/length-ratio V/V1,, and a simi- that this indirect methbd is not easier except we
lar curve for the variations in draught (see Conn's discus- be satisfied with only considering the motion of
sion of [151). Similar curves may be drawn on the basis of the fluid and not the.wave resistance.
Lindblad 's experiments [1711, his variations in beam for
series I and III having been made by an afiinite transforma- In the computations that have been made,
tion of the sections. In these results, however, n varies sinkage and trim have been disregarded. For
so markedly that the value of the exponent, is tabulated Froude's numbers greater than about 0.34-0.36,
below. Since it is not stated in the publication whether
the models were entirely smooth, or whether a turbulence- however, the trim certainly is quite considerable.
producing arrangement was used, the large variations To study this tests were made with suspended
Series I Series III models that were resIrained from trimming or
Compared with Model 8 sinking [17], [64].
The agreement between
Compared with Model 4
for the models
"measured" and computed wave resistance for
V/L n for the models n
such tests has often been bettered at high Froucle's
1 2 3, 5 6 7
numbers (F = 0.4 to 0.55), the "measured" wave
0.70 3.00 2.65 3.95 1.70 2.96 3.09
resistance for some models being less than the
0.75 2.14 1.64 1.38 1.53 1.61 -0.87
0.80 1.70 1.88 2.48 I .79 1.99 -0.53 computed." At low velocities, where both trim
0.85 1.74 1.05 1.86 1.78 2.36 1.38 and sinkage are insignificant, the total resistance
0.90 1.96 ' 0.89 2.85 1.21' 1.77 2.17
0.95 1.13 0.99 1.84 for the suspended models .has meanwhile yielded
sufficiently diverging values from the results
in n will not be dwelt upon here. Other values of n are
obtained by comparing with other -models within the re- 34GUilloton appears to doubt the validity of such com-
spective series, rather than with Nos. 4 and 8. For the parisons, maintaining that the accuracy of the theoretical
main dimensions, coefficients, etc. for thpse ianodels, refer- improve, the closer the waterlines of the
computations
ence is made to the publication itself L1711.. (See also underwater shape approach the iso-Pressure lines in the
foomote on page 54 in the text.) For coastal freighters
similar studies are at present being made 'at the Norwegian fluid along the hull. Refer to the discussion of [171 and
Ship Model Experiment Tank. [1481.
for the same models permitted to sink and trim, great experimental care we may here obtain laminar
that it appears to this author as if the suspension motion, even at high Reynolds numbers, but the least
arrangement may possibly have transmitted some local disturbance (for example, due local roughness
of the towing force to the models. For low on the surface of the body) spreads instantaneously
throughout the fluid and the motion immediately
Froude's numbers the wave profile for the sus- changes from laminar to turbulent. Which type of
pended and free models did not show essential motion will occur depends largely on the magnitude
disagreement. On the other hand, we indicated of Reynolds number Re and the care with which the
on page 36 that it was not practically possible experiments are conducted.
The theoretical hydrodynamic studies on problems
to measure the wave profile with the same accu- of turbulence began with an investigation of the
racy as the resistance. In the same Section the stability of the laminar flow. Simple types of fluid
author advised a certain caution in accepting motion, such as laminar flow in pipes and uniform
the conclusions which at present may be drawn flow along an infinitely large plane surface, were
studied for stability when subject to special types
from the measurements of the wave profile. of perturbation. The purpose of these theoretical
There remains to discuss the effect of the studies was to find the critical value of Reynolds
viscosity of the fluid on the wave resistance." number at which the laminar motion became unstable.
The motion of an actual fluid is the most difficult The analysis is difficult, and despite the colossal
efforts of many well-known scientists, such as Heisen-
problem, for despite many efforts, a complete berg, Tollmien, Lin and Pekeris, to mention only a
mathematical theory for turbulent motion has not few, no general conclusion has yet been reached. It
yet been developed. Neither has the effect of has recently been maintained that probings along
the viscosity on the wave motion itself been these lines will not bear fruit, for in principle the
really treated theoretically in any publication. solution of the stated problem will not lead to an
understanding of the phenomenon of turbulence. This
The discussion here will therefore be on an should be obvious when we reflect on why turbulence
elementary level. at all should occur, in a fluid flow. The answer is
possibly that a fluid is a system with many degrees
The fluid motion, popularly stated, may occur in of freedom, and is therefore theoretically able to
two forms. In the one case the fluid elements" follow yield many different types of motion. Laminar flow
each other in smooth, uniform paths. If the elements is only one of the many possibilities, and we may
make contact with a body they cling to it, but further consequently not assume that only this type of motion
away there are layers of uniform motion. Such a will be realized. To the contrary, it is more reason-
motion, which as a whole acts stable, is said to be able to believe that all, or some, of these types of
laminar. Contrariwise, if the elements do not follow motion will be present simultaneously. If this is so,
apparent, smooth paths but suddenly dash both across then the fundamental problem in turbulent motion is
and along the direction of motion of the main stream, a problem of statistics where we study the probability
while the whirls that are formed break up into smaller of what types of motion may occur and are present.
whirls whose energy is finally transformed into heat Other theories, for example, Taylor's vorticity
because Of the viscosity, we have a turbulent fluid transfer theory (1915), Prandtl's momentum transfer
motion." For completely developed laminar motion theory (1925), von Karman's similarity hypothesis
the viscosity forces are obviously so large that they (1930), Taylor's statistical theory of turbulence
damper all local fluctuations that may arise in the (1935) and all the theories developed on the basis of
fluidvelocity, and the motion continues laminar. isotropic turbulence (Taylor, 1927) may be referred
This is not the case in a turbulent flow, and the to, but we shall not treat of them in this discussion.
motion of the turbulent elements is decidedly dis- The difference between laminar and turbulent fluid
orderly and apparently arbitrary. Between the two motion was first demonstrated by Reynolds [83]. It
types of motion there is an unstable condition. With may now be said that the experimental procedure was
primitive, but it is nevertheless popular for demon-
"It is rather impossible to give a real definition of the strations to students of the two types of motion.
wave resistance for a ship in an actual fluid, since a de- This approach has also been used at the Norwegian
composition of the total resistance is strictly, speaking Ship Model Experiment Tank for some models, in
not permitted. As an approximate definition we may say
that the wave resistance in an actual fluid is that force determining where on the hull the two types of motion
which may be deduced from the energy in the wave motion occur. In his classical experiment Reynolds intro-
far astern the ship, taking into account the energy loss of duced a coloured fluid, through a very thin tube, into
the waves due to viscosity. The same resistance may the centreline of a horizontal glass tube of relatively
obviously be determined from the energy in the wave motion large diameter. Water whose velocity could be varied
at any location whatsoever astern the ship. If the measur- was caused to flow through this glass tube. At low
ing point is therefore located close to the ship, the effect velocities, i.e., at low Reynolds numbers, the coloured
of the viscosity will probably not be too serious, but the
local disturbance will then have a value that must be fluid appears as quite a distinct thread along the
considered and this complicates the entire problem. This centreline of the glass tube. The motion is now
is by no means suggested as a practical method, but rather laminar, and the slow spread or eradication of the
as an attempt at a definition. coloured thread of fluid is due to diffusion of the
"For a definition of a fluid element, see [174]. molecules. If the fluid velocity through the glass
"The condition is well described by L. F. Richardson tube increases, i.e., Reynolds' number increases
his well-known verse: (or by increasing the turbulence number a, of the
Big whirls have little whirls, fluid stream), the coloured thread of fluid will sooner
That feed on their velocity, or later collapse and mix with the main mass. The
And little whirls have less whirls, motion- is now turbulent, and the rapid diffusion of the
And so on to viscosity. coloured fluid is due the turbulence itself.
Other experimental methods have now been de- that the curve for the mean velocity distribution over
veloped for measuring directly the variations in veloc the cross-section obtains a form as mentioned above.
ity at a point due the turbulent motion itself. These Due to the relatively low viscosity which is charac-
methods are much used in aerodynamics. In hydro- teristic for both water and air, we might easily as-
dynamics we meet certain practical difficulties. The sume that the inertia forces will be so much greater
inertia lag of other known instruments, such as the than the viscosity forces that the latter may be dis-
pitot tube, is too great for measuring the rapid varia- regarded. This is a reasonable assumption for fluid
tions in velocity occurring in the turbulent fluid stream. motion some distance from the surface of a body and
The two types of motion are also distinguished by is one of the reasons that the hydrodynamic laws for
their coefficients of friction. On the basis of Reynolds an ideal fluid yield results that in part agree well
number, for example, these follow two separate and with experimental measurements. For regions close
distinct curves with different characteristics. This to the surface of a body, however, such an assumption
follows from the energy loss per unit 'of time, which will not be justifiable. We know that the fluid which
is far greater for turbulent than for laminar motion. is in contact with a body cleaves to its surface, and
As a result the frictional resistance is less for the because of its viscosity this has a retarding influence
latter type of motion." on the neighbouring layer. First at some distance
The curve of the velocity distribution over the from the surface of the body does the fluid attain its
cross-section of a pipe is also quite different for the full velocity. The mean relative velocity increases
two types of motion. For laminar motion it is a parab-therefore continuously from the surface of the .body,
ola, while the mean curve for turbulent motion is where it is zero (all measurements at least indicate
considerably steeper at the walls and flater over the that there is no slipping at the surface of the body ex-
centre portion of the pipe, as indicated on Fig. 31. cept for rarefied gases [173], to its full Value at a
To this there is a popular explanation. In turbulent certain distance from the body. If we consider a fluid
motion the turbulent particles make sudden jumps to motion (along the x-axis) which occurs parallel to a
the side. They may thus come from points near the flat, thin plate with the mean velocity U, the shearing
centreline of the pipe where the mean velocity longi- stress in the direction of motion is given by"
tudinally is greatest, and penetrate to the wall regions
where the mean fluid velocity is least. As these
turbulent particles come from regions where the veloc- r =ri+r /1 puiyi
ity is high, they carry with them an excess of momen- aY
tum which they partly give up in the region where where up v1 are the x- and y-components of the rapidly
they stop the penetration. At the same time there is
a transfer of fluid in the opposite direction, turbulent 39W e consider a fluid motion whose main Bow occurs paral-
particles coming from the regions where the velocity lel to an infinitely large flat, thin plate. Assunie that the x-
is small and penetrating to the regions where the and z-axes lie in the plane of the plate with the y-axis nor-
velocity is high. They are therefore given momentum. mal to these two. If the main motion is in the x-direction,
This occurs primarily where the turbulent particles and if al, v1, wi are the components of the rapidly varying
stop the penetration due to collision or a similar positive and negative velocity at a point, the velocity com-
ponents at a point must be given by U(y)+ u1, v1, w1 in the
cause. The result of such a mixing process must be z-, y- and z-directions. As the mean values with respect to
time it1,171,-i-v1 of u1, vi, w1 are equal to zero, i.e.,
to+T
+T
u1= %tit = 0, =. vidt = 0
te to
to+T
widt =0
U(y) is the mean with respect to time of the fluid velocity in

