REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

CALBAYOG CITY SAMAR

MASTER OF ARTS IN SCIENCE

TEACHING (MAST)

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
(SYNTHESIS)

Submitted by:
MARY ANNE M. OLEGARIO
Centaurus

Submitted to:
DR.
MICHELLE
M.
PROBAD
ORA
Title: Overview of Biological Science

Introduction:
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms. Modern biology is a vast
and eclectic field composed of many specialized disciplines that study the structure, function, growth, distribution,
evolution, or other features of living organisms. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain general
and unifying concepts that govern all study and research:the cell is the basic unit of lifegenes (consisting of DNA or
RNA) are the basic unit of heredityevolution accounts for the unity and diversity seen among living organisms
all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energyall organisms maintain a stable internal environment

Content:
Biological science is the study of life, from single-celled organisms to complex plants and animals. The
Department of Biological Sciences strives to advance knowledge and discoveries in biology, from the cellular and
genetic level to the organismal and environmental. Although modern biology is a relatively recent development,
sciences related to and included within it have been studied since ancient times. Natural philosophy was studied as
early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, and China. However, the origins of
modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. (Biology is
derived from the Greek word “bio” meaning “life” and the suffix “ology” meaning “study of.”)

Advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a
number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell and in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began
promoting the now universal ideas of the cell theory. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was the first to present a coherent theory
of evolution, although it was the British naturalist Charles Darwin who spread the theory of natural selection
throughout the scientific community. In 1953, the discovery of the double helical structure of DNA marked the
transition to the era of molecular genetics.

Conclusion:
Biological science is a dynamic and ever-evolving field that offers great understanding of life. It is field with inquiry
that holds the key to solving some of the most pressing challenges facing humanity. as we continue to explore the
mysteries of life, we must do so with a sense of responsibility and a commitment to using our knowledge for the
betterment of our world.
Title: The Scientific Method

Introduction:
The scientific method is the process pf objectively establishing facts through testing and
experimentation. The basic process involves making an observation, forming a hypothesis, making a
prediction, conducting an experiment and finally analyzing the results.
The discovery of the scientific method is not credited to any single person, but there are a few
notable figures who contributed to its development.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle is considered to be one of the earliest proponents of logic and cycles
of observation and deduction in recorded history. Ibn Al-Haytham, a mathematician, established stringent
testing methodologies in pursuit of facts and truth, and he recorded his findings.

Content:
The scientific method uses a series of steps to establish facts or create knowledge. The overall
process is well established, but the specifics of each step may change depending on what is being examined
and who is performing it. The scientific method can only answer questions that can be proven or disproven
through testing.
Make an observation or ask a question. The first step is to observe something that you would like to learn
about or ask a question that you would like answered.
Gather background information. This involves doing research into what is already known about the topic.
This can also involve finding if anyone has already asked the same question.
Create a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an explanation for the observation or question. If proven later, it can
become a fact.
Create a prediction and perform a test. Create a testable prediction based on the hypothesis. The test
should establish a noticeable change that can be measured or observed using empirical analysis. It is also
important to control for other variables during the test.
Analyze the results and draw a conclusion. Use the metrics established before the test see if the results
match the prediction.
Share the conclusion or decide what question to ask next: Document the results of your experiment. By
sharing the results with others, you also increase the total body of knowledge available. Your experiment
may have also led to other questions, or if your hypothesis is disproven you may need to create a new one
and test that.

Conclusion:
The scientific method is incredibly valuable in technology and related fields. It is obviously used in
research and development, but it is also useful in day-to-day operations. Because almost everything can be
quantified, testing hypotheses can be easy. The scientific method can be applied in many areas. Customer
satisfaction and retention numbers can be analyzed and tested upon. Profitability and finance numbers can
be analyzed to form new conclusions. Making predictions on changing business practices and checking the
results will help to identify and measure success or failure of the initiatives.
Title: Importance of Biology in Everyday Life and in the Philippine context Cell Biology

Introduction:
Biology is a branch of science that deals with living organisms and their vital processes. Biology encompasses
diverse fields, including botany, conservation, ecology, evolution, genetics, marine
biology, medicine, microbiology, molecular biology, physiology, and zoology.

