National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)

National Junior College

2015 – 2016 H2 Mathematics
Probability Lecture Notes

Topic 17: Probability

Key questions to answer:

What does probability measure?

- What is the range of values for a probability?
- What is the total probability of all possible outcomes?
- When do you add or when do you multiply probabilities?
What are mutually exclusive events?
- How do you determine if events A and B are mutually exclusive?
What is conditional probability?
- How do you evaluate the conditional probability P(A|B)?
- Are P(B|A) and P(A|B) the same?
What are independent events?
- How do you determine if events A and B are independent?
When is the use of a sample space diagram/table appropriate?
- How do you use a sample space diagram/table to calculate probabilities?
When is drawing a tree diagram useful?
- How do you interpret the probabilities on the branches of a tree diagram?
- How do you use a tree diagram to calculate probabilities?
When is drawing a Venn diagram useful?
- How do you interpret and calculate probabilities such as P(A ) , P(A B ) , P(A B ) and
P(A | B ) ?
How do you use techniques in the topic of Permutations and Combinations to
calculate probabilities?

§1 Outcomes, Sample Space and Events

Outcomes

Sample
Space

Event
Definition 1.1. (Terminology for an Experiment)

An experiment is a situation involving chance that leads to various possible results.

An outcome (sample point) of an experiment is the result of a single trial of the

experiment.

The sample space, S, (or probability space) of an experiment is the set of all
possible outcomes of the experiment.

An event, E, is a subset of S containing one or more outcomes of an experiment.

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 1 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
Example 1.1.

Consider the experiment of tossing a fair die once. The outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
and 6 and the sample space, S, is given by

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

The event of obtaining an even number, E, is given by

E = {2, 4, 6}.

§2 Operations on Events (discussed in ‘O’ Level Maths Syllabus)

Definition 2.1. (Union and Intersection of Events)

Let A and B be two events of an experiment.

S
A B

The union of A and B (denoted by A B ) is the event that either A or B occurs

(or both), as represented by the shaded region in the Venn diagram above.

S
B
A

The intersection of A and B (denoted by A B ) is the event that both A AND B

occurs, as represented by the shaded region in the Venn diagram above.

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 2 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)

Definition 2.2. (Complement of an Event)

A A

The complement of A (denoted by A ) is the event that A DOES NOT occur, as

represented by the shaded region in the Venn diagram above.

Note: A A and A A S.

Example 2.1.

Consider an experiment that involves tossing a fair die and let events A and B be
defined as follows:

A: The number on the die is even.

B: The number on the die is prime.

Then we have: A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {2, 3, 5}, A B {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A B {2},

Aʹ = {1, 3, 5} and Bʹ = {1, 4, 6}.

Definition 2.3. (Mutually Exclusive Events)

Two events A and B are said to be mutually S

exclusive or disjoint if they cannot occur A B
simultaneously, or equivalently, they do
not share any common outcomes i.e.

A B ,

where is the empty set.

Example 2.2.

Suppose a card is drawn from the top of a deck of 52 poker cards (with the top faces
facing down), and events A and B are defined as follows:

A: A spade is drawn.
B: A red card is drawn.

Then A and B are mutually exclusive since there is no spade that is red.

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 3 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
§3 Probability

Definition 3.1. (Probability)

Probability is a measure of how likely an event occurs. Formally, for an experiment

where all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely to occur, the probability
that event A occurs is given by

number of outcomes in A n( A)
P A
total number of outcomes in the sample space, S n( S )

i.e. P A is the proportion of outcomes in A relative to S.

Example 3.1.

Find the probability of

(a) obtaining a prime number in an experiment of throwing a fair die once, and

(b) obtaining a white or blue ball in an experiment of selecting a coloured ball

randomly from a box containing 3 white balls, 2 black balls and 4 blue balls,
where all balls have the identical shape and size.