the z-direction, which in this case must be a function of y.
FIG. 31. Velocity Distribution in Pipes. It may easily be shown that the shearing stress in the x-
direction for an incompressible fluid may be written
"This has been used to explain why the Row of water dU
through pipes at certain velocities shows incredibly uni- = ALG7T.r pu-77- =7-1+ Tt
form fluctuations with respect to time. In such cases we
have the unstable condition, and the coefficient of friction where is the laminar shearing stress given by T1= udU/dy
follows the laminar curve. For practical reasons the veloc- and 7t is the so-called Reynolds' shearing stress given by
ity of the water will not be quite constant. The least
variation in velocity causes a change from laminar to turbu- = piii. In the latter ii designates the mean with re-
lent motion, thereby increasing the frictional resistance. spect to time of the product uivi, or
But this leads to a decreased fluid velocity and a decreasing to+T
Reynolds number. When Reynolds number has become
sufficiently small, the motion changes from turbulent to uivi= uividt
laminar. The frictional resistance suddenly drops causing T
the velocity again to increase, thereby increasing Reynolds to
number, and finally the motion changes from laminar to
turbulent. The cycle then repeats. It is not impossible In the same manner that the laminar shearing stress may
that something similar may also occur in model testing at be defined by means of the lateral transmission of momentum
certain Reynolds numbers. It is thus common practice now due the motion of the molecules, the Reynolds' shearing
to use, for example, a trip-wire at the bow to induce turbu- stress may be defined by means of the lateral transmission
lent motion over the surface of the models. of the momentum due the turbulent motion.
fluctuating velocity and where the y-axis is taken per- (See Fig. 33). The thickness 84 of the boundary layer
pendicular to the plate. Since 1)1 must be equal to the so-called displacement thicknessis then
zero at the plate, the total shearing stress r is here given by
given by. the laminar shearing stress ri even if we
have turbulent motion. Since, further, dU/dy ap-
f8
proaches zero far away from the plate, Reynolds' 84= 1)dy '
shearing stress -pistvi must be dominant in the turbu-

