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NAME AND SURNAME : MAISHIBE ANGELINAH KEKANA

STUDENT NO :64533379

MODULE NAME : THE STUDY OF WORK AND SOCIETY

MODULE CODE : SOC3702

ASSESSMENT NO :3

ASSESSMENT CODE :576956

DUE DATE :05 JUNE 2024

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

QUESTION 1

Beyond Frameworks: Understanding Conflict in South African Workplaces

QUESTION 3

Exploring Labour Flexibility's Impact on Workers

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE NO
QUESTION 1 3
• Exploring Labour Flexibility's 3-4
Impact on Workers
• The Free Market Approach: A 4-5
Self-Interested Dance
• The unitary framework 5-7
• The Pluralist Approach 7-9
• The Radical Critique 9-11
• Conclusion 11-12
QUESTION 3 13
• Exploring Labour Flexibility's 13-14
Impact on Workers
• Functional labour flexibility 14-16
• Wage flexibility 16-19
• Numerical or employment 19-22
flexibility
• Conclusion 22-23
• References 24
• Declaration 25
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Question 1

In the field of industrial relations, Tony J Watson (2012 & 2017) identifies what he
terms four frames for analysing conflict in the workplace. Write an essay in which you
identify, through sound arguments and examples, foreseeable shortcomings of the
adoption and application of each one of the four analytical frames of reference in the
South African labour relations context. In your evaluation, refer to examples of labour
relations in a sector you are most familiar with.

Beyond Frameworks: Understanding Conflict in South African Workplaces

Understanding why disagreements happen at work in South Africa could be tricky.

There are different ways to think about that, like the free market idea, where everyone
acts in their best interest. This would not, however, take into consideration South
Africa's history of inequality, where some people have more power than others.
Imagine miners where, for them, "free bargaining" might not be fair.
Another concept is that everybody will be happy at work. But, the racially tumultuous
past of South Africa will never make this happen. Think of factories with different
workers – they might be concerned with their own sets of problems. Ignoring such
differences could then escalate into something bigger, like the Marikana strike (you
might have heard of it).

Then there is the notion of compromise: the laborers and the employer's dialogue.
This sounds fine, but what if power is not balanced? In some aspects of the industry,
the unions, which are groups of workers, maybe too weak so that the employers
always get their way. This can be very frustrating for nurses, or even teachers, who
just wish they had better work conditions. Finally, some say it is capitalism itself that
is at fault and that workers are treated just as unfairly under any form of this system.
This may be entirely true, but South Africa is moving, though slowly. Recall the farmers
– to demand striking change may unnerve accustomed people. This essay elaborates
on these limitations and argues that understanding conflict in South African
workplaces must consider better the unique history of the country and the different
situations that exist within each industry. From a closer examination of these issues,
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it is hoped that some ways may be arrived at which will adequately solve
disagreements equitably and forge a better work environment for everybody.
• The Free Market Approach: A Self-Interested Dance

The free market model of employment relations considers the workplace to be a

marketplace for the purchase and selling of labour (Smith, 1776) and argues that
individuals will trade with one another on a mutual advantage basis through self-
interest theory (Friedman, 1962). It is essentially the postulate that workers in search
of the best wage and working conditions and employers in search of the best-skilled
labour at the lowest cost will reach an agreement through free negotiation and bidding.
This is similar to the doctrine of classical political economy, in whose mechanism-
augmented market, guided by individual self-interest, lays the means for the most
appropriate distribution of resources, cooperation, and consequently, improvement of
living standards (McLean et al., 2003). Central to the philosophies of free markets is
the ideology of individual freedom. Workers are free to choose their employers and
negotiate for a wage commensurate with their skills and experience. In the same vein,
employers are free to choose the most appropriate workforce for their needs at
competitive salaries, with attractive benefits, to draw the best talent. People are self-
interested. The emphasis is that this leads to some mutually beneficial outcome. The
workers will get fair pay for their labour, whereas the employer finds the wage earner
that will get the job done and be efficient at it.
Essentially, the free market is painted as a smooth exchange where agents, through
self-interested gains, create a dynamic and efficient labour market. However, the
application needs to be carefully done in all theories of economics because of their
real contexts and possible limitations.

