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Catering Premises Notes

• INTRODUCTION TO CATERING PREMISES

INTRODUCTION TO CATERING PREMISE

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Plant and premise- a plant is a building mainly used by industries or premises and are slightly
smaller than plants

2. Catering outlets- Various sectors of catering industries where activities take place

3. Catering Systems- Various methods used in preparation production and service of food and beverage.
E.g. Cook freeze, convectional cooking.

4. Work flow- Sequence in which activities follow one another and should be easy for the work
force to follow

5. Building fabrics Additional materials added to a building. They include roofing and ceilings, wall
lining, floor and floor finishes.

6. Catering processes the flow of items from one department to another; receiving goods-storing
issuing-production-display-selling.

CLAASSIFICATION OF CATERING PREMISES

They can be classified as;

1. Commercial catering (general market)

2. Commercial catering (Restricted market)

3. Non-commercial or subsidized (welfare)

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1. Commercial catering (general market)

E.g. hotels, restaurants, lodges, motels

Characteristics

1. They are profit making

2. They require licenses to operate

3. They cater for people of all walks of life

4. Themes may be carried out in some of the outlets e.g. hotels, cuisines, African night, Kamba night

5. Food service hours are not pre-determined

6. There is a variety of food and drink to be selected from.

7. The style of service may be from basic to elaborate, basic; cafeteria, plate service elaborate;
Gueridon service,

2. Commercial catering (Restricted market)

Eg. Clubs, golf clubs, public service, private hospitals, airlines ship railways

Characteristics

1. The customers may not have any other place to eat.

2. Meal times are predetermined.

3. Commodities are mainly convenience foods therefore less variety eg, tinned meat, powdered milk,
teabags, cornflakes.

4. Basic service styles are used.

5. Only specified portions are carried.

3. Non-commercial or subsidised (welfare)

Government institutions, schools, prisons forces, army, navy, public university hospitals etc.

Characteristics

1. Their main aim is not profit making but provision of food and drink.

2. There is little or limited choice of catering facilities e.g. army, sergeant messes.

3. The government subsidises the cost of feeding for some institutions while catering for others.4.

Nutritional requirements are addressed e.g. hospitals

5. Meal times are specified.

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6. Varieties of food are limited due to the cost.

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• FUNCTIONS OF CATERING PREMISES

• FUNTIONS OF CATERING PREMISES Lesson

FUNCTIONS OF CATERING PREMISE

1. Provides foods, drinks and in certain sections accommodation.

2. Recreational facilities

3. For luxury

4. Social places

5. Travelling, mountaineering

PREMISES, LOCATION AND LAYOUT

The following factors should be considered when selecting a location.

1. Type of establishment- this can either be a hotel or industrial premises etc.

2. Infrastructure- Consider the accessibility to the establishment. Check on the common equipment i.e.
the road, water supply and power supply. If poor, it will interfere with delivery or transportation of
raw materials which interferes with production.

3. Availability of supplies-always ensure that the supplies needed are available.

4. Potential Market- the market is a group of people in need of product or service and are ready to pay.
The premise should be located in an area where there is market for goods produced.

5. Environment Hygiene- The surrounding atmosphere should be conducive for the activities to be
carried

6. Competition

The following factors are considered in the design layout;

Kitchen layout is a plan divided into various sections and whereby raw materials are prepared and cooked
without waste of both time and effort, therefore layout designs must consider work methods which
improve productivity. It’s the positioning of work centres and their arrangement with respect to
equipment and necessary.

1. Topography – The terrain i.e. the area of land and particular features. This affects the drainage, gas
connections and water supply systems. The drainage system determines the hygiene and sanitation
of the kitchen environment to a large extent. Elevation affects gravity and gravity affects drainage
away from the building. A good site will minimize your sewage.

2. Workflow- Food preparations rooms should be planned to allow a workflow. The plan should be in
such a way that foods do not cross paths with waste or refuse.

3. Infrastructure- check on the common equipment i.e. the road, water supply and power supply.

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Factors that determine space requirements are;

1. Location

2. Types of customers expected in terms of age social status, occupation, religious and cultural
background, purchasing power and food habits.

3. The number of people to be served and customer turnover.

4. The Menu

5. Service method to be used

6. Timings during which the facility is kept open.

Spaces must therefore be planned and organized so as to generate maximum profits and at the same time
be attractive in appearance and atmosphere to those working in and using the facilities.

Legal aspects of catering and accommodation

These are the legal aspects that govern size, policy in construction given catering premise.

1. Space allowance – Space surrounding machines, space available in work area, office, shop and
railway premises Act 1963 allows 400 cubic feet per person.

2. Lighting- Illumination may be defined as the light falling on a unit area of a surface measured in
units called lux (one lumen per square metre). The minimum legal level in preparation areas is 20 lumen
per square foot upto 38 lumens preferable in all areas.
3. Ventilation- The temperature should not be higher than 20 oC-26oC is desirable for maximum
working efficiency and comfort with 16oC -18oC in preparation areas. The humidity shouldn’t be more
than 60%.

4. Building Materials- The correct building materials should be used and even the finishes should
be suitable for the surface eg. Walls and floors.

5. Heavy equipment placement- they should be strong and mounted securely and designed to
minimise damage during use care and maintenance.

6. Employees facilities- they should be safe and beneficial. There should be provision of a rest
room, changing facilities, adequate toilets, working facilities drinking water, of temperature of about
16oC. There should be systems of maintenance and cleaning operations into practise.

Definition of Terms, Components of a Building

BUILDING FABRICS

i) Components of a building ii)

Function of a building fabrics component

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· Ventilation

· Lighting

· Air conditioning

· Fume extraction

· Support

· Comfort

· Privacy · Partitioning iii) Sound

and acoustics of a building fabric

· Sources of sound

· Absorption of sound by different materials

· Application of sound iv)

Care and maintenance

· Importance

· Daily/routine

· Weekly/special

· Periodical

BUILDING FABRICS

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Components of a building

A building is a structure consisting of walls, roofs, windows, drain pipes, ceiling chimney floor and doors.

Functions of building components

a) Lighting

Lighting is a very important component of the overall room design.

In the Kitchen

It should be designed to give the best illumination. Lighting fittings need to be placed directly above work
tables and food preparation areas. All fittings need to be arranged over work surfaces and not behind the
workers. Strip lights should be parallel to the surfaces. Light fitting should be totally enclosed, water
proof and easy to clean.

In the Dining

Three general types of illumination found in all food service facilities. These are

a. Overall general illumination- light is well distributed in perfect balance. This helps prevent dark
spots or dead spots.

b. Sparkle and excitement – a burst of colour or a strategically placed light can enhance an
otherwise monotonous lighting plan. This type is good for reception areas, windows, cathedral ceilings,
partitions etc.

c. Specific focal points- this may help create an illusion of extra space, for accenting artwork, table,
the patrons, a bar, a stairway, plant or the food.

The amount of light and the percentage reflected by different surfaces affects the environment. Avoid
dark and dull tables because they absorb all the light thus affecting the visual perception.

Reasons for good lighting in a premise

· Provide for clear vision so as to minimise the occurrence of accidents and ease movement.

· To avoid contrast with the background which can cause a glare and strain the eyes.

· To reduce fatigue and provide a pleasant atmosphere.

· To enhance interior decoration blending well the colours present.

· To enable work to be done effectively and efficiently.

· To avoid excessive heat or emission of pollutants into the air.

· To avoid dim a light that strains the eye.

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Sources of light

a) Natural lighting- windows, doors, skylights, honeycomb brickwork

b) Artificial lighting- candles, oil lamps (tin lamps), hurricane lamp, Tilley or pressure lamp, gas
lampselectrical lamps.

Qualities of good artificial lighting

· Not be excessive in glare or brightness.

· Be well positioned to illuminate all parts of the room equally or as desired.

· Not flicker or waver as this is a cause for eye strain.

· Not cast shadows on the working areas for example a sewing machine, ironing table, chopping
board etc.

· Not emit any impurities into the surrounding.

· Be easy to light and put off.

· Be easy to control.

Choice of electrical lighting

Fluorescent lighting- it gives sufficient illumination with low voltage though it can be dull.

Incandescent lighting (Filament) - it’s warmer in colour but less efficient to operate than the florescent
bulbs of the same voltage. They can be easily directed to specific spots.

Methods of lighting the premise

When planning for the lighting of the various rooms in the premise, consider

a) Size of the room

b) The activities that take place in that room.

c) Colour scheme of walls, floor, furniture and fittings

There are variety of methods that can be used in artificial lighting. Some of these are:

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i. Direct lighting

The light fixture throws its light downward. Suitable for a room used for close like knitting, sewing,
reading and writing.

ii. Semi-direct lighting/general lighting

The lamp is either on a pendant fixture or mounted on a ceiling. This method of lighting is a good for
general activities that do not require high visual concentration like movement.

iii. Indirect lighting

Sources of light is hidden from direct eye contact. The light is directed onto a ceiling or wall from where
it is reflected back into the room. The degree of light will depend on the brightness or dullness of the
surface the light will fall on. Dull coloured surfaces tend to absorb a lot of light, while bright coloured
surfaces reflect much of it. This method of lighting is suitable for creating a relaxed mood but not good
for jobs that need concentration such as reading, drawing, writing etc.

iv. semi-indirect lighting

This is like semi-direct lighting methods. Some of the light passes directly onto the room, but the major
portion is reflected back.

v. Decorative lighting

These are methods of lighting that are used to focus attention on art, objects, pictures, wall hanging.

Conservation of energy in lighting

· Day light should be utilised to the maximum

· Light coloured surfaces e.g. walls and ceilings reflect light and distribute it more efficiently.

· Ensure that all fittings, shades and covers are clean and free from dust.

· Avoid use of lights of higher wattage than is really necessary.

· Turn off lights that are not in use, even for short periods.

b) Ventilation

His refers to the free movement of air in and out of a room. Fresh air is allowed in hence

driving away undesirable gases.

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Reasons for adequate ventilation in a room.

· To provide adequate supply of oxygen

· To reduce the temperature

· To reduce the concentration of bacteria and viruses which cause airborne diseases e.g. TB and
influenza.

· To reduce the concentration of moisture in the air.

· To get rid of any odours which come as a result of overcrowding.

Usually, no method of ventilation is used singly, but in combination, they are very effective especially in
large kitchens where many people work together at one time. Windows and doors should be well planned
to prevent draught.

Dangers of poor ventilation

· The occupants have little supply of oxygen leading to stress, difficulty in breathing and general
discomfort.

· Incomplete combustion in fuels such as charcoal resulting in high levels of carbon monoxide which
is toxic.

· A stuffy atmosphere in the room increases perspiration.

· Encourages spread of infections such as coughs and colds among occupants of the room.

· Slow rate of recovery for those convalescing.

· Smoke from cooking and other fires irritate the eyes and can lead to bronchitis.

· Excess heat especially in kitchens can damage our body’s protective mucus membranes resulting in
health complications.

Method of ventilation

1. Natural Ventilation- airbricks, chimneys, doors, windows

2. Artificial (Mechanical) ventilation- Fans, air conditioner

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c) Fume Extraction

It removes smells of smoke, steam from kitchen and hot air. It helps prevent hazardous fumes entering
work place. The hoods should be made of non-corrosive material and so designed that it can be cleaned
easily. It must have condensate channel around its bottom edge. It must overhang the equipment
underneath by 230mm-300mm. It must allow a sufficient velocity of air to pass over the edge of the hood.

Importance of Fumes extraction

· To protect employee health

· To increase the production speeds

· To reduce the cost and time of cleaning machines and equipment

· To reduce produce contamination

· To provide better working environment

· To ensure compliance with health and safety regulation

· Reduce complaints by operators due to odours, dust and vapours.

d) Air conditioning

Air conditioning is the process of removing heat and moisture from the interior of an occupied space, to
improve the comfort of occupants. This process is most commonly used to achieve a more comfortable
interior environment. However, air conditioning is also used to cool/dehumidify rooms filled with
heatproducing electronic devices, such as computer servers, power amplifiers, and even to display and
store some delicate products, such as artwork.

· It allows the exchange of hot and cold air.

· It allows the control of temperature, cooling and heating which entails adding energy or removing
unwanted energy.

· Controls the humidity of air in a building by lowering humidity when high and increase humidity
when low.

· Provides ventilation which provides oxygen for breathing and dispel carbon dioxide, smoke and
dust.

e) Support

Material used to build should support the equipment and staff working in the building. Building materials
refer to any substance, natural or man-made which is used for construction purposes to create structures

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and buildings. The choice of building materials to use in a construction is determined by factors such as
availability, cost, tenacity and durability.

f) Comfort

The area should be comfortable to work in so as to ease productivity. This can be achieved in

many ways

g) Privacy

Building components creates privacy through portioning and walls create privacy

From the outside world.

SOUND AND ACOUSTIC OF A BUILDING FABRIC

· Sources of sound

· Absorption of sound by different materials

· Application of sound

Acoustic means pertaining to the sense of hearing, the organs of hearing or the science of sound of
audibility.

Sources of sound

Typical restaurant sounds are many and varied;

· People conversing

· Waiters reciting the days menus or picking up orders

· Cleaning of tables and bussing of dishes, dishes clutter

· Kitchen equipment grinding, whining and sizzling

· The hum of the lights or the HVAC system

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· The strains of background music or a live band.

· The clients/customers conversing

Sound is an important component of the environment and mood. The aim is to achieve a sound level of
high enough quality and volume that guests will notice and enjoy yet can also comfortably converse
through it.

Absorption of sound by different materials

Sound has two characteristics

· Frequency-the number of times per second that a sound vibration occurs

· Intensity-loudness.

Too much sound/noise can raise blood pressure, interfere with sleep patterns, cause stress and hinder rest.
In a building, sound can be either absorbed or reflected by all the other things in that space; wall ceilings,
floors, furniture or equipment. If it reflects or bounces off surfaces, the area can build up a sound level
that is much higher than if the space was not enclosed.