lent motion in these regions. For laminar motion The limit 8 is of course unknown, but as u approaches
v1= 0 everywhere in the fluid. From Fig. 31, U asymptotically, 8 may be taken infinitely large.
which shows the velocity distribution over the cross-
section of a pipe for laminar and turbulent motion, There are also other definitions for the thickness of
respectively, we see that the velocity gradient dU/dy the boundary layer.
may be quite large in the region nearest the wall, par-
ticularly for turbulent motion. Consequently r is a
large quantity in this region even if the viscosity co-
efficient of the fluid is small. Further away from the
body where the velocity gradient is insignificantly
small, the total shearing stress also decreases, even
for turbulent motion. We may thus distinguish between
two regions _in a fluid, one where the total shearing
stress is so small that it may be completely disre-
garded, compared with the inertia force, and one re-
gion, closest to the surface of the body, where both
the shearing stress and the inertia force must be con-
sidered. The latter region is called the boundary
layer.
It is difficult to define the thickness 8 of the bound-
ary layer, as the fluid velocity a in this layer ap- FIGURE 33. -
proaches the velocity of the uniform stream U asymp-
totically, and first attains this velocity when the
distance from the flat plate (taken normal to the
plate) is theoretically infinitely large. One means of
indicating the thickness 81 of the boundary layer is to We have already seen that the fluid motion will be
say that its outer limit is where the velocity u in the laminar or turbulent, dependent on Reynolds number.
layer is only 4-1+% less than velocity U of the the The same occurs in the boundary layer at a body.
Either the entire boundary layer will be laminar or it
uniform stream (see Fig. 32). We obtain another defi- will be laminar in the region closest to the leading
nition by using a point of intersection between the edge, then a region of transition, and finally fully de-
asymptote and a straight line through the origin of the veloped turbulence will exist some distance from the
diagram of the velocity distribution such that the leading edge. As the fluid motion at every point on a
shaded areas on Fig. 32 are equally large. This smooth body is not particularly effected by the motion
thickness 82 is always somewhat less than 82. A third further away from the leading edge, it would appear
possibility is in using the point of intersection be- that the total length of the body should not be used
tween the asymptote and the tangent to the curve at as the characteristic length in Reynolds number when
the origin. This thickness 83 is always less than we discuss the individual, elementary regions along
either 3i and 82. An entirely different definition is the body, but rather the distance from the leading
obtained by saying that the discharge within the edge to the point in question. What type of fluid mo-
boundary layer is equal to the discharge over the tion we have at each point along the body will to a
width 8-54 in an ideal fluid where the velocity is U. large part depend on the Magnitude of Reynolds num-
The streamlines in an ideal fluid are thus displaced ber at the point Rex, the turbulence of the uniform
a distance 84 away from their original position nearest stream itself expressed by its turbulence number au
the body. According to the definition we now have the roughness of the body and perturbations in the
form of, for example, local vibrations et al.
U(8- 84) =f 8 udy or us.=
fo
8(U - u)dy
If the pressure along the body increases with the
distance from the leading edge, we may obtain bound-
o ary layer separation. The fluid closest to the body
has little energy and is therefore dependent on addi-
tional momentum to make possible motion against a
positive pressure gradient. In a laminar boundary
layer the transfer is from a fluid layer with high ve-
(5-t' 1.52 locity to those closest the body having a smaller
velocity, through the meditun of the laniinai shearing
stresses. In a turbulent boundary layer the transfer
occurs in that the turbulent particles leave the re-
gions with relatively high velocity and penetrate the
fluid layers closer to the body. Here they lose some
of their momentum, as mentioned above. The transfer
is more effective in turbulent than in laminar motion.
The boundary layer separation for laminar motion
therefore occurs with far smaller positive pressure
gradients than is the case for a turbulent boundary
layer.
It will be known to most that the coefficient of re- wave-forming effect of the run which is primarily
sistance CD, for a sphere located in a flowing fluid reduced, particularly for regions nearest the
without free surface, falls off quite uniformly with stern, at the same time that the virtual length of
Reynolds number until Re 4.10s (the diameter of the
sphere is used as the characteristic length in Re) the ship is now greater than the actual.
when CD suddenly decreases noticeably. In an ideal Havelock quite early .made use of the assump-
fluid without free surface the pressure distribution is tion that the influence of the boundary layer, cor-
symmetrical about a plane through the centre of the responds to a fairing of the lines of the ship in
sphere normal to the direction of motion. There is
therefore no resistance to motion in an ideal fluid. the run, and an extention of its length [18]. He
The fluid velocity is greatest at this plane, and con- studied the theoretical influence of arbitrary modi-
sequently there will be a negative pressure gradient fications in the run of a model and found that an
immediately afore the plane and a positive pressure extension of the lines would in general reduce
gradient immediately astern the plane. For Re < 2.105
the boundary layer is laminar for a real fluid and the size of the humps and hollows on the curve
separation takes place inunediately astern the centre of wave resistance. The computation work was
section. There is then no restoration of the pressure meanwhile too complicated to be followed by de-
over the stern half of the sphere, which we could ex- tailed theoretical studies at that time.
pect according to the result from an ideal fluid. When
Reynolds number was increased sufficiently the Havelock made the first theoretical studies to
boundary layer suddenly changes to turbulent and see what influence a local modification of the
separation now takes place further astern the stern shape of a body would have on the wave profile
half of the sphere. We then obtain a partial restora- formed by the limited portion of the underwater
tion on the pressure over the stern half, and "separa-
tion resistance" of the sphere suddenly decreases. shape [8], [84]. A sharp corner at, for example,
Something similar may undoubtedly occur in the run on the after shoulder of a model with infinite draught
models and but the phenomenon is considerably was conceived adjusted in that the fluid due its
ships' because of the wave formation, for inertia was not able to follow the underwater
more complicated
example. shape here, or if one wish, due the boundary
In an ideal fluid the relative velocity between layer. The outer contour (the waterline) of the
the sides of a ship and the different fluid layers modified local region was assumed to be a por-
will always be a finite quantity. In contrast to tion of a parabolic arc of length h. In the modi-
this the relative velocity for an actual fluid will fied part the sudden change of angle was, in other
increase from zero at the sides to its full value words, conceived distributed over the length h.
at the outer limit of the boundary layer. In an The study showed that the-adjustment of 'a sharp
actual fluid it would appear, with other words, corner did not have any significant effect on the
that it is not the shape of the ship's wetted sur- local disturbance except within the local region
face itself which causes waves, but it is the of length h, where the sudden change of angle
shape of the surface modified by the boundary was now uniformly distributed. In this region the
layer. It is however hardly correct to use the effect varied with the ratio h/X, where X is the
boundary layer given by the thicknesses 8, or length of deep water waves which advance with
8, as the modification, but presumably the dis- the same velocity as the ship. Variation in the
placement thickness 8, which of course corre- local disturbance decreased with decreasing
sponds to the deflection of the streamlines away h/X-values compared with the local disturbance
from the sides of the ship. If we therefore com- due the sharp corner for which, h/X = 0. The
pute the wave resistance for a body in an ideal waves themselves decreased in height with in-
fluid, we may expect to obtain a better agreement creasing h/X-values, but the most striking effect
with the "measured" wave resistance by inserting was the displacement of the wave crests and
y = F (x,y) + 84
troughs toward the stern. In other words, the
(12.10)
interference between the individual wave com-
for the source strength in (3.18). In (12.10) y = ponents will vary with varying h/X-values, in
F (x,y) is the equation for the actual, wetted sur- turn effecting the size of the humps and hollows
face as previously, and 84 is the displacement on the resistance curve while a certain phase
thickness of the boundary layer. As 8. increases displacement also occurs (see page 28). Since
in magnitude with the distance from the leading the body was assumed to have an infinitely large
edge, the modification of the lines is greater and draught, the variations in the wave profile are
greater further astern. The reduction in the wave- certainly larger than would be the case for a
forming effect for each small element of wetted body or a ship with a finite draught.
surface due to 84 compared with its effect in an Instead of assuming that the wave-forming
ideal fluid, consequently decreases with increas- underwater form is modified by the boundary layer
ing distance from the bow contour. It is thus the in a real fluid, we may assume that its effect is
50 LINEARIZED THEORY OF WAVE RESISTA.NCE
felt by a reduction of the velocity between ship the same whether the model moves forward or
and fluid when we go from bow to stern. The astern. If we now introduce the reduction factor,
source strength a is then no longer given by we find that the theoretical wave resistance R
(3.18) but by for forward motion is given by
c f(x) (12.14) R., = RB + OR1 + 132R s
(12.11) a_
2r, x while Rwc for motion astern is
where f(x) is a reduction factor having a unit (12.15) R, = paRB pR,+ R s
value at the bow contour and decreasing toward
the stern. This reduction factor will certainly where RB, Rs and R, are the components of the
also vary with the form of the ship and Reynolds wave resistance due the forebody, the afterbody
number. Havelock, who initiated this idea [581, and the interference between these two
[85], computed the wave profile for a model with respectively.
infinite draught, assuming for the sake of sim- If the reduction factor is used, therefore, the
plicity that the reduction factor f(x) was given by theoretical wave resistance is not the same for
motion forward and astern even if we disregard
f (x) = f3 + (1 0) x/1, 0 < x < sinkage and trim. Since the comparison between
(12.12) measured and computed wave profile indicated
f(x)= /3 , 1<x< 0 that p was of the magnitude 0.6, Havelock used
this value in (12.14) and (12.15) [85]. Computa-
The reduction factor thus decreased linearly tions showed that there was now a considerable
from the unit value at the bow contour to a value difference between the wave resistance for MI}
midships. Along the run f(x) was assumed con- tion forward and astern.
stant at the midship value. These empirical val- As the modification of the theoretically com-
ues of f(x) were used since the wave profile puted wave resistance curve due to the reduction
could now be expressed by tabulated functions. factor in many ways agreed so well with the cor-
Computations showed that the reduction factor rection which would make the computed wave re-
had no significant effect on the bow wave, but sistance compatible with the "measured," Wigley
it did reduce the wave height along the side of took up the idea [54], [55], [63], [64], [65], par-
the ship, particularly at the stern. The wave ticularly for the speed range corresponding to
length was naturally not changed by the reduc- Froude's numbers less than 0.35. He assumed
tion factor. By choosing p.0.6 the general that there are two factors to consider. First, the
agreement between the computed and measured streamlines due the boundary layer are forced
wave profile was improved considerably. For away from the wetted surface of the body, par-
this model the theoretical wave resistance was ticularly in the run. This reduces the wave-
also computed, the factor given by (12.12) reduc- forming characteristic of the run compared with
ing the humps and hollows of the wave resistance the wave formation of the same run in an ideal
curve, with the wave resistance being also bodily fluid. The waves are then damped by the vis-
reduced over the entire speed range. The model cosity. This leads to a reduction of the bow
having an infinite draught, no comparison could wave before it reaches the run, and the inter-
be made with the "measured" wave resistance. ference which occurs here is thereby reduced.
A most interesting result appears by consider- Wigley argued further that (12.14) at least ap-
ing a model which is not symmetrical about the parently considered the influence of the bound-
rnidship [85]. Havelock made the calculations ary layer, but that the interference term R1 due
for a model given by the reduction in height should be multiplied by a
factor p., where 0. < 1, and (12.14) is now to be
replaced with
y= 0<x<
r ' (12.16) R., = RB +00f3R1 02RS
(12.13) y=b, <x<0 Since he had found that it was not possible to
derive values of both 0. and p from his earlier
4b experiments, he simply assumed that /3. = p, such
y= + 1<x< 1 2 that (12.16) could now be written
(12.17) RB + 132 (RI + Rs)
We have earlier seen that if we disregard trim
and sinkage, the theoretical wave resistance is R (1 82) (R R B)
From the experimental data from six 16' -models at low Froude's numbers, where there is greatest
Wigley found disagreement, even if the modification of the
02 0.001/F5 lines does not significantly vary with Froude's
(12.18) numbers.
The reduction factor now varies with F'roude's If the thickness of the boundary layer is known
number F, being about zero for very small F val- along the side of the ship, its displacement thick-
ues and about unity for F = 0.5. When (12.18) is ness may be found. In principle we have then de-
inserted in (12.17) we see that at low Froude's termined the deflection of the streamlines from
numbers only the entrance is wave-forming, but their position in an ideal fluid. Theoretically we
the run too has its full wave-forming effective- may now add a new distribution to the original
ness at high Froude's numbers. source distribution to cause the necessary de-
The reduction factor given by (12.18) has been flection of the streamlines, thereafter computing
used by Wigley in several of his publications. the modified wave resistance. The necessary
Although the agreement between computed and data for such computations are meanwhile lack-
`measured" wave resistance is rather improved ing. Havelock therefore studied the influence of
using a reduction factor given by (12.18)", Wigley reasonable, small modifications of the lines at
maintains that this empirical method is actually the stern contour, modifications which may be
not so satisfactory. General considerations indi- ascribed the boundary layer, or at least are of the
cate that the influence of the viscosity on the same order of magnitude as the changes the
wave motion itself will be less the greater the boundary layer causes on the wave-forming under-
model. In this connection some model tests by water part of the stern contour. His first compu-
Shiells may be of interest [86]. He experimented tation was for a symmetrical model with infinitely
with 4' -models. One of these had the same form large draught. If the one side of the model is
as one of Wigley's asymmetrical 16' -models. designated FMA (entrance, midship, run), a
streamline in an ideal fluid will start at F, fol-
From towing tests Wigley had found the difference
in "residual resistance" for this model for mo- low the contour FMA to the stern contour A, and
tion forward and astern. Shiells did the same for thereafter coincide with and follow the centreline
his 4' -model. The results showed that the curve extended astern the model. If the displacement
of the difference for the 4' -model in the range thickness at every point along the side of the
F = 0.22 to 0.45 lay on the average 50% above model is plotted, the contour FrA' is now ob-
the same curve for the 16' -model. This result tained, this becoming the actual streamline shape
for which the wave resistance should be com-
indicates that the correction for the influence of
the viscosity on the wave formation is less for A streamline now starts at F, swerves
puted.
the ship than for the corresponding model. In only a little from the sides of the model except
other words, there is a "scale effect" on the at the stern, becoming parallel to the centreline
wave formation. General considerations also in- of the model at point A' astern of A without pos-
dicate that the effectiveness of the run is reduced sibly coinciding with the centreline extended
with decreasing Froude's numbers, but the varia- astern. Since there is lacking the necessary ex-
tion in /3 from zero to unity appears to be a perimental data for the thickness of the boundary
paradox. layer along various models, and since the dis-
Havelock has taken up the problem anew, main- placement thickness for a plane surface is of
taining that since it is not yet possible to take small order of magnitude, Havelock [87] simpli-
into account the actual structure of the boundary fied the problem byassurning that the fluid mo-
layer [87], it may be possible to base the expla- tion followed the sides of the model to a point
nation on the fact that the influence of the bound- just afore the stern. Here the streamlines leave
ary layer as a modification of the lines of the ship the body tangentially and first some distance
primarily is felt in the region of the stern con- astern this point of detachment do they become
tour. As we have seen in Section 4, the angle of parallel to the centreline of the model. We note
the waterlines at the bow and stern contours has that this disengaging of the streamlines does not
the greatest effect on the wave resistance at low necessarily correspond to that which we have
Froude's numbers. A modification of the lines of earlier called separation. This phenomenon may
the ship at the stern contour will consequently meanwhile be reproduced by assuming that the
have the greatest influence on the wave resistance streamlines at the point of separation form a cer-
tain angle with the model shape at this point.
4°The Ow on the figures in Section 6 areOw-values On Fig. 34 the half-waterline for the symmetri-
corrected for the influence of the viscosity. The correction cal model (infinitely large draught) for which
has been made as indicated above. Havelock made the first computations [87] is
a/s a/7 0.49 0.2/ a a3 0,27

