Topic: 3 Total Quality Mgmt and Lean Production as a tool in achieving a World Class Company Defining Quality The

e totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs Implications of Quality 1. Company reputation Perception of new products Employment practices Supplier relations 2. Product liability Reduce risk 3. Global implications Improved ability to compete Two Ways Quality Improves Profitability

2.

The Flow of Activities

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) An organized scientific approach towards continuous improvement of quality involving everyone in the organization covering every function aimed towards total customer satisfaction Demings Fourteen Points 1. Create consistency of purpose 2. Lead to promote change 3. Build quality into the product; stop depending on inspection 4. Build long-term relationships based on performance, not price 5. Continuously improve product, quality, and service 6. Start training 7. Emphasize leadership 8. Drive out fear 9. Break down barriers between departments 10. Stop haranguing workers 11. Support, help, improve 12. Remove barriers to pride in work 13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement 14. Put everybody in the company to work on the transformation Shonbergers 19 Principles of TQM General 1. Get to know the next and final customer

Get to know the direct competition, and the world class leaders 3. Dedicate to continual, rapid improvement in quality, response time, flexibility, and cost. 4. Achieve unified purpose via extensive sharing of information and involvement in planning and implementation of change. Design and Organization 5. Cut the number of components or operations and number of suppliers to a few good ones. 6. Organize resources into chains of customers, each chain mostly self-contained and focused on a product or customer family. Operations 7. Cut flow time, distance, inventory, and space along the chain customer 8. Cut setup, changeover, get-ready, and start-up time. 9. Operate at the customers rate of use (smoothed representation of it-lean) Human Resource Development 10. Continually invest in human resources through cross-training (for mastery), education, job switching, and multiyear cross-career reassignments, improved health, safety and security. 11. Develop operator-owner of products, processes, and outcome via broadened owner like reward and recognition. Quality and Process Improvement 12. Make it easier to produce or provide the product without mishap or process variation. 13. Record and own quality, processes, and mishap data at workplace. 14. Ensure that front-line associates get first chance at process improvement-before staff experts. Accounting and Control 15. Cut transactions and reporting; control causes and measures performance at the source, not via periodic cost reports. Marketing and Sales 16. Market and sell your firms increasing customeroriented capabilities and competencies. Capacity 17. Maintain/improve present resources and human work before thinking about new equipment and automation 18. Automate incrementally when process variability cannot otherwise be reduced 19. Seek to have multiple workstations, flow lines, and cells for each product or customer family Seven Concepts of TQM 1. Continuous improvement 2. Six Sigma 3. Employee empowerment 4. Benchmarking 5. Just-in-time (JIT) 6. Taguchi concepts 7. Knowledge of TQM tools Tools of TQM Tools for Generating Ideas 1. Check sheets 2. Scatter diagrams 3. Cause-and-effect diagrams Tools to Organize the Data 4. Pareto charts 5. Flowcharts

Tools for Identifying Problems 6. Histogram 7. Statistical process control chart World Class Performance through TQM in the Car Manufacturing Industry: Toyota Motor Corp The right process will produce the right results Create continuous process flow to bring problems to the surface Use the "pull" system to avoid overproduction Level out the workload (heijunka). (Work like the tortoise, not the hare.) Build a culture of stopping to fix problems, to get quality right from the first Standardized tasks are the foundation for continuous improvement and employee empowerment Use visual control so no problems are hidden Use only reliable, thoroughly tested technology that serves your people and processes. Add value to the organization by developing your people and partners Grow leaders who thoroughly understand the work, live the philosophy, and teach it to others. Develop exceptional people and teams who follow your company's philosophy. Respect your extended network of partners and suppliers by challenging them and helping them improve. Measurement of TQM Success in a World Class Plant. Malcom Baldrige National Quality Award Established in 1988 by the U.S. government Designed to promote TQM practices Recent winners: Premier Inc., MESA Products, Sunny Fresh Foods, Park Place Lexus, North Mississippi Medical Center, The Bama Companies, Richland College, Texas Nameplate Company, Inc. International Quality Standards ISO 9000 series (Europe/EC) Common quality standards for products sold in Europe (even if made in U.S.) 2000 update places greater emphasis on leadership and customer satisfaction ISO 14000 series (Europe/EC) Environmental management Auditing Performance evaluation Labeling Life cycle assessment LEAN DEFINITION Production practice that considers the expenditure of resources for any goal other than the creation of value for the end customer to be wasteful, and thus a target for elimination. The perspective of the customer who consumes a product or service, "value" is defined as any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for. Waste in LEAN