Solution:
n {2,3,5}
(a) P prime number
n {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6}
3 1
6 2

3 4
(b) P white or blue ball
3 2 4
7
9

Intuitively, the probability that an event occurs is the sum of the relative
frequencies at which all outcomes in the event occur.

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 4 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
LAWS OF PROBABILITY

(1) Range of Values for Probabilities

Every event A is a subset of the sample space S, hence 0 ≤ n(A) ≤ n(S). Therefore,

0 n( A) n( S )
0 P( A) 1
n( S ) n( S ) n( S )

If A is an impossible event (i.e. A = , the empty set), then P( A) 0.

If A is certain (i.e. A = S), then P( A) 1.

(2) Probability Rule for Combined Events

For two overlapping events A and B, when you add n(A) and n(B) together you will
count the overlap twice. Hence,

n( A B ) n( A) n( B) n( A B) A B
n( A B) n( A) n( B) n( A B)
n( S ) n( S ) n( S ) n( S )
P( A B) P( A) P( B) P( A B)

(3) Probability Rule for Mutually Exclusive Events

If events A and B are mutually exclusive, then

A B n A B 0 P( A B) 0

Following from the probability rule for combined events, for two mutually
exclusive events A and B,

P( A B) P( A) P( B)

since P( A B) 0.

(4) Probability of the Complement

Since A A and A A S , we have

P A A 1
P A P A 1 P A 1 P A

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 5 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
Example 3.2.

Suppose each of two fair coins is thrown exactly once.

(a) What is the probability that two tails occur?
(b) What is the probability that at least one head occurs?

Solution:

Let H and T denote the events that a head and a tail occurs for each throw
respectively. The outcomes can be represented by a table, as shown below.

1st coin \ 2nd coin Heads Tails

Heads HH HT
Tails TH TT

1
(a) Since each of the four outcomes are equally likely, P({TT}) =
4

3
(b) P(at least one head occurs) = P({HH, HT, TH}) .
4

Alternatively,
P(at least one head occurs) = 1 – P(two tails occur) [complement event]
1 3
=1 .
4 4

Note: Similarly to the topic of Permutations & Combinations, the presence of the
phrase “at least” should prompt you to consider the complement.

Example 3.3.

In a class of 20 students, 4 of the 9 boys and 3 of the 11 girls are in a Performing

Arts CCA. The teacher randomly picks a student from the class to answer a
question. Find the probability that the student chosen is

(a) in a Performing Arts CCA,

(b) female,
(c) a female student in a Performing Arts CCA,
(d) a female student or in a Performing Arts CCA,
(e) a female student in a Performing Arts CCA or a male student who is not in a
Performing Arts CCA.

Solution:

Let F and A denote the events that the student chosen is female and in a Performing
Arts CCA respectively.

4 3 7
(a) P A
20 20
11
(b) P F
20
2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 6 of 20
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
3
(c) P F A
20

(d) P F A P F P A P F A
(applying Probability Law for Combined Events)
11 7 3
20 20 20
3
4

9 4 1
(e) P F A
20 4

Required Probability P F A P F A
(since the events are mutually exclusive)
3 1
20 4
2
5

For Example 3.3, suppose that the teacher is taking the class
Let’s be
intellectually for the first time and has no idea which CCA each of his
curious! students is in. Is he more likely to pick a student in a
Performing Arts CCA if he randomly picks a boy, or if he
randomly picks a girl? Justify your answer clearly.

He is more likely to pick a student in a Performing Arts

CCA if he picks a boy than if he picks a girl.

4
If he picks a boy, the probability that this boy is in a Performing Arts CCA = .
9

3
If he picks a girl, the probability that this girl is in a Performing Arts CCA = .
11

4 3
Since , he will have greater odds of picking a student in a Performing Arts
9 11
CCA if he picks a boy.