fr". 47,,fr
FIGURE 34.
shown and designated with MA. On the, same aggerated at high Froude's numbers, and in this
figure is also indicated the corresponding theo- case little or nothing can be said on the effect of
retical wave resistance curve A. Havelock first the modification in this range.
assumed that commutation first occurred at point Computations were also made by Havelock [87]
B, one foot afore the stern contour A and that the for a model with finite draught having otherwise
streamline coincided with the centreline of the the same shape as the one just discussed. The
model two feet astern the stern contour at point half-waterline shown on Fig. 35 is designated MA
A'. The streamline corresponding to the wave- and the corresponding theoretical wave resistance
forming underwater shape is now FMBA', and curve A. Havelock first assumed that commuta-
since the distance from the stern contour A to tion occurred at point B, one foot afore the stern
the streamline (measured normal to the centreline contour B and that the streamline did not coin-
of the model) is only 56/72, the modification rep- cide with the centreline of the model but was
resents hardly more than a minor adjustment of parallel to the centreline one foot astern A with
the lines at the stern contour. The curve B des- a distance between them of 6/64. The distance
ignating the corresponding theoretical wave re- between the stern contour A and the streamline
sistance shows that this small modification, gb/128. On Fig. 35 the curve for the correspond-
practically speaking, eliminates the humps and ing theoretical wave resistance is designated B.
hollows at very low Froude's numbers and con- lie thereafter assumed that the commutation point
siderably reduces them at moderately low Froude's C lay two feet afore A and that the streamline be-
numbers up to F = 0.24. To study the effect of a came parallel to the centreline two feet astern A,
relatively large modification, Havelock assumed the half-breadth of the wake being then b/16 and
that the commutation point now was at C, two the distance between the stern contour A and the
feet afore A, and that the streamline coincided streamline 5 6/32. The theoretical wave resist-
with the centreline of the model at point A' as ance curve for the model with this modification is
previously. The distance between A and the designated C on Fig. 35.
streamline was now b/8. The 'result of the coin- Results of these studies show that minor modi-
putation is shown as curve C. Between this fications of the lines at the stern effect the nec-
curve and A there is a considerable difference, essary transformation of the wave resistance
possibly tore than will be necessary for low and curve at low and moderate Froude's numbers, to
intermediate velocities. Since the model had an wit, a damping of the humps and hollows, the
infinite draught, the wave resistance curve is ex- relative effect being insignificant at high Froude's
numbers. Further, modifications of the strearh= while disregarded both trim and sinkage in his
lines are at least of the same order of magnitude theoretical computations.
as a deflection of the streamlines due the dis- Lavrentjev has recently commented that since
placement thickness of the boundary layer. Have- the displacement thickness 8. in (12.10) is a
lock maintains that the results can certainly be function of the local Reynolds number, the wave
improved by a more detailed investigation which resistance is influenced by the "scale effect"
also considers the variation of displacement [881, [921. From (3.23), (3.24) and (12.10) we
thickness with velocity. On the resistance curve have that the wave resistance for a slender ship
the hollow at Froude's number about 0.35 still in steady, rectilinear motion in a real fluid is
appears to be too deep. This disagreement be- given by
tween the computed results and experimental ob-
servations have hitherto almost always occurred, 17/2
without an explanation having been found. 4
R = --1Cogpb2d2[f (P12 Q12) sec' OdO +
Havelock finally considered an asymmetrical 7T
model and computed the difference in wave re- 0

sistance for forward and astern motion after minor
modifications of the lines for that part to be the (12.19)
run for each direction of motion. For the sake of /2
simplicity he assumed that both the commutation (P22 + Q22) ec' Ode +
point and the point where the new streamline be-
came parallel to the centreline of the model were
in the same relative positions whether the full or
the slender half of the model was the entrance
during the motion. The general characteristics of
the difference curve were the same as those ordi-
narily found in model testing. Havelock mean-
+2 f 0
?T/2
(P1P2+ Q1Q2) sec' Ode
1 _
4/8 434 44,2 0.50

F c/o/sir'
FIGURE 35.
where pressed by means of its displacement thick-
(12.20) P. = f d
COS{
sin
11cf sec 0
ness. This body is also in motion in an
ideal fluid.
(c) The interference between the two resistance
components (a) and (b).
seea 9 de
From (12.23) we see that the components (b)
0
and (c) are functions of Reynolds number and the
(12.21)
--1
fc COB
sin
x ddlCot sec3ede
lag sec
influence is the greater the smaller the model
scale. Here we have another "proof" that the
"scale effect" influences the wave resistance
and that therefore models as large as possible
should be used. This is entirely in accord with
If the ship is quite slender, and the boundary that contended in connection with Shiells' ex-
layer turbulent, we may as a first approximation periments mentioned on page 51. In an ideal fluid
use the displacement thickness for a flat surface Reynolds number is always infinitely large, and
[93], to wit the components (b) and (c) drop out. Since these
two components are dependent on Reynolds num-
(12.22) 84 = 0.04625 (1 x) ber, the specific wave resistance for a real fluid,
L v expressed as C R, will not absolutely be the same
where the origin is midships. This will not alter for various geometrically similar models with the
(12.20) and the corresponding term in (12.19) same Froude's number, as is the case for an ideal
which determines the wave resistance of the ship fluid." As no computations have been made us-
in an ideal fluid, but when the dimensionless co- ing (12.23), it is difficult to say anything definite
ordinates are used in (12.22), (12.21) becomes about the order of magnitude of the components
(b) and (c). From Havelock's computations for a
(12.23)ni= 0.037
b (Re/2) f
(14.
plank [87], it would appear as if the influence of
the boundary layer is by no means so significant
that, for example, there is cause for alarm in us-
ing Froude's transference Taw." That the thick-
f
1
1 ness of the boundary layer increases relatively
c?s {/Ice sec 0} edKoe sec29d4 slowly along the sides of the ship, somewhat as
0,4 sin
given by (12.22), was also one of the reasons
that Havelock in his investigations, mentioned on
where Re = c21/v= cL/v is Reynolds number.". 42 t page 51, completely disregarded the boundary
From (12.19), (12.20) and (12.23) we see that layer's modification of the shape along the sides
the wave resistance for a narrow ship in a real and only considered the modification in the re-
fluid is the sum of three terms, to wit: gion of the stern. In this region the thickness of
The wave resistance of the ship in motion the boundary layer increases quite rapidly due
in an ideal fluid. the curvature- or geometric contraction of the
The wave resistance of a body correspond- lines, while the increase in thickness along the
ing to the form of the boundary layer ex- sides is insignificant. Modification of the lines
by the boundary layer at the stern is thus quite
"On page 19 it was contended that when the source dis-