Content:
Biology, study of living things and their vital processes. The field deals with all the physicochemical aspects
of life. The modern tendency toward cross-disciplinary research and the unification of scientific knowledge and
investigation from different fields has resulted in significant overlap of the field of biology with other
scientific disciplines. Modern principles of other fields—chemistry, medicine, and physics, for example—
are integrated with those of biology in areas such as biochemistry, biomedicine, and biophysics. As a field of science,
biology helps us understand the living world and the ways its many species (including humans) function, evolve, and
interact. Advances in medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, and many other areas of biology have brought
improvements in the quality of life.
Biology is fundamental to our everyday lives in numerous ways:

1. Health and Medicine: Biological knowledge underpins our understanding of the human body,
diseases, and treatments. This allows for the development of new drugs, medical procedures, and
public health policies to improve human health and wellbeing.
2. Food Production: Principles of biology, such as genetics, microbiology, and ecology, are crucial for
improving agricultural practices, developing high-yielding crops, and ensuring food security for the
growing global population.
3. Environmental Conservation: Biological studies of ecosystems, biodiversity, and the
interdependence of living organisms provide the scientific basis for environmental protection and
sustainable resource management.
4. Biotechnology: Advancements in fields like genetic engineering, cell culture, and bioinformatics
have led to breakthroughs in areas such as renewable energy, bioremediation, and the production of
pharmaceuticals and other industrial products.
5. Forensics and Criminal Investigations: Biological techniques, including DNA analysis and
toxicology, play a crucial role in crime scene investigations and have become essential tools for
law enforcement.
6. Personal Decision-Making: Understanding basic biological principles, such as nutrition,
reproduction, and disease prevention, empowers individuals to make informed choices about their
health and lifestyle.

Conclusion:
The study of biology touches nearly every aspect of our lives, from our personal well-being to the broader
challenges facing humanity and the environment. Continued advancements in biological research will be essential for
addressing the complex issues of the 21st century.
Title: Structure and Function of Cell

Introduction: A cell is capable of carrying out all life processes, such as nutrition, excretion, respiration,
etc. Hence it is called as the functional unit of life. The cell is the smallest unit of life and all the living beings are
made up of cells. Hence a cell is called the structural unit of life. Cells are called the structural and functional unit of
life because all the living organism are made up of cell and also all the functions taking place inside the body of
organisms are performed by cells. Cells provide specific conditions, for the occurrence of the metabolic reactions

Content:
Cell structure is what makes up a cell. Cells are made up of organelles and cytoplasm, all bound together by a
membrane. The function of a cell is to be the smallest building block that makes up living things. Cell structure is
important when understanding the function of a cell because each structure within a cell has an important function that
aids in the overall mechanics of the cell. Cells are made of organelles, each with its own specialized role. Four cellular
structures could be four organelles. The main organelles of a cell include the nucleus, which organizes and stores
information in the form of DNA, the cytoplasm, which holds all the organelles, the mitochondria, which produces the
energy needed in the cell, and the cellular membrane, which holds the cell together.

Conclusion:
Learning about cell structure and function helps us understand the biological processes that sustain life.It also
helps us identify abnormalities and diseases. The study of cell has revealed a remarkable connection between structure
and function. And also, profound implications of medicine, biotechnology, and our overall understanding of life itself.
Title: Cell Theory

Introduction:
The cell theory is a fundamental principle in biology that explains the basic unit of life. It states that
all living organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the basic structural and functional unit
of all organisms and that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Content:
The development of cell theory was gradual process, driven by the advancements in the microscopy and the
meticulous observations of scientist over centuries.
Robert Hooke was the first to observe while examining a thin slice of cork under a microscope. He named
these structures “ cell” because they reminded him of the small rooms, or cells, in a monastery. However, Hooke did
not realize the true nature or function of these cells.Antonie van Leeuwenhoek improved upon Hooke’s work by
single- lens microscope with greater magnification. He was the first to observe living cells, including bacteria and
protist.Matthias Schleiden studied plants tissue and proposed that all plants are composed of cells. He also suggested
that cells were made by a crystallization process.Theodor Schwann extended Schleiden’s observation to animals,
starting that all animal tissues are also made up of cells. Their combined work established the first two tenets of cell
theory: all living organisms are compsed of one or more cells, and the cell is the basic unit of life.
Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet the to the cell theory with his famous statement. “Omnis cellula e cellula”,
meaning “all cells arise from pre-existing cells”.
The cell theory has evolved over time, incorporating new discoveries and advancement in technology. This
includes the following principles:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells. All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organism. The activity of an organisms depends
on the total activity of independent cells. Energy flows occurs within the cells. Cells contain DNA which is found
specially in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm. All cell are basically the same in
chemical composition in organisms of similar species.