Surfaces Finishes of Catering and Accommodation Premises

FINISHES IN BUILDING FABRICS

FLOOR COVERING/FLOORING

Floor coverings are functional and decorative. They are subject to wear and tear and from the basis on
which the rest of the décor is planned. Flooring and floor covering should be chosen to keep up with
the purpose of the room. When selecting a floor covering, the following criteria should be considered; ·
The volume and nature of traffic

· If the area is dry or wet

· The method of cleaning the area

· The use of the room

Choosing floorings

1. Appearance

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· Pale colours especially blues and greens and shiny surfaces give a cold and cool appearance

· Intense colours (red, orange etc.) and matt surfaces give an impression of warmth

· The sense of scale in a room or area is influenced by the size of the pattern

· Patterned surfaces tend to make a large room appear smaller

· Plain colours make a small room appear larger

· Patterns and some colours do not show spillages and soiling readily and the floorings retain their
appearance of cleanliness longer than other.

2. Comfort

· Soft resilient surfaces are generally comfortable to walk on

· Harder, noisier, colder floorings offer less heat and sound insulation

· The floor should not be noisy or slippery

· A very shiny floor looks slippery

3. Durability

· Grit cuts into some flooorings more easily than into others.

· Spillages of water, grease and food acids are more likely in some places and will harm certain
floorings

· Areas of more concentrated wear need careful consideration

· Areas where people turn their feet may show excessive wear

4. Life expectancy

· A flooring needs to be durable for the length of life expected and this is not he same for all areas

5. Safety

· Surfaces should have a non-slip qualities when wet and ry

· Over polishing may cause slipperiness

6. Ease of cleaning

· Ensure that you select that which is easy to clean

7. Cost

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· This includes the initial cost, maintenance

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOOR FINISHES

These can be classified according to their hardness, porosity or the material from which they are made

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOOR FINISHES

Hard finishes Semi-hard finishes(Smooth Soft floor covering
flooring)
-Cement, -terrazzo, Carpets
-Thermoplastic
-stone e.g. marble
-vinyl in tile or sheet form
-Ceramic tiles
-rubber in tile or sheet form
-Resin
-linoleum in tile or sheet form
-Bitumastic laid in situ
Cork in tile or sheet form
-Magnesite

-Hardwood

CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOOR FINISHES

Hard finishes Semi-hard finishes(smooth Soft floor covering

flooring)
-Durable but noisy except wood -comfortable
-smooth
-Cold in appearance and feel -quiet
-durable but less permanent than
-Vermin proof hard finishes -decorative

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-Impervious to dry rot -resilient except thermoplastic tiles

-Fire retardant -of good appearance

-Easily cleaned -Unaffected by insect pests and

fungi

-relatively easy to clean

-comes in a wide range of price,

colour and porosity

TYPES OF FLOORING

ASPHALT TILE VINYL TILE

Advantages Advantages

-Low cost -wide colour and pattern range

-Large colour selection -resistant to oils and solvents

-Moderate maintenance -high resiliency though heels and heavy objects can
cause indentations
Disadvantages
-quiet
-Least resilient
-its slip resistant if surface is textured
-Affected by oils, kerosene
-easy to clean, waterproof
-Possible cracking or deterioration from extreme
temperatures Disadvantages

-Not resistant to heat when used in the kitchen

CARPETING LINOLEUM

Advantages Advantages

-Sound absorbent -decorative -comfortable -available in sheets or tiles

Disadvantages -wide color range

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-greater than average maintenance needs -low cost -good resilience

-moderate to high initial cost -slip resistant as it is not highly polished

-affected/stained by spills Disadvantages

-Lacks resistance to moisture and alkaline solutions

-heavy objects dent it but thick quality linoleum is

resilient

-damaged by alkalis

RUBBER TILE QUARY TILES

Advantages Advantages

-high resilience - wide colour selection -Resistant to moisture –low maintenance

-quiet -slip-resistant -long life/lasting -waterproof

-good when dry and if surface is studded or ribbed;

-easy to clean
poor when wet
Disadvantages
-waterproof –hardwearing –easy to clean
-High initial cost
-not too costly
-Grout subject to deterioration
Disadvantages
-grease can stain it
-Lack resistant to oils and solvents
-hard cold and noisy for the feet
-not resistant to heat
-slippery when polished or wet

-tend to chip

CERAMIC TILES TERRAZZO

Advantages It consists of marble and other decorative chips set

in concrete.
-durable and decorative
Advantages
-easy to clean
-Decorative if well maintained
-resistant to domestic chemicals, heat and grease,
acids or alkali but strong alkalised substances should
-durable and of low maintenance
be avoided

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Disadvantages Disadvantages

-hard and cold; noisy for the feet -high initial cost

-slippery when wet -unsuitable for areas subject to spillage

-marks can be difficult to remove if left to stand for -harmed by strong alkaline and acids
too long

-initial cost is high

-they may crack or break with heavy loads

WOOD CONCRETE

Advantages Advantages

-Decorative -quiet –comfortable to the feet -durable -low maintenance

Disadvantages -low to moderate initial cost

-unsuitable for areas subject to excessive moisture Disadvantages

and oil spillage
-hard, cold and noisy to feet
-moderate care and maintenance required

WALLS COVERING

In general, walls should be;

· smooth

· Impervious (preventive of any penetration especially of water)

· non-flaking and solid(as those with cavities harbour pests)

· Light of colour and free crevices and ledges

· capable of being thoroughly cleaned and if necessary disinfected

· style should suit its purpose, comply with fire regulations

· bear in mind the furnishings and architectural aspects of the room Examples of wall surfaces
include;

· Resin-bonded fibre glass

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· Ceramic faced blocks

· glazed tiles

· Stainless steel

· Plastic sheeting -polypropylene

Walls are treated or decorated by covering them with paint, wall paper, fabric, tiles, and wood panelling,
linoleum, terrazzo, marble

PAINTS

Paint is used extensively as a decorative wall finish but it is also used to preserve and protect structural
surfaces, used in identification of pipes, for the emphasis of hazards and danger points and for hygiene.
They are used to obtain a desired colour scheme in a premise. They come in a wide variety of types and
colours.

Types of paints; there are many types but most common are;

Oil paints

These are soluble in oil. These are available in flat, finish, and gloss finish and semi-gloss enamel finish

Advantages

a) It is water repellent and therefore easily cleaned using water and soap without
causing damage

b) An oil painted surface is smooth and therefore dust will not settle on it easilyc)

oil paint is durable

Disadvantages

a) it is expensive

b) stains with an oil base are difficult to remove

c) It has an unpleasant smell when fresh

d) It takes longer to dry when used than water based paints

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e) It blisters and flakes with long exposure to water and the sun

f) It is highly inflammable

Water based paint

Advantages

a) It is cheap to obtain and use compare to oil based paint

b) It does not have an unpleasant smell when fresh

Disadvantages

a) It is difficult to maintain, because it stains easily and the stains cannot be removed without
damaging the surface.

b) The paint wears off easily with repeated cleaning

TILES

Glazed ceramic tiles are commonly used in wet areas and kitchen walls because they are water repellent
and protects the wall from dampness

Advantages

a) They are durable

b) They are easily cleaned

c) They are attractive and can be used to create interesting decorative effects on the walls

Disadvantages

a) They are expensive

b) They chip off

WALL PAPER

They come in a variety of colours, patterns and textures

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Classification of wall paper

Non-washable wall paper

This is a paper that has been printed with water soluble dyes and any use of water on them will damage
the design

Washable wall paper

This has a coating of water repellent substance which makes it withstand washing

Advantages

a) It is available in many colours, design and texture to suit one's taste

b) have a warmer appearance than paint

c) When used it can hide defects on the wall surface

d) Offer sound insulation

Disadvantages

a) Wall paper is expensive

b) They become soiled, scratched and torn with abrasion

FABRIC

Fabric is becoming popular as a wall covering because of the improved adhesives that are available. Any
fabric can be attached with a liquid adhesive or stapled to the wall.

Advantages of using fabric as a wall covering

a) It can be used to cover walls as well as upholstery, cushions etc. To match the colour scheme of the
room.

b) Fabrics are attractive and warm

c) Can have sound deadening properties

d) They come in variety of colours, textures and designs

Disadvantages

a) Fabrics are expensive

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b) They are not easy to clean

c) Dirt, dust and smell of smoke tend to cling or fabric

METAL WALL COVERING

Metals such as copper and anodized aluminium and can be decoration and used for hygienic qualities.
Others can be stainless steel inform of tiles.

When cleaning, dust or wipe with damp cloth

LEATHER (HIDE) WALL COVERING

These are extremely expensive and very decorative. They maybe padded and studded with brass studs and
they do not usually cover a complete wall surface

Cleaning of leather

Remove surface dust by dusting or careful suction cleaning

Apply polish sparingly and rub very well

PLASTIC WALL COVERING

They are obtained in a variety of sizes, with a great price range, and many require special adhesives. As
they are non-porous, there is a greater tendency for the growth of moulds, so the adhesive should contain
fungicides or a fungicidal wash. Examples are plastic wall tiles, laminated plastics, vinyl

WOOD PANELLING

Woods used are usually hard, well-seasoned and of decorative appearance. They may cover the wall
completely or form a dado (lower portion of an interior wall decorated differently from the upper portion)
It can be solid or veneered.

Advantages

a) They are durable, can last a long time without maintenance

b) They are attractive due to natural wood grains and colours

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c) They can be given an easy care finish

d) They add warmth to the room

Disadvantages

a) Wood panels can be expensive depending on the quality of wood used

b) Wood catches fire easily

c) It is easily spoilt by water

OTHER MATERIALS

Many flooring materials can be used as wall coverings. They contribute different colours, patterns and
textures depending on the particular material. They are usually hardwearing, resistant to abrasion and
initially rather expensive.

Amongst floorings used as wall coverings are:

-Linoleum - marble -cork –carpet -terrazzo -ceramic tiles

 MAIN SERVICES IN A CATERING PREMISES

MAIN SERVICES-CATERING PREMISES

1. Types of services

· Water

· Fuel

· Ventilation

· Sewerage and drainage

2. Distribution of services

· Installation

· Plumbing

· Piping

3. Failures causes and remedies

· Installation, plumbing and piping

4. Care and maintenance of the services

· Daily handling and cleaning

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· Replacement

· Servicing

WATER

Composition of water

Water is a chemical compound containing two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxygen (H 2O)

Soft water

It does not contain dissolved salts of Calcium or Magnesium

Advantages of soft water

· It lathers easily with soap

· It does not clog pipes and boilers

Hard Water

It contains dissolved salts of calcium or magnesium especially bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides.
The hardness may be temporary or permanent. Advantages of hard water

· It is palatable due to presence of minerals

· Used in making alcoholic drinks and beer

Disadvantages of hard water include;

· Wasteful during cleaning up because it does not lather easily. Soap, time and energy are therefore
wasted

· When hard water is heated a deposit builds up on the sides of boilers called scum. This causes;

- Increased fuel cost

- Loss of efficiency of water boilers

- It causes increase in maintenance cost of water systems due to the need of de-scaling (removal of
fur)

· Can cause damage to the safety valves, immersion heater and other hot water heatings

· Can cause discoloration in kettles and boilers

· The scum requires a lot of soap and water especially in laundry work.

· Forms scum with soap when rinsing; it can discolor white garments

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Temporary hardness

This is caused by Calcium Bicarbonate Ca(HCO 3)2 or Magnesium Bicarbonate Mg(HCO 3)2 in solution.
Softening temporary hardness

This can be removed by boiling or adding sodium carbonate

Ca(HCO 3)2 Calcium Carbonate +CO2 +H2O

(Calcium Bicarbonate) (Boiling) (Insoluble)

(Soluble)

Mg(HCO 3)2 Magnesium Carbonate + CO2 + H2O

Magnesium Bicarbonate (Boiling) (Insoluble)

(Soluble)

On boiling, the carbon dioxide is released and the insoluble calcium carbonate is precipitated to form
fur/scale in boilers and kettles.

Other methods of removing hardness in water are:

Adding Slaked lime

Calcium Hydroxide + Calcium Bicarbonate = Calcium carbonate + water

Adding Sodium carbonate

Calcium Bicarbonate + Sodium Carbonate = Calcium Carbonate + Sodium Bicarbonate

Permanent Hardness

This is caused by Calcium or Magnesium Sulphates or Chlorides

Softening permanent hard water

1. Use of Sodium Carbonate

Sodium Carbonate + Calcium Sulphate = Calcium Carbonate + Sodium Sulphate

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2. The Permutit method

This is for large scale softening of hard water. The hard water passes through a tank filled with chemical
softeners such as zeolite, which reacts with the mineral salts dissolved in water. These are changed to
solid compounds which are removed from water thus making it soft.

Adequate supplies of water are required within a catering facility for food preparation tasks, washing
(hands, tableware, utensils, equipment and services) and for operation of some equipment e.g. steamers,
water cooled condensers.

Cold water is distributed from storage cistern. The cistern should be at a good level above the catering
facility to provide pressure or a pump may be required.

Hot water-it can be obtained from the boiler or generated at the point of use by instantaneous heaters.

Treated water- A filter can be installed to remove particles and odours over a certain size.

Distribution of water

Several segments are needed for a proper distribution of services.

Water meter-this records water consumption and the last point of the public water utility’s service

Service pipe- The main supply line between the meter and the building

Pipes- These are tubes that are fitted together to provide a system for water to travel through. They can be
copper, brass, galvanized steel or even plastic

Fittings- The joints of the piped system. They fit onto the ends of pipes allowing them to make turns and
to connect to each other and other appliances or fixtures.

Valves- Control water flow and are made of brass, copper or cast iron. Correct valves minimize plumbing
problems

Plumbing fixtures that are required in a catering establishment include;

Water closet- The toilet. It should be made of solid, glazed porcelain with a flush tank that discharges
water when a lever or a button is pushed.

Urinal- for the men’s restrooms which should be solid, glazed porcelain. Wall mounted urinals are the
best because it makes cleaning easier beneath the urinal

Lavatory- Also called hand sink. Its best made of glazed porcelain. The sink should have an overflow
drain.