tribution was located on the centreline plane of the ship, the "That CR is the same for geometrically similar models
theoretical wave resistance varied as the square of the at the same Froude's number in an ideal fluid follows di-
breadth. If we assume that the modification of the lines by rectly from Froude's transference law, or from (12.19) and
the boundary layer is given by (12.22), we will see from (12.20), since the components (b) and (c) drop out for such
(12.19) and (12.23) that this relationship no longer exists in a fluid.
its entireity. "In many respects Sund's results also agree with this.
420kabe and Jinnaka have made similar computations to For four similar models (Fig. 12, [92]) he gives the sinkage
find the influence of the boundary layer on the wave profile at the bow and stern on the basis of Froude's number. Since
[181]. The results of these computations for a model given the models were of different sizes, the thickness of the
by (4.11) were compared with actual measurements. For their boundary layer will also be different for these for the same
computations they assumed that the boundary layer was tur- Froude's number. The underwater shapes of the four models,
bulent over the entire model and that its velocity profile fol- consequently, are not hydrodynamically similar. There was
lowed the well-known 1/7th power law. Its thickness was nevertheless no essential difference in the measurements of
found by means of a formula for the thickness of the turbu- sinkage for the models. On the other hand it is known that
lent boundary layer for a body of revolution, developed in variations in sinkage and trim are not particularly sensitive
[183]. to minor changes in shape.
considerable compared with the modification curves" may not be completely equidistant from a
along the sides of the ship. line .or lines of minimum turbulence."
In connection with the transferring of model re- Although for ordinary ship shapes (12.23) is
sults to the prototype Telfer has maintained that modified due to a different boundary layer, there
it is actually not necessary to separate out the is hardly doubt that also the "scale effect"
frictional resistance and the "residual resist- makes its effect felt for such forms.
ance," transferring these separately to the ship, The problem of the influence of the boundary layer
as proposed by Fronde [92],[94], [95], [96], [97], is nevertheless not an easy one, since for example,
[98], [99]. Teller conceives of the experiments the variation of the displacement thickness follows
being made with a series of similar models. A different laws for laminar and turbulent boundary
curve of the results for each model is drawn, for layers. The laminar boundary layer itself is further-
more unstable to perturbations of certain frequencies
example, for total specific resistance on the when Reynolds number for the layer is large enough
basis of Reynolds number. For every point on (in this Reynolds number the displacement thickness
these resistance curves there is a corresponding of the boundary layer must be used as the character-
value of Froude's number, F. Additional curves istic length). Such disturbances lead to a transition
are then drawn connecting the points having the from laminar to turbulent flow for the boundary layer.
In addition we have the boundary layer separation and
same Froude's number. Along each of these its dependence on both the thickness of the boundary
"iso-F-curves" Fronde's number is constant. layer and the pressure gradient. There are also
Telfer maintains that because of Froude's tran- methods which may be used to delay an early separa-
ference law these "iso-F-curves" are parallel to tion, such as boundary layer suction or introducing a
layer of Mid with high velocity at the surface of the
each other. By then drawing the intersecting body. These methods are well known in aerody-
curves for constant Reynolds numbers, but vary- namics, but this writer does not know, of their being
ing Froude's numbers, the "iso-F-curve" for used in connection with ship models [140].
Froude's number equal to zero may be found by In the foregoing Equation (12.10) was proposed
exterpolation." This "iso-F-curve" is then as an approximation to the wave-forming under-
drawn in. The wave resistance should now be water shape of a model or a ship in a real fluid.
separated from the total resistance. But the main In his written discussion of [148] Havelock has
problem is to extend the "iso-F-curves" to a meanwhile recently indicated an interesting pro-
Reynolds number corresponding to that of the cednre for actually determining the wave-forming
ship. If this exterpolation can be executed with underwater shape in a real fluid. There remains
some certainty the ship's total specific resist- only to show that the method is mathematically
ance is immediately known. For this exterpola- and practically feasible. In a slightly modified
tion Telfer draws in the "line of minimum turbu- form the procedure presumes that the wave pro-
lence" found from experiments, since he main- file along the sides of the model is determined
tains that the "iso-F-curves" must be parallel from' actual measurements. As the wave profile
the so-called "exterpolator," this being different may be found from the potential function describ-
for various length/depth-ratios (or length/breadth-
ratios) [98], [101]. We immediately note that if
the "iso-F-curves" are to be parallel, they must 46As the thickness of the boundary layer will not vary
be straight lines. It would therefore be more rea- directly with the scale of the model, the underwater shape of
sonable to contend that the vertical distance be- geometrically similar models will not be hydrodynamically
similar (see footnote* on page 54). Neither will the "iso-F-
tween two arbitrarily selected "iso-F-curves" curves" necessarily be absolutely smooth curves when we
deal with a real fluid. This adds an uncertainty to the ex-
shall be constant for varying values of Reynolds terpolation of the "iso-F-curves" to Reynolds numbers for
number. As in Froude's transference law, this ships. We also note that it need not be theoretically correct
necessitates the assumption of an ideal fluid. to draw up mean "iso-F-curves," as often found in books
On the other hand, if we use the "residual re- and publications, even if some data should yield smooth
curves [185]. We may consequently not expect that this
sistance," containing components not actually method will lead to a better Correlation between model and
following Fronde's law, it is possible that the ship results. On the other hand we have here a method of
proposal for a constant, vertical distance be- presenting the results which simultaneously agrees with
both Reynolds' and Froude's law. Another important char-
tween two "iso-F-curves" will not be quite cor- acteristic is that any difference in temperature between dif-
ferent model tests need not be corrected for comparing the
rect. From (12.23) we see that the wave resist- results.
Reynolds number is used as abscissa, and this
ance, as previously mentioned, is subject to the contains the coefficient for kinematic viscosity v, different
"scale effect" and that therefore the "iso-F- for different temperatures. The ordinate, furthermore, is spe-
cific resistance, and this contains the density p which also
4Such an exterpolation necessitates that also many varies with temperature. By thus using the values of v and
"iso-F-curves" for small Froude's numbers are known, as p corresponding to the respective temperatures of the water
we actually attempt to establish the asymptote of a curve by in the experiments, the temperature difference between dif-
exterpolation of the curve itself. ferent model tests is automatically accounted for.
ing the fluid motion, it should apparently be pos- It is also often assumed, although not always,
sible to do the opposite and find the potential that the potential wake component is due the mo-
function of the motion from the profile. The po- tion of the ship in an ideal fluid without wave
tential function must further satisfy a certain formation ([99] page 144), [1751, [1761, [177].
condition on the wetted surface of the form, as According to this the component should be inde-
mentioned on page 4. If we therefore have first pendent of the velocity of the ship or the direc-
found the potential function, which will be dif- tion of motion, forward or astern. We have mean-
ferent from the corresponding function for an while seen that the boundary layer modifies the
ideal fluid due to the wave profile, this being underwater shape of the ship. It is this modified
presumed known from actual measurements, we form which should form the basis of computations
may find the shape of the surface where the con- of the potentialwake component as well as the
dition is satisfied. We have thereby determined component due the wave motion, in that the dis-
the wave-forming underwater shape of the model placement thickness of the boundary layer is to
in a real fluid, i.e., the shape which caused the be applied. But since the thickness of the bound-
measured wave profile. Should the method there- ary layer is a function of Reynolds number these
fore be mathematically and practically applica- two components are influenced by the "scalar ef-
ble, it Will open new possibilities for the better fect" at the same time that they are different for
to understand the wave resistance component, forward and astern motion. From (2.15), which
the influence of the viscosity on this and the re- applies to steady motion, we see that the poten-
sistance components which are otherwise due the tial wake component comes from the first term
viscosity of the fluid. when this is inserted in (2.17), this being a po-
It is common to assume that the wake consists tential function when we do not have a free fluid
of three components, due the viscosity, the po- surface, while the component due the wave mo-
tential flow and the wave system, respectively. tion comes from the other terms in (2.15).
13. Accele rated Motion
In Section 3 we found that the first approxima- from the starting point and X the length of deep
tion for the resistance of an ideal fluid to the water waves corresponding to the velocity c of
rectilinear, accelerated motion of a ship was the cylinder; ordinate is r RA772gpa4), where f
given by (3.20). The expression is complicated, is the distance of the centre of the cylinder from
however, and no numerical computations or com- the fluid surface, a its radius and R the resist-
parisons have hitherto been published. Havelock ance of the cylinder per unit of width. The curves
has made the computations for the two-dimensional are for wave lengths 2n1, Trf and Yorf, correspond-
case of an infinitely long cylinder submerged ing to Kof = 1, 2, 4, respectively. Broken hori-
below the surface of a fluid. The cylinder is zontal lines indicate the wave resistance for
suddenly made to move with a certain velocity c steady, rectilinear motion for each of the three
parallel to the surface, and continues to move velocities. We note that there is an initial, rapid
normal to its axis with this velocity [12]. His increase in the resistance, particularly when the
results are shown on Fig. 36, for three different velocity is great. After having reached their
velocities given by Kof = 1, 2, 4. Abscissa is maximum, which for the greatest velocity in this
the ratio s/X, where s is the distance travelled example is 1.11 times the corresponding wave
resistance for steady motion, the curves oscillate
about the horizontal lines with a period of about
4X. The amplitude of these oscillations, which
is greatest for the smallest velocity, diminishes
slowly with the increased distance from the
starting point. The results are of interest in
connection with tank testing, and possibly shaft
thrust measurements during speed trials. It will
be known to most that the resistance curve in
tank tests at a constant velocity will always
have an oscillating tendency about the constant
value, but this is probably mainly due the natural
period of the entire towing arrangement. Neither
I s s e 9 /0 must we forget that the results mentioned apply
3/4 only for this special, two dimensional case.
FIGURE 36. in a later publication Havelock computed the
resistance for a cylinder which began its motion duced by the ratio one-ninth compared with the
from rest and continued moving with a uniform abscissa for A,. That part of the resistance
acceleration v, i.e., c = vt and s = Y2vta [13]. In given by R2, however, is of greatest interest.
this analysis the surface condition of the cylinder For steady motion this term drops out. In gen-
was satisfied with greater accuracy than was the eral, the relative quantities R, and R2 will vary
case in the study just mentioned. These results with the two ratios v/g and a/f. On Fig. 37 the
are shown on Fig. 37 for a2/r = 0.1. The ab- curve A2 shows the term R2 for v = 0.1418g and
scissa is now cRIF =vt/Va. From the mathe- a2/f2= 0.1. Total resistance for this acceleration
matical analysis we may say that the resistance is given by A, + A2. The corresponding R2 for
R (per unit width) for accelerated motion consists v = 1.276g is not shown as the ordinates are nine
of two terms, R, and R2, where R =R,+ R2. The times the ordinates for A 2, but the curve has a
analysis also shows that R, reduces to the wave characteristic similar to A2. The curve A2 also
resistance for steady motion when the velocity c shows that R2 also varies with the velocity, and
is constant and the time t is taken infinitely not only with the product of the mass carried
along and the acceleration (the acceleration is
large. The term R2 may be assumed to be the
product of the effective mass and the accelera- constant in these studies). This result is of
tion. Let us first consider R1. The curves interest, as it is common to assume that the
designated A, and B, show the variation of this mass carried along does not vary with the velocity,
term with the velocity for two different accelera- even if there is a free surface. This assumption
tions given by v = 0.1418g and v = 1.276g, re- agrees with the expression for the inertia term in
spectively. The effect of the greater acceleration (3.20), which meanwhile is only a first approxima-
is a smaller maximum value of B, and a high tion. We shall put the mass carried along by the
velocity at which it occurs compared with Rw, cylinder equal to C7rpa2 per unit length, where C
the wave resistance curve for steady motion. is the inertia coefficient of the fluid and p its
We should note that if a time basis had been density. Variations in the inertia coefficient
used, the abscissa for B, would have been re- with velocity may be found from A2 for the uni-
form acceleration v = 0.1418g. The curve shows
that Cstarts _with
_ _ a value of 0.95, increases to a
maximum of 1.07 for cArg7 approximately equal
0./5 to 0.4, then decreases to 0.78 in the neighbour-
hood of c r Ff. = 1.4, and increases again toward
the value 0.95 with increasing velocity. For
010 v = 1.276g we find that C starts at 0.95, increases
0. to 0.975 in the neighbourhood of c/N0= 1.0,
PC
decreasing again to 0.91 near cArg7= 2.5, and
0. finally increasing toward the value 0.95. At this
higher acceleration the inertia coefficient shows
Smaller a variation with the velocity. As com-
0.5 10 parison may be mentioned that C for a cylinder
in accelerated motion in an infinite fluid (i.e., a
FIGURE 37. fluid without a free surface) is 1.0."
14. Commentary
It has here been the author's intention to give older issues of the Transactions of the Institute
a general presentation of the linearized theory of of Naval Architects an eagerness to test the
wave resistance for a ship in rectilinear motion hydrodynamic theories developed on practical
on the surface of deep, smooth water. To make shipbuilding problems. In the years following
it of interest to practicing Naval Architects the Froude's initial endeavours with his experimental
mathematical development itself has been omit- tank there was a rapid and stimulating develop-
ted, although quoting some final results from ment in the field of frictional resistance, wave
this. resistance, rolling, etc. A better understanding
In the Nineteenth Century Naval Architects of these problems was gradually achieved."
contributed immensely, both directly and in- But now aerodynamics started to the fore and
directly, to the development of the classical many hydrodynamicists transferred to this
hydrodynamics. On the other hand we glean from field of study. At the same time it became
"An approximate Procedure for computing. acceleration "Todd has recently given a short description of the first
for ships has recently been given by LackenbyL90]. ship model basins and the investigations made there 11911
"modern" for many Naval Architects to question theoretical analyses. The researcher must show
the practical value of that part of hydrodynamics great concentration and fantasy, and must refuse
treating of an ideal fluid of infinite extent (i.e., to capitulate to the difficulties. If knowledge
a frictionless fluid without a free surface). The and persistency do not suffice, we must again
doubt which arose and which eventually infected interest mathematicians and hydrodynamic scien-
most Naval Architects had an unfortunate effect tists in our problems, but preferably these re-
on the later development. Not only was the searchers should be directly in our service.
study of these problems, by their nature partly That such persons will not feel bound by traditions
abstract, neglected, but there arose a passive, is certainly no drawback in this connection. It
doubting and somewhat scornful attitude toward is not possible to face the future calmly when
the interest that mathematicians and physicists we see the hundreds of publications each year
had earlier shown for our problems. Most scien- in the field of aerodynamics and compare them
tists who still showed concern for our dilemma, with the handfull of actually worth-while papers
and some of the more theoretically-minded Naval. in the field of Naval Architecture in the same
Architects, therefore shifted their attentions period. It is possible that aeroplane designers
primarily to aerodynamics. Here they received and others at one time may have made use of the
the necessary encouragement and inspiration stored knowledge from the field of Naval Archi-
from all quarters. This had quite an unfortunate tecture, but that is in the past. Now the opposite
result. While in the field of aerodynamics and prevails.
the related problems of flight a tremendous, in- The natural development of Naval Architecture
spiring development started and continued, stag- is hampered in many ways. While the aerodynamic
nation soon set in for the so-called theoretical transactions set a premium on theoretical-mathe-
shipbuilding. Naval Architects sought support matical research into the deeper aspects of the
in experiences and simple experiments, while problems, the Naval Architecture transactions
the theoretical study was partly viewed as super- appear to follow an opposite policy. This point
ficial. Yet it is this author's opinion that without of view will not serve the cause of Naval Archi-
a thorough theoretical study it is not possible to tecture in the long run, but will lead to an un-
understand the problems, and to draw full value necessary stagnation.
and correct conclusions from the experimental We are probably at the threshold of the time
data. It may be argued that we at least master when more stringent demands will be placed on
the problem of the screw propellor, and have a a ship's speed, sea-worthiness, maneuverability,
good understanding of its action. Yet this is not etc. But we are poorly equipped to take upon
a contribution of the Naval Architects, but of re-ourselves the problems that may arise. Now is
search in aerodynamics. Naval Architects have the time to alter our course. The problems within
only introduced empirical correction factors such this special branch of Naval Architecture were
that the aerodynamic computations may be used not solved as far as Norway is concerned by the
with some surety on a ship's propellor. This building of an Experiment Tank in Trondheim,
endeavour is certainly to be commended, but it thanks be the unselfish labours of Professor
is hardly a refinement of the theory as such. It Mirch, and the appointment of a few professional
would further indicate that we do not have the engineers to devote all their time to ordinary
best experts working within this field of Naval model testing. There is a far greater possibility
Architecture. In connection with the problem of that the problems mentioned will be both under-
wave resistance it should be mentioned that stood and mastered if a reasonable number of
were it not for a few, but capable hydrodynam- specialists be appointed to work in relatively
icists who showed a general interest in the free research positions, unencumbered by the
problem, we would probably still be discussing more routine model testing.
why the <0. theory does not indicate even ap- These comments are intended to direct the
proximately at what speed/length-ratio the first attention of Naval Architects and others on the
crest on the resistance curve occurs. It must be stagnation which has existed for many years
admitted, however, that all problems posed within within the branches of Naval Architecture in
this field of Naval Architecture present their question. This stagnation has already had, and
difficulties, and they cannot be tackled without will continue to have, unfortunate consequences
a solid mathematical and hydrodynamical back- for a sound professional development. It is time
ground. It is possible that this is the breach, we sought release from the deplorable condition,
but we must be aware that these problems seldom and tackled the fundamentals of the problems.
or never can be understood without time-consuming To what avail do we continue to collect experi-
mental and experience data, when the lack of group. At that time the author begged leave to
theoretical insight deprives us of the opportunity be excused because of the many newly-started
to utilize them. projects that required his attention. In the Autumn
A few words should possibly be said about of 1951 the invitation was renewed. The author
the appended literature list. This writer has had then recently presented a paper in Washington
reason to assume that the list of publications on the mathematical wave resistance theory for
treating the problems of wave resistance is displacement ships in steady and accelerated
relativelycomplete, although lacking some motion, and continued the work for arbitrary
Russian and Japanese papers that it has not pressure distributions in motion along a fluid
been possible to obtain. The list, which also surface (the first approximation to speedy motor-
contains other publications that the author has boats). A more general lecture on the wave
consulted during his preparation, was compiled resistance theory was then conceived, and the
consecutively as papers were obtained and read. preparation for it begun in the Autumn of 1951.
No effort has been made to group the papers by The author soon found himself plowing through
partly
publication, author or subject matter, methOds 1500-M00 pages of technical literature of
which are much used. This writer has not had heavy content, even though he had a. previous
the patience for this, nor does he believe that it acquaintance with a large part of the mathematical
is worth the time involved. In 1361 Wigley lias publications treating the theory of wave resist-
compiled a list of some papers treating both ance. Notes accumulated rapidly, and it was
theory and computations of wave profile and
apparent that they were not suited to a lecture
It then appeared to
wave resistance. This list has eight sub-groups, without a thorough pruning.
and references to the papers treating the same the author that a publication was desirable,
title treating the theory itself and indicating the con-
subject are grouped together under a short
clusions that could be drawn from the mathematical
or description. The reader is referred to this expressions. This led to the present publication,
literature list.
Finally a word about how this paper was con- addressed to the Naval Architects who because
ceived. In the Autumn of 1950 Mr. B. Haiive of their work have not had an opportunity to be-
hydrodynamic theory
Andersen, Vice President of Nylands Verksted come acquainted with the
and Chairman of the Naval Architects' group in of wave resistance.
Oslo, invited the author to give a lecture to the
Summary
This paper entitled "THE LINEARIZED THE- with the present linearized problem is discussed,
ORY OF WAVE RESISTANCE AND ITS APPLI- and the velocity potential for both steady and
CATION TO SHIP-SHAPED BODIES IN MOTION accelerating motion stated.
ON THE SURFACE OF A DEEP, PREVIOUSLY The reason why the train of regular waves
UNDISTURBED FLUID" is written mainly for behind any body, starting from rest is continu-
the more practical Naval Architect. An attempt ously increasing in length, is indicated.
is made to describe the underlying thoughts; for THE WAVE RESISTANCE AND SOURCE
the different steps in the mathematical theory, DISTRIBUTION. By considering the rate of in-
without actually giving the mathematical manpu- crease of energy of the fluid in the region be-
lation. The expressions of major importance are, tween the wetted surface of the ship, the free
however, stated, and the conclusions which may surface of the fluid and two fixed infinity large
be drawn from these are pointed out, both as vertical planes placed at right angles to the
regard steady and accelerating motions ' are direction of the ship, one in front of the ship and
concerned. one to the rear, expression for the wave resist-
INTRODUCTION. A short historical account ance for steady motion is determined.
is given of the developments of the mathematical The influences of the terms neglected when
theory starting with the classical paper; by the distribution of sources and sinks is placed
Michell. on the vertical centre line plane, rather than on
THE VELOCITY POTENTIAL. The diffi- the wetted surface are discussed from the ex-
culties of determining a potential function which perimental point of view and in art. 12 from the
satisfies the condition at both the free surface of theoretical point of view.
the fluid and the wetted surface of the shipil, as The use of a finite non-continuous distribution
well as the equation of continuity, is pointed of sources and sinks is considered.
out. The use of sources and sinks in connection The immediate conclusions which may be drawn
from the form of the expression for the wave re- determination of the best main dimensions etc.
sistance are pointed out for steady motion. for ships with varying lines.
Attention is drawn to the neglection of the THE COMPONENTS OF THE WAVE PRO-
inertia coefficient for longitudinal steady motion FILE AND WAVE RESISTANCE FOR STEADY
when the usual expression for the source density RECTILINEAR MOTION. Using the result of the
is used. theoretical investigations which have been pub-
The expression for the resistance in acceler- lished the components which the wave profile
ated motion obtained by integrating the resultant may be assumed to consist of, are indicated and
fluid pressure over the wetted surface is stated, compared with the components the wave resist-
and the reason why this method was not applied ance may be assumed to be built of. In particu-
in the case of steady motion indicated. lar, attention is drawn to the local disturbance
The method of Guilloton in which the surface which has no corresponding component in the
of the form is built up from simple elements is wave resistance.
mentioned. THE ASSUMPTIONS MADE BY FROUDE.
The experimental evidence that also the form The assumptions made when applying the tank
of the hull above the water line at rest, may have results to the prototype, are discussed with the
some influence on the wave resistance is sum- view of comparing the calculated wave resist-
marized. ance. It is suggested that the fairest comparison
The reversibility paradox is discussed in seems to be to compare the difference between
connection with the expression for the wave the residuary resistance for two not too different
resistance. models, with the difference between the calcu-
The assumption made by many that the theory lated wave resistance for the same two models.
neglects sinkage or trim is warned against. In this way one may hope to eliminate partly
Attention is drawn to the expression for the those components in the residuary resistance
wave resistance which owing to the form sup- which do not follow Froudes law. Such a com-
ports the well known experimental finding that parison will, on the other hand, probably also
this resistance component may, under certain eliminate some of the influence of the simplify-
conditions, be very sensitive to changes of ing assumptions made in the theory.
lines, and yeti may yield equivalent results for COMPARISON BETWEEN "MEASURED"
widely different hulls at the corresponding AND CALCULATED WAVE RESISTANCE FOR
speeds. STEADY, RECTILINEAR MOTION. Some theo-
It is pointed out that quite common arguments retical and experimental results are compared
as, for example, small causes produce small and the general agreement and disagreement
effects or symmetric causes produce symmetric discussed.
effects must be used with caution in hydrody- Mention is also made of some of the publica-
namics. tions where a finite noncontinuous distribution
Additional difficulties which are met in the of sources and sinks has been employed.
theory are pointed out. In particular, the com- BULBOUS BOW. The application of the
plications arising from the intersection of the theory to forms with bulbous bows and the ex-
hull_ and the free surface causing an infinitely perimental comparison is reviewed.
large vertical fluid velocity at the bow and INTERFERENCE, WAVE RESISTANCE
stern are discussed. AND WAVE PROFILE FOR STEADY RECTILIN-
The source density to be used for a ship with EAR MOTION. The theoretical and some of the
a very shallow draught is stated. The connection experimental investigations into the interference
between the source density and the intensity of between the bow and stern systems for varying
a pressure distribution acting on the free surface length of the parallel body are summarized.
is given for the particular case when the wave It is pointed out that some experiments carried
resistance in these two cases is equal. out by Barrillon, should really have ended the
Owing to the nature of the expression for the controversy regarding the failure of the 0-the-
wave resistance there does not seem to be any ory to predict the Froude number at which the
real theoretical justification for either exter- humps and hollows on the resistance curve occur,
polating, or, interpolating any curve showing the especially at high speed.
influence of systematic variations on this resist- The theoretical evidence as regards the use
ance component. Similarly there is no theoretical of the wave profile as an indication of the wave
justification for using the results from systematic resistance is reviewed.
series to anything else than an approximate THr PART OF THE WAVE RESISTANCE
CAUSED SEPARATELY BY THE TRANSVERSE the shape of the hull modified by the boundary
AND DIVERGENT WAVES FOR STEADY, REC- layer. As the displacement thickness 8. of the
TILINEAR MOTION. It is pointed out that the boundary layer is a measure of the outwards
theory indicates that the transverse and divergent deflection of the streamlines, the "wave-making
waves are built up of component waves, whose form" of a ship in a real fluid may be taken to
direction angle varies from 00 to 35°16' and be given by (12.10). It is then found that the
35°16' to 90° respectively. The wave resist- wave resistance is the sum of three terms, namely:
ance integral may be divided up correspondingly The wave resistance experienced by the
and the part due to the transverse waves and the ship when moving in an inviscid fluid.
divergent waves determined separately. The re- The wave resistance experienced by a
sults of such calculations are shown on fig. 29 form corresponding to the boundary layer rep-
for one particular model, and it is also now theo- resented by its displacement thickness, and
retical apparent why the ce, -theory, or any other moving in an inviscid fluid.
theory, based on consideration of the transverse The interference between the wave resist-
waves fails. ance due to (a) and (b).
The general influence of a reduction of draught The real difficulty is, however, that we have
on the wave profile is indicated. very little information about the boundary layers
SHIP-SHAPED BODIES HAVING A MINI- in the case of ships. It appears, however, that
MUM WAVE RESISTANCE WHEN IN STEADY, the thickness must be a function of Reynolds
RECTILINEAR MOTION. It will be of the great number. If that is the case, from the analysis
practical importance to be able to predict the above, one must conclude that the wave resist-
form of least resistance. As however, the dif- ance is influenced by the scale effect and that
ferent resistance components follow different the largest possible models should be used.
laws the problem is a very difficult one. It has Attention is drawn to the suggestion made in
been suggested however, that as the wave resist- the past, that the curves of constant Froudes
ance is the component which is most sensitive number to a base of Reynolds number for a family
e to changes in form, the lines with the least wave of geosims, should individually be equidistant
resistance may be an indication of the form of from the minimum turbulence line or lines. In
least total resistance. view of the fact that the wave resistance in a
The immediate conclusions which may be real fluid is influenced by the scale effect, this
drawn from the theory are discussed. It is pointed suggestion is not strictly true. As the influence
that when applying the theory to any particular of the boundary layer on a family of geosims is to
problem, some restrictions inust be introduced or make their under water form no longer geometri-
trivial answers are obtained such as, the wave cally similar in the hydrodynamical sense, the
resistance vanished for vanishing displacement, constant Froudes number curves will not run
that the draught should be infinitely large or, absolute regularly.
that the displacement should be concentrated as .Using the modified hull it will be noticed that
far below the water line as possible. The papers also the two components of the wake arising
dealing with this problem are summarized and from the stream line motion and the wave motion
the controversy as regards the application of are influenced by the scale effect.
calculus of variations to the problem, mentioned. ACCELERATED MOTION. The conclu-
THE INFLUENCE OF A VERTICAL sions drawn from the theoretical resistance curves
WALL ON THE WAVE RESISTANCE FOR for a cylinder in motion below the free surface
STEADY RECTILINEAR MOTION. The theo- are summarized. The indication that the inertia
retical curves of wave resistance for a sphere coefficient varies with the velocity in accelerated
moving along a vertical wall are discussed. Cor- motion is pointed out.
responding curves for a ship have not been worked COMMENTARY. The progress of the more
out, but the theoretical expressions indicate a theoretical part of the Naval Architecture is re-
similar influence. viewed. Attention is drawn to the considerable
THE INFLUENCE OF THE VISCOSITY slowing down of the advances made compared
ON THE WAVE PROFILE AND WAVE RESIST- with, for example, those in Aerodynamics. The
ANCE. The papers dealing with the influence of paper ends with a strong plea by the author that
the viscosity on the wave motion are summarited. much more attention should be given to the theo-
It is pointed out that it is not the form of the retical part of Naval Architecture in order that a
hull itself which is the only cause of the wave satisfactory progress in this particular field of
resistance in a real fluid, but rather, that it is science can be achieved.
NOMENCLATURE
A Area of midship-section. d, Horizontal distance between the

