Ec8491 - CT
Ec8491 - CT
in
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Random variables, Random Process, Stationary Processes, Mean, Correlation & Covariance
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functions, Power Spectral Density, Ergodic Processes, Gaussian Process, Transmission of a Random
Process Through a LTI filter.
UNIT IV NOISE CHARACTERIZATION
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Noise sources – Noise figure, noise temperature and noise bandwidth – Noise in cascaded systems.
Representation of Narrow band noise –In-phase and quadrature, Envelope and Phase – Noise
performance analysis in AM & FM systems – Threshold effect, Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis for
FM.
UNIT V SAMPLING & QUANTIZATION
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Low pass sampling – Aliasing- Signal Reconstruction-Quantization - Uniform & non-uniform
quantization - quantization noise - Logarithmic Companding –PAM, PPM, PWM, PCM – TDM,
FDM.
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TEXT BOOKS:
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REFERENCES:
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1. B.P.Lathi, ―Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems‖, 3rd Edition, Oxford
University Press, 2007.
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ENGINEERING COLLEGES
2016 – 17 Even Semester
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Department of ECE
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SUBJECT CODE: EC 6402
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SUBJECT NAME: COMMUNICATION THEORY
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4
5 REGULATION :2017
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6
YEAR : II
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2. Need and Importance for Study of the Subject
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The student will be able to understand the working of simple communication
systems
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3. Industry Connectivity and Latest Developments
Industry Connectivity:
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The following companies (Industries) are linked to communication systems:
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BSNL, TATA Communications
Latest Developments:
LIFI if fast data transfer in networking.
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New revolution in 5G, 6G in all the smart phones, smart televisions, etc.
Network on chip.
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1. Mr. Parvathinathan V, AP/ECE, SCADCET
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TEXT BOOKS:
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1. J. G. Proakis, M. Salehi, “Fundamentals of Communication Systems”, Pearson
Education 2006.
2. S. Haykin, “Digital Communications”, John Wiley, 2005.
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REFERENCES:
1. B. P. Lathi, “Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems”, 3rd Edition, Oxford
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12 Phase Modulation 1 11 T1
13 Frequency Modulation 1 12 T1
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14 Single tone FM 1 13 T1
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15 Narrow band FM 1 14 T1
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16 Wide band FM 1 15 T1
17 Generation of FM 2 17 T1
18
19
Demodulation of FM
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Transmission Bandwidth of FM
2
1
19
20
T1
T1
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20 Review of probability, random 1 21 T1
process
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25 Ergodic Processes 1 26 T1
26 Gaussian Process 1 27 T1
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Channel Capacity
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37 Hartley - Shannon law 1 41 T2
38 Source coding 2 43 T2
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theorem
39 Huffman coding 2 45 T2
40 Shannon - Fano codes
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INDEX
TABLE OF CONTENT
S. TITLE PAGE NO.
NO.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
PART A 1
PART B
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1 Super heterodyne Receiver 3
2 DSBSC 6
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3 Amplitude Modulation 9
4 Envelope Detector 11
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5 Filter and phase shift method 12
6 Weaver method 14
7 Comparison of AM 14
11 PART A 19
PART B
12 Comparison of NBFM & WBFM 21
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18 Comparison of AM and FM 31
19 Problems 32
20 Single tone FM 33
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3. RANDOM PROCESS
21 PART A 36
PART B
22 Differentiate SSS with WSS 37
23 Ergodicity Principle 39
24 Power spectral density 41
25 Central limit theorem 43
26 Covariance and auto correlation function 44
PART C
27 Problems 47
4. NOISE CHARACTERIZATION
28 PART A 51
PART B
29 Noises 52
30 Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis 56
31 NB Noise 58
32 Figure of merit of FM system 64
33 Noise performance of AM receiver using envelope detection 71
PART C
34 Problems 75
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5. INFORMATION THEORY
35 77
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PART A
PART B
36 Shannon laws 78
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37 Rate distortion theory 79
38 Huffman Theory 81
39 Mutual Information 83
40 Problem
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85
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41 Problems 93
Previous Year Question Papers 97
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PART A
2. What is the need for modulation and what are the degrees of modulation? (or)
What are the advantages of converting low frequency signal in to high
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frequency signal? (
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MAY/JUNE 2013)
Needs for modulation:
Ease of transmission
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Multiplexing
Reduced noise
Narrow bandwidth
Frequency assignment
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Reduce the equipments limitations
Degrees of modulation
Under modulation, m<1
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translated to an intermediate frequency ωIF, which is equal to either the sum or the
difference of ωRF and ωIF.
4. What are the advantages of converting low frequency signal in to high
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Multiplexing is possible
Improves quality of reception
S.
No AM signal DSB-SC SSB-SC
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Power required is less er required is less
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3 More Power is required for than than
Transmission that of AM. AM &DSB-SC
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8. Define Demodulation.
Demodulation or detection is the process by which modulating voltage is
recovered from the modulated signal. It is the reverse process of modulation. The
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devices used for demodulation or detection are called demodulators or detectors. For
amplitude modulation, detectors or demodulators are categorized as,
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Square-law detectors
Envelope detectors
It has bandwidth greater than SSB but less than DSB system.
Power transmission greater than DSB but less than SSB system.
No low frequency component lost. Hence it avoids phase distortion.
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After modulation, the process of transmitting the sidebands (USB, LSB) alone
and suppressing the carrier is called as Double Side Band-Suppressed Carrier.
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VSB is used for TV transmission, since low frequencies near f c represents picture
details. They are unaffected by VSB.
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Depth of modulation:
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Therefore,
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=1.125-1
=0.125
ma2=0.125X2
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=0.250
ma=0.50
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15. Suggest a modulation scheme for the broadcast video transmission and
justify.
(NOV/DEC 2016)
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Vestigial Sideband modulation (VSB) is used for video transmission for the
following reasons:
1. Video signal exhibits a large bandwidth and significant low-frequency content
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cheap.
PART-B
Amplification, which is intended to compensate for the loss of signal power incurred in
the course of transmission.