Conclusion
The cell theory has a big impact on our understanding of life and has revolutionized many fields including:
medicine, biotechnology, evolutionary biology, ecology. Providing a foundational understanding of the structure,
function, and the origin of life, it gives us understanding of living organisms and continues to guide research and
innovation in various fields. As the technology advancement, we can expect further refinement of cell theory, leading
to even deeper insight into the wonders of the cellular world.
Title: Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells
Introduction:
Our world of living organisms is incredibly diverse, ranging from microscopic bacteria to towering trees.
Despite of this, all living organisms are built from the same fundamental unit: the cell. Cell are the building blocks of
life, and they can be broadly classified into two categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Content:
Prokaryotic cells are single-celled microorganisms known to be the earliest on earth. Prokaryotes include
Bacteria and Archaea. The photosynthetic prokaryotes include cyanobacteria that perform photosynthesis. A
prokaryotic cell consists of a single membrane and therefore, all the reactions occur within the cytoplasm. Prokaryotic
cells have different characteristic features. The characteristics of the prokaryotic cells are mentioned below.
They lack a nuclear membrane.
 Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, chloroplast, and lysosomes are absent.
 The genetic material is present on a single chromosome.
 The histone proteins, the important constituents of eukaryotic chromosomes, are lacking in them.
 The cell wall is made up of carbohydrates and amino acids.
 The plasma membrane acts as the mitochondrial membrane carrying respiratory enzymes.
 They divide asexually by binary fission. The sexual mode of reproduction involves conjugation.

A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear membrane. However, the genetic material is present in a region in the
cytoplasm known as the nucleoid. They may be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral. A prokaryotic cell structure is as
follows:
Capsule– It is an outer protective covering found in the bacterial cells, in addition to the cell wall. It helps in moisture
retention, protects the cell when engulfed, and helps in the attachment of cells to nutrients and surfaces.
Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape to the cell.
Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes, salts, cell organelles and is a gel-like component.
Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the entry and exit of substances in the cells.
Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths that attach to the surface of other bacterial cells.
Flagella– These are long structures in the form of a whip, that help in the locomotion of a cell.
Ribosomes– These are involved in protein synthesis.
Plasmids– Plasmids are non-chromosomal DNA structures. These are not involved in reproduction.
Nucleoid Region– It is the region in the cytoplasm where the genetic material is present.
A prokaryotic cell lacks certain organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi bodies.

Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells and are found in a wide range of organisms
including protists, fungi, plants, and animals. Eukaryotic cells are typically larger than prokaryotic cells and are
characterized by the presence of a nucleus that encloses their DNA. They also contain a variety of other membrane-
bound organelles, each with a specialized function. It has more organized internal structure, with compartments that
allow for the efficient and specialized process. Key difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Features Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Nucleus Absent present
Organelles No membrane bound organelles Membrane bound organelles (e.g.
mitochondria, ER, Golgi)
DNA Circular, located in the nucleoid Linear, located in the nucleus
Size Smaller (1-10 um) Larger (10-100 um)
Cell wall Present in most Present in plants, fungi, and some
protist
Ribosomes Smaller (70S) Larger (80S)
Cell Division Binary Fission Mitosis and meiosis
Example Bacteria, archaea Protist, fungi, plants, animals

Conclusion:
The distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is fundamental to understanding the diversity of the
life on earth. Understanding the differences between these two cell types is crucial for comprehending the basic
principles of biology and for exploring the intricate working of life at the cellular level.
Title: Cell Organelles and their Functions Cellular Process
Introduction:
The cellular components are called cell organelles. These cell organelles include both membrane and non-
membrane bound organelles, present within the cells and are distinct in their structures and functions. They coordinate
and function efficiently for the normal functioning of the cell. A few of them function by providing shape and support,
whereas some are involved in the locomotion and reproduction of a cell. There are various organelles present within
the cell and are classified into three categories based on the presence or absence of membrane.
Content:
Organelles without membrane: The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton are non-membrane-bound cell
organelles. They are present both in the prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic cell.
Single membrane-bound organelles: Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum are single
membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.
Double membrane-bound organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are double membrane-bound
organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.