A Plane afore a ship (a model). centre of a sphere afore a model
a Radius of a cylinder. and the bow contour.
2a Length of parallel midship-section. Total energy, potential and kinetic.
52, a. Constants occurring in the equa- E(A) Total energy, potential and kinetic,
tions for the wetted surface of that flows through a plane A.
some mathematical models. E(B) Total energy, potential and kinetic,
a. Defined by means of Fig. 9. that flows through a plane B.
Plane astern a ship (a model). Base of natural logarithms.
B = 2b Greatest breadth at Load Waterline F c/N/TI, Froude's number.
(L.W.L.) F (x, z) y Equation for wetted surface of a
Distance between a sphere and a ship (a model).
vertical wall. F (kV) k' Equation for wetted surface of a
2b = B Greatest breadth at Load Waterline ship (a model).
(L.W.L.). F1(x,y) z Equation for wetted surface of a
Defined by means of Fig. 9. ship (a model).
Inertia coefficient. F z = aF/ax = ay/ ax where y = F (x,y) is the
CB Block coefficient. wetted surface of a ship
CD Resistance number (real, infinite (a model).
fluid). F xi designates that F z is an even func-
Cp Prismatic coefficient. tion in x.
CR = R4pSc2) Resistance number or specific F z. designates that F5 is an odd func-
resistance (wave resistance, tion in x.
"residual resistance"). Depth of a source (a sink) under the
Midship-section coefficient. free surface of a fluid.
0.78R Depth of centre of a sphere under the
Resistance number (R in kg. for free surface of a fluid.
..?c7 fresh water, V in re and c in Depth of centreline of a cylinder
m/sec). under the free surface of a fluid.
OR Resistance number for "residual Reduction factor due the boundary
resistance." layer.
OW Resistance number for wave re- Depth of an element of the wetted
s istance. surface under the L.W.L.
OWC Resistance number for wave resist- Jr Distance of centroid of S, S, under
ance corrected for the influence the free surface of a fluid.
of the fluid viscosity. Is Depth of the source (the sink) s
OWD Resistance number due the diverg- under the free surface of a fluid.
ing wave system. Acceleration of gravity.
WT Resistance number due the trans- ii Length over which a sudden change
verse wave system. of angle is conceived apportioned.
Constant, advancing velocity in the ii Distance from the origin in the x-
x-direction of a ship (a model, a direction of a source (a sink).
source, a sink). Distance of an element of the wetted
C(t) Advancing velocity in the x-direction surface from the origin, in the x-
as a function of time, of a ship (a direction.
model, a source, a sink). -1; Distance (in the x-direction) of the
dc cent:roid of a "compartment"
= Acceleration. bounded by S, and S,.
dt
Li Draught of a ship (a model). h. Distance from the source (the sink)
dA Element of the wetted surface. s to the origin, in the x-direction.
d, Vertical displacement of a given I, I., I and I . Functions in the integral for the
displacement volume. wave resistance.
K0= g/ca A factor occurring in connection R., R. Terms in the expression for resist-
with the velocity potential and ance for a cylinder in accelerated
the integral for wave resistance. motion.
K.V.L. (= L.W.L.) Load Water Line. r. Radius of a sphere.
Distance of a source (a sink) from Distance from a source (a sink) to
the origin, in the y-direction. an arbitrarily selected point in
Distance of an element on the wet- the fluid.
ted surface from the origin, in the Total wetted surface of a ship (a
y-direction. model).
Distance (in the y-direction) of the S S, Cross-sectional areas of a "com-
centroid of S.S1 from the verti- partment."
cal centreline plane of the ship 0 = S/V24 Coefficient of wetted surface.
(the model). Distance from the starting point at
k. = tgate where a and g are defined by means time t.
of Fig. 9. Time interval.
k, Distance from a source (a sink) to Time.
the origin, in the y-direction. t= (1/ b) tg-
Length of a ship (a model) at L.W.L. = 1/blay/axI x Taylor's angle of entrance.
1 Length of entrance or run. z=0
L.W.L. Load Water Line. The x-component of the mean fluid
21= L Length of L.W.L. for a ship (a velocity in turbulent motion.
model) without a parallel mid- The x-component of the absolute
ship-section. fluid velocity.
Constant strength of a source. UI The x-component of the rapidly fluc-
m Constant strength of a sink. tuating fluid velocity in turbulent
m(t) Strength of a source as a function motion.
of time. UI Mean of ui with respect to time.
--m(t) Strength of a sink as a function of 1 Volume of a "compartment."
time. The y-component of the absolute
Strength of the source s at the point fluid velocity.
The y-component of the rapidly fluc-
An arbitrarily selected point in the tuating fluid velocity in turbulent
fluid. motion.
P and Q; P. and Q.; Functions in the integral Mean of v, with respect to time.
P. and Q, for wave resistance. W(A) Work done by the fluid per unit of
® 0.746 v/VC p L Speed coefficient (v in time at a plane A.
knots; L in feet). W(B) Work done by the fluid per unit of
time at a plane B.
Fluid pressure. The z-component of the absolute
Pressure distribution acting on the fluid velocity.
free surface of a fluid. WI The z-component of the rapidly fluc-
px = ap/ax tuating fluid velocity in turbulent
Resistance in rectilinear, acceler- motion.
ated motion. Wi Mean of tv1 with respect to time.
Rt. Wave resistance for steady, recti- Coordinate axis (distance).
linear motion. x, Length of a "compartment" in the
Rio Wave resistance for a ship whose x-direction.
waterline ordinates at B1. Coordinate axis (distance).
Wave resistance for a ship whose y = F (x,y) Equation for wetted surface of a
waterline ordinates are B11. ship (a model).
RB Wave resistance of the forebody. Coordinate axis (distance).
Interference resistance. z = F, (x,') Equation for wetted surface of a
RS Wave resistance of the afterbody. ship (a model).
Rwc Wave resistance corrected for the
influence of viscosity. a Angle of entrance or nth, i.e., the
Re= c L/v Reynolds number. half tangential angle of the L.W.L.
Re. Reynolds number at the point x. measured at bow or stern contour.
Angle that a small area dA of the ii Kinematic coefficient of viscosity