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 7 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
§4 Conditional Probability

Definition 4.1. (Conditional Probability)

Let A and B be two events of an experiment, where B ≠ , i.e. P(B) ≠ 0. The

conditional probability of A given B (denoted by P A | B is the probability of A
occuring given that B has occured.

For an experiment with a finite uniform space, this is simply the proportion of
outcomes in A that are in B i.e.

n A B
P A| B
n B

Dividing both the numerator and denominator by n(S), the number of elements in
the sample space, we have the following useful formula:

n A B
n S
P A| B
n B
n S

P A B
P A| B
P B

Rearranging, we obtain the general multiplication rule for probability:

P A B P A| B P B

and similarly

P A B P B| A P A

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 8 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
Example 4.1.

In a game, the game-master rolls a fair die once. The player, while being
blindfolded, is required to guess correctly if the number shown is “small” (1 or 2),
“medium” (3 or 4), or “large” (5 or 6), in order to win a prize.

The player guesses that the number is “small”. Find the probability that

(a) the player wins the prize,

(b) the player wins the prize, if the game-master had revealed to the player that
the number shown was not a factor of 5, before he made his guess,

(c) the number shown was not a factor of 5, if the player won the prize.

Solution:

(a) P(player wins the prize) = P(1 or 2 appears)

2
6
1 not a factor of 5 Note: The method
3 of using relative
proportions to find
(b) P(1 or 2 | not a factor of 5) 4 6 5 conditional
n 1 or 2 not a factor of 5 probabilities is also
n not a factor of 5 3 2 1 known as the idea
of “reduced sample
n 2 space”, because it is
n 2,3, 4, 6 “small” as if you have
restricted the
1
original sample
4 space to a subset or
“smaller” event.
(c) P(not a factor of 5 | 1 or 2)
n 1 or 2 not a factor of 5
n 1 or 2
n 2
n 1, 2
Note:
1 P A| B P B| A
2

For Example 4.1, suppose that you were the player and
Let’s be
intellectually before you made your guess, the game-master revealed to
curious! you that the number shown was not a factor of 5, (as he did
in part (b)), what would you have guessed, “small”,
“medium” or “large”?

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 9 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
Example 4.2.

In the graduating cohort of a particular junior college, 51% of the students take
Physics. 73% of all the Physics students in this cohort take Economics, while 39%
of all the students in the cohort take Economics but not Physics.

Find the probability that a randomly chosen student from this cohort

(i) takes Economics given that he does not take Physics,

(ii) takes both Physics and Economics,
(iii) takes Economics,
(iv) takes either Physics or Economics.

Solution:

Let A and B denote the events that a randomly chosen student from this cohort takes
Economics and Physics respectively.

P A B Notes:
(i) P A| B
P B
Since the cohort size
0.39 is not given, we
1 0.51 cannot use the idea
39 of reduced sample
or 0.79592 space, and so we
49
have to apply the
39
or 0.796 (to 3 s.f.) formula
49 P A B
P A| B
P B
(ii) P A B P A| B P B
(by the general multiplication rule for probability)
Leave all probability
0.73 0.51
values as fractions
0.3723 or decimals, not
S percentages.
A B
(iii) P A P A B P A B
0.3723 0.39 Venn diagrams can
0.39 0.3723 0.51 –
0.7623 be useful visual aids
0.3723
if the question
requires you to
(iv) P A B P A P B P A B consider various
combinations of
0.7623 0.51 0.3723 events i.e. unions,
0.9 intersections and
complements.
Alternatively, P A B P B P A B
0.51 0.39
0.9

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 10 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
§5 Independence of Events

Definition 5.1. (Independence)

Two events A and B are said to be independent if the probability that A occurs is
not affected by the occurrence of B i.e.

P A| B P A

Following from the general multiplication rule for probability, if A and B are
independent, then

P A B P A| B P B
P A B P A P B

Example 5.1.

Consider the game in Example 4.1. Let A, B, and C denote the following events.

A: The number is “small”.

B: The number is odd.
C: The number is not a factor of 5.