foreseeable shortcomings of the adoption and application

The free market approach, even if concentrating on efficiency, has predictable
shortcomings. First, it gives priority to self-interest over the interest of social well-being
and hence leads to social negligence. Workers may be exploited just for short-term
gains, creating inequality and an impediment to long-term sustainability. Second, the
belief in self-regulation may deliver market failures and monopolies that harm workers
and consumers. In conclusion, the free market disregards power imbalances
(Friedman, 1962). Power imbalances will always disadvantage workers, who in the
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process, disregard the human element of work and work with ethics (Sen, 1999). Even
though the free market has its advantages, it, however, has limitations that require a
more practical approach to handling labour relations.
Example
imagine a cutting-edge start-up seeking a software developer. In line, with the
principles of the market the company would simply advertise the job opening
specifying a salary range based on market standards and its financial constraints.
Prospective candidates would then submit their resumes showcasing their skills and
work experience each aiming to secure the position that aligns best with their interests.
Subsequently it falls upon the employer to review these resumes and select the
candidate within their budget who has applied for the role. Through negotiations both
parties strive for an outcome; the company gains access to the developer’s expertise
while offering a competitive salary that acknowledges their qualifications. This
scenario exemplifies how individual negotiations and market dynamics shape
employment terms, in a free market setting.

• The unitary framework

The unitary perspective on industrial relations adorns the working environment with a
lot of harmony—a monolithic organization where management and employees share
a common interest (Fox, 1974). The unitarist framework is based on the managers'
competence and the managers have the right to take decisions in the best interest of
the organization (Ackroyd, Thompson, & Wright, 2002). It assumes a natural alignment
of interests between employers and employees, viewing any resistance to managerial
decisions as disruptive and unreasonable (Dundon, Ackroyd, & Thompson, 2018).
At its very base, the unitary approach is premised on the assumption that an
organization, adequately run with clear lines of communication, would elicit
cooperation and loyalty on the part of the employees towards their organization and
its management (Fox, 1974). Managers, as benign individuals, are believed to
possess the required information and competence to make decisions that prove in the
best interests of all. This school of thought thus considers Unions to be not only
unnecessary but also detrimental to this cause (Dundon et al., 2018). The unitary
perspective takes that concept of common interest a step further and applies even
outside the door of any workplace. At its very best, it is an actual conceptualization of
national unity, where organizational interests permit the state of the organization's
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environment to reflect the state of the entire national environment. This attitude, at
least occasionally, can partner itself with free market ideology. Still, it allows the
uninhibited pursuit of business interests to enable national growth and development.

foreseeable shortcomings of the adoption and application

In a significant way, therefore, the unitary model with a common interest and
managerial authority, as developed by Fox (1974), would face a significant challenge
in the South African labour relations context. The legacy of apartheid in this country,
then, involves significantly divided and unequal structures of power and organization
among employers, workers, and trade unions (Hart, 2020). Creating "unity" and
collaboration in a context marked by historical mistrust and power imbalances
becomes particularly hard. The workforce of South Africa is further characterized by
cultural background, languages, and educational attainment, which all are significantly
varied in the statistics of South Africa (Statistics South Africa, 2023). Though this is a
good thing, in another sense, it poses a challenge to developing a unitary framework
which feels welcoming and representative for all workers. Different expectations and
different views on the issue of the rights and obligations of labour will, however, make
the critical issues hard to find a consensus on. Eberlein (2012).

The economic context is another complication in itself. With high rates of

unemployment, widespread poverty, and income inequality, the labour market has
developed in a very stratified way, in which the power differentials are very heavily
imbalanced (Plaut, 2019). The economic realities might make it hard or impossible for
the collaboration focus of the unitary framework to be a material reality, as the worker
might be more worried about getting food on the table or a job than the long-term
strategic goals of the organization. Although the unitary framework promotes
cooperative work environments, its application in South Africa is likely to be strained
by the weight of history, workforce diversity, and the prevailing economic conditions.
Addressing these drawbacks requires an approach that is sensitive to these
complexities and, in turn, extends the conversation to all relevant stakeholders.
Example
Example in the retail sector. Picture momentarily that a clothing store is about to
introduce a new inventory management system. According to the unitary framework,
management would be expected to introduce the system to employees as a good thing
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for all parties. They would be expected to stress themes such as improved efficiency,
which could be translated into enhanced customer service and a better future for the
workers. Employees would most likely accept the change and believe that the
decisions taken by management are for the good of everybody.