Sinks and hand washing systems- these should be made of stainless steel which is durable and easy to
clean

Traps-traps should be provided at each item of sanitary ware or equipment to prevent the penetration of
foul smells and airborne bacteria in the sanitation system into the room in which the equipment is placed.
The trap should contain a quantity of water (seal) which should be contained at all times in sufficient

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volume. Traps are normally fitted to the outlet of a fitting or item of equipment and will be no smaller
than the outlet size. Tubular traps are the best design for hotel catering establishments as they are less
liable to blockages and scaling up. All traps in a hotel should either include a cleaning eye or be of the
sectional type which allows for disconnection for cleaning. Minor blockages will be avoided by regular
maintenance and may often be cleaned by the use of a plunger or kinetic gum.

Plumbing fixtures must withstand heat, grease, heavy duty cleaning products and all rigors of cooking.
When water is drained away, it gets to the drainage or discharge system which receives the liquid
discharge. The first component of the system is a trap found in the sink. The trap is curved section of the
pipe where the lowest part of the pipe traps some water. Floor drains are recommended and should be
located directly beneath the larger sinks. They should have a dome strainer (or sediment bucket), which
traps bits of dirt and food as liquid go down the drain.

From collection to consumption

Water authorities are required by law, to provide supply of clean wholesome water i.e. water free from
suspended matter, odour and taste.

 PRIVATE SUPPLIES OF WATER

Private supplies of water

Very few catering establishments now use water from private sources and those that do so must take care
to ensure that the water is fit for human consumption. This is best done by submitting samples for
analysis either to the public analysis (government chemist) or to a private firm. Several firms which
specialize in water treatment are prepared to submit detailed reports on the treatment the water needs.

Public supplies of water

Water is supplied to the general public either by the local authority or by a public utility company e.g.
NGOs. Responsibility for ensuring purity of water rests upon this body and one of the methods by which
this is done is by passing by-laws. These by-laws can be enforced by courts and are designed to either
prevent both pollution and waste. The main points covered by the water by-laws are as follows;

· Notification of intention to install, alter or extend any fittings that take water from the company’s
mains

· The provision for the company’s workers to enter premises for purpose of inspection

· Taps should be tested, ball valves, stock cocks and other fittings to ensure that they are the right
qualities.

· Positioning of overflow and of warning pipes should also be done correctly

· Prohibition of connections of service pipes flashing systems and to certain hot water installation.

· Frost precautions

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Water treatment

1. Primary filtration

Water collected from open sources like rivers, will be passed through a mesh screen to remove all solid
matters such as twig and leaves in commercial treatment plants. In small scale, it can be done using a
muslin cloth or a sieve. The water will then be stored in reservoirs where much suspended matter settles
in the bottom.

2. Secondary Filtration

The water drawn from reservoir is passed through sand or wire mesh filter to remove fine suspended
particles

3. Chlorination

Water is treated with chlorine to kill any bacteria remaining in water. The water then rests in order to give
the chlorine time to react fully.

4. Testing of the water

Water is regularly tested to ensure that it is fit for consumption

5. Distribution and consumption

Water is pumped into the distribution systems and street mains for delivery to consumers. The consumer
is supposed to comply with the by-laws set by the local water authority. The laws are designed to
prevent waste, misuse, contamination or undue consumptions. People going against any of these by-laws
may be prosecuted in a court of law. The cold water supply

The water authority will provide a supply to the boundary of the premises and at this point a stop cock
will be fitted. The consumer is responsible for the supply from the boundary onwards. A stock cock
should be fitted just inside the premises to enable the consumer to turn off the water in case of an
emergency.

Types of cold water supply system

They fall into two categories

i) Direct system of cold water supply-provides water directly to all taps and items of equipment

ii) Indirect system of cold water supply-it uses a cistern (tank) for storage of water which means that
in event of failure, there is still a supply of water that is available.

Advantages of direct system of cold water supply

i) It is easier and cheaper to install and maintain because it has less pipe work.

ii) All taps will have drinking water and may not have been subjected to possible risks of
contamination during storage

Disadvantages of direct system of cold water supply

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i) In case of any damage or during routine maintenance, the premises may not have water at all for
some time.

ii) The pressure and efficiency of supply will be affected during peak hours depending on demand

iii) If correctly installed, catering and other items of equipment may cause contamination of water
supply e.g. sewage

Indirect system of cold water supply

This is the storage system which has a large capacity which may ensure that water is available
throughout.

Advantages of indirect system of cold water supply

i) Water will be available even when the main supply is interrupted because the system
is connected with a large capacity cistern or storage tank. ii) Equipment supplied from the
cistern will not contaminate the drinking water supply.

iii) Equipment which requires hot and cold water supply will be supplied with water at the same
pressure.

iv) The system will have a lower pressure and so will be quitter in operation thereby minimizing
water on taps and preventing pipes from bursting Disadvantages of indirect system of cold water supply

i) All stored water should be considered contaminated

because it has come into contact with air whether covered or not.
However, cistern should have a tight fitting lid.

ii) The system has more and larger pipes than a direct oneiii)

It also requires a storage system iv) It is more expensive

to install and maintain

Types of equipment in cold water systems

i) Stock cock

This is a valve installed in a pipe to control the flow of water to a system of equipment. The valve should
be turned off during maintenance to ensure that it is in good working order. The washer may require
replacing during maintenance.

ii) Gate Valve

It is a type of valve used to control flow of water in pipe i.e. when the pressure of water is high or
low. The valve should be checked during routine maintenance to ensure it is working. iii)
Ball valve

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This is a float operated valve to control the flow of water into the cistern. The valve should be adjusted to
close at required water level in the cistern and should be securely fixed. It should undergo regular
maintenance because it is in constant use like open traps.

Drainage problems and solutions

a) Back flow-this occurs whenever a piece of equipment, such as a commercial dishwasher is

capable of creating pressure that is greater than the incoming pressure of its supply line.

Solution; there should be a space between pipes and drains to prevent contaminated water from flowing
back into the water supply. An atmospheric vacuum breaker can also help.

b) Back siphonage- occurs when negative pressure builds up and sucks contaminated water into the
freshwater supply. It’s a term for reversing the normal flow of water system because of a vacuum in the
pipes. This happens if there is a temporary shut off of water supply.

Solution; a vacuum breaker helps prevent this.

c) Corrosion- It results when oxygen or carbon dioxide becomes trapped within the water supply.
It’s often caused by the level of acidity in the water system. It affects the usefulness of pipes and
equipment.

Solution; filtration of water is helpful

d) Water Hardness- Hard water contains a high proportion of minerals and salts. This condition
causes an eventual buildup of scales on equipment, which requires constant preventative maintenance to
prevent clogging of tanks and water lines and malfunctioning of the equipment. Scales can also attack ice
machines, coffee makers, dish machines.

Solution; soften the water by adding lime or other water softeners

e) A blocked sink- A blocked sink or a plug hole leads to slow draining water and bad smells.
Clogs in your kitchen drain are caused by food, grease and soap residue. Left on the sink, they create the
perfect home for odor-causing bacteria.

Solution; seal off the overflow holes and the second sink.

Stage 1; A plunger is put directly over the blocked kitchen drain. Plunge up and down vigorously.

Stage 2: if this doesn’t help, pour baking soda and white vinegar into the sink, and then pour boiling
water to remove drain cleaners and the clog.

Stage 3; Pour one cup baking soda, ½ cup salt down the drain, let it sit for a few hours, then pour 2 cups
boiling water down the drain

Stage 4: use a wire to snake down the drain to try to pull things out or push the clogged object through.

On a weekly basis, combine 4 litres of hot water and ¼ cup of salt. Pour into the drain.

f) Burst pipes- several things can cause burst pipes. The pipes may fail due to age, misuse or
damage. The pipe can be put under a great pressure through the system and any fault in the piping will be
exposed over time and broken down.

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Solution; close the stopcock fully and open the taps in the room to remove the water from the system.
This can be found where the service pipe enters your home. Clean excess water away as soon as possible
to reduce damage it can cause. Turn off water heating systems, electrics. Fix the problem for example, if
the pipe is leaking from a screw fitting see if you can tighten it. If unsure, call a professional plumber
immediately.

g) Obstructions

· Regular maintenance will assist in the efficient operation of sanitation systems but obstruction may
still occur normally due to misuse.

· Preventative maintenance is important for the hygienic and efficient running of the establishment.
Registered plumbers have a wide knowledge while specialist cleaners may only have a limited knowledge
of systems.

· Descaling-this is removal of hard greyish white material which deposit inside the pipes. Waste
pipes which may be subject to heavy usage and scaling-up, such as urinals waste, should be regularly
treated with a suitable commercial descaling agent.

· Drain and waste pipe rodding-this is the traditional method of cleaning a blockage and preventing
the build-up of solids during maintenance. In waste pipes a thin, spirally bound wire rod is used, while in
larger draw pipes modern polythene rods, scrapers may be used.

· Water jetting-drains which receive large volumes of catering discharge containing grease which
has not passed through a grease trap will be subject to possible blockage. Water jetting is a common
method of clearing obstructions and preventing build-up of solids in the system. Hydro-Jetting consists of
a highpressure hose with a specialized nozzle connected to a machine that pressurizes the water,
producing a powerful stream that clears the drain. Hydro-Jetting is usually done through a clean-out,
which is an opening that allows plumbers to clean out clogs.

h) Freezing of pipes Methods

of thawing pipes

a) Wrap a cloth around the part, and pour hot water over it

b) A blow lamp should only be used by a plumber or experienced person

c) A heater placed near the frozen part to raise the temperature of the air.

d) If a waste pipe is frozen, pour hot water down it.

i) Water hammer

Water hammer (or pressure surge) generally occurs in a high pressure system when the flow of water is
suddenly stopped. A sudden fluctuation in flow velocity sets up shockwaves through the pipework,
causing the pipe to vibrate making a ‘hammering’ sound. It mostly occurs in metal pipes, although it can
occur in plastic pipes. It is related directly to the water velocity – the faster the water travels, the greater
likelihood of water hammer. It is better to prevent water hammer than trying to fix the problem once a
building is complete.

To reduce the likelihood of water hammer:

• avoid direct contact of pipes with the structure

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• clip pipes with rubber insulated clips or clip over the pipe insulation

• fix pipework rigidly to prevent movement

• provide relief bends or flexible sections of pipe to absorb shock

• fit grommets or cushioned packers where pipes pass through structural members

• size pipework to avoid excessive water velocity

• limit system pressure

j) Air locks in water supply pipework

If air enters a water supply system, it will accumulate at high points and can restrict the flow of water. If
there is not enough pressure to push the air bubble through the pipe, the air lock will remain until the
pipeline is manually purged.

Air may enter the system from:

 a cylinder vent 

the tank if it runs

low  water as it is

heated.

Low pressure pipes should be graded to allow air to exit from predetermined high points and to prevent
air locks from occurring.

k) Leaks

Leaks from pipes, plumbing fixtures and fittings are a significant source of water waste for many
households. Some leaks are obvious, such as dripping faucets and leaking water heaters. Unfortunately,
many leaks go undetected for years because the source of the leak is not visible. Larger leaks or a
combination of small leaks can often be detected by your water meter. Even when leaks are detected, this
test does not indicate the location of the leaks. There are sometimes leaks between the meter and the
home, in the water supply line. These leaks are often difficult to detect because the supply pipe is usually
buried at least 3 feet (.91 m) below the ground surface. Sometimes the leaking water will travel along the
pipe, back to the meter. If the meter box contains water, and the water is not due to rain or irrigation
runoff, this may indicate a leak in the supply line. Another common exit point for the leaking water might
be where the supply line rises above the ground and/or enters the house. If the soil is constantly damp at
these locations this might indicate a leak. In cases of severe leaks, the water will seep up towards the
ground surface, usually directly above the path of the underground pipe. Most often, leaks between the
meter and the house are the responsibility of the homeowner; leaks from the meter or pipes leading from
the main to the meter are the responsibility of the water utility. The water utility should be contacted
before any attempt to repair the water supply pipe. If the utility deems the leak to be the responsibility of
the homeowner, a professional plumber should perform all repair work. This repair should never be
attempted by a homeowner.

ELECTRICITY

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All electrical installations should be undertaken by qualified personnel. Substances that allow electricity
to pass through are called conductors, and include metal, water, damp earth and the human body. Those
that resist are known as insulators for example porcelain, wood and rubber.

Electrical terms

a) Watts- measure power, that is, the rate at which any electrical appliance is using electric current for
given pressure (voltage)

b) Volts- measure pressure flow. 240 Volts is a common measure in domestic use.

c) Amperes- measure the rate of flow of a current, and can be obtained by diving the watts with the
volts

d) Ohms- Measure the resistance of the wires to the passage of electricity

Electrical installation

Consumer unit is the term used to describe the fuse box. It may contain fuses, miniature circuit breakers
(mcb’s), main switches and residual current devices (rcd’s). Anmcb is an electrical device that switches
off a circuit automatically when a certain current is exceeded. Sometimes anmcb is used as an alternative
to a fuse. An rcd detects a faulty current passing to earth and switches off the supply in micro-seconds.
These devices are not a replacement for fuses, but they do provide additional protection from death by
electricity shock.

Industrial plugs and sockets

Plugs and sockets are easily recognized by the colour coding. All electric catering equipment should be
installed using a plug and socket connections. Equipment must not be fixed into a isolator or switch box.
Plug and socket connections allow the equipment to be easily disconnected for cleaning and mechanical
servicing, which is especially important in maintaining hygiene standards.

Where light switches are provided and are fitted in a kitchen or storeroom, waterproof types should be
selected. This will enable wet washing of walls, ducting etc. to be carried out safely.

Fuses

This is an electrical circuit acts as a safety device. Fuse wire is obtainable in varying thicknesses.

Lighting circuits -maximum of 5 amperes

Radial circuits -maximum of 15 or 20 amperes

Cookers or ring circuit -30 amperes

Causes of a blown fuse

a) Too many appliances plugged into the a circuit

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b) Plugging a power appliance into a lighting circuit

c) Short circuit due to insulation failure, i.e. lead and return wires touch and therefore current does not
reach the appliance; often due to wear of wire insulation.

Repair of fuses

a) Turn off the main switch

b) Find the fuse that has blown

c) Remove broken fuse wire

d) Replace with appropriate cartridge fuse or-

e) Replace with new fuse wire of the correct size

f) Before replacing the repaired fuse and before switching on, endeavor to trace fault and repair.