Determine if the following pairs of events are independent.

(a) A and B,
(b) A and C.

Solution:
n A B Unlike mutual
(a) P A| B 1 3 5 B
n B exclusivity,
n 1 independence cannot be
2 4 6 visualised on a Venn
n 1,3,5 diagram.
1 A
P A To visualise
3
independence, notice
how the proportion of
Hence A and B are independent.
numbers that are
“small” remains the
Alternatively,
same even when the
sample space has been
n 1 1 “reduced” to only the
P A B
n 1, 2,3, 4,5, 6 6 odd numbers, as shown
in the diagram in part
1 1 1
P A P B P A B (a).
3 2 6

Hence A and B are independent.

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 11 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
n A C Dependent events do
(b) P A|C 1 3 5
n C not exhibit the property
of “preserving
n 2 2 4 6 proportions”, as shown
C
n 2,3, 4, 6 in the diagram for part
(b), where the
1 1 A proportion of numbers
P A
4 3 that are “small” has
changed from 1/3 to ¼,
Hence A and C are not independent. when the sample space
is “reduced” to only the
Alternatively, numbers that are not
factors of 5.
n 2 1
P A C
n 1, 2,3, 4,5, 6 6
1 4 2 1
P A P C P A C
3 6 9 6

Hence A and C are not independent.

Notes:

If A is independent of B, then B is independent of A i.e.

P A| B P A P B| A P B

If A and B are independent, then A and Bʹ are independent i.e.

P A P A| B P A| B

since the probability of A does not change whether B occurs OR NOT.

In fact, if A and B are independent, then the following pairs of events must be
independent as well:
Aʹ and B
Aʹ and Bʹ

In your own words, explain clearly the difference between

Let’s be
intellectually
mutually exclusive events and independent events.
careful.
Mutually exclusive events are those that cannot occur at
the same time. In contrast, independent events are those
whose occurrence does not affect the probability that the
other occurs, but this does not mean that they cannot take
place simultaneously, for example, “small” and odd in
Example 5.1.

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 12 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
§6 Problem Solving Techniques in Probability

6.1. Tables of Outcomes

Example 6.1.

Two ordinary fair dice, one red and one blue, are each to be rolled once.
Events A, B and C are defined as follows.

A: The number on the red die is a 5 or a 6.

B: The sum of the two numbers is equal to 7.
C: At least one of the two dice shows a 5.

(a) Find P B | C .
(b) Show that A and B are independent.

Solution:

The outcomes (sum of both numbers) can be represented by a table of outcomes.

Blue \ Red 1 2 3 4 5 6 Note:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Drawing a table of
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 outcomes can be a
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 useful strategy when
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 the problem involves
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 C carrying out two
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 experiments at the same
time (or the same
B A experiment twice, in
n B C succession), and each
(a) P B|C experiment (or trial of
n C
the experiment)
2 comprises several
11 possible outcomes.

6 1
(b) P B ,
36 6
n B A
P B| A
n A
2 1
P B
12 6

Hence A and B are independent.

2 1
Alternatively, P A B , and
36 18
12 1 1
P A P B P A B .
36 6 18

Hence A and B are independent.

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 13 of 20
 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
Example 6.2.

Two teams A and B play a football match against each other. The probabilities
that each team scores 0, 1, 2 and 3 goals respectively are shown in the table
below:

Number of goals 0 1 2 3
Probability Team A 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1
of scoring Team B 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.1
Alternatively, consider different cases without constructing table
Calculate the probability that A wins, assuming that the scoring for each team is
independent of each other.