List of Cell Organelles and their Functions

The plasma membrane is also termed as a Cell Membrane or Cytoplasmic Membrane. It is a selectively
permeable membrane of the cells, which is composed of a lipid bilayer and proteins. The plasma membrane is present
both in plant and animal cells. It functions as the selectively permeable membrane, by permitting the entry of selective
materials in and out of the cell according to the requirement. In an animal cell, the cell membrane functions by
providing shape and protects the inner contents of the cell. The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells.
They are jelly-like substances, found between the cell membrane and nucleus. They are mainly composed of water,
organic and inorganic compounds. The cytoplasm is one of the essential components of the cell, where all the cell
organelles are embedded.
The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. It is the largest organelle, which
functions as the control centre of the cellular activities and is the storehouse of the cell’s DNA. By structure, the
nucleus is dark, round, surrounded by a nuclear membrane. It is a porous membrane (like cell membrane) and forms a
wall between cytoplasm and nucleus.
Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They are the transport system
of the cell, involved in transporting materials throughout the cell. There are two different types of Endoplasmic
Reticulum: Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are composed of cisternae, tubules, and vesicles, which are found
throughout the cell and are involved in protein manufacture. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are the storage
organelle, associated with the production of lipids, steroids, and also responsible for detoxifying the cell.
Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell as they produce energy-rich molecules for the cell. The
mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally in several organisms. It is a double membrane-bound, sausage-shaped
organelle, found in almost all eukaryotic cells.
Plastids are large, membrane-bound organelles which contain pigments. Based on the type of pigments,
plastids are of three types: Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles, which usually vary in their shape –
from a disc shape to spherical, discoid, oval and ribbon. Chromoplasts – The chromoplasts include fat-soluble,
carotenoid pigments like xanthophylls, carotene, etc. which provide the plants with their characteristic color – yellow,
orange, red, etc. Leucoplasts – Leucoplasts are colorless plastids which store nutrients. Amyloplasts store
carbohydrates (like starch in potatoes), leucoplasts store proteins, and leucoplasts store oils and fats. Ribosomes are
non membrane-bound and important cytoplasmic organelles found in close association with the endoplasmic
reticulum.
Ribosomes are found in the form of tiny particles in a large number of cells and are mainly composed of 2/3rd
of RNA and 1/3rd of protein.
Golgi Apparatus is also termed as Golgi Complex. It is a membrane-bound organelle, which is mainly
composed of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae. This cell organelle is primarily responsible
for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids to targeted destinations. Golgi Apparatus is found
within the cytoplasm of a cell and is present in both plant and animal cells.
Microbodies are membrane-bound, minute, vesicular organelles, found in both plant and animal cells. They
contain various enzymes and proteins and can be visualized only under the electron microscope.
The cytoskeleton matrix is composed of different types of proteins that can divide rapidly or disassemble
depending on the requirement of the cells. The primary functions include providing the shape and mechanical
resistance to the cell against deformation, the contractile nature of the filaments helps in motility during cytokinesis.
 Cilia are hair-like projections, small structures, present outside the cell wall and work like oars to either move
the cell or the extracellular fluid.
Flagella are slightly bigger and are responsible for the cell movements. The centrosome organelle is made up
of two mutually perpendicular structures known as centrioles. Each centriole is composed of 9 equally spaced
peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein, and the fibril is a set of interlinked triplets. The core part of the centriole is known
as a hub and is proteinaceous.
Vacuoles are mostly defined as storage bubbles of irregular shapes which are found in cells. They are fluid-
filled organelles enclosed by a membrane. The vacuole stores the food or a variety of nutrients that a cell might need
to survive. The animal and plant cells have different size and number of vacuoles. Compared to the animals, plant
cells have larger vacuoles.