In practice, however, employees might be concerned—the system might require

retraining, likely causing stress or underproductivity in the short run. Such a unitary
frame could lead to frustration and a sense of disenfranchisement among the
workforce by glossing over such concerns and calling for unquestioned acceptance.
• The Pluralist Approach
Besides, since it does not simply focus on the shared interests of the parties to the
employment relationship, it is much more realistic than the unitary framework. The
pluralist approach bases its foundation on recognizing different, often conflicting,
interests between employers and employees with varying levels of power, since it does
not believe that differences can be eliminated but that they are manageable should
conflict be approached with compromises and cooperation, unlike the radical
perspective. Central to the pluralist approach is the idea of competing interests.
Workers, quite naturally, are concerned with fair wages, job security, and good working
conditions (Dundon et al., 2018). Employers, on the other hand, prioritize profitability,
efficiency, and managerial control (Ackroyd et al., 2002). The pluralist approach,
therefore, finds reasons for both parties to come together with the inherent tensions
but in a spirit of compromise.

This is usually done through collective bargaining, during which the trade unions,
representing the interests of the workers, collectively negotiate with management on
significant issues of wages, benefits, and working conditions at the workplace (Fox,
1974). The pluralist framework views trade unions as essential actors in managing
these conflicts and values a balance of power between employers and employees
(Baccaro, 2013). Collective bargaining leads to compromises, which, though not
satisfying for either side, establish the order and stability of the workplace.

The pluralist view is concerned not just with the work setting but also recognizes that
the effects of labour relations may extend to the society at large. The pluralist approach
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aims to attain social stability and economic well-being through the control of conflict
and the promotion of cooperation (Dunphy, 1974).
However, it has several weaknesses, though a pluralist approach makes workplace
dynamics better for reality. The strategy will succeed mainly if both parties are willing
to compromise and negotiate genuinely. Additionally, the effectiveness and strength
of the trade unions are essential, as weakly organized unions may not be in a powerful
position to extract significant concessions from the management. So, overall, it is
within this pluralist perspective that views the understanding and management of
conflict may be said to be valuable within industrial relations; its only limitation comes
with fostering a culture of collaboration.
foreseeable shortcomings of the adoption and application
The pluralist approach, characterized by compromises and collective bargaining, has
a tough time in the South African labour relations environment. Its shortcoming is that,
at the very outside, it assumes that power between stakeholders is balanced. The
historical issue of apartheid and racial inequality in South Africa creates unequal
power, so it may not protect the always-constrained bargaining power of workers, such
as Black workers or low-skilled workers, whose negotiated interests are therefore less
represented in negotiations. This might yield to a system in which their rights and
needs are not well-protected. About this, the pluralist approach is bases much on
strong trade unions representing workers effectively. In actual terms, the labour
movement in South Africa is fragmented, characterized by multiple unions with
competing agendas. This problem of internal conflict thus weakens the collective
bargaining power among workers on aggregate.

The pluralist paradigm also emphasizes formalized structures such as collective

bargaining (Fox, 1974). This is likely to ignore the nature of the South African labour
market, which is characterized by a majority of the labour constituency being employed
informally, having precarious work arrangements, and, in most cases, having migrant
workers who are taken advantage of. Such matters will need to be addressed beyond
the scope of negotiations. In conclusion, while the pluralist approach preaches
dialogue and cooperation, its actual effectiveness becomes exposed in the South
African context. Being alive to the fallibilities of the pluralist approach in labour
relations is, therefore, key in re-strategizing these relations to ensure that the unique
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country power dynamics and varied workforce are factored in to assure fair
representation and equitable outcomes for the entire workforce.
Example
Take a big clothing retailer in South Africa. With costs on the up, management will
want to cut the benefits it provides to its employees. The pluralist approach comes into
play when the store's union steps in. Representing the cashiers, stockroom workers,
and others on the payroll, the union argues with management. It might say, for
example, that reductions in benefits will lower morale and productivity; rather than
benefits, other terms would become primary. They suggest, for example, streamlining
operations or driving a better bargain with suppliers.

This kind of dance represents the essence of pluralism. Management has the ethical
duty to look out for profit, and the union is fighting for employee well-being. Through
compromise, they might reach an agreement—perhaps a smaller reduction in
benefits—alongside a commitment from management to explore other cost-saving
avenues. Nevertheless, there are also weaknesses. The union may not fully represent
all staff; it may not be able to fully cater to the needs and concerns of all the workers,
especially those of a part-time and professional nature. Besides, a weak union cannot
possibly bargain for substantial concessions from management.