Solution:

Summarising the probabilities that each team scores 0, 1, 2 and 3 goals each Note:
(simultaneously) in a table, The multiplication rule
for independent events,
Team A P A B P A P B ,
Team B 0 1 2 3 is used to obtain the
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1 probability in each cell
0 0.2 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.02 since scorings for both
1 0.4 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.04 teams are independent.
2 0.3 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.03 The cells may be
3 0.1 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.01 thought of as outcomes
in a non-uniform
Hence P(A wins) sample space (in this
= 0.06 + 0.06 + 0.02 + 0.12 + 0.04 + 0.03 case).
= 0.33

6.2. Venn Diagrams

Example 6.3.

Events A, B and C are such that A and B are independent, and A and C are mutually
exclusive. Given that P A 0.4, P B 0.2, P C 0.3 and P B C 0.1,
calculate

(i) P A B ,
(ii) P C|B ,
(iii) P B| A C .

Calculate the probability that exactly one of the two events B and C will occur.

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 14 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
Solution: Notes:
As mentioned in the
Since A and B are independent, P A B P A P B 0.4 0.2 0.08. Hence notes in example 4.2,
venn diagrams can be
P A B P A P A B 0.4 0.08 0.32 useful visual aids if the
question requires you to
P C B P C P B C 0.3 0.1 0.2 consider various
P B A C P B P A B P B C combinations of events
i.e. unions,
0.2 0.08 0.1 0.02 intersections and
complements.
We can represent the probabilities by a Venn diagram as follows.

A C

0.32 0.08 0.1 0.2

0.02
B

(i) P A B P A P B P A B
0.4 0.2 0.08 0.52

Alternatively, from the Venn diagram,

P A B 0.32 0.08 0.02 0.1
0.52

P C B
(ii) P C|B
P B
0.1
0.5
0.2

P B A C
(iii) P B| A C
P A C
P B A B C
P A C
0.18 9
0.7 35

P(exactly one of the events B, C occur)

P B C P B C
0.1 0.2
0.3

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 15 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
6.3. Tree Diagrams Tree diagrams are a
useful strategy if the
Example 6.4. question involves a
sequence of
Camera lenses are made by two companies, A and B. 60% of all lenses are made by experiments (can be
A and the remaining 40% by B. 5% of the lenses made by A are faulty. 7% of the identical) carried out in
lenses made by B are faulty. succession.

(i) One lens is selected at random. Find the probability that

How to use a tree
(a) it is faulty, diagram:
(b) it was made by A, given that it is faulty.
The probabilities on
(ii) Two lenses are selected at random. Find the probability that the first set of
(a) exactly one of them is faulty, branches are the
(b) both were made by A, given that exactly one is faulty. probabilities that the
events at the end of
[N2011/II/9] the branches occur:
P(A) A
Solution:
Let E denote the event that a randomly chosen lens is made from A, and let F denote
the event that a randomly chosen lens is faulty. Then the outcomes can be
represented by a tree diagram: while the
probabilities on each
subsequent set of
F E F branches are
conditional probs.:
E
Fʹ E F B

F E F A
Multiply the
probabilities along
Eʹ the branches to get
Fʹ E F the end results.
[This follows from
the general
(i)(a) P F multiplication rule
0.6 0.05 0.4 0.07
for probability:
0.058 P A B
P B| A P A .]
P E F
(i)(b) P E | F To answer any
P F
question, find the
0.6 0.05 relevant end results.
0.058 If more than one
15 satisfy the
or 0.51724 requirements, add
29 these end results
15 together.
= or 0.517 (to 3 s.f.)
29

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 16 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
(ii)(a) P(exactly one of the two lens is faulty)
0.058 (1 0.058) (1 0.058) 0.058 (or 0.058 (1 0.058) 2!)
0.109272

(ii)(b) P(both lens were made from A | exactly one is faulty)

P both lens were made from A and exactly one is faulty
P exactly one is faulty

1st lens is made from A & is faulty 2nd lens is made from A & is NOT faulty Permutation btw the 2 lens

0.6 0.05 0.6 0.95 2!

0.109272

0.31298
0.313 (to 3 s.f.)

Example 6.5.