Conclusion:

The study of cell organelles reveals the incredible complexity and efficiency of life at the cellular
level. The structure and function of these organelles is essential for comprehending the fundamental processes
that govern all living organisms. From the nucleus, the cell’s control center, to the ribosomes, the protein
factories, each organelle playa a vital role in the cellular life.
Title: Cell Membrane and transport

Introduction:
Cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that regulates the entry and exit of molecules. Diffusion, osmosis and
active transport are some forms of transport seen across the cell membrane. Membrane transport is essential for
cellular life. As cells proceed through their life cycle, a vast amount of exchange is necessary to maintain function.
Transport may involve the incorporation of biological molecules and the discharge of waste products that are
necessary for normal function. Membrane transport is dependent upon the permeability of the membrane,
transmembrane solute concentration, and the size and charge of the solute Solute particles can traverse the membrane
via three mechanisms: passive, facilitated, and active transport. Some of these transport mechanisms require the input
of energy and use of a transmembrane protein, whereas other mechanisms do not incorporate secondary molecules.
Content:
The cell membrane is one of the great multi-taskers of biology. It provides structure for the cell, protects
cytosolic contents from the environment, and allows cells to act as specialized units. A membrane is the cell’s interface
with the rest of the world - it’s gatekeeper, if you will. This phospholipid bilayer determines what molecules can move
into or out of the cell, and so is in large part responsible for maintaining the delicate homeostasis of each cell. Some
cells function best at a pH of 5, while others are better at pH 7. The steroid hormone aldosterone is made in the adrenal
gland, but affects mostly the kidney. Sodium is more than ten times more concentrated outside of cells rather than
inside. There are two major ways that molecules can be moved across a membrane, and the distinction has to do with
whether or not cell energy is used. Passive mechanisms like diffusion use no energy, while active transport requires
energy to get done. Diffusion is the movement of particles down their gradient. A gradient is any imbalance in
concentration, and moving down a gradient just means that the particle is trying to be evenly distributed everywhere,
like dropping food coloring in water. When water undergoes simple diffusion, it is known as osmosis. Sometimes the
body needs to move molecules against their gradient. This is known as moving “uphill”, and requires energy from the
cell - imagine how much easier it is to shake the trail mix together than it would be to then separate all the pieces
again. This is most obvious in the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ ATPase) that helps maintain resting potential in
the cell. This protein uses the energy released from hydrolysis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to pump three sodium
ions out of and two potassium ions into the cell. ATP is an energy molecule, and when hydrolysis happens, it gets
broken down to release the energy that was stored in its chemical bonds. Transport that directly uses ATP for energy is
considered primary active transport. Transport across a cell membrane is a tightly regulated process, because cell
function is highly dependent on maintain strict concentrations of various molecules. When a molecule moves down its
concentration gradient is it participating in passive transport; moving up the concentration gradient requires energy
making it active transport.
Uses
Transport Molecules moved Example transporter/disease
energy?
Simple diffusion Small, nonpolar No Pulmonary edema
Facilitated
diffusion Polar molecules, larger ions No GLUT4 / Diabetes Mellitus Type II
Molecules moving against their
Primary active gradient coupled to the hydrolysis Sodium-potassium pump, proton pump /
transport of ATP Yes atrial fibrillation, acid reflux
Secondary active Molecule going with + molecule
transport going against gradient Yes Sodium-calcium exchanger, SGLT2

Conclusion:
The cell membrane regulates the transport of substance in and out of the cell. Through the process of cellular
transport, the cell membrane controls the movement of molecules to maintain internal balance and support cellular
functions.
Title: Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Introduction:
Photosynthesis is how plants combine light, water, and carbon dioxide to produce energy (glucose) and oxygen. The
glucose powers the plants functions, and the oxygen is released back into the atmosphere. Cellular respiration is how
animals combine glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are
both important biological processes in which oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged within the biosphere.
The process of photosynthesis happens in green plants where they take light, energy, water, and carbon dioxide and
turn it into glucose and oxygen. This process is extremely important to life on Earth as it provides an energy source,
food, and oxygen to living things; without this process, life would not exist. Cellular respiration is the exact opposite
of photosynthesis as it is the process of breaking down food.