ELECTRICITY

All electrical installations should be undertaken by qualified personnel. Substances that allow electricity
to pass through are called conductors, and include metal, water, damp earth and the human body. Those
that resist are known as insulators for example porcelain, wood and rubber.

Electrical terms

a) Watts- measure power, that is, the rate at which any electrical appliance is using electric current for
given pressure (voltage)

b) Volts- measure pressure flow. 240 Volts is a common measure in domestic use.

c) Amperes- measure the rate of flow of a current, and can be obtained by diving the watts with the
volts

d) Ohms- Measure the resistance of the wires to the passage of electricity

Electrical installation

Consumer unit is the term used to describe the fuse box. It may contain fuses, miniature circuit breakers
(mcb’s), main switches and residual current devices (rcd’s). Anmcb is an electrical device that switches
off a circuit automatically when a certain current is exceeded. Sometimes anmcb is used as an alternative
to a fuse. An rcd detects a faulty current passing to earth and switches off the supply in micro-seconds.
These devices are not a replacement for fuses, but they do provide additional protection from death by
electricity shock.

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Industrial plugs and sockets

Plugs and sockets are easily recognized by the colour coding. All electric catering equipment should be
installed using a plug and socket connections. Equipment must not be fixed into a isolator or switch box.
Plug and socket connections allow the equipment to be easily disconnected for cleaning and mechanical
servicing, which is especially important in maintaining hygiene standards.

Where light switches are provided and are fitted in a kitchen or storeroom, waterproof types should be
selected. This will enable wet washing of walls, ducting etc. to be carried out safely.

Fuses

This is an electrical circuit acts as a safety device. Fuse wire is obtainable in varying thicknesses.

Lighting circuits -maximum of 5 amperes

Radial circuits -maximum of 15 or 20 amperes

Cookers or ring circuit -30 amperes

Causes of a blown fuse

a) Too many appliances plugged into the a circuit

b) Plugging a power appliance into a lighting circuit

c) Short circuit due to insulation failure, i.e. lead and return wires touch and therefore current does not
reach the appliance; often due to wear of wire insulation.

Repair of fuses

a) Turn off the main switch

b) Find the fuse that has blown

c) Remove broken fuse wire

d) Replace with appropriate cartridge fuse or-

e) Replace with new fuse wire of the correct size

f) Before replacing the repaired fuse and before switching on, endeavor to trace fault and repair.

WASTE DISPOSAL

1. Types of wastes

· Solid

· Liquid

· Gaseous

2. Methods of waste disposal

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· Refuse disposal

· Sewage disposal

3. Environmental hygiene

4. Role of Public Health Act in waste disposal· Public Health Act cap 242

· Public Health (drainage and latrine) rules

WASTE DISPOSAL

Waste is any matter that is useless, unwanted, and unusable or matter which cannot be used later. Sewage
is matter from human bodies, factories towns that flows away in sewers. Sewers are underground pipe or
passage that carries sewage away to be treated or purified.

TYPES OF WASTE

a) Solid for example, tin waste, vegetable waste and rubbish, paper rubbish broken glasses, sewerage
and sanitary.

b) Liquid for example, dirty water and urine

c) Gaseous for example nitrogen gases, carbon dioxide etc.

Waste disposal is a process of throwing away useless matter in an acceptable way or manner. Waste can
be organic or inorganic

Organic waste-this is waste that can rot, for example, food leftovers, and food waste during preparation.it
produces bad odour when it rots and if not well disposed may encourage breeding of germs, and pests
such as flies, rats and cockroaches. This creates unpleasant, unsightly and dangerous environment; for
example vegetable peelings may cause falls.

Inorganic waste- this refuse does not rot. Poor disposal can lead to unsightly and dangerous environment;
for example broken bottles could cause cuts, and piled waste paper and cartons could provide breeding
grounds for pests

Method of Refuse Disposal

1. Burying-This is mainly used to dispose of inorganic refuse such as aerosol containers, batteries
and broken bottles, pots glass, plates and cups. Burying can also be used to dispose of organic refuse such
as animal carcasses and bones from the dining room

2. Burning- this can be used to dispose of inorganic refuse such as waste papers, carton boxes,
empty milk packets, plastics and waste polythene paper,.

3. Using refuse as animal feeds-vegetables, fruits wastes and food leftovers can be used to feed
animals

4. Converting refuse to manure-a pit to decompose organic refuse is dug away from the house. On
decomposing, this refuse is used as manure.

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5. Garbage collection by local authorities-these are commonly used in public places and residential
areas. Refuse bins are provided by the local authorities who empty and dispose the refuse once or twice a
week in designated dumping sites.

6. Recycling-this is a process of using chemicals to treat inorganic refuse that has already been used
so that it can be used again. Waste papers can be recycled to make toilet rolls while plastic containers can
be recycled to make bottles.

Reasons for waste and sewerage disposal

· To prevent accidents from happening

· To prevent risks of fire

· To prevent contamination of food and food areas

· To prevent pest infestation and unpleasant odours from arising

· To comply with the laws or the establishments procedures

Drainage

This is a system of directing waste water away from a building. Waste water includes rainwater, washing
and bathing water, lavatory water or sewage.

Reasons for drainage

· Free the house of dampness

· Keep off bad odours

· Destroy breeding places for pests

· Keep surroundings neat, free from pools of stagnant water.

Methods of drainage

1. Free drainage

There is no drainage system and waste water is poured anywhere.

Disadvantages of free drainage

· Causes swampy and damp surroundings which encourage the breeding of mosquitoes, flies and
other disease-causing organisms

· Erodes the soil

· Emits bad smells which attract flies and pests

· Makes the surrounding unsightly

· Makes the area slippery

2. Open drainage system

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This consists of open drains known as gutters, which drain rainwater as well as household waste water.
They can be made of concrete or just narrow ditches which are not cemented.

Advantages of open drainage system

· They are easy to construct and can be made without expensive fittings

· Cemented open drains are easy to clean and maintain

Disadvantages of open drainage

· They pose danger because people can fall into them and get hurt. During heavy rains, they get
flooded, and people can easily drown especially children.

· Those that are not cemented cause soil erosion because the edges continue to wear out.

· They can be unsightly and smelly if they are not cleared constantly

· They can become a breeding place for pests.

Care of open drains

Open drains should be:

· Made shallow so that they can be cleaned easily

· Kept clear of rubbish so the water can flow freely

· Disinfected regularly where possible

Sometimes the gutters are covered with removable concrete slabs. Occasionally, the slabs should be lifted
and the gutter cleaned. The slabs should then be placed back in position.

3. Concealed drainage system

This is the most suitable method of draining waste water away from the kitchens, bathrooms and Water
Closet (WC/lavatory). It is used where there is piped water. The waste water is removed from the house
through waste pipes which lead it the main drains.

Disposal of waste water from kitchens and bathrooms

The water is collected in a sink, a basin or a bathtub and is led out of the house through waste pipes to the
main drains. Below every sink and basin is a bottle trap which is made in the shape of a “U” or an “S”.
The bottle trap is always full of water which acts as a seal to keep off bad smells from the drains. The
bottle trap is always fitted with a plug or a cleaning eye which can be opened to empty it.

Disposal of sewage

This is disposal of water from the WC. When the toilet is flushed, the water from the cistern carries away
the refuse from the bowl/pan and leaves clean water filling the S-bend up to the bottom of the pan. This
water helps to keep bad odours from the drains. The pan is connected to the drain by the soil pipe which
leads to the sewerage system

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The sewerage system consists of the following:

1. Inspection chambers/manhole

This is concrete which serves as the meeting point for two or more drains carrying waste from bathrooms,
kitchens and toilets. It is covered with an airtight iron or concrete lid which can be lifted up for inspection
and cleaning.

2. Sewer

This is a large pipe that runs underground and directs waste water out of the town to the sewerage works

3. Sewerage works

This where sewerage is treated to make harmless by destroying harmful bacteria. The solid matter or
sludge is separated from the liquid or effluent. The sludge is processed and sold as fertilizer while the
effluent is treated to make it harmless and allowed to flow into rivers or is used for irrigation.

4. Septic tanks

Where premises are located away from the main sewers, waste water is drained into septic tanks. These
consist of two pits below the ground. The sewage from the house drains into the first pit. The sludge sinks
to the bottom of the pit and is removed when full. The liquid flows into the next pit also called the soak
pit where it drains into the ground.

5. Soak pit

This is a hole which is filled with layers of large and small stones which are covered with soil. The waste
water drains into this pit and gradually soaks into the surrounding soil. It should be dug away from the
house and away from water sources such as wells.

6. Cesspool (pit)

A cesspool is a concrete tank built in the ground where waste water is led. It can be made to cater for
several houses and has no sewer to carry the sewage to the sewage works. They should be emptied
regularly

Advantages of concealed drains

· They are hygienic since their content is not exposed to pests.

· The waste is not exposed

Disadvantages of concealed drains

· They can be used where there is a supply of piped water

· They are expensive to install

· Careless use may make maintenance expensive, especially if plumbers have to be engaged to
unblock sinks and drains, or replace broken fittings

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Care of a concealed drainage system

Care of the sink

· Clean the sink properly after use

· Do not allow particles and oil into the sink; they can cause blockage

· Run clean water through the sink regularly to keep the U-bend clean

· Pour disinfectant down the sink regularly to kill germ any bacteria present

· Pour some detergent down the sink to clear any grease which may cause blockage

· Unscrew the cleaning eye occasionally to clean up the U-bend

Care of the Water Closet (WC)

· Flush after use so that the water in the seal is clean

· Clean and disinfect daily

· Do not throw things such as newspapers and sanitary pads into the toilet; they will block it

Care of the drains

· Remove any litter or leaves from the drains regularly so that waste water can flow freely

· Keep the traps clear of any insoluble solids

· Pour hot water and detergent down the drain to clean it and keep off bad smells

· Check the drains occasionally at the inspection chamber to ensure they are clear of solids.

 SAFETY AND SECURITY

SAFETY AND SECURITY

Definition of terms

· Safety

· Security

· Crime

· First aid

Importance of safety and security

Safety and security precautions/requirements

· Catering premises

· Catering equipment

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· Catering personnel

Fire safety precautions

· Types of fires

· Firefighting devices

· Fire prevention

· Fire drills

Legal aspects related to safety and security

Safety

Relative freedom from danger risk or threat of harm or injury, or loss to personnel and/or property
whether caused deliberately or by accident

Introduction to safety

Whatever function you have in the hospitality industry, everyone is required to behave safely and
professionally. Reasonable care must be taken to safe guard the health and safety of yourself and others
who may be affected by what you do. You must always be responsible for your own behavior and ensure
that your actions do not cause a health and safety risk to yourself, others that you work with or customers.
This includes cooperation with your employer, owner or manager to ensure that health and safety
procedures are followed. All employers, employees, managers, indirect employees (such as suppliers or
self-employed maintenance engineers), local authorities and health and safety inspectors have a wide
ranging responsibility to ensure that current legislation is maintained.

Security It’s a condition of being protected against danger or loss. Both customers and employees need to
feel secure while on the premises. The size and complexity of the security department can vary depending
on the operation. It is common for security personnel to be outsourced from a security agency. There is an
individual who is responsible for security. The key responsibilities of a security manager include ·
Monitor CCTV

· Escort cash drops

· Follow up

· Respond rapidly to security requests

· Make frequent rounds of premises

· Work closely with local police

· Create awareness of security issues in all employees

· Escort suspicious or undesirable persons

· Assist in dealing with difficult or intoxicated guests

· Assist in making security checks on personnel

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· Complete security paperwork

· Be alert at all times

The main security risks in the catering industry are

· Theft; customers’ property, employers’ property (particularly food, drink, equipment), employees’
property.

· Burglary: theft with trespass of customers’ property, employers’ property, employees’ property.

· Robbery: theft with assault, e.g. banking cash, collecting cash.

· Fraud: false claims for damage; counterfeit currency; stolen credit cards.

· Assault: fights between customers, while staff banking/collecting cash.

· Vandalism: malicious damage to property by customers, by intruders, by employees

· Arson: setting fire to property

· Undesirables: drug traffickers, prostitutes.

· Terrorism: bombs, telephone bomb threats

Crime Acrime is any act or omission that violates a law which results in a punishment. Punishments can
range from the payment of a fine to incarceration in jail The main security risks in the catering industry
are

· Theft; customers’ property, employers’ property (particularly food, drink, equipment), employees’
property.

· Burglary: theft with trespass of customers’ property, employers’ property, employees’ property.

· Robbery: theft with assault, e.g. banking cash, collecting cash.

· Fraud: false claims for damage; counterfeit currency; stolen credit cards.

· Assault: fights between customers, while staff banking/collecting cash.

· Vandalism: malicious damage to property by customers, by intruders, by employees

· Arson: setting fire to property

· Undesirables: drug traffickers, prostitutes.

· Terrorism: bombs, telephone bomb threats

Certain basics of crime prevention relate to facilities. These include the following measures:

· Guestroom doors should self-close and lock automatically and should be equipped with bolt locks
and peepholes.

· Emergency lighting systems should be checked for operation at least monthly.

· Exit doors should be clearly identifiable

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· A key control system should be in effect, with keys inventories kept daily.

· Locks should be replaced when keys are missing.

· Adequate lighting levels should be maintained in hallways, parking lots, walkways and other
exposed areas.

· Landscaping should be clean and trim-inviting to guests but not providing hiding place for

• FIRST AID

• FIRST AID Lesson

First aid

This is an emergency treatment that is given to an injured or sick person or animal, often by someone who
does not have medical training. First aid is the assistance given to any person suffering a sudden illness or
injury, with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, and/or promote
recovery. It includes initial intervention in a serious condition prior to professional medical help being
available, such as performing CPR whilst awaiting an ambulance, as well as the complete treatment of
minor conditions, such as applying a plaster to a cut. First aid is generally performed by the layperson,
with many people trained in providing basic levels of first aid, and others willing to do so from acquired
knowledge.