R.F Section
The incoming amplitude modulated wave is picked up by the receiving antenna and is
fed to the RF section. The RF section consists of a pre selector and an RF Amplifier.
The pre selector is a band pass filter with an adjustable centre frequency that is tuned
to the desired carrier frequency of the incoming signal. The main use of the preselected
is to provide sufficient band limiting to prevent undesired ratio in frequency signal or
image signal. The effectiveness of suppressing unwanted image signals increases as
the number of selective stages in the RF section increases and as the ratio of
intermediate to signal frequency increases. R.F amplifiers are used for better
selectivity.
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Frequency Changer
The combination of mixer and local oscillator provides a heterodyning function
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frequency of the incoming RF signal. Since the output of the frequency his neither the
original input frequency not the final baseband frequency, it is called as intermediate
frequency. Sometimes the frequency changer circuits are referred to as the first
detector, in which case the demodulator i s called as second detector.
IF Section
The IF section consists of one or more stages of turned amplification
with a
bandwidth corresponding to that required for the particular type of modulation that the
receiver intended to handle. The IF section provides most of the amplification purpose
of which is to recover the baseband or message signal.
If coherent detection is used, then a coherent signal source must be provided
in the receiver.
Audio Amplifiers
The final stage of the super heterodyne receiver consists of one or more audio
amplifiers which is used for the power amplification of the recovered message signal.
Amplitude Limiter
The basic difference between AM and FM super heterodyne receiver lies in the
use of an FM Demodulator such as limiter frequency discriminator. In FM system
the message signal is transmitted by the instantaneous value of carrier signal & its
amplitude remain constant. Therefore any variation of the carriers amplitude at the
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receiver input must result from noise or interference. An amplitude limiter following the
IF section is used to remove amplitude variations by clipping the modulated wave is
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rounded by a band pass filter that suppresses harmonics of the carrier frequency. Thus
the filter output is again sinusoidal, with an amplitude that in practically independent of
the carrier amplitude of the receiver input. The Fig shows basic block diagram of FM
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super heterodyne receiver.
Selectivity
The selectivity is the ability of the receiver to select a signal of a desired
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frequency while rejecting all others. The selectivity of the receiver is obtained partially
by RF amplifier and mainly by IF amplifiers. The selectivity shows the attenuation that
the receiver offers to signals at frequencies near to the one to which it is tuned. Fig.
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shows the typical selectivity curve of the receiver. The selectivity depends upon tuned
LC circuits used in RF and IF stages, fr is the resonating (tuned) frequency and Q is
quality factor of these LC Circuits, As shown in Fig. bandwidth should be narrow for
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Sensitivity
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The ability of the receiver to pick up weak signals and simplify them is called
sensitivity. It is often defined in terms of the voltage that must be applied to the receiver
input terminals to give the standard output power, measured at the output terminals.
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Fidelity
Fidelity is a measure of the ability of a communication system to produce at the
output of the receiver, an exact replica of the original source information. This may also
be defined as the degree to which the system accurately reproduces at the output, the
essential characteristics of signals that are impressed upon the input.
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The image rejection should be done before the RF stage.
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2.With The Help Of Neat Diagram Explain The Generation Of DSB-SC Using
Balanced Modulator And Ring Modulator. (Nov/Dec 2010, MAY/JUNE
2016,NOV/DEC 2016)
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In DSB – SC, the transmitted wave consists of only upper and lower sidebands.
Transmitted power is saved here through the suppression of the carrier wave because
it does not contain any useful information, but the channel bandwidth required is the
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same as before.
Expression for DSB –SC:
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Let the modulating signal,
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Comparing equation (1.57) and (1.58) the carrier terms Vc sin ωct is missing and only
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In this fig, the carrier term fc is suppressed. It contains only two sideband terms having
the frequency of (fc – fm) and (fc + fm).
Generation of DSB – SC – AM
There are two ways of generating DSB – SC – AM such as ,
(i) Balanced modulator,
(ii) Ring modulator.
Balanced Modulator
The circuit that is very commonly used for DSB – SC generation.
In balanced modulator, two non-linear devices are connected in the balanced mode, so
as to suppress the carrier wave. It is assumed that the two transistors are identical and
the circuit is symmetrical. Since the operation is confined in non-linear region of its
transfer characteristics.
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The and
opposite in phase,
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i.e., Vm = V'm
The one of the most popular method of generating a DSB – SC wave is ring modulator.
The circuit employs diodes as non-linear devices and the carrier signal is
connected between centre taps of the input and output transformers.
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There is no need for a band pass filter at the output. The four diodes are controlled by a
carrier Vc(t) of frequency fc
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The carrier signal acts as a switching signal to alternate the polarity of the
modulating signals at the carrier frequency. For better understanding of the operation,
assume that the modulating input is zero. Only carrier signal is present.
Diodes D1 and D2 are form ward biased. AT this time D3 and D4 are reverse
biased and act like open circuits. The current divides equally in the upper and lower
portions of the primary winding of T12 .
The current in the upper part of the winding produces a magnetic field that is
equal and opposite to the magnetic field produced by the current in the lower half of the
secondary. Therefore, these magnetic fields cancel each other out and no output is
induced in the secondary. Thus the carrier is effectively suppressed.
When the polarity of the carrier reverses. Diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased
and diodes D3 and D4 conduct. Again the current flows in the secondary winding of Tr1
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and the primary winding of Tr2.
The equal and opposite magnetic fields produced in Tr2 cancel each other out
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and thus result in zero carrier output. The carrier is effectively balanced out.
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Principle of Operation:
When both the carrier and the modulating signals are present, during positive
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half cycle of the carrier, diodes D1 and D2 conduct, while diodes D3 and D4 does not
conduct.
During negative half cycle of the carrier voltage diodes D3 and D4 conduct and
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Phase Reversal
When polarity of the modulating signal changes, the result is a 180 phase
reversal.