Content:
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are the exact opposite of each other. The products of one process are used as
the reactants in the other process. The exchange of gases occurs between living things and the environment and is
essential to life. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and carbon
dioxide. Photosynthesis occurs only in the chloroplasts of a cell. Cellular respiration is the opposite process where
plants and animals break down oxygen and glucose into water, carbon dioxide, and ATP used for energy. Cellular
respiration happens in the mitochondria of both plants and animals. The byproduct from photosynthesis is oxygen and
is directly used in the process of cellular respiration. Also, the byproduct from cellular reparation is carbon dioxide
and is directly used in the process of photosynthesis. The two processes are opposite of each other and allow the
harmonious exchange of the gases to continue throughout the biosphere. The carbon dioxide that is produced by all
living things through cellular respiration is used as a reactant for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis and cellular
respiration are connected through an important relationship. This relationship enables life to survive as we know it.
The products of one process are the reactants of the other. Notice that the equation for cellular respiration is the
direct opposite of photosynthesis:
 Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
 Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2
Photosynthesis makes the glucose that is used in cellular respiration to make ATP. The glucose is then turned back
into carbon dioxide, which is used in photosynthesis. While water is broken down to form oxygen during
photosynthesis, in cellular respiration oxygen is combined with hydrogen to form water. While photosynthesis
requires carbon dioxide and releases oxygen, cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. It is the
released oxygen that is used by us and most other organisms for cellular respiration. We breathe in that oxygen, which
is carried through our blood to all our cells. In our cells, oxygen allows cellular respiration to proceed. Cellular
respiration works best in the presence of oxygen. Without oxygen, much less ATP would be produced. Cellular
respiration and photosynthesis are important parts of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the pathways through
which carbon is recycled in the biosphere. While cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide into the environment,
photosynthesis pulls carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. The exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen during
photosynthesis.

Conclusion:
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are two fundamental processes that are essential for life on Earth.
Photosynthesis captures light energy from the sun and converts it into chemical energy stored in glucose, while
cellular respiration releases this energy to power cellular processes. These processes are intricately linked, forming a
cyclical exchange of energy and matter that sustains all living organisms. Understanding these processes is crucial for
comprehending the complex interactions within ecosystem and the delicate balance of life on our planet.
Title: Cell Division (Mitosis and Meiosis)

Introduction:
Cells need to divide for your body to grow and for body tissue such as skin to continuously renew
itself.. When a cell divides, the outer membrane increasingly pinches inward until the new cells that are
forming separate from each other. This process typically produces two new (daughter) cells from one
(parent) cell. It is the process by which new cells are formed for growth, repair and replacement in the
body. This process includes division of the nuclear material and division of the cytoplasm. All cells in the
body (somatic cells), except those that give rise to the eggs and sperm (gametes), reproduce by mitosis.
Division is the opposite of multiplication. If 3 groups of 4 make 12 in multiplication, 12 divided into 3 equal
groups give 4 in each group in division. The main goal of dividing is to see how many equal groups are
formed or how many are in each group when sharing fairly.

Content:
Cell division occurs as a part of the “cell cycle”. Just like your day has a routine from day to night, cells have
routines of their own. The cell cycle is generally described as consisting of four main phases: G1, S phase, G2 and
mitosis (or meiosis). Cells can also take a break from the grind of the cell cycle, in a state called G0 or senescence
(note that some cells are permanently in G0). External growth factors can stimulate cells in G1 or G0 to proceed
through the rest of the cycle, an example is Nerve Growth Factor (NGF), which promotes neuron growth. The
restriction point is a special “point of no return” in G1 when cells no longer respond to removal of growth factors and
will continue to progress to S phase no matter what. There are also internal signals that tell the cell to progress, these
proteins are called cyclins and the cyclin that promotes mitosis is called cyclin B. S phase is especially important as
this is the point at which the cell’s entire genome is duplicated through the process of semi-conservative DNA
replication.
Mitosis Meiosis
What is the purpose of this process?
In a unicellular organism, the purpose of mitosis is To create gametes with only one copy of the organism’s
to proliferate as a species. In a multicellular genetic information, in preparation for sexual reproduction.
organism, the purpose can be to grow during Various steps in meiosis create opportunity for genetic
development, or to repair or regenerate diversity in the daughter cells. This is the raw substrate for
a damaged tissue, for example. evolution.
What is the outcome of this process?
Two diploid cells with identical genetic information. Four haploid cells with different genetic information.
Which organisms perform this process?
Mitosis is performed by unicellular and multicellular
Only organisms which perform sexual reproduction.
eukaryotes. Bacteria have their own version of
Archaea and bacteria do not do this, so it might be tempting
mitosis called “binary fission”. This is distinct from
to think that unicellular organisms do not sexually
meiosis as bacteria typically have one circular
reproduce. However, there are exceptions; budding yeast
chromosome, which is not contained within a
will form haploid spores under nutritional deprivation.
nucleus, like eukaryotic chromosomes.
How long does this process take?
Mitosis is usually shorter than meiosis. The process Meiosis has various timescales in different organisms,
can take over 10 hours for mammalian cells in which can be affected by several factors including
culture [2], budding yeast can take ~80 minutes to temperature and environment of the organism, and the
complete a cell cycle [3], whilst bacteria can divide amount of nuclear DNA. The process lasts 6 hours in yeast
every 20 minutes. but can last more than 40 years in human females, due to a
developmental hold at prophase I, until ovulation. Other
 examples are 1-2 days in male fruit flies and ~ 24 days in
human males. [1]
What is an example of a disease caused by an error in this process?
Errors in meiosis can lead to the wrong number of
chromosomes ending up in germ cells, this is
Uncontrolled mitosis occurs in cancer, where either
called aneuploidy. This can trigger miscarriage, but is
genes that stop cell division (tumor suppressors) are
occasionally tolerated. One example is Down’s syndrome,
switched off, or genes that encourage cell division
caused by trisomy 21. Another example is Klinefelter
(oncogenes) are overactive.
syndrome, where XY males have an additional X
chromosome.
Etymology?
Mitosis is the Greek word for thread, after the Meiosis means a “lessening” in Greek. This refers to the
thread-like chromosomes that can be seen under the outcome of meiosis, where the genetic information in each
microscope in dye-stained cells during cell division. new cell is halved.
First described by?
Walther Flemming in his 1882 work “Cell substance, Oskar Hertwig described the fusion of egg and sperm in the
nucleus and cell division.” [5] transparent sea urchin egg in 1876. [4]