Building a Lean Organization Transitioning to a lean system can be difficult Lean systems tend to have the following attributes Use JIT techniques Build systems that help employees produce perfect parts Reduce space requirements Develop partnerships with suppliers Educate suppliers Eliminate all but value-added activities Develop employees Make jobs challenging Build worker flexibility Lean Manufacturing Philosophy Customers can have what they want, when they want it without a penalty. Improvement is always possible and necessary. Customers are the reason for existence, and they must always have a perfect product or service. All buffers are wasteful and need to be eliminated. A career consists of solving more difficult problems in a multi-skilled, cross-functional team environment Lean Manufacturing Strategy Know your customer and their needs, identify value-added activities and functions. Focus all the businesses' processes around the value stream of activities. Align your company to the needs of your customers. Activities that take time, resources and space but do not to the customer's requirement are nonvalue added and must be reduced or eliminated. Establish performance measurements in all aspects of the value stream. Topic: 4 Application of World Class Manufacturing Techniques using an Integrated Quality Control (IQC) What is Kaizen? Kaizen is a Japanese philosophy that focuses on continuous improvement throughout all aspects of life. When applied to the workplace, Kaizen activities continually improve all functions of a business, from manufacturing to management and from the CEO to the assembly line workers. Objectives of Kaizen Activities Kaizen aims to eliminate waste; can refer to Lean Manufacturing. Through standardized activities and processes. Kaizen Activities The cycle of kaizen activity can be defined as: 1. standardize an operation 2. measure the standardized operation (find cycle time and amount of in-process inventory) 3. gauge measurements against requirements 4. innovate to meet requirements and increase productivity 5. standardize the new, improved operations 6. Continue cycle. Kaizen activities is also known as the Shewhart cycle, Deming cycle, or PDCA.

Kaizen and Quality Control in a World Class Company Originally used by Toyota to foster continued improvement within its Toyota Production System. It began as "Quality Circles," a means of factory shop floor employees solving quality issues within a structured team framework, using specific new tools. It is now used around the world by many companies and has been adapted to suit their individual needs and customs. Kaizen events are a way of accelerating improvements to improve worker productivity, helping management to find new ways to gain substantial savings in time, space and labour output. To collapse lead times, reduce work-in-process dramatically, reducing scrap and defects while minimizing the need for capital expenditures. The 10 Forms of Muda (Waste Elimination) o Overproducing o Wasting time o Transporting o Over-processing o Inventory (WIP) o Excess motion of operators and workers o Scrap and rework o Human under utilization o Improper use of computers o Working to the wrong metrics Incorporation of 5S in the Muda (Waste Elimination) Activities Seiri- tidiness Seiton- orderliness Seiso- cleanliness Seiketsu- standardized clean-up Shitsuke - discipline The Objectives of the IQC To contribute to the improvement and development of the enterprise. To respect human relations and build a happy workshop offering job satisfaction. To deploy human capabilities fully and draw out infinite potential. What is Jidoka? 1. Automation in the usual sense : to change from a manual process to a machine process. 2. "Automatic control of defects Autonomation To distinguish between the two meanings of Jidoka, Toyota often refers the second type of Jidoka as Ninbennoaru Jidoka or literally translated, "automation with a human mind or autonomation.

It is process or technique of detecting and correcting production defects, that always incorporate the following devices: - A mechanism to detect abnormalities or defects occur - A mechanism to stop the line or machine when abnormalities or defects occur. Example of Jidoka or Autonomation An Andon system stops the line and signals to the rest of the shop floor that something is wrong and needs to be addressed; which can be done by the line worker or the automatic system devices that installed to the machine. Toyota: A mat is installed between workstations to enable the workers to step on it and to shut down the line if he/she does not finish his or her task in the specified amount of time. Thus special attention should be focused in that particular area why it is taking him/her longer than required. Important components in Autonomation Cost reduction through decreases in the workforce, Adaptability to changes in demand (in production), Increased respect for humanity. Topic: 5 CASE STUDY ON TOYOTA PRODUCTION SysTEM (TPS) Toyota Motor Corporation Largest vehicle manufacturer in the world with annual sales of over 9 million vehicles Success due to two techniques, JIT and TPS Continual problem solving is central to JIT Eliminating excess inventory makes problems immediately evident TOYOTAS GLOBAL COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE Based on corporate philosophy known as Toyota Production Systems (TPS) This systems depends on : - Human resource policy that stimulate employee creativity and abilities. - High efficient network of suppliers Employee Empowerment annual result > 700,000 improvement suggestions submitted by employee This is average of 10 improvement per employee per year Over 99% suggestions were implemented. FRAMEWORK OF TOYOTA PRODUCTION SYSTEM Maintain a continuous flow of products in factories in order to flexibly adapt to demand changes. Producing only necessary items and quantity at the required time - Just-in-time. As a result: increased in productivity and reduced cost. TOYOTA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IMPORTANT GOALS Primary goal is a cost reduction Other important goals are Quantity control adaptation to demands fluctuation Quality assurance - supply only good units to subsequent processes Respect-for-humanity - human resource management to attain its cost objectives OVERVIEW OF TOYOTA PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Continuous flow and adapting to demand changes achieved through four key concepts practiced: Just-in-time Autonomation (Jidoka) Flexible Workforce (Shojinka) Creative thinking or inventive ideas (Shoikufu) To realize the above four concepts, Toyota have established the following systems and methods: Kanban system to maintain Just-in-time production Production smoothing method to adapt to demand changes. Shortening of the setup time for reducing the production lead time. Standardization of operations to attain line balancing. Machine layout and multi-function workers for the flexible workforce concept. Improvement activities by small groups and the suggestion system to reduce the workforce and increase the worker's morale. Visual control system to achieve the Autonomation concept. Functional Managements system to promote company-wide quality control KANBAN SYSTEM: JUSTINTIME PRODUCTION The Kanban system is an information system that harmoniously controls the production of the necessary products in the necessary quantities at the necessary time. This is known as Just In Time production. At Toyota, the Kanban system is regarded as a subsystem of the whole Toyota Production System. Just-In-Time (JIT) Powerful strategy for improving operations Materials arrive where they are needed when they are needed Identifying problems and driving out waste reduces costs and variability and improves throughput Requires a meaningful buyer-supplier relationship JIT and Competitive Advantage