At the time, during the positive half cycle of the carrier, diodes D3 and D4 are in
forward bias and the negative half cycle of the carrier, diodes D1 and D2 are in reverse
bias. Consider the modulating signal Vm (t) and carrier signal Vc (t) , such that,
The equation (1.76) shows that the output is free from the carrier and other
higher order terms, and it contains upper and lower sidebands only.
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The ring modulator circuit is also known as double balanced modulator because
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comparing to balanced modulator here two more diodes are used.
Advantages:
1. DSB –SC is more efficient in transmitted power as compared to DSBFC .
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2. DSB –SC has better signal to noise ratio as compared to single side band (SSB)
transmission. ee
Disadvantage:
Even though the carrier is suppressed the bandwidth of DSBSC remains same
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as DSBFC.
Amplitude modulation:
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Consider a non linear device to which a carrier c(t)= A cos(2Π fct) and an information
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signal m(t) are fed simultaneously as shown in figure1. The total input to the device at
any instant is
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As the level of the input is small very small, the output can be considered up to square of the
input
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Therefore the square law device output Vo consists of the dc component at f=0
The information signal ranging from 0 to W Hz and its second harmonics
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lower cutoff frequency ranging between 2W and (fc - W) and upper cut-off
frequency between (fc+W) and 2fc Therefore the filter output is
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The output AM signal is free from distortion and attenuation only when(f c-W)2W or
fc<3W
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The most commonly used AM detector is simple diode detector as the shown in
Fig. The AM signal at fixed IF is applied to the transformer primary. The signal at
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secondary is half wave rectified by diode D. This diode is the detector diode. The
resistance R is load resistance to rectifier and C is the filter capacitor. In the positive
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half cycle of AM signal diode conducts and currents flows through R, whereas in
negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and no current flows. Therefore only
positive half of the AM wave appears across resistance R as shown in figure. The
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capacitor across capital R provides low impedance at the carrier frequency and much
higher impedance at the modulating frequency. Therefore capacitor reconstructs the
original modulating signal as shown in figure and high frequency carrier is removed.
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This is the distortion that occurs in the output of diode detector because of
unequal ac and dc load impedances of the diode. The modulation index is
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defined as Em /Ec.
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remain purely resistive. It does have reactive component also. At high modulation
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depths, the current changes so fast that the time constant of the load does not follow
the changes. Hence the current decays slowly as shown in fig. The output voltage
follows the discharge law of RC circuit. This introduces distortion in the detected signal
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and it is called diagonal peak clipping.
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4.(i) Explain The Filter Method And Phase Shift Method To Produce SSB.
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signal contains both the sideband. The filter must have a flat pass band and extremely
high attenuation outside the pass band. In order to have this type of response the Q of
the tuned circuits must be very high. The required value of Q factor increases as the
difference between modulating frequency and carrier frequency increases. Carrier
frequency is usually same as the transmitter frequency increases. Carrier frequency is
usually same as the transmitter frequency. For higher transmitting frequencies them
required value of Q is so high that there is no practical way of achieving it. In such
situation, initial modulation is carried out at a low frequency carrier say 100 kHz by the
balanced modulator. Then the filter suppresses one of the sidebands. The frequency of
the SSB signal generated at output of filter is very low as compared to the transmitter
frequency. The frequency is boosted up to the transmitter frequency by the balanced
mixer and crystal oscillator. This process of frequency booting is also called as up
conversion. The SSB signal having frequency equal to the transmitter frequency is then
amplified by the linear amplifiers.
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also directly applied to the balanced modulator M2. The modulating signal is phase shifted
by 90 and applied to balanced modulator M2. Both the modulators produce an output
consisting of only sidebands. The upper balanced modulator (M1 ) generates upper
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sideband and lower sideband, but upper sideband is shifted by +90 whereas lower
sideband is shifted by -90.The output of balanced modulators are added by the summing
amplifier. Since upper sidebands of both the modulators are phase shifted by +900, they
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are in phase and add to produce double amplitude signal. But lower sideband of the
balanced modulator s are (+90 , -90 ) 180 out of phase and hence cancel each other.
Thus the output of summing amplifier contains only upper sideband SSB signal. The carrier
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Fig.12 Block diagram of weaver's method
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5. Write The Comparison Of Amplitude Modulation Systems.(MAY/JUNE 2012)
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on AM
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Power
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Power
Saving for 33.33% 50% 75% 75%
non -
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Sinusoidal
Generation More difficult Difficult. But
methods Easier to generate Not difficult to easier to generate
generate than SSB-SC
Detection Simple
methods & Difficult More difficult Difficult
Inexpensive
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PART C
Hilbert Transform
If every frequency components of a signal f(t) is shifted by (-π/2) the resultant signal fh
(t) is the Hilbert transform of f(t).
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Fig.13 phase shifting system
A signal f(t) is passed through a phase shift system H(ω) and the output fh (t) shown in
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fig.
The characteristics of the of the system specified as follows:
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i)
The magnitude frequency components present in f(t) remains unchanged when it is
passed through the system that is H(ω) = 1 and
ii) The
phase of the positive frequency components if shifted by -π/2 . Since the phase
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spectrum (ω) has an odd symmetry, the phase of the negative frequency components
is shifted by π/2. H(ω) and (ω) are plotted in Fig by continuous and dotted lines
respectively.
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4. A signal f(t) and its Hilbert transform fh(t) are mutually orthogonal over the time
interval (-∞,∞) that is
5. A signal f(t) and its Hilbert transform fh(t) have the same auto correlation function.
Some useful Hilbert transform.
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2. With suitable block diagrams and equations show how will you
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generate VSB signals (NOV/DEC 2013)
VSB signals are relatively easy to generate and their bandwidth is VSB signals
are relatively easy to generate and their bandwidth is only slightly (typically 25 percent)
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The roll-off characteristic of the filter is such that the partial suppression of the
transmitted sideband in the neighborhood of the carrier is exactly compensated for by
the partial transmission of the carrier is exactly compensated for by the partial
transmission of the corresponding part of the suppressed sideband.
