Chapter 2.

0 Basics in Irrigation Engineering

Points of Discussion:
2.1 Scope of Irrigation Engineering
2.2 Planning Irrigation Systems
2.3 Soil-plant-water Relationship
2.4 Crop Water Requirement
2.5 Irrigation Scheduling
2.6 Measurement of Irrigation Water
2.1 Scope of Irrigation Engineering

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING: a field of water resources
engineering which involves the Conception, Planning, Design,
Construction, Operation and Management of an irrigation
system.

Irrigation engineering is not just confined to the application of

water to the land for raising crops.

It deals with hydrology, river engineering, the design and
construction of dams, weirs and canals and various other
hydraulic and irrigation structures.

It also deals with the problems of drainage, soil reclamation,
irrigation practices and soil-plant-water relationships.

Allied subjects such as flood control, hydropower, etc are
also included in the study of irrigation engineering.
2.2 Planning Irrigation Systems

Irrigation system planning refers to the process of choosing the
best system among physically feasible alternatives which are
governed by:
o Economic and financial feasibility
o Social acceptability with respect to possible environmental
impacts
o Also, a political incentive and recognition of the need for a
project.

Planning is foremost important step as it is decisive for the

success and sustainability of an irrigation project.
2.2 Planning Irrigation Systems
Irrigation Project planning steps:

Statement of objectives … clearly defined based on the need of
the area/region.

Collection of data … physical, climatic, geological, hydro-
geological data, etc.

Future projections … consideration of the anticipated future
needs.

Project formulation … listing of possible various alternatives and
evaluation.

Project evaluation … selection of the best of the alternatives.
2.2 Planning Irrigation Systems
Political
Incentives

Definition of
Alternatives

Technical
Feasibility

Economic
Feasibility

Social & Environmental

Feasibility

Financial
Feasibility

Political
Feasibility
Irrigation System Planning considerations:
Location:
For locating an irrigation project, it is important to investigate
available resources in the area. For example,
o Climate,
o Adequate water in quality and quantity,
o Land with good agricultural potential and good topography,
o Availability of labour (skilled and unskilled),
o Land tenure,
o Marketing,
o Transport facilities, etc.
Irrigation System Planning considerations:
Crops to be grown: should be determined by available resources
as well as marketability of the crops especially in terms of what
people like to eat.

Water Supply: Consider

(a) Sources of water
(b) Quantity and quality of water
(c) Engineering works necessary to obtain water.
For example, if pumping is needed
(d) Conveyance System: open channels or pipes?
Irrigation System Planning considerations:
Systems of Applying Water:
e.g. Surface (90% worldwide),
Sprinkler(5%),
Trickle and Sub-irrigation(5%)

Water Demand: Decided based on the water requirement of

Irrigated crops and size of the command area.

Project Management and organization: Consider how to manage

the irrigation system and means of organizing the beneficiaries.
2.3 Soil – Plant – Water Relationship
The relationship is related to the properties of soil and plants
that affect the movement, retention and use of water.

A simple analogy:
Soil – Water Reservoir
Plant Roots – pump with many inlets

As the rate of pumping depends on the character of the pump,

the rate of extraction of water from the soil by the plant depends
on the character of the soil.
 Soil Constituents
Soil system – a complex system
 Soil Water

• Water is influential in all soil

chemical, physical and biological
processes
30-20%
30-
WATER • Essential for plant survival and
growth
• Essential for chemical transport,
etc.

• Soil Water/moisture --- the relative water content in the soil system.
 Key Definitions-
Definitions- Soil Moisture

Gravimetric Water Content: θm Mw

(mass basis, m/m,)
θm =
Ms
Volumetric Water Content: θv Vw
(volume basis, v/v,)
θv =
Vt
Ms
Dry Bulk Density ρb =
Vt
Volumetric Water Content: θv
θ v = ρ bθ m
(volume basis, v/v,)
 The 3-
3-Phase Soil Model
A

20
20--30%
AIR
45% Za air
MINERAL
30-20%
30-
WATER Zw water
Zt

Zs solid
 The 3-
3-Phase Soil Model

A=1 M w Z w ρw
Gravimetric Water θm = =
Content: Ms Z s ρs
Za air Vw Z w
Volumetric Water θv = =
Content: Vt Zt
Zw water
M s Z s ρs
Zt Dry Bulk Density ρb = =
Vt Zt
Zs solid Volumetric Water
Content:
θ v = ρb ×θ m
 The 3-
3-Phase Soil Model
Sample problem
A 100 cm3 soil is taken in the field which weighs 174 gm at the time
of sampling. The oven dry weight of the sample is 155 gm. Assume
density of water as 1gm/cm3. Compute:
a) the soil moisture content
i) in mass basis
ii) in volume basis
b) the soil moisture content for a 120cm deep soil (in depth
basis)
c) the bulk density