JIT Partnerships JIT partnerships exist when a supplier and purchaser work together to remove waste and drive down costs Four goals of JIT partnerships are: Removal of unnecessary activities Removal of in-plant inventory Removal of in-transit inventory Improved quality and reliability JIT Partnerships

Concerns of Suppliers Diversification ties to only one customer increases risk Scheduling dont believe customers can create a smooth schedule Changes short lead times mean engineering or specification changes can create problems Quality limited by capital budgets, processes, or technology Lot sizes small lot sizes may transfer costs to suppliers JIT Layout Reduce waste due to movement JIT Layout Tactics Build work cells for families of products Include a large number operations in a small area Minimize distance Design little space for inventory Improve employee communication Use poka-yoke devices Build flexible or movable equipment Cross-train workers to add flexibility Distance Reduction Large lots and long production lines with singlepurpose machinery are being replaced by smaller flexible cells Often U-shaped for shorter paths and improved communication Often using group technology concepts Increased Flexibility Cells designed to be rearranged as volume or designs change Applicable in office environments as well as production settings Facilitates both product and process improvement Impact on Employees Employees are cross trained for flexibility and efficiency Improved communications facilitate the passing on of important information about the process With little or no inventory buffer, getting it right the first time is critical Reduced Space and Inventory

With reduced space, inventory must be in very small lots Units are always moving because there is no storage Inventory Inventory is at the minimum level necessary to keep operations running JIT Inventory Tactics Use a pull system to move inventory Reduce lot sizes Develop just-in-time delivery systems with suppliers Deliver directly to point of use Perform to schedule Reduce setup time Use group technology Reduce Variability

Lower Setup Costs

Reduce Setup Times

Reduce Lot Sizes

Ideal situation is to have lot sizes of one pulled from one process to the next Often not feasible Can use EOQ analysis to calculate desired setup time Two key changes necessary Improve material handling Reduce setup time Lot Size Example D = Annual demand = 400,000 units D = Daily demand = 400,000/250 = 1,600 per day P = Daily production rate = 4,000 units Q = EOQ desired = 400 H = Holding cost = $20 per unit S = Setup cost (to be determined)

Reduce Setup Costs High setup costs encourage large lot sizes Reducing setup costs reduces lot size and reduces average inventory Setup time can be reduced through preparation prior to shutdown and changeover

JIT Scheduling Schedules must be communicated inside and outside the organization Level schedules Process frequent small batches Freezing the schedule helps stability Kanban Signals used in a pull system Better scheduling improves performance JIT Scheduling Tactics Communicate schedules to suppliers Make level schedules Freeze part of the schedule Perform to schedule Seek one-piece-make and one-piece move Eliminate waste Produce in small lots Use kanbans Make each operation produce a perfect part Level Schedules Process frequent small batches rather than a few large batches Make and move small lots so the level schedule is economical Jelly bean scheduling Freezing the schedule closest to the due dates can improve performance Kanban A Kanban is a tool to achieve Just-in-time production. Two technique of Kanbans are mainly used : Withdrawal Kanban: specifies the kind and quantity of product which the subsequent process should withdraw from the preceding process. Production-ordering Kanban specifies the kind and quantity of product which the preceding process must produce. User removes a standard sized container