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Fig. 15 Filtering scheme of the generation of VSB modulated wave
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PART A
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Modulation index of frequency modulation.
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It is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation to the modulating
β = δf/fm
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Phase modulation:
Phase modulation is defined as the process of changing the phase of the carrier
signal in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
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3. What are the types of Frequency Modulation?
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Based on the modulation index FM can be divided into types. They are Narrow
band FM and Wide band FM. If the modulation index is greater than one then it is wide
band FM and if the modulation index is less than one then it is Narrow band FM
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and a narrowband FM signal is that the algebraic sign of the lower side frequency in
the narrow band FM is reversed.
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NBFM
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ii) Indirect method: In this method the transmitter originates a wave whose phase is a
function of the modulation. Normally it is used for the generation of WBFM where
WBFM is generated from NBFM.
6. Compare WBFM and NBFM. (APRIL/MAY 2011,2015) (NOV/DEC-2013)
S.NO WBFM NBFM
1 Modulation index is greater than 1 Modulation index less
than 1
2 Frequency deviation 75 KHz Frequency deviation 5
KHz
3 Bandwidth 15 times NBFM Bandwidth 2fm
4 Noise is more suppressed Less suppression of noise
5 Used in broadcasting Used in mobile
communication
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The crystal-controlled oscillator always produces a constant carrier frequency
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thereby enhancing frequency stability.
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First the frequency-modulated signals are converted into corresponding
amplitude-modulated signal using frequency dependent circuits. Then the original
signal is recovered from this AM signal.
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11.What are the disadvantages of balanced slope detector?
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Amplitude limiting cannot be provided
Linearity is not sufficient
It is difficult to align because of three different frequency to which various tuned
circuits to be tuned.
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The tuned circuit is not purely band limited.
12. What are the applications of phase locked loop (PLL)? (NOV/DEC 2013)
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WBFM signals.
(iii) PLL is also used in FM demodulators.
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1 Phase of the carrier varies as per Frequency of the carrier varies as per
amplitude variations of modulating amplitude variations of modulating
signal. signals.
2 Instantaneous phase deviation, Instantaneous frequency deviation,
ϕ(t ) = k Em(t ) ∆ (t ) = k Em(t )
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PART B
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Write The Comparison Of Wideband And Narrowband FM (NOV/DEC 2011,
1.
MAY/JUNE 2013 )
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SI. Parameter Wideband Narrowband FM
No Characteristics FM
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1. Modulation index Greater than Less than (or) slightly
1 greater than 1
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2. Maximum 75 KHz 5 KHz
deviation
3. Range of 30 Hz to 15 30 Hz to 3 KHz
KHz
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modulating
Frequency
4. Bandwidth Large, about 15 times higher Small. Approximately same
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De-emphasis
7. Noise Noise is more suppressed Less suppressing of noise
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Direct FM
Direct FM can be obtained by using FET and varactor diode. These methods
are discussed next.
(i).FET Reactance Modulator
Fig shows the basic circuit of FET reactance modulator. It behaves as
reactance across terminals A-B. The terminals A-B of the circuit may be connected
across the tuned circuit of the oscillator to get FM output. The varying voltage
(modulating voltage) V, across terminals A-B changes reactance of the FET. This
change in reactance can be inductive or capacitive.
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Fig.1 FET reactance modulator
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(ii).Frequency Modulation using varactor Diode
All the diodes exhibit small junction capacitance in the reverse biased condition.
The varactor diodes are specially designed to optimize this characteristic. The junction
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capacitance of the varactor diode changes as the reverse bias across it is varied. The
variations in capacitance of this diode are wide and linear. The varactor diodes provide
the junction capacitance in the range of 1 to 200 pF. Fig shows how varactor diode
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can be used to generate FM. L1 and C1 form the tank circuit of the carrier oscillator.
The capacitance of the varactor diode depends upon the fixed bias set by R1 and R2
and the AF modulating signal. Either R1 or Rs is made variable so that the center
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carrier frequency can be adjusted over a narrow range. The Radio Frequency Choke
(RFC) has high reactance at the carrier frequency to prevent the carrier signal from
getting into the modulating signal circuits. At positive going modulating signal adds to
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the reverse bias applied to the varactor diode D, which decreases its capacitance and
increases the carrier frequency. A negative going modulating signal subtracts from
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The frequency of the LC oscillator changes due to temperature effects. Hence crystals
are used in FM generators to provide frequency stability.
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Fig.3 Block diagram of Armstrong method for generating wideband FM signal
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Advantages:
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The FM receivers also super heterodyne receivers. But they have different
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Fig.5 shows the circuit of balanced slope detector. It consist of two identical
circuit connected back to back . The FM signal is applied to the turned LC circuit. Two
turned LC circuits are connected in series . The inductance of this secondary turned
LC circuit is coupled with inductance of the primary (or input side) LC circuit . Thus it
forms a turned transformer. In fig., the upper turned circuit is shown as T1 and lower
turned circuit is shown as T2. The input side LC circuit is turned to fc, carrier
frequency. T1 tuned to fc- , which represents the minimum frequency of FM signal.
The input FM signal is coupled to T1 and T2 180 out of phase. The secondary side
tuned circuits (T1 and T2) are connected to diodes D1 and D2 with RC loads. The total
output is equal to difference between and , since they subtract Fig. shows
the characteristic of the balanced slope detector. It shows with respect to input
frequency.
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Frequency Discriminator
Fig.shows the block diagram of a frequency discriminator which is based on the
principle of slope detection.
There are two slope circuits in Fig. Their transfer functions are as follows:
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4.(ii) With The Phasor Representation Explain The Foster Seeley Discriminator
And Ratio Detector. (APRIL/MAY 2015,MAY/JUN 2016, NOV/DEC 2016)
Foster-Seeley Discriminator (Phase Discriminator)
The phase shift between the primary and secondary voltages of the tuned transformer
is a
function of frequency. It can be shown that the secondary voltage lags primary voltage by
90 degree at the carrier center frequency. The carrier frequency ) is the resonance
(or tuned) frequency of the transformer. Foster-Seeley discriminator utilizes this
principle for FM detection. Fig shows the circuit diagram of basic Foster-Seeley
discriminator. In the figure observe that capacitor C3 passes all the frequencies of FM.
