Bipolar Junction

Transistors
UGEA1313 Basic Electronics
Faculty of Engineering and
Green Technology
Bipolar Junction Transistors

Inventors of transistor: John Bardeen,

First transistor built in 1948
William Shockley, and Walter Brattain
(left to right)

BJTs were actually developed in the late 1951’s by Dr. Shockley

and have now become the standard transistors used commercially.

Besides BJTs, there is another type of transistor developed later known as

the field-effect transistors, FET.

Note: Transistor refers to BJT and Field-effect transistor is referred to as FET.

Apollo Guidance Computer
1 millions
(AGC) on 1969

small-scale integration (SSI) devices

7 Billions
Bipolar Junction Transistors

The (BJT) transistor is a three-terminal device whose output current, voltage

and/or power are controlled by its input current.
Because of this, a transistor is a current-controlled device.
It has two main applications: amplifier and switch

Transistor Structure
The BJT is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated into
two pn junctions. The three regions are called emitter, base and collector.
There are two types of BJTs: either npn (two n regions separated by one p region)
or pnp (two p regions separated by one n region).
The two are differentiated by the direction of the arrow of the emitter.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors

Typical values of IE and IC are in the milliampere (mA) range whereas

IB is in the microampere (A) range. As we shall see, IE > IC >> IB and IE  IC.

In general, if we treat the transistor as an amplifier, we can regard the base

as the input and the collector as the output. As we shall see, the
output current at the collector IC is controlled by the input current at the base IB

We can view the transistor as a three terminal semiconductor device, consisting

of two pn junctions. The transistor is constructed by "sandwiching"

C C
Notice that the emitter
arrow mark always points
B
B toward the n-type material.

E
E
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Basic Operation
The npn transistor allows current to flow from the collector to the emitter.
The flow of this (emitter-collector) current is controlled by the current flowing
into the base terminal. Current in (collector)

Current controller An npn BJT

(base)
Current out (emitter)
For correct operation, the transistor must be correctly biased with external dc
voltages. The biasing affects the BE regions and CB regions and determine
if they are forward biased or reverse biased. Based on the structure of the BJT,
it can operate in 3 different states: cutoff, active and saturated.
The table below summarizes the three states of operation:
Base-Emitter Collector-Base BJT State BJT Characteristics Application

Reverse biased Reverse biased Cutoff IB = IC = IE = 0, VCE = Switch

VCC
Forward biased Forward biased Saturated IC = IC(sat) = VCC / RC Switch

Forward biased Reverse biased Active IC = b DC IB Amplifier

Bipolar Junction Transistors
The figure below shows the BJT biased in the active state of operation.
Study the circuit diagram carefully. Note that:
a) The base lead has positive polarity, V B > 0.
b) The collector lead has positive polarity, V C > 0.
c) The emitter lead is grounded, VE = 0.
VC > 0
VB > 0 Note that in terms of
electron current, electrons
can flow from emitter to the
base and collector.

VC > VB
VE = 0

Note that the BE junction is forward biased

and the CB junction is reverse biased.
The potential difference VBB is used to bias the base lead. In the active state,
the base is positively biased (because the base is p-type). VCC is used to bias
the collector lead. The resistors RB and RC are used to prevent the currents flowing
in the BE junction and CB junction, respectively, from getting too large and damage
the transistor. RC is also used to “collect” the output voltage.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
VC > 0
VB > 0 Note that in terms of
electron current, electrons
can flow from emitter to the
base and collector.

VE = 0

Since the combined base and emitter regions of the transistor act as a normal diode
and is forward biased, all emitter electron current would exit the “diode” through
the base
However, because the base region is very lightly doped, the resistance of the base
material is greater than the resistance of the reverse-biased collector-base junction.
Thus, the vast majority of the emitter electron current continues through the
reverse-biased pn junction to the collector circuit.