Signal is seen by the producing department as authorization to replenish When the producer and user are not in visual contact, a card can be used When the producer and user are in visual contact, a light or flag or empty spot on the floor may be adequate Since several components may be required, several different kanban techniques may be employed Usually each card controls a specific quantity or parts Multiple card systems may be used if there are several components or different lot sizes In an MRP system, the schedule can be thought of as a build authorization and the kanban a type of pull system that initiates actual production Kanban cards provide a direct control and limit on the amount of work-in-process between cells If there is an immediate storage area, a two-card system can be used with one card circulating between the user and storage area and the other between the storage area and the producer The Number of Kanban Cards or Containers Need to know the lead time needed to produce a container of parts Need to know the amount of safety stock needed

Number of Kanbans Example Daily demand = 500 cakes Production lead time = 2 days (Waiting time + Material handling time + processing time) Safety stock = 1/2 day Container size = 250 cakes

Types of Kanban Express Kanbans: An express Kanbans is issued when there is a shortage of a part. Only in extraordinary situations. Emergency Kanban: An emergency Kanban will be issued temporarily when some inventory is required to make up for defective units, machine troubles, extra insertions, or a spurt in a weekend operation. Job-Order Kanban: Is prepared for a job-order production line and is issued for each job order. Through Kanban: If two or more processes are so closely connected with each other that they can be seen as a single process, there is no need to exchange Kanbans between these adjacent processes. In such a case, a common sheet of Kanban is used by these plural processes. Common Kanban: A withdrawal Kanban can also be used as a production-ordering Kanban if the distance between two processes is very short and one supervisor is supervising both processes. To realize the Just-in-time purpose of Kanban Rule 1: The subsequent process should withdraw the necessary products from the preceding process in the necessary quantities at the necessary point in time.

Rule 2: The preceding process should produce its products in the quantities withdrawn by the subsequent process. Rule 3: Defective products should never be conveyed to the subsequent process. Rule 4: The number of Kanbans should be minimized. Rule 5: Kanban should be used to adapt to small fluctuations in demand (fine-tuning of production by Kanban). Advantages of Kanban Allow only limited amount of faulty or delayed material Problems are immediately evident Puts downward pressure on bad aspects of inventory Standardized containers reduce weight, disposal costs, wasted space, and labor Push/Pull Manufacturing Kanban is a pull type manufacturing control strategy. Basically there are two main manufacturing control strategists exist: Push manufacturing: information flows in the same direction as production. Pull manufacturing: opposite direction. Push manufacturing - characterized by manufacturing to forecast, and emphasizes on batch processing and lot sizes. Each area runs at maximum capacity, and the material is pushed downstream. Push planning methods include MRP, reorder points, and optimum order quantities. Pull manufacturing - visual replenishment of goods, where only is produced what is demanded by the next work center. It got its start in America in the grocery business. Only products consumed by the customer where replaced on the shelves. The most important pull planning methods are based on visual signals. Benefits of Pull Manufacturing reduced inventory levels (raw materials, work in process and finished goods) reduced floor space reduced lead times increased productivity smoother production flow increased customer satisfaction reduced total costs higher production visibility Drawbacks of Pull Manufacturing the machine setup times are high and changeovers are frequent quality variation is high demand variation is high machine downtimes are high and frequent Setup Time A single setup: setup time has a single-digit number of minutes (within nine minutes, 59 seconds) Innovative concept invented by the Japanese in the field of Industrial Engineering Developed by Shigeo Shingo, a consultant at Toyota Setup Concepts Concept 1: Separate the internal setup from the external setup. In the external setup, the dies, tools, and materials must be perfectly prepared beside the

machine, and any needed repairs to the dies should have been made in advance. In the internal setup, only the removal and setting of dies must be done. Concept 2: Convert as much as possible of the internal setup to the external setup. This is the most important concept regarding the single setup. Concept 3: Eliminate the adjustment process. The process of adjustment in the setup actions takes about 50 to 70% of the total setup time. Reducing this adjustment time is very important to shorten the total setup time. Concept 4: Abolish the setup step itself. Use uniform product design and use the same part for various products; produce various parts at the same time. Concept Application Technique 1: Standardize the external setup actions. The operations for preparing the dies, tools, and materials should be made into routines and standardized. Such standardized operations should be written on paper and pasted on the wall for workers to see. Then the workers should train themselves to master the routines. Technique 2: Standardize only the necessary portions of the machine. If the size and shape of all the dies is completely standardized, the setup time will be shortened tremendously. Technique 3: Use a quick fastener. Usually a bolt is the most popular fastening tool. But because a bolt fastens at the final turning of the nut and can loosen at the first turn, a convenient fastening tool that would allow only a single turning of the nut should be devised. Some examples are the use of the pear-shaped hole, the Ushaped washer, and the chipped nut and bolt Technique 4: Use a supplementary tool. It takes a lot of time to attach a die or a bite directly to the punch press or the chuck of a lathe. Therefore, the die or bites should be attached to the supplementary tool in the external setup phase, and then in the internal setup phase this tool can be set in the machine at one touch. For this method, the supplementary tools must be standardized. The revolving table car is an example of this technique. Technique 5: Use a mechanical setup system. To attach the die, oil pressure and air pressure could be used for fastening at several positions at a time by the one-touch method. Also, the die heights of a punch press could be adjusted by an electrically operated mechanism. However, although such mechanisms are very convenient, an expensive investment in them would be "putting the cart before the horse". Shojinka: Meeting Demand through Flexibility Attaining flexibility in the number of workers at a workshop to adapt to demand changes Alter (decrease or increase) the number of workers at a shop when the production demand has changed (decreased or increased). Equivalent to increasing productivity by the adjustment and rescheduling of human resources. To realize Shojinka concept, three factors are prerequisite : - Proper design of machinery layout. - A versatile and well-trained worker; i.e. a multi-function worker. - Continuous evaluation and periodic revisions of the standard operations routine. Layout design: the U-turn layout The essence of the U-turn format is that the entrance and exit of a line are at the same