First aid kit

First aid box should contain;

• first-aid manual

• sterile gauze pads of different sizes

• adhesive tape

• adhesive bandages in several sizes

• elastic bandage

• a splint

• antiseptic wipes

• soap

• antibiotic ointment

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• antiseptic solution (like hydrogen peroxide)

• Hydrocortisone cream (1%)

• acetaminophen and ibuprofen

• tweezers

• sharp scissors

• safety pins

• disposable instant cold packs

• calamine lotion

• alcohol wipes or ethyl alcohol

• thermometer

• plastic non-latex gloves (at least 2 pairs)

• flashlight and extra batteries

• mouthpiece for administering CPR (can be obtained from your local Red Cross)

• your list of emergency phone numbers

• blanket (stored nearby)

First-aid boxes must be easily identifiable and accessible in the work area. They should be in the charge
of a responsible person, checked regularly and refilled when necessary. All establishments must have
first-aid equipment. It is desirable for all establishments to have trained first-aid staff. Larger
establishments must provide at least one person, who keeps the first aid equipment and should be trained
in first-aid.

First aid treatment Shock

The signs are faintness, sickness, clammy skin and a pale face. Shock should be treated by keeping the
person comfortable, lying down and warm. Cover the person with a blanket or clothing, but do not apply
hot water bottles

Fainting

Fainting may occur after a long period of standing in a hot, badly ventilated kitchen. The signs of an
impending faint are whiteness, giddiness and sweating. A faint should be treated by raising the legs
slightly above the level of the head and, when the person recovers consciousness, putting them in
the fresh air for a while and making sure that they have not incurred any injury in fainting. Cuts

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All covers should be covered with waterproof dressing, after the skin round the cut has been washed.
Where there is considerable bleeding, it should be stopped as soon as possible. Bleeding may be
controlled by direct pressure, by bandaging firmly on the cut. It may be possible to stop bleeding from a
cut artery by pressing the artery with the thumb against the underlying bone; such pressure may be
applied while a dressing or bandage is being prepared for application, but not for more than 15 minutes.
Wear disposable gloves when assisting someone with a cut.

Nose bleeds

Sit the person down with their head forward, and loosen their clothing round the neck and chest. Ask
them to breathe through their mouth and to pinch the soft part of the nose. After 10 minutes, release the
pressure. Warn the person not to blow their nose for several hours. If bleeding has not stopped, continue
for a further ten minutes. If bleeding has not stopped then, or recurs in 30 minutes, obtain medical
assistance.

Fractures

Fractures refer to broken bones. In the kitchen, it may be caused by accidental falls or a heavy blow.
There are two kinds of fractures: simple fracture and compound fracture. In a simple fracture, the bone is
broken and a crack can be seen on an x-ray, while in compound fracture, the bone is broken into many
pieces or is splintered. There is pain and swelling and may lead to deformity of a limb. A person suffering
from broken bones should not be moved until the injured part has been secured so that it cannot move.
Medical assistance should be obtained.

Burns and scalds

Burns are caused by dry heat like hot charcoal, hot metal or flames while scalds are caused by hot liquids.

Place the injured part gently under slowly running water or immerse in cool water keeping it there for at
least 10 minutes or until the pain ceases, if serious, the burn or scald should then be covered with a clean
cloth or dressing (preferably sterile) and the person sent immediately to hospital. Do not use adhesive
dressings, apply lotions or ointments, or break blisters.

Sprains

A sprain is a tearing or stretching of ligaments in a joint, especially the wrist or the ankle. Sprains happen
when you twist a joint accidentally, for example, stepping on uneven ground. The joint becomes painful,
hot and swollen. Dip the injured part in very cold water immediately to reduce the pain and swelling.
Sprain treatment is referred to as RICE. R for Rest, I for Ice, C for Compress, and E for Elevate. This
means that there should be no movement, ice should be used to compress and then the injured part should
be elevated.

Choking

Choking is caused by an object like food getting stuck in the throat or air passage which makes breathing
difficult. If the patient is an adult, stand behind him or her. Hold the patient by the waist, your fists
against the abdomen, just above the navel but below the ribs. Press the belly several strong jerks. You can
also hit the person with the palm of the hand between the shoulder blades until the object pops out. For
babies, hold them upside down by the legs, and pat them gently on the upper part of the back until the
object pops out.

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Poisoning

May be caused by eating poisonous substances. Look for clues that may help identify the poisonous
substance taken. If substance is corrosive, and causes a burning sensation in the throat and pain in the
stomach, do not induce vomiting; instead, give plenty of water to drink. If acidic substance is taken,
neutralize it by giving the victim something alkaline for drink like milk of magnesia. If an alkaline poison
is taken, neutralize it by giving fruit juice and seek medical assistance immediately.

Electric shock

Switch off the current. If this is not possible, free the person by using a dry insulating material such as
cloth, wood or rubber, taking care not to use the bare hands otherwise the electric shock may be
transmitted. If breathing has stopped, give artificial respiration and send for a doctor. Treat any burns.

Gassing

Do not let the gassed person walk, but carry them into fresh air. If breathing has stopped apply artificial
respiration and send for a doctor.

Artificial respiration can be used by almost all age groups and in all circumstances. The most effective is
mouth to mouth (or mouth to nose)

Importance of safety and security

Safety and security precautions/requirements

All catering establishments should endeavor to reduce the risk of temptations. Eliminating or reducing
cash handling is one measure that should be encouraged. Credit and debit cards may minimize the risk.
Employees are best paid through the bank instead of cash. Other measures include notices that no money
is kept in the premises or that no money is kept in the premises or that safes are protected by time-delay
locks. Strict stock control can reduce stock levels thereby reducing temptation and the problem of control.
Reducing the amount of information available to the criminal reduces the ability for the thief to plan and
thus commit crime. Avoid such things as regular routine for ‘banking’. Regular and spot-check stock
taking is a valuable system to identify crime. All equipment for example, computers, fax machines,
photocopies etc. should be security marked. Prevent any unauthorized person from entering the premises.
Reception staffs need to be trained to identify suspicious individuals. Everyone reporting to reception
should be asked to sign in.

A good security system should also be in force at the back door, with everyone delivering goods reporting
to the security officer. Where staff constantly come into close contact with strangers, it is advisable to
train them in anti-aggression techniques, which include the early recognition of volatile situations and
how to defuse them.

Staffs who handle money should be trained in simple anti-fraud measures such as checking bank notes,
checking signatures on plastic cards and so on. Security measures also include leaving lights on in areas
that can be seen by passers-by, as well as locking doors, windows and suchlike. Making sure that any

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suspicious person does not re-enter the building is also essential. Night-time security staffs are used in
some establishments.

Key control is one important security topic. They can be mechanical or electronic. Mechanical systems
rely more on continuous management involvement, while electronic systems embody a large amount of
key control within the system itself. The five R’s of key control are:

· Rationale

· Records

· Retrieval

· Rotation

· Replacement

Rationale-includes the criteria used to develop the keying schedule and to identify who will have what
level of access. It determines how many keying levels there will be and who gets what keys.

Record- it involves a number of elements. In regard to the guest room, it includes keeping information
about the status of guestroom keys, the names of the room occupants, and the names of any other people
with access to the room.

Retrieval-Action to retrieve keys from guests and employees when they leave the building

Rotation-involves moving locks from room to room to maintain security. Rotation can take place on a
regular basis, e.g.

every six months or every year It can also occur when a given number of guestrooms keys have been lost,
or when the security of a guest has been compromised.

Replacement- it should be done when the security of any part of the building has been compromised or if
there is loss of the master keys. It can also be done when a property is sold or if there is a major change of
staff. Many replacements involve installing electronic locks in place of mechanical locks.

• EQUIPMENT FOR FIRE SAFETY AND FIRE FIGHTING

• EQUIPMENT FOR FIRE SAFETY AND FIRE FIGHTING Lesson

Equipment for fire safety and fire fighting Automatic fire detection

The prime purpose of a fire detection system is to provide an early warning of fire to the occupants of a
building so that they may escape to safety.

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Fire detectors are designed to detect one or more of the three characteristics of a fire: Smoke, Heat or
Flame. No one type of detector is the most suitable for all applications and the final choice has to depend
on individual circumstances.

Heat Detectors operate by the use of physical properties of:

· Expansion of metals.

· Melting of solids.

· Expansion of liquid or gases.

· Changes in electrical characteristics of materials.

Smoke Detectors are of two general types:

· Ionisation detectors.

· Optical beam-type detectors.

Flame Detectors are of two general types:

· Infra-red detectors.

· Ultra-violet detectors.

Automatic fire detection equipment should be regularly inspected, tested and maintained in an efficient
operating condition.

Fire warning systems

An audible fire warning system can be provided in every building as the first link in the chain of fire
safety precautions. This is to ensure that all occupants are warned quickly of any outbreak of fire, so that
they can leave the building without delay.

There are three main types of warning systems:

1. Electrically energized sounders (usually bells) - activated manually from one or more call points
and which, upon operation, will continue to sound automatically.

2. Electrically energized sounders activated by an automatic detector. (These may also be

incorporatedin the system described above).

3. Hand operated rotary gongs or sounders sited at suitable points in the building. These should only
be used in smaller, low risk premises. Although needing little maintenance, they have the disadvantage
that a warning, once given, should be continued until everyone is outside the building.

Where there may be difficulty in hearing an alarm due to noisy equipment, or in soundproof rooms, etc.,
flashing lights (strobes) may be installed.

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Escape lighting

It is important that premises are provided with an adequate degree of illumination, either by natural
means or otherwise, in order that the occupants can see to move around.

1. Premises which are occupied during the hours of darkness or have areas in which the natural lighting
is restricted, e.g. a basement, windowless accommodation etc, should be provided not only with
normal lighting but also with escape lighting, so that in the event of the normal lighting failing, either
through a fire or otherwise, the escape lighting will automatically come on and remain on to provide
illumination throughout the escape route for safe movement to a place of safety.

2. The normal and escape lighting should both be capable of illuminating the internal and external
escaperoutes, exit signs, door fastenings, fire alarm call points and fire extinguishers.

3. There are two basic types of fixed escape lighting systems:

· A central power supply (batteries trickle charged from the mains) connected to luminaires
throughout the premises. This system either operates automatically on failure of the normal lighting
circuit or is on at all material times.

· A number of independent luminaires, each containing a lamp, battery and trickle-charger, and
connected to an adjacent lighting circuit. Each luminaire operates automatically on failure of the lighting
circuit to which it is connected or may be on at all material times.

4. Escape lighting may be required to be kept switched on throughout the time that the premises are in
use (maintained lighting) or may need only to come into operation if the normal lighting should fail
(nonmaintained lighting).

The minimum period for which the escape lighting is required to function will depend upon the use of the
building and will be for one, two or three hours.

Signs

Any exit which is not a normal route of travel from a building should be indicated by a notice bearing a
“running man” symbol and, if appropriate, the words “Fire Exit” in conspicuous lettering of appropriate
size. The notice should, if possible, be sited above the exit opening.

Where an exit cannot be seen or where a person escaping might be in doubt as to the location of an exit.
‘Fire Exit’ notices to include a directional arrow, should be provided at suitable and conspicuous
positions along the escape route. Signs which are necessary to indicate actions that should be taken are
‘mandatory’ signs. These signs are circular, with white lettering on a blue background. The most common
of this type is the “Fire Door - Keep Shut”.

Means of escape

Even if a fire certificate is not required, the management in places where people work has a statutory duty
to provide a means of escape.

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Firefighting equipment

Even if a fire certificate is not required, the management in places where people work has a statutory duty
to;

1. provide suitable firefighting equipment,

2. ensure that it is properly maintained,

3. ensure that staff are trained in its use.

Class A Fires

· Class A fires commonly result from ordinary combustible materials, including paper, wood,
cardboard and some plastic materials. They appear frequently in household fires, from accidental ignition,
lit cigarettes or spontaneous combustion. They require Class A extinguishers to put them out, since these
extinguishers hold a great deal of water in the mixture.

Class B Fires

· Flammable liquids, such as gasoline, grease, cooking oil, acetone and paint thinner, define class B
fires. These fires can originate in households, warehouses, shops and commercial properties, where such
flammable liquids are used for household activities or in the manufacturing process. Class B
extinguishers have square-foot ratings, indicating how much surface area can be contained with their use.

Class C Fires

· Class C fires involve electrical components and equipment, including circuit breakers and panels,
wall outlets, appliance wiring, machinery and engine wiring. Common sources include automobiles,
household wiring, generators, turbines, fans, refrigerators, toasters, ovens and stoves. Class C fires
require chemical extinguishers, which are non-conductive, since water heightens the risk of electrical
shock and further damage.

Class D Fires

· Fires rated as class D, typically found in foundries and chemical laboratories, involve combustible
metals that have a high content of sodium, titanium, potassium and magnesium. Such metals burn by a
spontaneous, chemical reaction, and can be quite dangerous in factories and plants where they have been
stored. Specialized extinguishers must be used to combat metal fires.

Types of fire extinguisher

There are four main types of extinguisher in use. The ground-colour of all extinguishers is RED, labelled
with a code-colour which identifies the contents, in accordance with the chart below:

Type Colour of labelUse

Red, with whiteSuitable for most fires. But not those involving flammable
Water
text liquids or live electrical equipment.

Foam Pale cream Suitable for burning liquids.

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Carbon Dioxide
Black Suitable for burning liquids or fires involving electricity. gas

Powder French blue Suitable for burning liquids or fires involving electricity.

Choice of extinguishing agent

Class 'A' fires

Water is by far the most effective agent. It can be conveniently provided in the following ways:

a) Portable extinguishers from which the water is expelled in the form of a jet or spray.

There are two main types:

· Gas cartridge type, from which the water is expelled by pressure released from a gas cartridge.

· Stored Pressure type, from which the water is expelled by the release of pressure stored within the
body.

b) Hose Reels which are permanently connected to the mains water supply and fitted with hand
controllednozzles. Note - With manual type hose reels, it may be necessary to operate a valve before
the hose is run out.

c) Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF). Similar to water type extinguishers when used for class ‘A’
fires.

Class 'B' fires

In fires of this class the smothering effect of the agent is most important. The following are the agents
most widely used.