Two players A and B play a game by throwing a fair die alternately until one of
them throws a 6 to win. If A begins, find the probability that (i) A wins, (ii) B
wins.

Solution:

win
A
win
lose
B win
lose A
lose

1 5 5 1 5 5 5 5 1 This is an example of a
(i) P A wins
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 problem involving the
2 4 sum to infinity of a
1 5 5 geometric series.
1 ...
6 6 6

1 1
2
6 1 5
6
6
11

(ii) P(B wins) 1 P(A wins)

6 5
1
11 11

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 17 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
6.4. Use of Selections (Without Replacement) Use conditional probability

Example 6.6.

Three cards are drawn at random from a pack of 52 cards. Find the probability
that exactly two cards are aces. [Order is not important]

Solution:
no. of ways of drawing 2 aces and 1 other card
P(exactly two cards are aces)
no. of ways of drawing 3 out of 52 cards
4 48
2 1 72
=
52 5525
3

Example 6.7.

A class comprises 21 students consisting of 6 boys and 15 girls. 3 of the boys and
7 of the girls wear glasses. 3 students are chosen at random from the class. Find the
probability that
(i) they all wear glasses;
(ii) exactly two wear glasses;
(iii) they are all girls and at least one wear glasses;
(iv) at least one wear glasses, given that they are all girls;
(v) they all wear glasses, given that at least one wear glasses;

Solution:

With Glasses No Glasses Total

Boys 3 3 6
Girls 7 8 15
Total 10 11 21

10
3
(i) P(all wear glasses)
21
3
120 12
1330 133

10 11
2 1
(ii) P(exactly 2 wear glasses)
21
3
495 99
1330 266

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 18 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
(iii) P(all girls and at least one wear glasses)
P(all girls) P(all 3 girls don't wear glasses)
15 8
3 3 455 56 3
21 21 1330 1330 10
3 3

(iv) P(at least one wear glasses | they are all girls)
3
P(all girls and at least one wear glasses) 10 57
P(all are girls) 15 65
3
21
3

Alternatively, P(at least one wear glasses | they are all girls)
no. of ways to choose 3 girls and at least one of them wear glasses)
no. of ways to choose 3 girls
15 8
3 3 57
15 65
3

(v) P(all wear glasses | at least one wear glasses)

P(all wear glasses)
P(at least one wear glasses)
12
P(all wear glasses) 133 24
1 P(none wear glasses) 11 233
3
1
21
3

Alternatively, P(all wear glasses | at least one wear glasses)

no. of ways to choose 3 students who wear glasses
no. of ways to choose 3 students with at least one who wear glasses
10
3 24
21 11 233
3 3

2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 19 of 20

 National Junior College Mathematics Department 2016 (Teacher’s Version)
6.5. Use of Permutations

Example 6.8.

A group of fifteen people consists of one pair of sisters, one set of three brothers
and ten other people. The fifteen people are arranged randomly in a line. Find the
probability that

(i) the sisters are next to each other.

(ii) the brothers are not all next to one another.
(iii) the sisters are next to each other and the brothers are all next to one another.
(iv) either the sisters are next to each other or the brothers are all next to one
another or both.

Instead the fifteen people are arranged in a circle.

(v) Find the probability that the sisters are next to each other.
[N2012/II/7]

Solution:

14!2!
(i) P(sisters are next to each other)
15!
2
15

(ii) P(brothers are not all next to one another) Beware of the
1 P(brothers are all next to one another) difference between “not
13!3! all…” (which means not
1
15! together) and “all
34 not…” (which means
separated)
35

(iii) P(sisters are next to each other and the brothers are all next to one another)
12!2!3!
15!
2
455

(iv) P(sisters are next to each other or the brothers are all next to one another)
2 13!3! 2
15 15! 455
43
273

(14 1)!2!
(v) P(sisters are next to each other)
(15 1)!
1
7
2015 – 2016 / H2 Maths / Probability Page 20 of 20