position. The U-turn layout has several variations, such as the concave and circle form (Fig. 8.2). The most remarkable and important advantage of this layout is the flexibility to increase or decrease the necessary number of workers when adapting to changes in production quantities (changes in demand). This can be realized by adding or reducing the number of workers in the inner area of the Ushaped workplace (Fig. 8.2).

Linear layouts: To overcome the demerit of an isolated island layout, different types of machines can be laid in a linear form (Fig. 8.5). Under this layout, workers must walk between machines. This linear layout, allowed products to flow smoothly and quickly among machines resulting to the elimination of the major advantage of isolated layout. One problem that cannot be eliminated using the linear layout however is the inability of reallocating operations among workers to adapt in changes in demand.

Improper layouts Three major categories: bird cages, isolated islands and linear layouts. Bird cage layouts: The simplest form of machine layout calls for one worker assigned to one type of machine. This type of layout has a major disadvantage: the worker has waiting time after he has loaded the work piece into the machine and the part is in process. To avoid such waiting times, two or more stands containing the same type of machine can be laid out around the worker (Fig. 8.3). This type of layout is called a bird cage layout; they are usually triangular, rectangular or rhombic in shape.

Isolated Island layouts: To avoid excessive inventories from each station and decrease the conveyance time. Layout of machines should be improved in accordance with the sequential order of processing a part (Fig. 8.4). This layout assumes the existence if a multifunction worker, and enables a continuous smooth flow of products among different types of machines. It also ensures a continuous walking route with the least distance for each worker.

Attaining Shojinka through multi-function workers Shojinka: the ability to quickly alter the number of workers at each shop to adapt to changes in demand. Viewed from the side of the individual worker, Shojinka demands that the worker must be able to respond to changes in cycle time, operations routines, and in many cases, the contents of individual jobs. To respond quickly, the worker must be multi-functioned; that is, he must be trained to be a skilled worker for any type of job and at any process. Topic: 6 APPLICATION OF ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION SYSTEM FOR A WORLD CLASS MANUFACTURING SYSTEM Automating the Integrated Manufacturing Production Systems (IMPS) IMPS implementation requires a systems-level change for the factory the change that will impact every segment of the company, from accounting to shipping. Ten steps outline the IMPS methodology. Before a company embarks on these 10 steps, all levels from production workers through top management must be educated in IMPS philosophy and concepts. Top management must be totally committed to this venture. Every employee must be involved and motivated and ultimately committed to the change. The conversion to linked-cells is a systems-level change affecting the factory environment and the functional relationships within it. This is a long term strategy. Changing the manufacturing system is equivalent to heart transplant surgery. It is a major surgery and it usually is not elective. 10 STEPS TO IMPS Step One: Form Cells Build the Foundation Create Cells production control, inventory control, and quality control as an integral parts Manned manufacturing and assembly cells Small lots family of parts Multi-skilled workers Step Two: Implement a RETAD System Rapid exchange of tooling and dies SMED (Single minute exchange of dies)