Answer: a) i) 12.26%; ii)19% ; b) 22.8cm; c) 1.55gm/cm3

 Soil Water Classification

Fully Saturated
Gravitational Water
Field Capacity

Capillary Water

Permanent Wilting Point

Hygroscopic Water

Complete dry
 Soil Water Classification
Gravitational water:

It is the water in the large pores that moves downward freely
under the influence of gravity

It drains out so fast that it is not available to the crops. The
time of draining out varies from one day in sandy soils to
three days in clay soils.
Capillary Water:

It is the amount of water retained by the soil after
gravitational water has drained out.

It is the water in the small pores which moves because of
capillary forces and is called capillary water.

Capillary water is the major source of water available for the
plant
 Soil Water Classification
Hygroscopic Water

Soil moisture further reduced by ET until no longer moves
because of capillary forces. The remaining water which is
held on particle surfaces so tightly is called hygroscopic
water.

Here, the water is held by adhesive force. And therefore, it
is unavailable to the plant.
 Available Water
Field Capacity (FC)

Following saturation when all macro pores are drained by
gravity and drainage ceases, usually defined 2 days following
saturation by rainfall.

Measured as the moisture content at -5 kPa (0.05 bar or 0.5 m
tension)

Permanent Wilting point (PWP)

The point where plants cannot extract any more water – only
very small pores are filled with water.

Defined as the moisture content at -1500 kPa (15 bar or 150 m
tension)
 Available Water
Available Water (AW) – the soil water available to the plant
which is defined as: AW= θFC - θPWP

Sand 4 6 29
Soil Type

Loam 5 29 12

Clay 22 20 6

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Volumetric Water Content (% v/v)
Unavailable water Available water Drainage water
 Water Release Characteristic Curve
FC PWP
Volumetric water content, % v/v 60.00

50.00 clay

40.00
Available water (sand)

sandy loam
30.00

20.00 pure sand

10.00

0.00

-1 -10 -100 -1000

Soil water potential (kPa)
 Water Release Characteristic Curve
FC PWP
Volumetric water content, % v/v 60.00

50.00 clay
Available water (clay)

40.00
sandy loam
30.00

20.00 pure sand

10.00

0.00

-1 -10 -100 -1000

Soil water potential (kPa)
 Water Release Characteristic Curve
FC PWP
Volumetric water content, % v/v 60.00

50.00 clay
Available water (sandy loam)

40.00
sandy loam
30.00

20.00 pure sand

10.00

0.00

-1 -10 -100 -1000

Soil water potential (kPa)
 Water Release Characteristic Curve
• Unique relationship between FC PWP
any soil and its water content

Volumetric water content, % v/v

60.00 clay
at a particular suction (or 50.00

tension) 40.00
sandy loam
• General shape is the same for 30.00
pure sand
all soils but the curvature 20.00

differs from soil to soil 10.00

• Largest pores drain first and 0.00

-1
-10 -100 -1000
air occupies the space Soil water potential (kPa)

• Water in the small pores are

held under tension

Soil water Potential - the energy status of Water. i.e. the ease with which
the water is released from the soil or the work required to release water.
 Total Available Water
Total Available Water (TAW): the water available to crops
expressed in mm/m (mm of water per meter depth of soil).

TAW = (FC – PWP)*ρb*Dz

Readily Available Water (RAW):

This is the level to which the available water in the soil can
be used up without causing stress in the crop.

For most crops, 50 to 60% of the total available water is
taken as readily available.

RAW = MAD*TAW

Where, MAD = maximum allowable deficit

 Total Available Water

 θfc − θ c 
RAW = NIR =   × (θfc − θwp )× Dz
 θfc − θwp 
 θfc − θ c 
RAW = NIR =   × TAW = MAD × TAW
 θfc − θwp 

Note: Irrigation application not expected till soil water reaches the PWP.
 Total Available Water

As a rule of thumb, two-third of TAW is easily accessible to plants

and on the average, only three-fourth of the root zone is most
effective. Thus,
RAW or NIR = 2/3 (FC - pwp). ¾ Drz
RAW = ½ (FC - pwp) . Drz
= ½ TAW
= 0.50 TAW

Or, MAD = 0.50 for most crops; NIR = net irrigation requirement
Total Available Water
2.4 Crop Water Requirement
• Irrigation water applied to crop is lost due to Consumptive use
(CU), runoff and deep percolation.