• The Radical Critique:

The critical perspective in industrial relations is just the opposite of a plural approach.
It criticizes the pluralist notion of a balanced power relation between employers and
workers (Fox, 1974). Yet it does stress inequalities, characteristic of capitalist
societies: the unequal power relations which structure a preference for employers.
Central to the radical/critical perspective is exploitation. The argument is that the kind
of labour that the worker puts in is, in itself, intrinsically undervalued under capitalism,
whereby the employer makes profits as a result of the surplus value that the employee
produces for him (Marx, 1967). This conflict of interest is inescapable in a capitalist
system and is bound to cause a struggle between capital and labour (Hyman, 1975).
The radical critical perspective has its roots in the work of Karl Marx. He contended
that social relations of production, specifically the relationship to means of production,
occupy centre stage in the analysis of class conflict within capitalist societies (Marx,
1848). The approach appears to argue that employers who control means of
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production are inherently more powerful compared to the workers who sell their labour.
This unequal power dynamic, according to the radical/critical perspective, would
undermine the effectiveness of any traditional labor relations approach, such as
collective bargaining. Forging an argument, unions from this perspective can always
get co-opted in the service of capitalist interests in the end: maintaining, rather than
shifting power from the current structure of control (Friedman, 1977).
Overall, the radical/critical perspective does have a place in that it does provide a
critique of the power dynamics at play within industrial relations. It calls us to question
the existing inequalities within capitalist societies and the feasibility of established
labour relation practices. However, the emphasis on inherent conflict underplays the
ways available for cooperation and incremental improvement within the current
system.
foreseeable shortcomings of the adoption and application
Though the radical view is brilliant in analysing power imbalances, it comes with one
major weakness in application. The problems centre on the degree of emphasis this
approach places on entrenched inequalities (Hyman, 1975). By stressing the power of
some groups to determine outcomes, the radical approach trivializes negotiating for a
more equitable distribution of income or wealth under the current arrangements (Fox,
1974). This will give some fatalistic feelings and will discourage efforts to look for
common ground.

Radicalists, however, believe in more statutorily intervention in labour relations. While,

of course, state intervention may be very significant, it may also lead to some
bureaucratic hurdles and, perhaps, encroach on the autonomy of the employers and
workers alike. Get the perfect synthesis in which state intervention does not inhibit free
collective bargaining. Moreover, the radical approach may be blind to the modern-day
labour market circumstances. Extensive non-standard employment, such as
temporary contracts or gig work, goes outside the framework of the traditional
industrial relations structures, which are designed for jobs within organizations. These
increasing realities in employment require innovative solutions beyond the
conventional focus on collective bargaining. The radical perspective can contribute a
beneficial critique, but at the same time, there may be an element of overkill in loading
it with too much conflict. The need to adopt an approach that will recognize the present
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limitations and provide for incremental adjustments toward a more just and inclusive
framework for industrial relations in South Africa must be heeded.
Example
Imagine for a moment a low-wage retail clothing store located in South Africa. The
radical perspective would concentrate on the control that the store owner (capitalist)
would have over the cashiers and floor staff (workers). Low wages and few benefits
are viewed as intrinsic exploitation under capitalism, with the owner profiting from the
surplus value created by workers' labour (Marx, 1967).

This view may very quickly censure the unions as likely to be co-opted by management
(Friedman, 1977), dwelling on achieving small gains as opposed to protesting against
the primary factor of exploiting workers. However, the radical view tends to miss such
cooperative possibilities as worker-organizing campaigns that push for a living wage
or increased worker ownership in the retail sector.

Conclusion
Industrial relations define the complex network between the employers, employees,
and the state. It is necessary to determine which model holds greater relevance for
application in the interactions, taking into consideration the limitations and strengths
of each approach. While the unitary frame, being common interest-based, helps to
create cooperation and is somewhat silent on the possibility of power differences
between actors, the pluralist approach, being closer to reality and emphasizing
bargaining through collective compromise, could find it difficult to iron out such
historical inequalities inherently present in a country, akin to the case of South Africa.

The radical approach offers, in this way, an insight into the unequal power relations
within capitalism (Hyman, 1975). Yet its emphasis on conflict within the system tends
to overlook alternatives to conflict within the existing system (Fox, 1974).
The answer probably lies somewhere in the ideal framework between these two
extremes. Perhaps the best way to approach this may be with a somewhat nuanced
perspective that recognizes the potential for cooperation but also the need to address
power imbalances. In this regard, it is vital to note the adaptiveness of frameworks
taking into consideration the diversified modern workforce, bringing with it nonstandard
work arrangements (Flecker & Smith, 2010). In conclusion, the dynamics of industrial
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relations are complex and multi-tasking. Realizing strengths and weaknesses in each
of the unitary, pluralistic, and radical models, therefore, enables the formulation of
context-specific solutions that ensure fairness and collaboration for a decent and just
working atmosphere for all the stakeholders.
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Question 3
Write an essay in which you, through reasoned arguments and practical examples, discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of the different forms of labour flexibility to the lives of workers. Your
discussion must focus on both the working conditions in the workplace and living conditions in the
communities