Step Three: Integrate Quality Control Conducive to Quality Control Defective parts cannot be allowed out of the cell Make one; Check one; Pass one Every worker responsibility and authority make the product right the first time Quality Control Tools Step Four: Integrate Preventive Maintenance/Machine Reliability Giving workers the training and tools to properly maintain equipment Excess capacity reduce the speed of equipment Reducing pressure on workers to produce perfect quality Safe working place workers responsible for cleanliness Step Five: Level and Balance Final Assembly Entire manufacturing system is leveled Produced small lots Mixed model sequencing Step Six: Integrate Production Control Link the cells with Kanban Integrates Production Control Downstream processes dictates production rates of upstream processes Kanban links control the movement of materials Withdrawal Kanban & Production Ordering Kanban. Information about the material movement flows in the opposite direction. Downstream usage dictates upstream production volumes. Step Seven: Integrate Inventory Control Reduce Workin-Process/ Expose Problems Integration of inventory control systematically reduces work-in process. People on the plant floor control the inventory levels. Kanban links serves as controllable inventory level and reveals the problem in the cells expose problems rather than inventory excess to cover up problems Step Eight: Extend IMPS to include Vendors Educate and encourage suppliers of IMPS company to develop superior quality, low cost and rapid delivery manufacturing systems. Vendors must be able to deliver material when needed, where needed, without incoming inspection. Step Nine: Automate and Robotize to Solve Problems Conversion of manned cells to unmanned cells. Evolutionary process initiated by the need to solve problems in quantity or capacity to eliminate bottleneck. Automation of human thinking and the automatic detection and correction of problem and defects. Step Ten: Computerize to Link the Linked-Cell Manufacturing System to the Production System Total computerization of the integrated linked-cell manufacturing system Simple and flexible enough for efficient computers to control (CAD, CAM, & DNC Direct Numerical Control) The design of a factory with a future. INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION

The word robot originates from the Czech word for forced labor, or serf. A robot has many components which include: A base fixed or mobile A manipulator arm with several degrees of freedom (DOF) An end-effector or gripper holding a part or a tool A Drives or actuators causing the manipulator arm or end-effector to move in a space Controller with hardware and software support for giving commands to the drives Sensors to feedback the information for subsequent actions of the arm or gripper as well as to interact with the environment in which the robot is working Interfaces connecting the robotic subsystems to the external world. Basically a robot consists of: A mechanical device, such as a wheeled platform, arm, or other construction, capable of interacting with its environment. Sensors on or around the device that is able to sense the environment and give useful feedback to the device. Systems that process sensory input in the context of the devices current situation and instruct the device to perform actions in response to the situation. Robot Defined: A re-programmable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks. Automation Defined: As the process of following a predetermined sequence of operations with little or no human intervention, using specialized equipment and devices that control and perform the manufacturing processes. Originated from the word automatos, meaning self-acting A key step towards improving productivity and asserting competitiveness Know and understand steps towards automation Criteria in the selection of Robots Before knowing in detail the applications main features, the part shape and the material on which the process is applied, is very important in making the decision in this selection. In selecting the robot arm, the applications features are relevant in requiring the following variables: Number of degrees of freedom Accuracy and repeatability Maximum size of the work envelope Maximum payload Required speed, acceleration/deceleration time In selecting the controller the following variables are determining factor: Path/Velocity Control Accuracy and repeatability In selecting the end-effectors we have to take into consideration the following variables: Part shape/material

Accuracy in relation with the need of compensation of some possible misalignments Global decision variables Custom features Cost. Robot Coordinate/Configurations System Physical and geometrical configurations, however, are not the only considerations in the choice of robot for a particular task. Others include: Reach Working volume or envelope Payload capacity End effectors capability Accuracy Repeatability Maneuverability Speed of operation Form of motion (point-to-point vs. continuous path) Provision of sensory feedback Elements and requirements of the immediate task, together with any related, anticipated or likely future developments, are fully explored before a final decision is reached on selection. A feasibility study should always be conducted, since the outcome could indicate that robotization is inappropriate for a particular application. Such an outcome is entirely valid and helpful as it may prevent large capital expenditure on an ineffective resource item. Industrial robots vary greatly in the number and types of movement they possess, their geometrical arrangement and their physical makeup. These factors together formulate the final design of the robot, called its configuration. The configuration of a robot determines to a large extent those tasks to which it is best suited. It affects such things as the robots maneuverability, its payload capacity, its reach and so on. A robot configuration typically comprises a number of rigid, jointed members that together for the manipulator or arm. These members are made from a material strong enough to withstand a variety of applied forces and loads. Considerations of strength and rigidity must take into account: The payload (weight of the cargo/load) to be handled. The weight of the end effector. Dynamic and inertia forces imposed as a result of rapid accelerations and decelerations. The weight of the robot structure. Typical materials used as a robot structure include steel, aluminum and high-strength composite materials. The emphasis is on high strength and low weight; most structures are fabricated form structurally efficient sections or are hollow. The hollow structure have the added advantage that transmission and service elements (air lines, hydraulic hoses, electrical cables, etc.) may be