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the net output depends upon the difference between magnitudes of VD1and VD2 .
At the centre frequency both VD1and VD2 will be equal, since V2 will have 90
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phase shift with V1. Fig.shows how VD1and VD2 are generated from V1 and V2. It
shows that |VD1|=|VD2|. Hence the net output of the discriminator will be zero. Now
consider the situation when input frequency increases above fc. Hence the phase shift
between V1 and V2 reduces. Therefore |VD1| is greater than |VD2|. This is shown by
vector addition in Fig.. Hence the net output V0=V01-V02 will be positive. Thus the
increase in frequency increases output voltage. Now consider the situation when
frequency reduces below fc. This makes |VD1| less than |VD2|.
This is shown is Fig.8 Hence the output V0=V01-V02 will be negative. Thus the
Foster- Seeley discriminator produces output depending upon the phase shift, The
linearity of the output depends upon the linearity between frequency and induced
phase shift. The characteristic of the Foster-Seeley discriminator (i.e. S-curve) is
similar to that shown in Fig.8 with more linearity in the operation. Phase shift between
V1 and V2.
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Ratio Detector:
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Fig. 9 Ratio Detector
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Advantages:
1) As compared to Foster – Seeley circuit, this circuit does not respond to amplitude
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variations.
2) The output is bipolar (i.e., positive as well as negative).
Disadvantages:
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1) Ratio detector does not tolerate variation in signal strength over performed period.
2) It requires an ACC signal.
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PART C
AM FM
Stands for AM stands for Amplitude FM stands for Frequency Modulation
Modulation
Origin AM method of audio transmission FM radio was developed in the
was first successfully carried out in United states in the 1930s, mainly
the mid 1870s. by Edwin Armstrong.
Modulating differences In AM, a radio wave known as the In FM, a radio wave known as the
"carrier" or "carrier wave" is "carrier" or "carrier wave" is
modulated in amplitude by the modulated in frequency by the signal
signal that is to be transmitted. The that is to be transmitted. The
frequency and phase remain the amplitude and phase remain the
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same. same.
g.i
Pros and cons AM has poorer sound quality FM is less prone to interference than
compared with FM, but is cheaper AM. However, FM signals are
and can be transmitted over long impacted by physical barriers. FM
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distances. It has a lower bandwidth has better sound quality due to
so it can have more stations higher bandwidth.
available in any frequency range.
Frequency Range AM radio ranges from 535 to 1705 FM radio ranges in a higher
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KHz (OR) Up to 1200 bits per spectrum from 88 to 108 MHz. (OR)
second. 1200 to 2400 bits per second.
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Bandwidth Requirements Twice the highest modulating Twice the sum of the modulating
frequency. In AM radio signal frequency and the frequency
broadcasting, the modulating deviation. If the frequency deviation
signal has bandwidth of 15kHz, is 75kHz and the modulating signal
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Complexity Transmitter and receiver are Transmitter and receiver are more
simple but syncronization is complex as variation of modulating
needed in case of SSBSC AM signal has to beconverted and
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For the single tone frequency modulation,i.e the modulating signal x(t) be a
sinusoidal signal of amplitude Em and frequency fm .
Therefore, x(t) = Em cos (2πfmt) The unmodulated carrier is represented by the
expression :ec = Ec sin (ωct + φ).
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In FM, the frequency f of the FM wave varies in accordance with the modulating
voltage .
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Thus,
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As shown in fig.10, Ec sin Θ(t) is a rotating vector . If Ec is rotating at a constant
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The modulation index is very important in FM because it decides the bandwidth of the
FM wave which we will discuss later . The modulation index also decides the number
of sidebands having significant amplitudes .
In AM, the maximum value of the modulation index m is 1 . But, for FM, the modulation
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index can be greater than 1.
g.i
Deviation Ratio
In FM broadcasting, the maximum value of deviation is limited to 75 kHz. The
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maximum modulating frequency is also limited to 15 kHz.
The modulation index corresponding to the maximum deviation and maximum
modulating frequency is called as the deviation ratio .
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PART A
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associated with each of its possible values. It is also sometimes called the probability
g.i
function or the probability mass function.
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The mean of the population of means is always equal to the mean of the
parent population from which the population samples were drawn.
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The standard deviation of the population of means is always equal to the
standard deviation of the parent population divided by the square root of the
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sample size (N).
The distribution of means will increasingly approximate a normal distribution
as the size N of samples increases.
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does not change when shifted in time. Consequently, parameters such as the
mean and variance, if they are present, also do not change over time and do not
follow any trends.
.Le
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10. What are the properties of a autocorrelation function?
g.i
Autocorrelation function of a stationary random process X(t) is defined as,
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(i).The mean square value of the process may be obtained from R x(τ) by simply
putting τ=0 in the above equation
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2
Rx(0)=E [X (t)]
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From this property we can redefine auto correlation function like this.
Rx(τ)= E[X(t) . X(t-τ)
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The central limit theorem states that the sampling distribution of the mean of
any independent random variable will be normal or nearly normal, if the sample size
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is large enough.
PART-B
1.Differentiate The Strict-Sense Stationary With That Of Wide Stationary
Process. (APR/MAY 2015,MAY/JUN 2016)
In mathematics and statistics, a stationary process or strict stationary process
or strong stationary process) is a stochastic process whose joint probability
distribution does not change when shifted in time. Consequently, parameters such as
the mean and variance, if they are present, also do not change over time and do not
follow any trends.
Stationarity is used as a tool in time series analysis, where the raw data is
often transformed to become stationary; for example, economic data are often
seasonal and/or dependent on a non stationary price level. An important type of non-
stationary process that does not include a trend like behavior is the cyclo-stationary
process.
A "stationary process" is not the same thing as a "process with a distribution”.