The idea of current through a reverse biased pn junction should not seem that
strange since the zener diode is designed to allow current through a reverse biased
junction. The collector-base junction of the transistor is also designed to allow a
reverse current without doing damage to the junction.
Bipolar Junction Transistors
From the reasoning above, we see why the
collector current IC is much larger than the base current IB.

By Kirchhoff’s First Law, we have: IE = IC + IB

Since IC >> IB, we can then make the following approximations:
IE ≈ IC and IB ≈ 0 with IE > IC.

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

1.3.1 dc beta
The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) is the dc beta (βDC):
βDC = IC / IB
βDC is a constant with no units since it is a ratio between two currents.
The subscript “dc” is used to distinguish from the ac beta. Typical values of βDC range
from less than 20 to 200 or higher.

For example, if IB = 10 A and βDC = 100, then IC = (100) (1*10-5 A) = 1mA.

 Bipolar Junction Transistors
Transistor Characteristics and Parameters
βDC is also called the current gain of a transistor.
The term “gain” is generally used to describe the amount of increase
(amplification) when an input signal is fed into an amplifier. If we rewrite the equation
as IC = βDC*IB, a small input current IB at the base is “amplified” or increased by
a current gain βDC. Surely, an amplifier requires βDC > 1.
Q: If βDC ranges from 200 to 250, what is the maximum and minimum I C if IB = 15 A?
A:
If βDC = 200, then IC = 200 × 15 × 10-6 = 3mA.

If βDC = 250, then IC = 250 × 15 × 10-6 = 3.75mA. Hence, 3 mA ≤ IC ≤ 3.75 mA.

Q: Explain why the gain of an amplifier must be larger than unity?

A: Let us denote the gain of an amplifier by βDC and use the transistor as an example.

If 0 < βDC < 1, then 0 < IC / IB < 1. Say, IC / IB = 0.5 where 0 < 0.5 < 1.
Then, the output current IC is less than the input current IB. Thus, the output current is
not amplified.
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Transistor Characteristics and Parameters
Example
Determine the values of collector current for the values of base current
shown in figure below.
IC Output
15mA
RC
6mA
Input
IB RB
VCC
50 µA
b DC = 300
20 µA
Bipolar Junction Transistors
1.3.2 dc alpha
The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc emitter current (IE) is
the dc alpha (αDC).
αDC = IC / IE
This is a less-used parameter than beta. Typical values of αDC range from
0.95 to 0.99 or greater. αDC is always less than 1.
This is because IC is always slightly less than IE by the amount of IB.

Q: Derive a formula that relates αDC to βDC .

A: Putting Ic = αDCIE and IC = βDCIB into IE = IC + IB,
we get
IC / αDC = IC + IC / βDC
Canceling IC,
we get
1 / αDC = 1 + 1 / βDC
or
αDC = βDC / (βDC+ 1)
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
1.3.3 Current and Voltage Analysis
The circuit below shows six important parameters in a transistor circuit:

These 3 currents and 3

voltages completely explain
the BJT dc circuit.

Solving for IB,

IB = (VBB- VBE) / RB

Voltage at collector with respect to grounded

emitter is
VCE = VCC – VR(C)
When the BE junction is forward biased, Since the potential drop across RC is VR(C) =
it acts like a forward biased diode: IC RC, the voltage at the collector becomes
VBE ≈ 0.7 V. Emitter is at ground.
Thus the voltage across RB is VCE = VCC - IC RC

VR(B) = VBB - VBE where IC = βDC IB

Also, from Ohm’s Law,
VR(B) = IB RB The voltage across the reverse biased
Hence, collector-base junction is
IB RB = VBB - VBE VCB = VCE - VBE
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Example:
Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the following circuit.
The transistor has βDC= 150. Rc
RC=
100Ohm
100ohm
V cc
RB= 10Kohm
Rb
V
10V CC
= 10V
10k Ohm

V bb
VBB= 5V
5V
Bipolar Junction Transistors
1.3.4 Collector Characteristic Curves