wetted surface of the ship forms of the fluid.
with the vertical centreline plane. 6 x/z, y/b, Dimensionless coordinates.
Reduction factor for fluid velocity.
Reduction factor for wave height.
e. z/d
Acceleration. Horizontal distance from the z-axis
Displacement by volume. when time occurs as a variable.
Displacement by weight. Fluid density.
Thickness of boundary layer. Surface density of the source
Various designations in defining strength.
the thickness of the boundary 100 _
layer. a - V1(t7,2 +11,2 + ti-,2) Turbulence number
1 u 3
(coefficient).
Displacement thickness of the
boundary layer. Shearing stress.
Time interval. TI Laminar shearing stress.
Wave profile. Reynolds' shearing stress.
Dimensionless equation for wetted Velocity potential due the motion of
surface of a ship (a model). a body in a fluid.
Directional angle of the wave 95 Velocity potential due the motion of
components. a source in a fluid.
Wave length. ckx = a95/ax, 95y = afk/aY,
Coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. Cky = &Paz, ck.x = a2ç6/ az2 etc.
LITERATURE
The references are quoted as follows: Author's Sretensky (Sretenskin, L. N.: "Sur la
name; complete title of the article; abbreviated determination de la resistance ondulatoire d'un
name of the publication in which the article is navire se deplacant a la surface de l'eau d'une
printed; volume number of the publication; year profondeur finie," Comptes Rendus (Doklady)
of publication and page numbers of the first and de l'Academie des Sciences de l'URSS, II (XI),
last pages of the article (this latter is necessary. (1936), 265-267.
when ordering photostatic copies from abroad). Sretensky (Sretenskin, L. N.: "On the
Lunde, J. K.: "On the Linearized Theory Wave-making Resistance of a Ship moving along
of Wave Resistance for Displacement Ships in in a Canal," Phil. Mag. (London), 22 (1936),
Steady and Accelerated Motion," Trans. Soc. 1005-1013.
Naval Arch. Marine Eng., 59 (1951), 25-76. Havelock, T. H.: "Some Cases of Wave
Michell, J. H.: "The Wave-Resistance of a Motion due to a Submerged Obstacle," Proc.
Ship," Phil. Mag. (London), 45 (1898), 106-123. Roy. Soc. London, A 93 (1917), 520-532.
Havelock, T. H.: "Wave Resistance," Havelock, T. H.: "The Wave Resistance
Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A 118 (1928), 24-33. of a Cylinder Started from Rest," Quart. Journ.
Havelock, T. H.: "The Calculation of Mech. and Applied Math., H (1949), 325-334.
Wave Resistance," Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Havelock, T. H.: "The Resistance of a
A 144 (1934), 514-521. Submerged Cylinder in Accelerated Motion,"
Sretensky (Sretenskii), L. N.: "Theoretical Quart. Journ. Mech. and Applied Math., 11 (1949),
Investigation on Wave-Making Resistance," Proc. 419-427.
Joukovsky Central Inst. Aero- and Hydrodynamics Havelock, T. H. "Wave Patterns and
(Moscow), No. 9 1937. Wave Profile," Trans. Inst. Naval Arch., 76
Wigley, W. C. S.: "L'Etat actual des calculs (1934), 430-442.
de resistance de vagues," Bulletin de l'Associ- Havelock, T. H.: "The Approximate Cal-
ation Technique Maritime et Aeronautique (Paris), culation of Wave Resistance at High Speed,"
48 (1949), 533-564. Trans. North East Coast Inst. Eng. and Shipb.,
Kinoshita, M.: "Wave Resistance of a 60 (1943-44), 47-58.
Sphere in a Shallow Sea," Jour. Zosen Kiokai Lunde, J. K.: "Wave Resistance Calcula-
(Japan), 73 (1951), 19-38. tions at High Speeds," Trans. Inst. Naval Arch.,
Lunde, J. K.: "On the Theory of Wave 91 (1949), 182-190.
Resistance and Wave Profile," Skipsmodelltan- Shearer, J. R.: "A Preliminary Investiga-
kens meddelelse nr. 10, (1952), 1-123. tion of the Discrepancies between the Calculated
and Measured Wavemaking of Hull Forms," Guilloton, R.: "Contribution a l'etude