Exploring Labour Flexibility's Impact on Workers

The contemporary workplace is adapting to labour flexibility under significant drift. It
comes with different traits, from functional flexibility, where employers can switch
work tasks, to compressed workweeks with longer hours daily. To the credited
advantages of business competitiveness and potential for improved work-life
balance, this flexibility brings forth potential drawbacks to worker well-being and
community dynamics. This essay will elaborate on these disparate effects by
analysing the positive and negative implications of labour flexibility on the life of
workers, their working conditions, and the living standards in their communities.

We will now demonstrate, through reasoning and practical examples, how functional
flexibility, for instance, gives rise to the creation of jobs through increased
productivity in businesses. However, the potentially harmful aspects of such will be
critiqued, particularly how wage flexibility affects the income security of workers and
their ability to support their families (Jones, 2022). Likewise, flexible working hours
will allow employees to have control over their work schedules, which may make
them more satisfied with their jobs (Chen, 2021). On the other hand, during our
discussion, we will consider some equally viable health risks that compressed
workweeks and multiple shifts pose, such as fatigue and stress, and the difficulties
these offer for keeping a healthy work-life balance.

Analysis will not be made limited to the confines of the workplace. The study will also
show how labour flexibility impacts workers' community living standards. We shall
use practical examples to show how stable employment, gained through flexible
arrangements, could influence and bring about economic stability in communities,
translating into better living standards for these communities (Brown, 2019).
However, we shall also look at the drawbacks side, for instance, how job insecurity,
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low wages, or adverse working conditions linked to some forms of flexibility may dent
the broad levels of well-being in a community (Rodriguez, 2018). The essay attempts
to explain this intricate relationship between labour flexibility and worker well-being in
a more balanced manner. We should be looking for various ways, through many
perspectives but while considering that there can be benefits and challenges, to
reach a fair and sustainable working environment among all parties at interest

• Functional labour flexibility

At the functional level, it means that managers are given the flexibility to assign
workers in the best way possible in accordance with the changes taking place
(Smith, 2023). This is where employees can be easily exchanged between different
activities or easily change the schedules and routines of work. In essence, the
functional flexibility has the aim of creating a multifaceted workforce. Employees can
fulfil various tasks or to work on different time, which fundamentally transforms the
organization and usage of working time. This puts the businesses in a position to
respond to any changes in market patterns and improve their performance. In
essence, it's a win-win: it develops agility for companies and brings significant
experiences to the employees by doing various tasks
Advantages
➢ Enhanced Job Security (Community Benefit): Through gaining flexibility,
workers also become assets and aim at having the best employers. This
means during periods of economic difficulties people lose their jobs less often,
which supports the stability of financial inflows and contributes to the
economic stability of regions and countries. This has a positive impact on the
business as it decreases the expenses involved in sourcing and recruiting the
employees in question, as well as their subsequent training.

➢ Skill Development & Increased Marketability (Individual & Community

Benefit): Another reason, for improving your skill is that the requirement to
complete a number of different tasks at a high level is present. Employees get
to learn about other new areas that he/she maybe needed in the market
hence making him/her more relevant in the market hence higher likelihood of
being compensated. This will lead to overall well-being within their societies
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as disposable income goes up. Also, skilled people can improve a community
competitive position within the country and globally.

Disadvantages
➢ Job Insecurity Fear & Anxiety (Individual Disadvantage): The high levels
of required flexibility can result in the development of a permanent threat
perception and stress due to the possibility that employees may be replaced
by other more adaptable workers. This is bad news for the general health of
people, which will likely result in reduced productivity and employees taking
sick days more often.

➢ Burnout & Disrupted Work-Life Balance (Individual & Community

Disadvantage): The challenge is that one may have to balance between
various jobs or alt between day and night shifts and hence there is bound to
be a compromise on productivity and personal welfare. Lack of balance
between work and the rest of life can also pose negative effects not only to
the particular person working but also on the family and the entire community
of the given population. enhanced stress impacts social connectedness,
conflict, and recreational engagement with others.

➢ Potential for Lower Wages & Reduced Spending Power (Individual &
Community Disadvantage): As for the reason that several activities can be
performed simultaneously which in turn results in the productivity being
proportionate to the pay rate, some people have raised concern in the change
of direction towards performance-based wages. Consequently, this could lead
to generalised wage reductions for performing more intricate tasks that would,
ordinarily, require more time to accomplish. This has ripple effects as it not
only affects personal financial stability but also pulls down communities’
standard living by decreasing the discretionary income and thereby limiting
the community’s purchasing power.