From the circuit below, we can generate a set of collector

characteristic curves that show how collector current IC varies with
the collector-emitter voltage VCE for specified values of base current I B.
Notice in the circuit that both VBB and VCC are variable sources of voltage.

npn transistor
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
1.3.4 Collector Characteristic Curves
The graph below shows the collector characteristic curves (IC versus VCE).
In each curve, IB is held constant. Hence, for each value of the
base current IB0 = 0, IB1, IB2, …, IB6, there is a corresponding characteristic curve.
Active region
IC
VK VK < VCE < VBR
VBR

Breakdown
Saturation region region
VCE > VBR
VCE < VK
VCE

Note that the curves can be divided into three vertical regions, separated by
two vertical lines with values VCE = VK and VCE = VBR.
Saturation Region

Case1: VCE = 0
In the circuit above, let VBB ≠ 0 so that IB ≠ 0, that is, the base current is nonzero.
And we set VCC = 0V.
For this condition, both the BE junction and CB junction
are forward biased because the base is approximately 0.7V while the emitter
and the collector are at 0V. The base current IB goes through the BE junction
(instead of the CB junction) because of the low impedance path to ground. Since
no current flows in the CB junction, IC is zero. Hence,
VCE = VCC – IC RC = 0 – 0(RC) = 0

This represents the origin of the characteristic curve and is independent of I B

Note: Even it is saturated but no current flow due to no voltage source supplied by
VCC
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
Saturation Region

Case2: VCE < VK, VCE ≠ 0

As we increase VCC, VCE increases gradually as the collector current I C increases.

IC increases as VCC is increased but VCE remains less than 0.7V. This can be
seen from the equation VCE = VCC – ICRC where VCC and IC increases together
so that the right-hand-side of the equation (VCE) remains below 0.7V. This
represents the portion of the graph where VCE < VK.
(IB is remained unchanged)

V increase
 Saturation Region

Suppose we increase IB. Then IC increases because of IC = βDCIB.

If we keep VCC constant, then VCE decreases (by VCE = VCC – ICRC). This is due to
the increasing of IC by IB.

When VCE reaches its saturation value VCE(sat), IC can increase no further
even with a continued increase in IB. At the point of saturation, the relation
IC = βDCIB is no longer valid.
VCE(sat) for a transistor occurs somewhere below VK and it is usually only a few
tenths of a volt for a silicon diode.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
Saturation Region
Example:
Determine whether or not the transistor in the circuit below is in saturation.
Assume VCE(sat) = 0.2 V. Rc
RC=
100Ohm
1Kohm
V cc
RB= 10Kohm V
10V CC
= 10V
Rb
Gain =
10k Ohm
50
V bb
VBB= 3V
5V
Bipolar Junction Transistors

Active Region (VBR > VCE > VK)

Ideally, when VCE exceeds 0.7V, the CB junction becomes reverse biased and
the transistor goes into the active region of its operation. Once the CB junction
is reverse biased, IC remains essentially constant for a given value of I B as VCE
continues to increase. In the active region, the relation I C = βDC IB holds.

Breakdown Region
When VCE reaches a sufficiently large voltage such that V CE > VBR,
the reverse biased CB junction goes into breakdown. Thus, the collector current
increases rapidly. A transistor should never be operated in this region.

Note in the above discussion how the value of VCE affects the CB junction.
To summarize: If VCE is below 0.7V, the CB junction is forward biased.
If VCE exceeds 0.7V, the CB junction becomes reverse-biased.
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Maximum transistor ratings

Maximum ratings are given for collector-to-base voltage,

collector-to-emitter voltage, emitter-to-base voltage, collector current,
and power dissipation. For example, the product VCE IC must not exceed
PD(max), that is, VCE IC ≤ PD(max).

Transistor as an Amplifier
Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an
electrical (ac) signal.
+9 V
Iinput Amplifier Ioutput = Av Iinput where Av is the
ac current gain

A transistor can act as an amplifier by directly using the current gain, βDC.
The input current is IB and the output current is IC since IC = βDC IB.