Foam

There are two main types;

1. Gas cartridge type, from which foam is expelled by pressure released from a gas cartridge; and

2. Stored pressure type, from which foam is expelled by the release of pressure stored within the
body.

N.B. - Special foams must be used on liquids which mix with water, e.g. alcohol, acetone, glycerine and
glycols, etc.

Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)

Similar to water type extinguishers, but with additives making the media suitable for Class ‘B’ fires.

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Carbon Dioxide

This is stored in liquid state under high pressure in the extinguisher and released as a gas. It should not be
used if the risk of re-ignition is high.

Powder

This is a very effective agent when applied promptly, but it has limitations when the risk of re-ignition is
high.

Fire Blanket

Or other means of covering, such as a lid on a fixed vessel.

Dry Sand kept in buckets

Not very effective as an extinguishing agent, but can be usefully applied to limit the spread of burning
liquids.

Class 'C' and Class 'D' fires

It is not recommended that extinguishers be provided for these classes of fire for use by untrained
persons. With gas leak fires, the only action recommended is the closure of the valve or plugging of the
leak (but only if safe to do so). No attempt should be made to extinguish the flame in any other way.

Fire routine procedure and staff instruction

· Fire routine procedures should be strictly adhered to, and all members of staff are aware of their
responsibilities in the event of fire.

· Regular staff instruction must be carried out by a nominated person.

· Particular attention should be given to any new or temporary members of staff.

· In addition to instructions contained in the fire routine procedure, all staff should know that it is
vital a 999 telephone call be made irrespective of any automatic method of transmitting an alarm, and that
when the Service has been called, the fire alarm system must not be re-set until authorised by a Fire
Officer.

· Fire evacuation drill must be performed at least once every 12 months (more in buildings with a
high occupancy turnover) and an appropriate entry made in the building’s Fire Precautions Log Book.
Contents

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FIRE FIGHTING PROCEDURES

Raising the alarm

On discovering a fire, raise the alarm by shouting FIRE! (to alert anyone in the immediate vicinity) and
then activate the nearest push-glass fire alarm call-point (small red box, close to major exits).

If safe to do so, use an appropriate fire extinguisher to tackle the fire, but only if your exit is clear.

Leave the building by the nearest exit.

Call the Fire & Rescue Service on 999 .

Evacuation procedure Staff

On hearing a continuous siren, leave the building immediately by the nearest exit. Escort any
visitors/contractors from the building.

If an intermittent alarm is heard, there is a fire alert that requires investigation. Be prepared to leave if
this becomes a continuous siren. Report to the appropriate Assembly Point.Report missing persons or
those in difficulty to the Fire Safety Manager or assembly point Fire Marshal for relaying to the Fire and
Rescue Service on arrival.

Fire precautions

The Department will ensure that adequate fire precautions are in place throughout areas under its control.
This will be achieved by:

o assessing the fire risks in the workplace

o ensuring that a fire can be detected in a reasonable time and that people
can be warned

o ensuring that people who may be in the premise can get out safely o

providing appropriate fire-fighting equipment

o ensuring that those in the premise know what to do if there is a fire o

ensuring that fire safety equipment is checked and maintained

Risk assessment

If a fire occurs in the workplace, there is a risk that people will be trapped by the fire or injured as they
attempt to escape. The purpose of the risk assessment is to identify where fires may start in the workplace
and anyone who may be put at risk from that fire. There should be an assessment of escape routes and
higher risks areas regularly. Risk assessments for experiments or projects involving flammable, explosive
or pyrophoric materials or substances, heat sources, high voltages or processes that may interfere with
smoke or heat sensors should include specific reference to these together with the control measures
employed to eliminate or reduce those risks to acceptable levels.

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Responsibilities

All staff and customers must ensure that:

· combustible materials are used and stored safely

· materials are not stored in gangways, corridors or stairways or where they may obstruct exit doors.

Smoking

Smoking is not permitted on any catering site (or in close proximity to external stores, entrances and
exits) except in designated smoking areas.

Maintenance and refurbishment

All building maintenance and refurbishment work and equipment maintenance requiring sources of heat
or combustible materials must be cleared for use with the Facilities Manager. All materials brought into
the premise in connection with the work being carried out must be stored away from sources of heat and
must not obstruct exit routes.

Emergency plan

The catering outlets should have an emergency plan. This plan includes:

· the action to be taken by staff in the event of fire

· the evacuation procedure

· the arrangements for calling the fire brigade

· the location of assembly points

The plan should be posted in prominent positions where staff can become familiar with it. More detailed
plans are available in areas identified as being at higher risk from fire.

Training and instruction

Department staff, must be aware of the risks of fire associated with their work, particularly if they work
with hot processes or use highly flammable substances. All staff will be told during their induction
process:

· how to warn others of the fire including the operation of the fire-warning system

· the location and use of escape routes

· to assist or direct visitors or members of the public from the workplace

· the location of assembly points

· how to summon the fire service

· the location and use of fire safety equipment (where appropriate)

· the arrangements for calling the fire brigade

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All Departmental staff will undergo periodic fire safety training, including an annual evacuation
procedure.

Maintenance and testing of fire safety equipment

The Fire Safety Manager will ensure that fire safety equipment, including fire-fighting equipment,
detection and warning systems, means of escape and emergency lighting, are regularly checked and
maintained. The schedule detailed in Appendix 1 will be followed.

Fire safety equipment maintenance and service schedule

Fire-detection and fire-warning systems

 Alarm sounder check.

Weekly
 Confirm any system isolations are still required.

Every Six 
A full check and test of systems will be performed by a
Months competent service engineer.

Emergency lighting

• Operate torches and replace batteries as required.

Ongoing Fire Repair or replace any defective unit.

• A full check and test of systems and units will be carried out by a
Annually competent service engineer.

• Replace torch batteries.

fighting equipment

• Replace any extinguishers that have been moved from

an
Ongoing appropriate location.

• Replace damaged and deployed extinguishers.

Annually  A full check and test will be carried out by a competent

service engineer.

Manufacturers may recommend alternative or additional action where appropriate and will supply more
detailed information as required.

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Fire prevention

§ Identified hazards must be removed or reduced so far as is reasonable. All persons must be protected
from the risk of fire and likelihood of a fire spreading.

§ All escapes routes must be safe and used effectively.

§ Means for fighting fires must be available on the premises.

§ Means of detecting a fire on the premises and giving warning in case of fire on the premises, must be
available.

§ Arrangements must be in place for action to taken in the event of a fire on the premises, including the
instruction and training of employee

• BASIC TYPES OF MAINTENANCE PROGRAMMES

• BASIC TYPES OF MAINTENANCE PROGRAMMES Lesson

BASIC TYPES OF MAINTENANCE PROGRAMS

Whether you own a car, house, building or professionally involved in operation and maintenance of
machines ,you need to know some basics about maintenance.

Maintenance definition

Maintenance can be defined as: "The combination of all technical and administrative actions, including
supervision actions, intended to retain an item in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform a
required function"

"Maintenance is a set of organized activities that are carried out in order to keep an item in its best
operational condition with minimum cost acquired." In general, Maintenance means to hold, keep, sustain
or preserve the building, machine or structure to an acceptable standard.

Maintenance should be actions taken to prevent a device or component from failing or to repair normal
equipment degradation experienced with the operation of the device to keep it in proper working order.
Unfortunately, data obtained in many studies over the past decade indicates that most private and
government facilities do not expend the necessary resources to maintain equipment in proper working
order. Rather, they wait for equipment failure to occur and then take whatever actions are necessary to
repair or replace the equipment. Nothing lasts forever and all equipment has associated with it some
predefined life expectancy or operational life.

Objectives of Maintenance Program

• Maximizing production or increasing facilities availability at the lowest cost and at the
highest quality and safety standards.

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• Reducing breakdowns and emergency shutdowns.

• Optimizing resources utilization.

• Reducing downtime.

• Improving spares stock control.

• Improving equipment efficiency and reducing scrap rate.

• Minimizing energy usage.

• Optimizing the useful life of equipment.

• Providing reliable cost and budgetary control.

• Identifying and implementing cost reductions.

The design life of most equipment requires periodic maintenance. Belts need adjustment, alignment needs
to be maintained, and proper lubrication on rotating equipment is required, and so on. In some cases,
certain components need replacement, to ensure the main piece of equipment last for its design life.
Anytime we fail to perform maintenance activities intended by the equipment’s designer, we shorten the
operating life of the equipment.

1. Reactive Maintenance/Emergency and breakdown maintenance

Reactive maintenance is basically the “run it till it breaks” maintenance mode. No actions or efforts are
taken to maintain the equipment as the designer originally intended to ensure design life is reached.
Advantages

• Low cost.

• Less staff.

Disadvantages

• Increased cost due to unplanned downtime of equipment.

• Increased labor cost, especially if overtime is needed.

• Cost involved with repair or replacement of equipment.

• Possible secondary equipment or process damage from equipment failure. • Inefficient use of staff

resources

2. Preventive Maintenance (time-based)

Preventive maintenance can be defined as follows: Actions performed on a time- or machine-run-based

schedule that detect, preclude, or mitigate degradation of a component or system with the aim of
sustaining or extending its useful life through controlling degradation to an acceptable level.

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While preventive maintenance is not the optimum maintenance program, it does have several advantages
over that of a purely reactive program. By performing the preventive maintenance as the equipment
designer envisioned, we will extend the life of the equipment closer to design. This translates into dollar
savings. Preventive maintenance (lubrication, filter change, etc.) will generally run the equipment more
efficiently resulting in dollar savings. While we will not prevent equipment catastrophic failures, we will
decrease the number of failures. Minimizing failures translate into maintenance and capital cost savings.

Advantages

• Cost effective in many capital-intensive processes.

• Flexibility allows for the adjustment of maintenance periodicity.

• Increased component life cycle.

• Energy savings.

• Reduced equipment or process failure.

• Estimated 12% to 18% cost savings over reactive maintenance program.

Disadvantages

• Catastrophic failures still likely to occur.

• Labor intensive.

• Includes performance of unneeded maintenance.

• Potential for incidental damage to components in conducting unneeded maintenance.

3. Predictive Maintenance (condition based)

Predictive maintenance can be defined as follows: Measurements that detect the onset of system
degradation (lower functional state), thereby allowing causal stressors to be eliminated or controlled prior
to any significant deterioration in the component physical state. Results indicate current and future
functional capability.

Basically, predictive maintenance differs from preventive maintenance by basing maintenance need on
the actual condition of the machine rather than on some preset schedule. You will recall that preventive
maintenance is time-based. Activities such as changing lubricant are based on time, like calendar time or
equipment run time.

The advantages of predictive maintenance are many. A well-orchestrated predictive maintenance program
will all but eliminate catastrophic equipment failures. We will be able to schedule maintenance activities
to minimize or delete overtime cost. We will be able to minimize inventory and order parts, as required,
well ahead of time to support the downstream maintenance needs. We can optimize the operation of the
equipment, saving energy cost and increasing plant reliability.

Advantages

• Increased component operational life/availability.

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• Allows for preemptive corrective actions.

• Decrease in equipment or process downtime.

• Decrease in costs for parts and labor.

• Better product quality.

• Improved worker and environmental safety.

• Improved worker morale.

• Energy savings.

• Estimated 8% to 12% cost savings over preventive maintenance program. Disadvantages

• Increased investment in diagnostic equipment.

• Increased investment in staff training.

• Savings potential not readily seen by management

4. Proactive Maintenance

The latest innovation in the field of predictive maintenance is so-called pro-active maintenance, which
uses a variety of technologies to extend the operating lives of machines and to virtually eliminate reactive
maintenance.

The major part of a pro-active program is root cause failure analysis, which is the determination of the
mechanisms and causes of machine faults. The fundamental causes of machine failures can thus be
corrected, and the failure mechanisms can be gradually engineered out of each machinery installation. It
includes routine preventive and predictive maintenance activities and work tasks identified from them.

5. Routine Maintenance

Routine maintenance refers to the daily activities with repetitive nature, such as taking meter readings,
lubricating, monitoring, start-up, and shut-down. This pertains to the general upkeep of the property
recurs on a regular basis, and requires relatively minimal skills or training to perform. These include
activities such as grass cutting, leaf raking and shoveling, carpet and floor cleaning.

6. Scheduled Maintenance

It includes preparing equipment for changes in the season. It includes activities that are periodically
required to keep equipment operating at an efficient level e.g. descaling boilers and water heaters.
Replacement of equipment.

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7. Contract Maintenance

This may be done when special tools or licenses are required to perform the required work, or when
temporary staffing is in shortage. It can also be done when the task is complex and is beyond the skills of
the existing maintenance staff. Some of the common contract maintenance services include elevator
maintenance, trash havlage, window cleaning, kitchen duct cleaning, yard work, herbicide and pesticide
application, water treatment and HVAC control calibration

Some factors that influence maintenance strategy adopted include:

· Health and Safety

· availability of resources

· Limited skills of in-house technicians in specialized disciplines

· Energy consumption

· Guest Expectation

· Degree of influence in business activities

· Environmental Impact

· Hotel Policy

· Maintenance Resources (labour, tools and materials)

· Legal requirement

· Reliability of system

· Criticality of system

· System life cycle

· Annual Budget

· Feedback from other departmental heads

· Manufacturer recommendations

· Equipment history records ( failure mode, frequency and cause)

· Skills of in house technician

· Time constraint

· Statutory requirements

· Degree of system complexity

· Financial constraint

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· Technical support from manufacturers

· Use of proprietary units and parts

· Availability of in house labour force

· Use specialized tools and requirements

In maintenance practice several factors are considered before adoption of in-house technicians, out-source
contractors, or combination of both. There is no general rule for a desirable ratio of in-house to
contracted-out labour force on which management decision is based, but the availability of resources and
a number of other factors are considered. Limited skills of in-house technicians in specialized disciplines
are the most significant factor driving management to employ outsourcing labour for some maintenance
and retrofitting works. Time constraints was considered as a factor since the main income of the hotels
are from the rent of guest rooms and the provision of food and beverage services, including restaurants
and banquet halls, therefore longer downtime of critical equipment and functional areas will lead to a
serious loss of business. As a result, management has to carefully compare the working time needed by
the outsourcing contractors with the in-house staff.