Indeed, there are further possibilities for confusion with the use of "stationary" in the
context of stochastic processes; for example a "time-homogeneous" Markov chain is
sometimes said to have "stationary transition probabilities". Besides, all stationary
Markov random processes are time-homogeneous.
Strict-sense Stationary Process
n
F
X ( t ), X ( t )..., X ( t ) 1 2 n X ( t t ), X ( t t )..., X ( t t )0 (x1 , x2 ..., xn )
g.i
1 2 n 1 0 2 0 n
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Thus the joint distribution functions of any set of random variables
X ( t1 ), X ( t 2 ), ..., X ( tn ) does not depend on the placement of the origin of the time axis. This
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requirement is a very strict. Less strict form of stationarity may be defined.
Particularly,
F (x , x (x , x
if 2 .....xn ) FX ( t t ), X ( t t )..... X ( t t ) 2 .....xn ) for n 1,2,.., k, then
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X ( t ), X ( t )..... X ( t ) 1 1
12 n 1 0 2 0 n 0
If X (t ) is stationary up to order 2
F (x , x .) F (x , x )
X (t1 ), X (t2 ) 1 2 X (t1 t0 ), X (t2 t0 ) 1 2
Put t0 t2
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F (x , x ) F (x , x )
X ( t1 ), X ( t 2 ) 1 2 X ( t1 t 2 ), X (0) 1 2
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This implies that the second-order distribution depends only on the time-lag t1 t2 .
As a consequence, for such a process
R X (t1 , t 2 ) E ( X (t1 ) X (t2 ))
= R X (t1 t2 )
Similarly,
C X (t1 , t 2 )= CX (t1 t2 )
Therefore, the autocorrelation function of a SSS process depends only on the time lag t1 t2 .
We can also define the joint stationary of two random processes. Two processes X (t ) and
Y (t) are called jointly strict-sense stationary if their joint probability distributions of any
Z (t ) X (t )
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2. Explain in detail about Ergodicity Principle
g.i
If the time averages converge to the corresponding ensemble averages in the
probabilistic sense, then a time-average computed from a large realization can be
used as the value for the corresponding ensemble average. Such a principle is the
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ergodicity principle to be discussed below:
Mean ergodic process
Thus for a mean ergodic process X (t),
ee
lim E X T X
T
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and
lim var X T 0
T
We have earlier shown that
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E
X T X
and
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2T
var X T
C X ( ) 1
1
d
2T 2T 2T
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lim 1 2T C ( ) 1 d 0
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T X
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2T 2T 2T
C X ( ) d
2T
Example
Consider the random binary waveform{ X ( t)} discussed in Example .The process
has the auto-covariance function for Tp given by
1 Tp
CX ( ) Tp
0
otherwise
Here
2T 2T
C X ( ) d 2 C X ( ) d
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2 T 0
g.i
Tp
2 1 d
0 Tp
T3 T2
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2T p p
p 2 T
3T p p
ee
2Tp
3
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C X ( ) d
Hence { X ( t)}is not mean ergodic.
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Autocorrelation ergodicity
R ( ) 1 T X (t ) X (t )dt
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X T
2T
T
If we consider Z (t ) X (t ) X (t ) so that, Z RX ( )
Then { X ( t)} will be autocorrelation ergodic if {Z (t)} is mean ergodic.
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lim 1 1 1 C ()d 0
2T
T Z 1 1
w
2T 2T 2T
where
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CZ ( 1 ) EZ (t )Z (t 1 ) EZ (t )EZ (t 1 )
EX (t ) X (t ) X (t ) X (t 1 ) RX ( )
2
Involves fourth order moment.
Hence the condition for autocorrelation ergodicity of a jointly Gaussian process is
found. Thus X (t) will be autocorrelation ergodic if
lim 1 1 C ( )d 0
2T
T z
2T 2T 2T
Now C ( ) EZ (t )Z (t ) R2 ()
Z X
Hence, X (t) will be autocorrelation ergodic
1 Ez (t )z (t ) R2 ( ) d 0
1 2T
If lim
T X
2T 2T 2T
3.Derive The Equation For Finding The Power Spectral Density Of A One To
One Differential Function Of A Given Random Variable. (NOV/DEC 2013)
Consider a random process Z ( t ) which is sum of two real jointly WSS random
processes
X(t) and Y(t).
RZ ( ) R X ( ) RY ( ) R XY ( ) RYX ( )
If we take the Fourier transform of both sides,
S Z ( ) S X ( ) SY ( ) FT ( RXY ( )) FT ( RYX ( ))
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where FT (.) stands for the Fourier transform.
g.i
Thus we see that SZ () includes contribution from the Fourier transform of the cross-
correlation functions RXY ( ) and RYX ( ). These Fourier transforms represent cross power
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spectral densities.
T 2T
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whereFTX T ( ) and FTYT () are the Fourier transform of the truncated processes
X (t) X(t)rect( t ) and Y (t) Y(t)rect( t ) respectively and denotes the complex
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T T
2T 2T
conjugate operation.