Amplifier circuits have both ac and dc quantities. AC currents and voltages are
always assumed to be rms values unless stated otherwise. Because of the
existence of two separate dc and ac quantities, we need to standardize the
notations used to represent these quantities
Bipolar Junction Transistors
DC quantities – the subscript is uppercase roman (non-italic),
e.g., IC, IE, VC, VBE, etc.

AC quantities – the subscript is lowercase italic,

e.g., Ic, Ie, Vc, Vbe, etc.

Besides the two types of quantities above, there are also the internal transistor
ac resistances. They are designated by lowercase r’ with the appropriate subscript.
For example, the internal ac emitter resistance is r’e.
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Consider the circuit below. This is the simplest transistor amplifier circuit.

AC

DC

In the circuit, an ac voltage Vin is combined with the dc bias voltage VBB
by connecting them in series with the base resistance R B. The voltage Vin
is the ac voltage we want to amplify. The dc bias voltage V CC is connected
to the collector through the collector resistance, R C
Bipolar Junction Transistors
The ac input voltage which produces an ac base current
results in a much larger ac collector current. The ac collector current
produces an ac voltage across RC, thus producing an amplified but inverted
reproduction of the ac input voltage in the active region.
The forward biased base-emitter junction presents a low resistance to the ac
wave.

Let us designate the internal ac emitter resistance by r’e. The ac emitter

current is
Ie ≈ Ic = Vb / r’e
The ac collector voltage is Vc = Ic RC. Since Ie ≈ Ic,
the ac collector voltage is Vc ≈ Ie RC.

Vb is the ac input voltage where Vb = Vin – Ib RB and

Vc is the ac output voltage.

The ratio of Vc to Vb is the

ac voltage gain, Av of the transistor circuit:
Av = Vc / Vb

Substituting Ie RC for Vc and Ie r’e for Vb yields

Av = Vc / Vb ≈ (Ie RC) / (Ie r’e)
or
Av = RC / r’e

Thus, amplification depends on the ratio of RC and r’e. RC is always considerably

larger in value than r’e, thus the output voltage is larger than the input voltage.
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Example:
Determine the voltage gain and the ac output voltage for the following
circuit if r’e = 50 W.
1kOhm
Rc

Vcc
Rb

Vin

100 mV Vout
Vbb
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Transistor as a Switch
The other major application is high speed switching applications.
In this case, it is operated alternately in cutoff and saturation.
In cutoff state, the transistor is OFF and in saturation state, the transistor is ON.

Consider the circuits above. In (a), the device is in the cutoff state because the
base-emitter junction is not forward biased. In this condition, there is an open (circuit)
between collector and emitter. All currents are zero and V CE = VCC
(from VCE = VCC – IC RC with IC = 0).
In (b), the transistor is in the saturation state. This is because the BE junction and
CB junction are forward-biased and the base current is made large enough to reach
its saturation point. In this condition, there is a short (circuit) between collector and
emitter. Then, VCE(max) = 0 and hence, IC(sat) = (VCC – VCE(max)) / RC
= VCC / RC
Min value of base current needed to produce saturation is I B(min) = IC(sat) / βDC
Bipolar Junction Transistors
The LED requires 30 mA to emit a sufficient level of light. Therefore the
collector current should be approximately 30 mA. For the following circuit
values, determine the amplitude of the square wave input voltage necessary
to make sure that the transistor saturates. Use double the minimum value of base
current as a safety margin to ensure saturation. VCC = 9 V, VCE(sat) = 0.3 V,
RC = 270 W, RB =3.3 kW, and bDC = 50.

Vcc

Rc

Rb

Vin
 Vcc

Rc

VCC = 9 V, VCE(sat) = 0.3 V,

RC = 270 Ω, RB =3.3 kΩ, and βDC = 50.

Rb

Vin