• FINISHES IN BUILDING FABRICS

• FINISHES IN BUILDING FABRICS Lesson

FINISHES IN BUILDING FABRICS

FLOOR COVERING/FLOORING

Floor coverings are functional and decorative. They are subject to wear and tear and from the basis on
which the rest of the décor is planned. Flooring and floor covering should be chosen to keep up with
the purpose of the room. When selecting a floor covering, the following criteria should be considered; ·
The volume and nature of traffic

· If the area is dry or wet

· The method of cleaning the area

· The use of the room

Choosing floorings

1. Appearance

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· Pale colours especially blues and greens and shiny surfaces give a cold and cool appearance

· Intense colours (red, orange etc.) and matt surfaces give an impression of warmth

· The sense of scale in a room or area is influenced by the size of the pattern

· Patterned surfaces tend to make a large room appear smaller

· Plain colours make a small room appear larger

· Patterns and some colours do not show spillages and soiling readily and the floorings retain their
appearance of cleanliness longer than other.

2. Comfort

· Soft resilient surfaces are generally comfortable to walk on

· Harder, noisier, colder floorings offer less heat and sound insulation

· The floor should not be noisy or slippery

· A very shiny floor looks slippery

3. Durability

· Grit cuts into some flooorings more easily than into others.

· Spillages of water, grease and food acids are more likely in some places and will harm certain
floorings

· Areas of more concentrated wear need careful consideration

· Areas where people turn their feet may show excessive wear

4. Life expectancy

· A flooring needs to be durable for the length of life expected and this is not he same for all areas

5. Safety

· Surfaces should have a non-slip qualities when wet and ry

· Over polishing may cause slipperiness

6. Ease of cleaning

· Ensure that you select that which is easy to clean

7. Cost

· This includes the initial cost, maintenance

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOOR FINISHES

These can be classified according to their hardness, porosity or the material from which they are made

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CLASSIFICATION OF FLOOR FINISHES

Hard finishes Semi-hard finishes(Smooth Soft floor covering

flooring)
-Cement, -terrazzo, Carpets
-Thermoplastic
-stone e.g. marble
-vinyl in tile or sheet form
-Ceramic tiles
-rubber in tile or sheet form
-Resin
-linoleum in tile or sheet form
-Bitumastic laid in situ
Cork in tile or sheet form
-Magnesite

-Hardwood

CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOOR FINISHES

Hard finishes Semi-hard finishes(smooth Soft floor covering

flooring)
-Durable but noisy except wood -comfortable

-Cold in appearance and feel -smooth -quiet

-Vermin proof -durable but less permanent than -decorative

hard finishes
-Impervious to dry rot
-resilient except thermoplastic
-Fire retardant tiles
-Easily cleaned -of good appearance

-Unaffected by insect pests and

fungi

-relatively easy to clean

-comes in a wide range of price,

colour and porosity

TYPES OF FLOORING

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ASPHALT TILE VINYL TILE

Advantages Advantages

-Low cost -wide colour and pattern range

-Large colour selection -resistant to oils and solvents

-Moderate maintenance -high resiliency though heels and heavy objects

can cause indentations
Disadvantages
-quiet
-Least resilient
-its slip resistant if surface is textured
-Affected by oils, kerosene
-easy to clean, waterproof
-Possible cracking or deterioration from extreme
temperatures Disadvantages

-Not resistant to heat when used in the kitchen

CARPETING LINOLEUM

Advantages Advantages

-Sound absorbent -decorative -comfortable-available in sheets or tiles

Disadvantages -wide color range

-greater than average maintenance needs -low cost -good resilience

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-moderate to high initial cost -slip resistant as it is not highly polished

-affected/stained by spills Disadvantages

-Lacks resistance to moisture and alkaline

solutions

-heavy objects dent it but thick quality linoleum

is resilient

-damaged by alkalis

RUBBER TILE QUARY TILES

Advantages Advantages

-high resilience - wide colour selection -Resistant to moisture –low maintenance

-quiet -slip-resistant -long life/lasting -waterproof

-good when dry and if surface is studded or-easy to clean

ribbed; poor when wet
Disadvantages
-waterproof –hardwearing –easy to clean
-High initial cost
-not too costly
-Grout subject to deterioration
Disadvantages
-grease can stain it
-Lack resistant to oils and solvents
-hard cold and noisy for the feet
-not resistant to heat
-slippery when polished or wet

-tend to chip

CERAMIC TILES TERRAZZO

Advantages It consists of marble and other decorative chips

set in concrete.
-durable and decorative
Advantages
-easy to clean
-Decorative if well maintained
-resistant to domestic chemicals, heat and
grease, acids or alkali but strong alkalised -durable and of low maintenance
substances should be avoided
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
-high initial cost
-hard and cold; noisy for the feet
-unsuitable for areas subject to spillage
-slippery when wet
-harmed by strong alkaline and acids
-marks can be difficult to remove if left to stand

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for too long

-initial cost is high

-they may crack or break with heavy loads

WOOD CONCRETE

Advantages Advantages

-Decorative -quiet –comfortable to the feet -durable -low maintenance

Disadvantages -low to moderate initial cost

-unsuitable for areas subject to excessive Disadvantages

moisture and oil spillage
-hard, cold and noisy to feet
-moderate care and maintenance required

WALLS COVERING

In general, walls should be;

· smooth

· Impervious (preventive of any penetration especially of water)

· non-flaking and solid(as those with cavities harbour pests)

· Light of colour and free crevices and ledges

· capable of being thoroughly cleaned and if necessary disinfected

· style should suit its purpose, comply with fire regulations

· bear in mind the furnishings and architectural aspects of the room

Examples of wall surfaces include;

· Resin-bonded fibre glass

· Ceramic faced blocks

· glazed tiles

· Stainless steel

· Plastic sheeting -polypropylene

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Walls are treated or decorated by covering them with paint, wall paper, fabric, tiles, and wood panelling,
linoleum, terrazzo, marble

PAINTS

Paint is used extensively as a decorative wall finish but it is also used to preserve and protect structural
surfaces, used in identification of pipes, for the emphasis of hazards and danger points and for hygiene.
They are used to obtain a desired colour scheme in a premise. They come in a wide variety of types and
colours.

Types of paints; there are many types but most common are;

Oil paints

These are soluble in oil. These are available in flat, finish, and gloss finish and semi-gloss enamel finish

Advantages

a) It is water repellent and therefore easily cleaned using water and soap without
causing damage

b) An oil painted surface is smooth and therefore dust will not settle on it

easilyc) oil paint is durable

Disadvantages

a) it is expensive

b) stains with an oil base are difficult to remove

c) It has an unpleasant smell when fresh

d) It takes longer to dry when used than water based paints

e) It blisters and flakes with long exposure to water and the sun

f) It is highly inflammable

Water based paint

Advantages

a) It is cheap to obtain and use compare to oil based paint

b) It does not have an unpleasant smell when fresh

Disadvantages

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a) It is difficult to maintain, because it stains easily and the stains cannot be removed without
damaging the surface.

b) The paint wears off easily with repeated cleaning

TILES

Glazed ceramic tiles are commonly used in wet areas and kitchen walls because they are water repellent
and protects the wall from dampness

Advantages

a) They are durable

b) They are easily cleaned

c) They are attractive and can be used to create interesting decorative effects on the walls

Disadvantages

a) They are expensive

b) They chip off

WALL PAPER

They come in a variety of colours, patterns and textures

Classification of wall paper

Non-washable wall paper

This is a paper that has been printed with water soluble dyes and any use of water on them will damage
the design

Washable wall paper

This has a coating of water repellent substance which makes it withstand washing

Advantages

a) It is available in many colours, design and texture to suit one's taste

b) have a warmer appearance than paint

c) When used it can hide defects on the wall surface

d) Offer sound insulation

Disadvantages

a) Wall paper is expensive

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b) They become soiled, scratched and torn with abrasion

FABRIC

Fabric is becoming popular as a wall covering because of the improved adhesives that are available. Any
fabric can be attached with a liquid adhesive or stapled to the wall.

Advantages of using fabric as a wall covering

a) It can be used to cover walls as well as upholstery, cushions etc. To match the colour scheme of the
room.

b) Fabrics are attractive and warm

c) Can have sound deadening properties

d) They come in variety of colours, textures and designs

Disadvantages

a) Fabrics are expensive

b) They are not easy to clean

c) Dirt, dust and smell of smoke tend to cling or fabric

METAL WALL COVERING

Metals such as copper and anodized aluminium and can be decoration and used for hygienic qualities.
Others can be stainless steel inform of tiles.

When cleaning, dust or wipe with damp cloth

LEATHER (HIDE) WALL COVERING

These are extremely expensive and very decorative. They maybe padded and studded with brass studs and
they do not usually cover a complete wall surface

Cleaning of leather

Remove surface dust by dusting or careful suction cleaning

Apply polish sparingly and rub very well

PLASTIC WALL COVERING

They are obtained in a variety of sizes, with a great price range, and many require special adhesives. As
they are non-porous, there is a greater tendency for the growth of moulds, so the adhesive should contain
fungicides or a fungicidal wash. Examples are plastic wall tiles, laminated plastics, vinyl

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WOOD PANELLING

Woods used are usually hard, well-seasoned and of decorative appearance. They may cover the wall
completely or form a dado (lower portion of an interior wall decorated differently from the upper portion)
It can be solid or veneered.

Advantages

a) They are durable, can last a long time without maintenance

b) They are attractive due to natural wood grains and colours

c) They can be given an easy care finish

d) They add warmth to the room

Disadvantages

a) Wood panels can be expensive depending on the quality of wood used

b) Wood catches fire easily

c) It is easily spoilt by water

OTHER MATERIALS

Many flooring materials can be used as wall coverings. They contribute different colours, patterns and
textures depending on the particular material. They are usually hardwearing, resistant to abrasion and
initially rather expensive.

Amongst floorings used as wall coverings are:

-Linoleum - marble -cork –carpet -terrazzo -ceramic tiles

CARE OF WALLS

Stain should be removed as soon as they occur, because they can be safety dealt with, without causing
damage to the surface

a) Clean the wall according to the nature of the covering to avoid causing damage

b) Use harmless cleaning materials for the surface

c) Avoid placing furniture against the wall

d) Avoid touching walls with wet or dirty hands

e) Dust occasionally to remove dirt

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DAILY CLEANING

This involves removal of loose dirt from rooms and surface. It involves sweeping, brushing, dusting and
suction cleaning. It involves tidying up

WEEKLY CLEANING

This involves removal of both loose and fixed dirt. It’s thorough cleaning done once a week. It involves
sweeping, dusting, suction, scrubbing and wiping

SPECIAL CLEANIING

Thorough cleaning done occasionally may be once a month

REASONS FOR CLEANING

a) It promotes good health by keeping away germs ad bacteria

b) It helps retain the original appearance of surfaces

c) When dirt is removed from surfaces, they stay free from stains, so they remain attractive and in
good conditions.

d) Maintenance cost is reduced if regular cleaning is done

CLEANING WALLS

Weekly cleaning

a) High-dust the walls and the ceiling

b) Low dust

c) Remove any obvious dirt

Special cleaning

a) Collect the cleaning equipment and materials. Remove all pictures and wall hangings

b) High-dust the walls and the ceilings. Then low-dust to remove loose dirt special attention should
be given to ventilations, corners and skirting board

c) Use warm soapy water and a sponge or soft cloth to clan the wall. Work from low levels going
upwards to avoid tear marks or trickling stains. Clean lengthwise, a small section at a time.
Stubborn stains may be removed using a mild abrasive indirectly; that is, put the abrasive on a
damp cloth and fold so that the cloth rubs against the wall.

d) Rinse with warm clean water, starting from the top coming downwards to remove soap and dirt.
Drywith a clean dry cloth.

e) Repeat cleaning and rinsing. Overlap the sections until the entire wall is cleaned

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f) Wipe the skirting board using warm soapy water. Rinse thoroughly to remove the soap and dirt.
Drywith a clean dry cloth.

g) Use as little water as possible for walls with water-based paints to avoid wetting the wall. Too
muchwater will dissolve the paint.

h) Also avoid using abrasives as they will remove the paint

i) Clean all the equipment and store appropriately.

PREPARATION AREAS

Stainless steel tables are best because they do not rust and their welded seams eliminate unwanted cracks
and open joints. Preparation surfaces should be joint less, durable, and impervious, of the correct height
and firm based. They must withstand repeated cleaning at the required temperature without premature
deterioration through pitting and corrosion. Kitchen work surfaces should be;

-Easy to clean

- Hard wearing

-Heat resistant

-Quiet - Not too costly Scratch proof

-Water proof

• TENANCY AND PREMISES

• TENANCY AND PREMISES Lesson

TENANCY AND PREMISES

1. Define terms

2. Discuss factors affecting tenancy

3. State legal aspects on tenancy

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Definition of terms

a) Catering establishment- means any premises on which the business of supplying food or drink for
consumption is carried out, by persons other than those who reside and are boarded on such
premises;

b) “Controlled tenancy”- means a tenancy of a shop, hotel or catering establishment—

(a) Which has not been reduced into writing; or

(b) Which has been reduced into writing and which—;

(i) is for a period not exceeding five years; or

(ii) contains provision for termination within five years from the commencement thereof;

Provided that no tenancy to which the Government, the Community or a local authority is a party,
whether as landlord or as tenant, it shall be a controlled tenancy.

c) “Hotel” means any premises in which accommodation or accommodation and meals are supplied
or are available for supply to five or more adult persons in exchange for money or other valuable
consideration;

d) “Landlord” (Lessor), in relation to a tenancy, means the person entitled to the rents and profits
of the premises payable under the terms of the tenancy;

e) “Rent” includes any sum paid for the occupation of any premises, and any sum paid as rent or
hire for the use of furniture or as a service charge where premises are let furnished or where premises are
let and furniture is hired by the landlord to the tenant or where premises, furnished or unfurnished are let
with services.

f) Tenancy is the occupancy or possession of land or premises by lease. The occupant known as the
tenant must acquire control and possession of the property for the duration of the lawful occupancy. A
tenancy can be created by any words that indicate the owner’s intent to convey a property interest on
another individual.

g) “Tenant” ( in relation to a tenancy means the person for the time being entitle to the tenancy
whether or not he is in occupation of the holding, and includes a sub-tenant;

h) A lease is a contract outlining the terms under which one party agrees to rent property owned by
another party. It guarantees the lessee, the tenant, use of an asset and guarantees the lessor, the property
owner or landlord, regular payments from the lessee for a specified number of months or years. Both the
lessee and the lessor face consequences if they fail to uphold the terms of the contract.