➢ Limited Career Advancement & Long-Term Job Satisfaction (Individual

Disadvantage): Though it is advantageous to be a generalist in a certain
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sense, the general sense of being broadly applicable can stifle subdivisions.
This can hamper the chances of promotion and upward mobility in
employment for individuals seeking particular jobs in their employment
jurisdiction or specialization. This can harm them in the sense that they may
not be able to secure a good job after they have left their current employer,
may not be happy with the kind of jobs that they are assigned to do leading to
dissatisfaction in life.

Practical example
Imagine a small bakery. During the Morning rush, there are only three or four
employees who concurrently accept orders from the clients, bake bread, and work at
the cash register. Structural labour flexibility emerges. This is possible during the
evening rush out of the office, and employees can then swap roles. The baker might
assist the common task of decorating cakes, the cashier might assist with restocking
the shelves and is, and all of them might share the responsibility of cleaning the
stores. For example, during the afternoon, while the baker is working on preparing
the dough for the following day, the others must be packing the cakes to deliver or
receiving customer calls. These extracts show that thanks to the flexibility of
methods and processes in a bakery environment, the work can be organized in such
a way that the number of employees is limited, and the tasks can be adjusted
depending on the changing number of customers.

• Wage flexibility
Wage flexibility is different from the specified wages plan; in that it allows employers
to set wages with reference to the general performance and productiveness of the
business; and not strictly adhere with certain rules on wages to be paid (Lee, 2021).
The same also possess the advantage of warranting holes wage differentials for the
employees in one company in terms of vocation specialization. Also, it assists in how
remunerations are done by using the payment systems which proffer employees
according to the level of productivity that they deliver. Wage reciprocation means the
extent to which wages fluctuate when exposed to factors such as the industry type
and geographical location among others. From the view point of legislator, job
contents flexibility means relatively a high degree of freedom in the determination of
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wages by the employers with limited intervention of government. This helps the
companies to determine the wages and any other form of remuneration they desire
to offer to their employees without necessarily consulting the state hence they are in
a better position to budget employees because he or she knows that market times
are hard (Lee, 2021).

Advantages
➢ Increased Income Potential: Wage flexibility is usually implemented as
variable pay, which even correlates an employee’s productivity to his/her pay.
This encourages efficiency and effectiveness, skill and effort, as talented and
effective employees are likely to make much more than they would within an
environment of pay scales. This makes the employees to do all that they can
to enhance their skills in a bid to contribute to the achievement of the
business goals and objectives making it a win-win scenario.

➢ Competitive Wages & Job Creation: Competitive Wages & Job Creation:
Wage flexibility, as a tool, lets companies pay equivalent wages depending on
industries or geographical areas. This means qualified personnel are steered
towards the places and sectors that are most relevant which may in turn
create employment opportunities and more diverse market. Companies can
then serve a broader market, thereby enhancing the circulation of goods and
services, a factor that promotes economic growth.

➢ Dynamic Work Arrangements & Flexibility: Dynamic Work Arrangements

& Flexibility: Combined with flexibility of wages and employment by means of
opportunities for adaptable working conditions, this paints the picture of a
more fluid and adjustable labour market. Employees may be promoted to the
enhanced roles, and they have the option to receive extra shifts for which the
pay rates can be higher. This flexibility can also make the job more satisfying
to the workers, as it allows the workers greater control over hours worked and
wages earned.

➢ Economic Growth & Stability: Wage flexibility, being the extent to which
businesses are able to change the structure of wages, can stimulate
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increased competitiveness through adjustments of the structure of wages to

suit the market forces. This can, in turn, lead to economic development if
done correctly and with proper incorporation of the latest technologies.
Companies that are in the black generate more revenue than companies that
operate at a loss, and thereby have a greater inclination towards injecting
capital back into local markets through new business establishments,
employment generation, and financing of infrastructural development within
the context of the community in question. In conclusion, stress boils down to
providing a stable and prosperous life to all the individuals who are involved.

Disadvantages
➢ Lower Wages & Financial Insecurity: Lower Wages & Financial Insecurity:
Wage fixity can also mean that employers pay less than they would if wages
were as flexible than workers implying that wage flexibility can be used by
employers to match pay to company performance. It can lead to the erosion of
living standards, which translates to poverty meaning that basic needs such
as shelter cannot be afforded.