The stages of mitosis vs. meiosis

The stages of mitosis are interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase, sometimes followed by
cytokinesis. “Interphase” is a blanket term which describes all the stages before mitosis, that is: G1, S and G2 phases.
The stages of meiosis are interphase, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I, cytokinesis I, prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II, and finally cytokinesis II.

Prophase
Chromosomes condense and the centrosomes begin to form an early spindle.
 Meiotic prophase I is much longer that mitotic  Mitotic prophase is much shorter that
prophase. meiotic prophase I.
 During prophase I homologous chromosomes make  There is no crossing over in mitosis.
contacts with each other called chiasmata and
“crossing over” occurs. This is where chromosomes
exchange sections of DNA. This is important for
generating genetic diversity but is also
crucial mechanically to hold homologous
chromosomes together.

Metaphase
In metaphase II of meiosis, and metaphase of mitosis, chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate due to the
action of microtubule spindle fibers emanating from the centrosomes located at opposite cell poles. These fibers
are attached to the chromosomes by kinetochores at the centromeres of the chromosomes.
 In meiotic metaphase I pairs of homologous  In mitotic metaphase a single
chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate. chromosome/ pair of chromatids line up
along the metaphase plate.
 The way in which the homologous pairs are oriented
randomly with respect to the cell poles is referred to  Sister chromatids are identical and so
as the law of independent assortment and ensures a the orientation of the chromosome doesn’t
random and independent distribution of chromosomes carry any meaning.
to the daughter cells of meiosis I and ultimately to the
haploid gametes at the end of meiosis II.

Anaphase
 In anaphase, chromosomes are split to opposite poles of the cell.
 In anaphase of meiosis I cohesin at the centromeres  In anaphase of mitosis (and meiosis
of the chromosomes is not cleaved and it therefore II), cohesin protein holding the
continues to hold sister chromatids together as centromeres of the sister chromatids
the homologous chromosomes are segregated to together is cleaved, allowing the sister
opposite cell poles. chromatids to segregate to opposite poles
of the cell, at which point they are called
chromosomes.

Telophase
A nuclear membrane reforms around the newly separated chromosomes, which begin to uncoil, becoming less
condense. The spindle microtubules disassociate. Each daughter cell will inherit one centrosome.
Cytokinesis
The cell plasma membrane pinches, to leave two daughter cells with separate plasma membranes.
 In meiosis, cytokinesis must occur twice: once after  In mitosis, cytokinesis does not always
telophase I and again, after telophase II. occur, some cells divide and
are multinucleate, like muscle cells.

Conclusion:
Mitosis and meiosis ate essential prosses that ensure the continuity of life. Mitosis provides for growth, repair, and
asexual reproduction, while meiosis generates generic diversity through sexual reproduction. Understanding these
processes is crucial for comprehending the fundamental mechanisms of life, from single – celled organisms to
complex multicellular beings. These processes highlight the intricate interplay of generics, cellular function, and the
evolution of life on Earth.