Main issues affecting tenancy

Negotiating a commercially viable lease requires you to know and understand the key terms and
conditions contained in the lease clauses.

Some of the key terms and conditions typically included in a lease are:

• lease duration (or term) and options to renew

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• rent and rent reviews

• permitted use

• tenancy mix and competition

• costs

• repair and maintenance

• assignment and sub-leasing

• default and breaches

• redevelopment and relocation

• termination

Your proposed lease is also likely to include other terms and conditions. Before signing a lease or lease
related documents, taking possession of the premises or paying any monies you should obtain
independent legal, financial and business advice.

1. Lease duration and options to renew

You need to ensure the duration (term) of the proposed lease is long enough for you to recoup your
investment and make your required profit. Remember, once your lease has expired the landlord is under
no obligation to renew it and you may need to find alternative premises. Much of your business goodwill
could be attached to your premises, so it is important to protect this.

Options

· Ensure that the proposed lease provides you with options to renew so that you can continue trading
from the premises after the end of the initial term.

· If you are starting out in business and don’t have a proven track record, you may decide to
negotiate a short initial term and short options to renew, such as 1 year + 2 years + 2 years.

· However, if your business is established and you are seeking security you may negotiate longer
terms, such as 2+3+5.

2. a) Rent and rent reviews

You will need to negotiate the rent and frequency of rent reviews with the landlord. Rent reviews are
usually annual but you can negotiate for them to be less frequent. It is important to ensure you can
afford any proposed rent increases over the period of your lease and any renewal period. b) Market
rent

If a market rent review applies upon the exercise of an option to renew your lease, it is important before
making any decision that you first establish the market rent with the landlord to ensure the proposed rent
is acceptable and commercially viable.

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c) Percentage rent

In negotiating a lease, try to avoid rent reviews based on percentage of turnover. This means that you
agree to pay a base rent and once a certain level of turnover has been reached, additional rent is paid
based on a percentage of turnover.

If this clause is included in the lease you will be required to provide details of your turnover to the
landlord. This information could be used against you in later negotiations or if you decide to sell the
business.

3. Permitted use

A lease usually includes a clause that outlines the permitted use of the premises.

You should ensure that the permitted use allows you to do all the activities required to operate your
business. This includes all the types of goods you want to sell and services you want to provide.

Don’t just think about your current activities, consider what you may want to offer to expand your
business in the future. For example, if you are only permitted to sell pizza this could cause problems if
you want to add hamburgers or coffee to your menu.

The permitted use may also limit your opportunities to assign the lease to another person if you want to
sell the business or leave the premises before the lease expires. You should try to negotiate a permitted
use that is sufficiently broad enough to protect your future business interests.

4. Tenancy mix and competition

Carefully consider the mix of tenants in a shopping centre or precinct. Ideally the mix of businesses
should complement rather than compete with your business. It’s a good idea to include an ‘exclusivity of
trade’ clause in your lease. This prohibits direct competition and gives you the sole right to sell a
particular product category, or conduct that type of business in the shops controlled by the same landlord.

5. Anchor tenants

You may be attracted to particular premises because there is a significant tenant in the same location,
such as a supermarket chain or department store (known as an anchor tenant). Your business may even
rely on the foot traffic generated by them. If so, negotiate a clause in the lease that gives you the right to
terminate the lease or receive a rent reduction if the anchor tenant leaves or if there is a reduction in the
overall number of tenants within the building or shopping centre.

6. Costs

Other costs associated with leasing commercial premises also need to be considered in your negotiations.
These costs are additional to the rent and can be significant. In some cases they may be ongoing and
increase during the lease. Some of the common additional costs are:

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1. operating expenses or outgoings

2. insurance

3. legal costs

4. security bond

5. fit-out

6. refurbishment

7. marketing and promotional funds

a) Operating expenses or outgoings

Operating expenses are generally the costs incurred by the landlord in operating, repairing or maintaining
the leased premises. These costs may include land tax, council rates, water rates, security, cleaning of
common areas, and general repairs and maintenance. It is important for you to be aware of any operating
expenses that you will be required to pay before signing a lease as they can significantly add to your
overall costs. Try to negotiate so that you aren’t obliged to pay for operating expenses incurred by the
landlord. If this isn’t possible, try to limit them so that it is only those that will be of benefit to your
premises. Also negotiate a maximum level of increase over the term of the lease.

Costs such as structural repairs and capital items (something considered an asset) should be strongly
argued as being at the landlord’s expense as the landlord has the ongoing benefit of these items. The lease
should also stipulate that you should have access to invoices and receipts to confirm the actual operating
expenses.

b) Insurance

You may be required as a term of the lease to take out insurance to cover such things as damage to the
building and public liability. You should avoid any indemnity clauses in a lease that require you to
compensate the landlord in the event of any loss, unlawful act or damage.

These clauses can breach your insurance policy. It is a good idea to discuss any insurance clauses with
your insurer before agreeing to them.

c) Legal costs

In general, the legal costs associated with preparing and negotiating the lease can be agreed between you
and the landlord. It is a good idea to try to negotiate that each party pays their own legal costs, or at the
very least there is a limit on your contribution to the landlord’s costs.

You should also avoid any clauses that require you to pay the landlord’s legal costs if there is a dispute.

d) Security bond

You may be required to provide a security bond at the start of a lease; the amount is usually negotiable. If
you agree to a bond, the lease should outline the conditions for the use, withholding and repayment of the
bond. Any bond monies should be held in an interest bearing account for the duration of your lease. e)
Fit-out and condition of premises

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‘Fit-out’ is the process or action of preparing the leased premises for occupation as required by the tenant
and agreed to by the landlord. It can include installing things such as the shop front, wall and floor
coverings, fixtures and fittings.

It is possible to negotiate who is responsible for fit-out or parts of the fit-out. It is important that the lease
specifies the fit-out requirements and who will be responsible for the associated costs. Try to negotiate as
much as possible so that the fit-out items you purchase will remain your property (can be taken with you)
at the end of the lease.

Fit-out costs can be a major cost. Be sure to allocate sufficient budget towards it when considering leasing
premises.

f) Refurbishment

You may be required to refurbish the premises during the lease period. This is most common in shopping
centres where the overall image of the centre is kept updated. In your negotiations try to limit
refurbishment to every five or six years.

g) Marketing and promotional funds

You may be required to contribute to marketing or promotional funds if specified in the lease. These
funds generally are for advertising or other promotional activities of a shopping centre

You should clearly determine your contribution to marketing or promotional funds before entering into
the lease. Try to negotiate terms that limit your contribution and allow you to have a say in how the funds
are spent.

7. Repair and maintenance

Responsibility for repairs and maintenance should be clearly outlined in your lease. Try to negotiate for
the landlord to be responsible for the structure of the building and major capital items (i.e. roof, walls,
airconditioner, exterior fittings such as gutters and downpipes, plant and equipment that are their
property, etc).

As a tenant you may be responsible for the repairs and maintenance of the internal surfaces such as floor
coverings, doors and windows and any equipment and fixtures provided by the landlord for your use.

Equipment such as air-conditioners and fire sprinklers should be negotiated to be replaced by the landlord
when their useful life span is over, but the day-to-day maintenance is your responsibility.

TIP: Have the premises independently inspected before entering into the lease. A condition report,
including photographs, should be accepted by you and the landlord. This report can be useful if there is a
dispute when the lease ends about the condition of the premises or equipment, and whether this has been
caused by fair wear and tear.

8. Assignment and sub-leasing

You may need to assign the lease (the lease is taken over by another person) if you decide to sell your
business or can no longer keep operating. You will need the landlord’s permission to do this, so make
sure your lease states that they cannot unreasonably withhold their consent.

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Reasonable grounds for refusing the assignment may include the prospective new tenant having a poor
credit rating, them being unlikely to be able to conduct the business successfully or intending to use the
premises for a purpose other than the use permitted by the lease.

If you assign a lease you may still be liable if the new tenant defaults on the lease

If you sub-lease part or all of your premises, you are still liable for the lease. This may mean that you will
need to pay rent if your incoming tenant fails to pay. It is important to undertake a credit check and
ensure that the incoming tenant is able to meet the lease requirements. If you are assigning a lease or sub-
leasing you may be required to pay the landlord’s reasonable legal costs and other associated expenses.

9. Defaults and breaches

You will be in default of your lease if you fail to pay your rent on time. This will allow the landlord to
take action to recover the rent. In many leases the landlord will also have the right to enter the premises
and lock you out without notice. The landlord can claim the loss of rent up to the end of the lease period
and costs associated with reinstating and re-letting the premises. If the premises are re-let at a lower rent
the landlord can claim for this plus any other loss and legal costs associated with your defaulting.

When negotiating your lease, make sure the default clauses specify that you must be given written notice
of any default, and that you are given sufficient time (at least 14 days) to rectify the default before any
action is taken against you.

You can also breach your lease (breaking part of the agreement) if you do not undertake certain
requirements, such as failing to repair or maintain the premises. Once again, you should negotiate in your
lease to have written notice and sufficient time to rectify any breaches before any action is taken against
you.

10. Redevelopment and relocation

A redevelopment clause may allow the landlord to terminate a lease early so they can carry out major
works to renovate or redevelop the premises. In these circumstances you could find yourself without
premises or relocated to alternative premises. This could severely affect your business. If possible, you
should try to negotiate to have the redevelopment and relocation clauses removed from the lease. If you
can’t, make sure the lease provides compensation for loss of trade or goodwill associated with relocating
your business, along with payment for relocation and other costs and losses. You should also consider
negotiating a reduction in rent if appropriate. Generally the redevelopment clause should provide
sufficient compensation so that you are in substantially the same position as if the redevelopment did not
occur.

TIP: You should give serious consideration to the risks associated with redevelopment and relocation. If
you are unable to negotiate adequate compensation, you should consider whether the potential risks for
your business make it worth entering into the lease.

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11. Termination

When negotiating a lease check whether there are any clauses that allow the landlord to terminate the
lease early. If there are, try to negotiate to have them removed. If the lease is silent as to a right to
terminate, try negotiating a right to early termination along with the payment of a set sum of liquidated
damages to the landlord in order to leave yourself an out. In the event that your business ends up not
being as successful as anticipated, the business is sold, or market conditions simply require a change, you
don’t want to be stuck relying on a court to determine damages to the landlord. It’s also important to pay
close attention to notice requirements at the end of the lease term and follow them closely. For example, a
lease may state that, sixty days prior to the end of the lease term, the tenant must give written notice to
the landlord of its intent not to renew. If notice isn’t given sixty days in advance, the lease may call for
the term to automatically renew. Be sure to keep a close eye on specific requirements in order to avoid
getting stuck in an undesirable situation.

12. Compliance with Laws.

Commercial spaces must comply with a large number of federal, state and local laws and regulations.
Typically, a landlord will be responsible for ensuring that the overall premises is complaint with laws;
however, it’s important to understand the expectations with respect to the specific leased space. If the
lease is silent on who is responsible for ensuring the space is complaint with applicable laws, ask the
landlord to clarify the terms. For example, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires all
businesses that are open to the public or that employ more than 15 people to have premises that are
accessible to disabled people. Make sure that you and your landlord are in agreement about who will pay
for any needed modifications, such as adding a ramp or widening doorways to accommodate wheelchairs.

13. The Space.

It’s important to examine exactly what space is being included in the rental. Discuss hallway and
restroom use as well as permitted entrances, elevators and other common areas. It’s also important to
discuss whether the landlord has quoted your rental cost based on rental square footage or usable square
footage. Usable square footage is always less than rentable square footage because it does not include
common areas like bathrooms, hallways, lobbies and elevators. Having a clear understanding on the
space which makes up the rental will help you determine whether the quoted rental price is fair and
enable you to negotiate if appropriate. It also creates a clear understanding upfront on exactly what uses
will be permitted.

14. Signage.

Take the time to make sure the lease is clear on any prohibitions relating to signage including size,
location, lighting and the general appearance. You should also examine the exterior of the building and
whether the type of desired signage works with the building’s structure. For example, a landlord may not
be willing to permit a lessee to drill into a marble facade in order to attach a sign.

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LEGAL ASPECTS IN TENANCY

Landlord and Tenant (Shops, Hotels and Catering Establishments) Act no.25 CAP 301 is An Act of
Parliament to make provision with respect to certain premises for the protection of tenants of such
premises from eviction or from exploitation. It states that;

(i) That the premises are fit for habitation and comply with the laws relating to health in all respects.

(ii) That where the premises are destroyed by fire, civil commotion, or accident, through no
negligence onthe part of the tenant, any liability to pay rent shall be suspended until the premises are
again made fit and habitable.

(iii) The tenant shall have quiet enjoyment of premises provided that he complies with express or
implied covenants.

(iv)The landlord shall not use adjoining land or premises in a way which would render leased premises
unfit for the purpose for which they were let.

(v) The landlord shall be responsible for all repairs to roofs, main walls, main drains, main electric wiring
and structures, and shall be responsible for all necessary renewals to the premises.

(vi)The tenant shall be responsible for all internal repairs and decorations, fair wear and tear excepted.

(vii) The landlord shall be responsible for the repair, maintenance, cleaning and lighting of common
parts where part of a building is let.

(viii) The tenant shall pay rent for the premises in advance.

(ix) The landlord shall pay all rates, taxes and similar outgoings, unless the tenant is responsible therefor
under any written agreement.

(x) The tenant shall keep the fixtures and fittings in good and tenantable repair.

(xi) The tenant shall permit the landlord or his agent and his workmen to enter the premises and to
examine or repair the same at all reasonable times after giving reasonable notice thereof.

(xii) The tenant shall not transfer, part with possession, or sublet the premises or any part thereof without
the consent of the landlord, which consent shall not be unreasonably withheld.

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