safely and neatly contained within the structure itself. Cartesian or Rectangular/Gantry Configuration The modes of movement are similar to those of a milling machine, providing movement on X, Y and Z axes. It may also be termed a rectangular configuration since its working range sweeps out a three-dimensional rectangular volume. Particular advantages of this configuration include: Easily controlled/programmed movements High accuracy Accuracy, speed and payload capacity constant over entire working range Control system simplicity Familiar X, Y, Z coordinates easily understood Inherently stiff structure Large area coverage Large payload capacity Structural simplicity, offering good reliability Easily to expand, modular fashion Application: This robot configuration finds in application in those areas where linear movements and high accuracy are demanded Example, manipulation of components through apertures (i.e. furnace doors, machine openings and similar confined spaces), or pick-and-place applications where the work-plane is essentially flat. This particular configuration lends itself to modularization in that it is relatively easy to bring about extensions of its movement by extending its linear axes. Cylindrical Configuration Combines both vertical and horizontal linear movement, with rotary movement in the horizontal plane about the vertical axis. It is so called because its motions sweep out a partially cylindrical working volume. Particular advantages of this configuration include: Easily controlled/programmed movements Control system simplicity Good accuracy Fast operation Good access to front and sides Structural simplicity, offering good reliability. Application: Workplace layouts where the work is approached primarily in the horizontal plane and where no obstructions are present. Include small circular manufacturing cells or loading and unloading applications servicing conveyor systems. Linear movements through both vertical and horizontal apertures are easily accomplished. Polar or Spherical Configuration Combines rotational movement in both horizontal and vertical planes with a single linear (in/out) movement of the arm. Whilst this configuration occupies and sweeps out a relatively large volume, the access of the arm within this total volume is restricted.

Advantage: Easily controlled/programmed movements Familiar polar coordinates easily understood Large payload capacity Fast operation Accuracy and repeatability at long reaches Application: Suited to lifting and shifting applications which do not require sophisticated path movements to be traced and is extremely suitable for applications where reaching into horizontal or inclined tunnels. SCARA Configuration Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm. Combination of the cylindrical configuration and the revolute configuration operating in the horizontal plane. A three-linked arm with two rotary joints provide movements in the horizontal plane, and vertical movement is provided at the end of the arm Advantages: Extremely good maneuverability and access within its programmable area Fast operation High accuracy Relatively high payload capacity due to stiff structure in the vertical direction. Developed primarily for assembly-type operations. Predominantly require movement in the horizontal plane coupled with simple vertical movement for picking, placing and insertion operations. Degrees of Freedom Direction in which a robot moves when a joint is actuated; usually each joint represents one degree of freedom. The majority of robots in use today use five or six degrees of freedom, but the choice is very much dependent upon the robot task or application. Welding robot requires five or six degrees of freedom, but for a pick-and-place application only three axes may need to be specified. Working Envelope Points that can be reached by the maximum and minimum movements of each axis or of a combination of axes. The envelope or volume generated that is quoted in manufacturers literature is normally that taken from the mounting flange at the end of the arm. It is quoted from this position because it is the purchaser who selects the appropriate end-of-arm tooling, which may be bought from other company or made in-house. Selecting the robot with the appropriate working envelope for the task to be carried out is of great importance, as all interaction with peripheral devices and processes must take place within this generated volume. Besides having the capability to reach the equipment within the operating volume, the robot must avoid collisions with work-pieces and with other robots working in its immediate vicinity. For each robot configuration, a different size and shape of operating space is generated. In fact, two

robots of the same configuration can have widely differing working envelopes resulting from the size and type of arm design. Types and Application of Robots The choice is limited by considerations such as size, configuration, payload capacity and number of axes. The industrial robot is an ideal tool for use in hazardous environments: the operator can be moved to a safe area where his skills are used to maintain the robot cell. For instance, in welding the operators knowledge is used to program the robot, to monitor the welding process and to adjust the wire feed speed, weld current setting etc. accordingly. Materials Handling All six major configurations are used for handling, including the moving of components or assemblies to and from transfer lines, the loading and unloading of machine tools and the stacking and packaging of parts. Includes the transfer of work-pieces to and from dangerous and hazardous processes such as diecasting machines, furnaces and heavy press. The use of robots for materials handling can result in increased productivity due to: Shorter cycle times Reduction in work in progress Elimination of the need for personnel to work in hostile or unpleasant environments Palletizing and stacking, palletizing of glass tubes for fluorescent lamps and the handling of glass sheets. Assembly Operations Operations that mate or position two or more components relative to each other, so that they make a single entity. Excludes the operations of actual joining by, say, welding, screwing, bolting or gluing. Forming an increasingly large proportion of robot applications and are continually being researched. Appear to be ideal applications for robots. To human operators they are repetitive and monotonous operations often requiring much practice to perfect and offering little physical movement or exercise. Assembly environments are often noisy and uncomfortable. Payment is often made on a piecework basis which imposes stress and fatigue on the assembly worker. Fatigue and boredom can often lead to unreliability, which may also present safety hazards. Robotic Systems Integrated whole of parts or subsystems. Has a specified goal or output for a given set of inputs; a system may have many goals as well. Robot combines many subsystems that interact among themselves as well as with the environment in which the robot works. A robot has some specific objective. It may be designed for simply picking up and placing the work-pieces. It may be employed to interact with and work load a lathe, a milling machine or any equipment Or it may also perform some assembly work.