S FTY ( ) FTX T ()
YX () lim E T
2TT
j
S XY ( ) R XY ( ) e d
and
j
SYX ( ) RYX ( ) e d
The cross-correlation function and the cross-power spectral density form a
Fourier transform pair and we can write
j
R XY ( ) S XY ( ) e d
and
j
RYX ( ) SYX ( ) e d
The PSD is a complex function of the frequency . Some properties of the CPSD of
two jointly WSS processes X(t) and Y(t) are listed below:
(1) S XY ( ) SYX* ()
Note that R XY ( ) RYX ( )
j
S XY ( ) R XY ( ) e d
j
RYX ( ) e d
j
RYX ( ) e d
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*
= S ()
g.i
YX
(2) Re( SXY ()) is an even function of and Im( SXY ()) is an odd function of
We have
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S XY ( ) R XY ( )(cos j sin ) d
R XY ( ) cos d j R XY ( )sin ) d
ee
where
Re(S XY ( )) R XY ( ) cos d is an even function of and
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Im(S XY ( )) R XY ( )sin d is an odd function of and
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(3) X(t) and Y(t) are uncorrelated and have constant means, then
S XY ( ) SYX ( ) X Y ()
Observe that
R XY ( ) EX (t )Y (t)
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EX (t )EY (t)
XY
YX
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RXY ( )
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S XY ( ) SYX ( ) X Y ()
(4) If X(t) and Y(t) are orthogonal, then
S XY ( ) SYX () 0
If X(t) and Y(t) are orthogonal,
R XY ( ) EX (t )Y (t)
0
RXY ( )
S XY ( ) SYX () 0
(5) The cross power PXY between X(t) and Y(t) is defined by
T
P 1
XY lim E X (t )Y (t )dt
T 2T T
T 2T 2
1 EFTX * ( ) FTY ()
lim T T d
2 T 2T
1
S XY ( ) d
2
P
1
S XY ( ) d
n
XY
2
g.i
Similarly,
1
P
YX SYX ( ) d
2
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1
S * ( ) d
2 XY
ee
PXY*
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4. Explain Central limit theorem and its Convergence to the limit.
In probability theory, the central limit theorem states that, given certain
conditions, the arithmetic mean of a sufficiently large number of iterates of
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independent random variables, each with a well-defined expected value and well-
defined variance, will be approximately normally distributed, regardless of the
underlying distribution.
arn
A simple example of this is that if one flips coin many times, the probability of
getting a given number of heads should follow a normal curve, with mean equal to
half the total number of flips.
It is used to define a sum of many independent and identically distributed
.Le
In contrast, the sum of a number of random variables with power law tail
−α−1
distributions decreasing as |x| where 0 < α < 2 (and therefore having infinite
ww
variance) will tend to an alpha-stable distribution with stability parameter (or index of
stability) of α as the number of variables grows.
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The central limit theorem applies in particular to sums of independent and
g.i
identically distributed discrete random variables. A sum of discrete random variables
is still a discrete random variable, so that we are confronted with a sequence of
discrete random variables whose cumulative probability distribution function
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converges towards a cumulative probability distribution function corresponding to a
continuous variable (namely that of the normal distribution). This means that if we
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build a histogram of the realizations of the sum of n independent identical discrete
variables, the curve that joins the centers of the upper faces of the rectangles
forming the histogram converges toward a Gaussian curve as n approaches infinity,
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COVARIANCE FUNCTIONS:
variables change together, and the covariance function, or kernel, describes the
spatial covariance of a random variable process or field. For a random field or
stochastic process Z(x) on a domain D, a covariance function C(x, y) gives the
w
covariance of the values of the random field at the two locations x and y:
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The same C(x, y) is called the auto covariance function in two instances: in
time series (to denote exactly the same concept except that x and y refer to locations
in time rather than in space), and in multivariate random fields (to refer to the
covariance of a variable with itself, as opposed to the cross covariance between two
different variables at different locations, Cov(Z(x1), Y(x2))).
n
A function is a valid covariance function if and only if this variance is non-
g.i
negative for all possible choices of N and weights w1, …, wN. A function with this
property is called positive definite.
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5. (ii).Write Short Notes On Auto Correlation Function.
ee
In statistics, dependence is any statistical relationship between two random
variables or two sets of data. Correlation refers to any of a broad class of statistical
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relationships involving dependence. Familiar examples of dependent phenomena
include the correlation between the physical statures of parents and their offspring,
and the correlation between the demand for a product and its price. Correlations are
En
useful because they can indicate a predictive relationship that can be exploited in
practice.
arn
For example, an electrical utility may produce less power on a mild day based
on the correlation between electricity demand and weather. In this example there is a
causal relationship, because extreme weather causes people to use more electricity
.Le
from independence, but technically it refers to any of several more specialized types
of relationship between mean values. There are several correlation coefficients,
often denoted ρ or r, measuring the degree of correlation.
where E is the expected value operator, cov means covariance, and, corr a
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widely used alternative notation for the correlation coefficient. The Pearson
g.i
correlation is defined only if both of the standard deviations are finite and nonzero. It
is a corollary of the Cauchy– Schwarz inequality that the correlation cannot exceed 1
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in absolute value. The correlation coefficient is symmetric: corr(X,Y) = corr(Y,X). The
Pearson correlation is +1 in the case of a perfect direct (increasing) linear
relationship (correlation), −1 in the case of a perfect decreasing (inverse) linear
ee
relationship (autocorrelation), and some value between −1 and 1 in all other cases,
indicating the degree of linear dependence between the variables.
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between X and Y. where x and y are the sample means of X and Y, and sx and sy
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PART A
1. Define noise.
Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energy, which tends to interfere
with proper reception and reproduction of wanted signal.
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3. Define flicker noise.
g.i
Flicker noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at low audio
frequencies. Flicker noise is proportional to the emitter current and junction
temperature and inversely proportional to the frequency.
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4. Define thermal noise. Give the expression for the thermal noise voltage
across a resistor.
ee
The electrons in a conductor possess varying amounts of energy. A small
fluctuation in this energy produces small noise voltages in the conductor. These
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random fluctuations produced by thermal agitation of the electrons are called thermal
noise.
En
51
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modulation.This equalizes the low frequency and high frequency portions of the PSD
g.i
and complete band is occupied.
De-emphasis:
This circuit attenuates the high frequency components. The attenuation
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characteristic is exactly opposite to that of pre-emphasis circuit. De-emphasis
restores the power distribution of the original signal. The signal to noise ratio is
improved because of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits.
ee
11.Define SNR. (APR/MAY-2015)
gin
Signal to noise ratio(SNR) is the ratio of signal power to the noise power at
the same point in a system.
En
(NOV/DEC-2010) (MAY/JUNE-2014)
w.