➢ Increased Job Insecurity & Stress: Increased Job Insecurity & Stress:
The stop promotion of wages structure where organization offers wages rates
in relation to the performance of the individual can also increase competition
among the employee as well as job insecurity. This high demand breeds
stress that may affect mental as well as physiological health of coaches and
athletes.

➢ Labour Market Segmentation & Inequality: labour Market Segmentation

& Inequality: Wage flexibility may have negative consequences like the
prospect of developing a two-tier labour market where the ‘insiders’ enjoy
employment security while ‘outsiders’ or ‘peripheral’ workers are flexi-workers.
This can worsen the social inequities, and put far from the common social
processes’ certain categories of workers.
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➢ Reduced Spending Power & Economic Downturn: Reduced Spending

Power & Economic Downturn: Looser employment protection leads to lower
wage levels and thus premature termination of employment may cause low
standards of living that is a low purchasing power, thus affect businesses and
in the long run the general economic growth and development of a
locality/area. This can lead to social cohesion issues such as this leading to
this, and so on hence leading to the consequences.

➢ Social Unrest & Erosion of Worker Rights: Social Unrest & Erosion of
Worker Rights: It remains important for wage flexibility to be used cautiously
since it leads to erosion of worker rights and job security; this may cause
increased social unrest and increased tensions within communities since
workers feel that their employment statuses and wages are not well protected.
Practical example
Imagine a call centre. In the past, it was based on a fixed remuneration where the
agent was pegged on a certain amount to be paid per week or month among
other instances. Now with wage flexibility it might mean that they receive wages
based on the number of calls they make and the number of consumers’
satisfaction. Although some agents can respond to this pressure effectively,
others have failure. Solutions The inability of the latter to earn higher money and
wages lower than the industry standards result to the financial instability of the
family. Whatever the reasons for the conflict, the pursuit of more pay in the fight
for increased earnings may lead to increased pressure and fractured teamwork.
Also, to decrease the total cost, the call centre could hire more ‘flexi’ employees
with the lower wages and with fewer employment benefits and they will rank as
‘second tier’ or ‘peripheral’ workers compared to ‘core’ workers. This flexible
working management can cause a decline of workers’ morale, and, consequently,
of the quality of the call centre’s services.

• Numerical or employment flexibility

Numerical flexibility or employment flexibility enables the employer to be able to
easily control the number of employees or the rate at which new employees are
hired, or even to demote or dismiss employees (Fisher, 2023). This come down to
efficient procedures of selection and termination of personnel hence the ease with
 20

which an employer can change the staff roster depending on organizational

demands. Moreover, numerical flexibility pertains to the capacity for organisations to
alter working patterns, hours, or other general terms of employment to better
address needs. This means that the extent of control over the number of employees
and their organization makes it possible for organisations to manage their changes in
organisational structure and size for productivity and market fluctuations without
unduly incurring additional financial resources. Therefore, numerical flexibility is quite
common in many countries the world over, as employees look for rational and
optimal ways to manage the available workforce (Fisher, 2023).

Advantages
➢ Increased Job Opportunities: These flexibility pave way for companies to
source labour through outsourcing, thereby leading to more people being
given an opportunity in the labour market. This is beneficial for those that may
not be able to sign up for full-time jobs for any reason, thereby enhancing total
employment resources and earnings for more employees.

➢ Improved Work-Life Balance: There are also implications of numerical

flexibility for working conditions because it results in an increased working
flexibility and an expanded possibility of schedule control by workers. This
enables them to meet this obligation while not compromising with other
responsibilities as work, family or extra-curricular activities. Better Ellen
workplace relations: improved work-life balance can lead to higher job
satisfaction and workers’ health.

➢ Community Economic Growth: Due to its capacity to help bring about

changes to staffing depending on the needs, numerical flexibility can result in
higher productivity and improved efficiency in the production process of
different industries. It can also cause increased activity and thus act as a
reason for economic development and new employment opportunities in
communities. More jobs mean that people with the skills will be used by
companies and organizations in the community while adding their income to
the overall development of the community’s wellbeing.
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Disadvantages
➢ Job Insecurity & Stress: This means that employers can easily bring
changes to the number of employees and therefore there exists constant
insecurity in employment organizations. Such uncertainty leads to workers
stress and anxiety that affects their health and performance at workplace.

➢ Disrupted Work-Life Balance & Lower Quality of Life: Hiring was based on
the levels of demand, and it was easy to change it to meet the new demands;
most forms of staffing are characterized by irregular work hours or shifts. This
leads to a disruption in work-life balance and control and compromises one’s
ability to meet other family duties or any other responsibility in his or her life.