To accomplish the job, a robot must have a suitable manipulator arm with specified coordinate systems to attain a designed reach in the working space. It should have a suitable gripper to match the geometry of the work-piece to be handled; a suitable control system with or without servo mechanisms for sending signals to the devices, or permitting storage of programs and data for desired path planning with adequate speed and good accuracy. The robot may have some sensors to feed back information for modifying the motion or path. The controller is provided with interfacing units connected to external equipment in the outside world. The Future of Automation and Robotics Robots and their associated equipment have progressed beyond the first deaf, blind and dumb generation. The third generation of robotized systems employs vision, tactile sensing and communication with other systems to form the initial realization of expert systems, i.e. learning from experience. Robots today are being developed and used in areas which would previously have been unimaginable. Advances in vision and laser systems have made possible the random selection of components, the automatic monitoring and sensing of welded joints; detection of seam position and weld quality control. This has the advantage that the laser beam can operate in any direction, making it much more flexible than conventional laser machines. There have also been many advances in robotics in the area of food processing and in the medical field for body exploration and surgical operation. However, to produce the performance that will meet the challenges that lie ahead the major requirements are the integration and intercommunication of sensing and vision systems with knowledge-based learning and the development of high-speed, lightweight and flexible manipulators. DECOUPLERS IN MANUFACTURING CELLS Part of a controller that is designed to make a multivariable plant equivalent to a collection of single loops such that single loop controllers can be designed. Often the inverse of the plant steady-state matrix gain. When machines are placed next to each other in a cell, the processes become functionally dependant on each other. The worker services many machines. The decouplers break the dependency of the processes on each other in a cellular environment. Decouplers hold one part and have specific input and output points. In an unmanned cell, all the machines are programmable (CNC or other automated equipment) and there are no workers in the cell. Unmanned cells are typically U-shaped or circular in design to allow the robot to access the equipment.

The full range of motion of the robot is required so it can reach all machines. At each machine, the robot is called upon to do critical unloading and loading tasks. This requires that the robot have a certain level of accuracy and repeatability. This is called robotic process capability (RPC) and it must be known prior to designing the cell. In an unmanned cell, all the machines are programmable (CNC or other automated equipment) and there are no workers in the cell. Unmanned cells are typically U-shaped or circular in design to allow the robot to access the equipment. The full range of motion of the robot is required so it can reach all machines. At each machine, the robot is called upon to do critical unloading and loading tasks. This requires that the robot have a certain level of accuracy and repeatability. This is called robotic process capability (RPC) and it must be known prior to designing the cell. Decouplers can act as automatic production control devices between two automatic processes by automatically shutting off the upstream machine that cycle faster than the downstream machine. No additional parts are made by machine A until they are needed and the controller for machine A receives a signal from the decoupler that the previous part passed inspection. Decoupling for supply chain competitiveness [material flow decoupling] The material flow decoupling point (DCP) in a product delivery pipeline is where items are stored as a deliberate but carefully crafted part of the supply strategy. It is relevant to a wide range of products, especially where modularisation is an integral part in achieving mass customisation. Hand-in-hand with the idea of the DCP is the associated concepts of product design-formodularisation, and manufacturing and/or logistics postponement. The DCP is an essential feature of modern delivery pipelines. It enables companies to remain competitive throughout the product lifecycle, when active switching between pipelines is mandatory if profit margins are to be maintained. The DCP is also a critical component in pipelines delivering high variety at economic cost. Functions of Decouplers: Decouplers, which are elements of manufacturing systems and are placed between processes or workstations, enhance the flexibility in thecell by reducing the functional dependency of the sideby-side processes. Decouplers permit flexibility in worker (or robot) movement. Workers can travel with or against the part flow. Decouplers can perform 100 per cent inspection of the parts after the part comes out of the process. The decoupler is usually equipped to pass only good parts on to the next process. The decoupler may be designed to feed back quality

information to the am process so that corrections to the process are made automatically. Decouplers can also perform piece-part manipulations, part transport, part reorientation, and part reregistration for both manned and robotic cells. Decouplers control the level of the SOH within the cell, allowing it to be raised or lowered whenever needed. Decouplers can branch or combine part flows within the cell, so one machine can feed two or more machines or two machines can feed one. Decouplers can be designed for handling the family of parts that the cell is producing, so that between each machine is one part that has been completely processed by all the machines up to that point in time. Decouplers can be used for process delay, to change the state of product (heat, cool, core, degrease, etc.) before the next process.