Many types of noise sources are Gaussian and have flat spectral density over
a wide frequency range. Such spectrum has all frequency components in equal
portion, and is therefore called white noise, the power spectral density of whit noise
ww
PART-B
1. Write Short Notes On Shot Noise, Thermal noise, White Noise .(APRIL/MAY
2015,MAY/JUNE 2013,NOV/DEC 2016)
External noises, i.e. noise whose sources are external. External noise may be
classified into the following three types:
Atmospheric noises
Extra-terrestrial noises
n
Shot noise.
g.i
Transit time noise
Miscellaneous internal noise.
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External noise cannot be reduced except by changing the location of the
receiver or the entire system. Internal noise on the other hand can be easily
evaluated mathematically and can be reduced to a great extent by proper design.
ee
Explanation of External Noise
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is spread over the complete frequency spectrum used for radio communication.
Atmospheric noise accordingly consists of spurious radio signals with components
spread over a wide frequency range. These spurious radio waves constituting the
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noise get propagated over the earth in the same fashion as the desired radio waves
of the same frequency. Accordingly at a given receiving point, the receiving antenna
picks up not only the signal but also the static from all the thunderstorms, local or
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remote.
Extra-terrestrial noise:
w.
Solar noise
Cosmic noise
ww
Solar noise:
This is the electrical noise emanating from the sun. Under quite conditions,
there is a steady radiation of noise from the sun. This results because sun is a large
body at a very high temperature (exceeding 6000°c on the surface), and radiates
electrical energy in the form of noise over a very wide frequency spectrum including
the spectrum used for radio communication. The intensity produced by the sun
varies with time. In fact, the sun has a repeating 11-year noise cycle. During the
peak of the cycle, the sun produces some amount of noise that causes tremendous
radio signal interference, making many frequencies unusable for communications.
During other years. The noise is at a minimum level.
53
Cosmic noise:
Distant stars are also suns and have high temperatures. These stars,
therefore, radiate noise in the same way as our sun. The noise received from these
distant stars is thermal noise (or black body noise) and is distributing almost
uniformly over the entire sky. Noise is received from the centre of our own galaxy
(The Milky Way) from other distant galaxies and from other virtual point sources
such as quasars and pulsars.
n
electrical machines. Such noises are produced by the arc discharge taking place
g.i
during operation of these machines. Such man-made noise is most intensive in
industrial and densely populated areas. Man-made noise in such areas far exceeds
all other sources of noise in the frequency range extending from about 1 MHz to 600
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MHz
There is a random motion of the electrons which give rise to noise voltage
called thermal noise. Thus noise generated in any resistance due to random motion
of electrons is called thermal noise or white or Johnson noise. The analysis of
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thermal noise is based on the Kinetic theory. It shows that the temperature of
particles is a way of expressing its internal kinetic energy. Thus "Temperature" of a
body can be said to be equivalent to the statistical rms value of the velocity of motion
w.
of the particles in the body. At -273°C (or zero degree Kelvin) the kinetic energy of
the particles of a body becomes zero .Thus we can relate the noise power generated
by a resistor to be proportional to its absolute temperature. Noise power is also
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proportional to the bandwidth over which it is measured. From the above discussion
we can write down.
54
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g.i
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En
arn
Another kind of noise that occurs in transistors is called transit time noise.
Transit time is the duration of time that it takes for a current carrier such as a hole or
current to move from the input to the output. The devices themselves are very tiny,
w.
so the distances involved are minimal. Yet the time it takes for the current carriers to
move even a short distance is finite. At low frequencies this time is negligible. But
when the frequency of operation is high and the signal being processed is the
ww
magnitude as the transit time, then problem can occur. The transit time shows up as
a kind of random noise within the device, and this is directly proportional to the
frequency of operation.
55
n
current flow is established by external bias voltages, there will still be some random
g.i
movement of electrons or holes due to discontinuities in the device. An example of
such a discontinuity is the contact between the copper lead and the semiconductor
materials. The interface between the two creates a discontinuity that causes random
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movement of the current carriers.
the desired FM wave when interference signal is stronger than the desired signal.
When the strength of the desired signal and interference signal are nearly equal, the
arn
receiver fluctuates back and forth between them, i.e., receiver locks interference
signal for some times and desired signal for some time and this goes on randomly.
This phenomenon is known as the capture effect.
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FM Threshold Effect:
The output signal to noise ratio of FM receiver is valid only if the carrier to
noise ratio is measured at the discriminator input is high compared to unity. It is
w.
observed that as the input noise is increased so that the carrier to noise ratio
decreased, the FM receiver breaks. At first individual clicks are heard in the receiver
ww
output and as the carrier to noise ratio decreases still further, the clicks rapidly
merge in to a crackling or sputtering sound.
FM threshold reduction:
This can be achieved by using an FM demodulator with negative feedback
(FMFB) or by using a phase locked loop demodulator.
Assume that the wide band FM is applied to the receiver input, and a second
FM from the same source but with a modulation index a fraction smaller is applied to
the VCO terminal of the product modulator. The output of the product modulator
consists of sum and difference frequency components. The IF filter is designed to
pass only difference frequency component. The frequency deviation of the IF filter
output would be small, although the frequency deviation of both input FM wave is
large, since the difference between their instantaneous deviations is small.
Hence, the modulation indices would subtract, and the resulting FM wave at the IF
filter output have a smaller modulation index than the input FM waves. This means
that the IF filters bandwidth in fig above need only be a fraction of that required for
either wideband FM wave. It is now apparent that Second wide band FM waves
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replaced by VCO feed by o/p of low pass filter.
g.i
Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis in an FM system
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ee
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message are equalized in such a way that the message fully occupies the frequency
band allotted to it. Then, at the discriminator output in the receiver perform the
inverse operation by de-emphasizing the high frequency components to restore the
message. In this process, the high frequency noise is reduced thereby effectively
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gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
102
n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
103
n
g.i
rin
ee
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En
arn
Le
w.
ww
104
n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
105
n
g.i
rin
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En
arn
Le
w.
ww
106
n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww
107
n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
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108
n
g.i
rin
ee
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arn
Le
w.
ww
109
n
g.i
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ee
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arn
Le
w.
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110