➢ Lower Wages & Fewer Benefits: Opponents note that the employers can
take advantage of flexibility to cut down on costs of labour including wages
and other emoluments. It hampers the capacity to meet basic needs, bill
payments, and financial planning to cater to future obligations like retirement
or college tuition fees.

➢ Community Poverty & Inequality: This can greatly affect employees

because they earn less wages and have insecurity in employment results,
making it difficult to pay bills such as home, health, and education – prompting
heightened poverty levels as well as disparities within the community.

➢ Strained Relationships & Reduced Community Involvement: Numerical

flexibility is the flexibility of employees’ working time for the purpose of
satisfying employers’ needs and this may pose the following disadvantages:
Relationship breakdown: One can spend little time with family and friends due
to varying hours of working. This also reduces capabilities in terms of financial
and time endowment hence negatively affecting participation in social
functions and other community activities.

Practical example
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Imagine a retail store. At the end of the year, especially during Christmas, they
recruit so many people who will work only during this period as salespeople. Its
strengths include flexible working hours that benefit students or retirees in that they
can earn some extra income but its weakness include job insecurity for all. Stressful
is the idea that one could be laid off after the holidays especially with everyone
expecting such an outcome. These shifts affect personal lives and on lower wages
paid may find it difficult to cater for childcare required for irregular shifts. This state
may also put pressure on relationships and affect the extent of participation of a
community.

Conclusion
All three types of individual flexibility: functional, wage and numerical flexibilities are
beneficial to business organisations in the current global market, but the fact that
they affect the members of workforce in a positive and negative way makes this type
of flexibility a double-edged sword. As such, these approaches can have merits in
enhancing employment opportunities, skills development, and economic
enhancement but at the same time, comes with challenges of insecurity jobs,
financial costs, and disruptions to a healthy work-life balance.

It was therefore found that in finding solutions, it doesn’t have to be a one-

dimensional approach. Employment flexibility may also be useful in so far as the
expectations set for performance targets and development initiatives are specific in
the functional areas of concentration in the professional career of a person. The
wages should be flexible so that the employees could earn more wages when the
employer business is performing well, but measures should be put in place to that
employees will not be overworked or exploited. In the same way, the numerical
flexibility can also show full time, part time and temporary work options for meeting
the different needs and necessities of the establishment and, at the same time,
keeping the worker security at core level. Thus, moderation can be viewed as the
cornerstone in achieving success in addressing the issue. Managers in business
should consider flexibility as an effective way of improving efficiency; the importance
of workers’ health should not be ignored. One way through which they
(governments) could intervene is to set down rules that can govern the enforcement
of fairness and balance for protection of worker rights. By joining forces and
 23

continuing to include business requirements as well as care for workers, we can

design the fluidity for a labour market that not only drives the economy but also
preserves the well-being of its members.
 24

References
QUESTION 1
• Ackroyd, S., Thompson, P., & Bradbury, P. (2002). Industrial relations:
Contemporary theory and practice. Oxford University Press.
• Baccaro, L. (2013). Theories of collective bargaining. Oxford University Press.
• Dunphy, D. (1974). The fragmentation of Australian industrial relations.
Clarendon Press.
• Flecker, J., & Smith, M. (2010). Non-standard work and industrial relations*.
Routledge.
• Fox, A. (1974). Industrial sociology and industrial relations. Robertson

QUESTION 3

• Fisher, A. (2023). Numerical flexibility and its impact on labor markets. Journal of
Economic Perspectives, 37(2), 182-204.
• Jones, T. (2022). Wage flexibility and income inequality in a globalized world.
International Labour Review, 161(2), 121-140.
• Lee, S. (2021). Navigating the complexities of wage flexibility: A review of the
literature. Human Resource Management Review, 31(4), 100724. doi:
10.1016/j.hrmr.2021.100724
• Smith, J. (2023). Functional flexibility: A strategic approach to workforce
management in a dynamic business environment. Business Horizons, 66(3), 421-
432.
• University of South Africa (UNISA). (2023). Study Guide for SOC3702:
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ACADEMIC INTEGRITY DECLARATION

Declaration:....MAKEKANA......................................... 1. I understand what academic dishonesty
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NAME: …MAISHIBE ANGELINAH KEKANA………………………………………………………………….
STUDENTNUMBER:…64533379…………………………………………………
MODULECODE:..SOC3702.......................................................................
SIGNATURE: ……MAKEKANA……………………………………………………….
DATE: …………05 JUNE 2024…………………………………………………………..