Trans. North East Coast Inst. Eng. and Shipb., des carenes minces. Mouvements du fluide--
67 (1950-51), 43-57. Resistance A l'avancement," hnpritnerie des
Havelock, T. H.: "Studies in Wave Re- presses univeritaires de France (Thesis) 1939,
sistance: Influence of the Form of the Water- 1-117.
plane Section of the Ship," Proc. Roy. Soc. Guilloton, R.: "A New Method of Calcu-
London, A 103 (1923), 571-585. lating Wave Profiles and Wave Resistance of
Havelock, T. H.: "The Theory of Wave Ships," Trans. Inst. Naval Arch., 82 (1940),
Resistance," Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A 138 69-90.
(1932), 339-348. Guilloton, R.: "Further Notes on the
Havelock, T. H.: "Wave Resistance: the Theoretical Calculations of Wave Profiles and
Mutual Action of two Bodies," Proc. Roy. Soc. Resistance of Hulls," Trans. Inst. Naval Arch.,
London, A 155 (1936), 460-471. 88 (1946), 308-320.
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TECHNICAL AND RESEARCH BULLETIN NO.

The Linearized Theory of Wave Resistance

English translation published in July 1957, by

FIG. 3. A source in a unifrom stream.

Sink distribution Source distribution

sFrom the footnote on page 4 we have that may be

7), x+ c(r)dr cos 0 + y sin 0 - timKo fsin (Ko x sec 0) X

1.12 x2 + y2 + (z f)2, r22 = + + (z - f)2 x cos (Koy see() gin 6) elco(z-n8"28sec1t9d0

3. The Wave Resistance and Source Distribution

consideration must equal its increase in total may now be written

12For a completely submerged body we may express the

is only necessary to know the variation in pres-

"Michell's velocity potential for slender ships in recti-

X edKoe sec2 Ode

Wave heights on this figure are shown to a scale

Forward Shoulder Component

Wave heights on this figure are shown to a scale

Interference between bow

FIG. 14. Decomposition of the wave resistance.

5. The Assumptions made by Froude

6. Comparison Between "Measured" and Calculated Wave Resistance

FIG. 16. L.W.L. for the models 2038 A, B, C and D.

L in B in d in The Parameters in (6.10) A in

1805B 16 1,5 1,0 -1,0 0,533 0 533 0,355 8,65

C)R from experiments

829 /6 -15- 1.0 44 a" 15 correction

0,Af0 0,E0 C! a &ea.=

48 OA 480 0.20 0. 432 4 4 1740 452 q.155

considering the corresponding source distribu- straight waterlines [142].

modo h ES d C tv K° i C A) Line Types

-0.i "... .0%**

Model ei Cal Oe . I Col Line Type.

- Compahrd. with cerredion

Model Line Types

Computed with correction

7. Bulb ous Bow

LINEARIZED THEORY OF WAVE RESISTANCE 35

8. Interference, Wave Resistance and Wa ye Profile For Steady, Rectilinear Motion

x sin [1(0 sec20 (x cos 0 + y sin 0)1d0 (9.13) C= sin (x,y) p

FIG. 26. Curves of Involution.

the wave resistance due the transverse wave sys-

10. Ship-Shaped Bodies Having a Minimum Wave Resistance

U(y) is the mean with respect to time of the fluid velocity in

shearing stress -pistvi must be dominant in the turbu-

a/s a/7 0.49 0.2/ a a3 0,27

model and computed the difference in wave re- 0

(P1P2+ Q1Q2) sec' Ode

4/8 434 44,2 0.50

where pressed by means of its displacement thick-

"On page 19 it was contended that when the source dis-

A Area of midship-section. d, Horizontal distance between the

Angle that a small area dA of the ii Kinematic coefficient of viscosity

and Measured Wavemaking of Hull Forms," Guilloton, R.: "Contribution a l'etude

Barrillon, E. G.: "From Theoretical Barrillon, E. G.: "ROle des vagues

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