CU = ET loss + water for metabolic activities.

ET = > 99% of total water uptake
Metabolic activities = <1% of total water uptake

• Thus, CU ≅ ETcrop

• CU is the most important single factor whose value must be

known before planning for utilization of available irrigation water.

• Losses due to DP and runoff can be controlled but consumptive

is unavoidable.
2.4 Crop Water Requirement
• CU is the controlling factor for irrigation scheduling. That is, CU
determines the quantity of water to be added by irrigation and
helps in day to day management of irrigation systems.

Actually, total water demand of crops is made up of:

i) Crop water use: includes evaporation and transpiration

ii) Leaching requirement: a fraction of water to be added to

remove salts from the root zone.

iii) Losses of water due to deep seepage in canals and losses due
to the inefficiency of application.
 ETcrop (ETc)
• ETc = Evaporation + Transpiration
• ETc is normally expressed in mm/day.
• Factors Affecting ETc:
• Weather parameters (To, RH, Wind, etc.)
• Crop Characteristics (type, variety and
length of growing period)
• Management and Environmental aspects
(control of diseases, soil salinity, etc.)
ETcrop – Direct method
• Water balance equation – measurement of input and output
parameters.
ET = I + P – DP –(θf – θi)*Dz

WEIGHING LYSIMETER
ETcrop – Indirect method
• Indirect method – using empirical method.
• ETc can be derived from ETo using the equation:
ETc = Kc . ETo
Where,
ETo = reference ET which reflects the effect of climate on ETc
Kc is crop coefficient which reflects the effect of crop on ETc.

• Some common Equations to estimate ETo:

• Blaney -Criddle method
• Penman Equation
• Radiation method
• Pan Evaportation method
• Penman-Monteith Equation
ETcrop
Potential ET (ETo
(ETo))
Some common Equations to estimate ETo:
• Blaney -Criddle method
• Penman Equation
• Radiation method
• Pan Evaportation method (fairly accurate)
• Penman-Monteith Equation (most accurate )
Types of Pans

ETo = Kp*Ep
Class A-
A-Pan

ETo = Kp*Ep
ETo map of Ethiopia for the month of April (FAO, 2002)
Locations of meteorological Stations in Ethiopia (FAO, 2002)
2002)
Crop Coefficient, Kc

Kc > 1.0 (cotton, tomato, etc.)

ETc Kc = 1.0 (grass)

Kc < 1.0 (citrus, pineapple, sugar

beat)

ETo
Crop Coefficient, Kc
Crop Water Requirement
Example: Calculate the seasonal crop water requirement of maize
[25/35/45/30 (135)] If the average Kc is 0.65 and ETo=7mm/day.

Solution:

Daily ETc = Kc. ETo = 0.65*7 = 4.55mm

Seasonal ETc = Daily ETc* Growing period

= 4.55 * 135
= 614mm
 2.5 Irrigation Scheduling
How much to irrigate?
Answer: As much as the plants have used
since the previous irrigation.
RAW = NIR = MAD*TAW

How often to irrigate?

Answer: Often enough to prevent the
plants suffering from drought.

Irrigation frequency, f = NIR/ETc

Note: Actual irrigation water = gross irrigation water, GIR = NIR/Ea

2.5 Irrigation Scheduling
2.5 Irrigation Scheduling
2.5 Irrigation Scheduling
 Example: A Water Balance Sheet
Irrigation Plan: Apply 30mm of water at 30 mm deficit.
Date Estimated ET Rainfall (mm) Accumulated Irrigation
(mm) Deficit (mm) Period
21.12.09 4.2 - 4.2
22.12.09 3.5 - 7.7
23.12.09 3.8 - 11.5
24.12.09 4.5 - 16.0
25.12.09 5.2 - 21.2
26.12.09 5.1 2.0 24.3
27.12.09 5.5 - 29.8
28.12.09 5.1 - 4.9 (30-(29.8+5.1)) 30.0
29.12.09 4.9 - 9.8
etc.
2.5 Irrigation Scheduling
Example 1. How much water must be added to a field of area 3ha
to increase the volumetric water content of the top 40cm from 16%
to 28%? Assume all water added to the field stays in the top 40cm.
Ans: GIR 14400m3

Example 2. Compute the depth and frequency of irrigation required

for a certain crop with data given below.

Crop : wheat Average daily CU: 1.2cm

Drz: 1.20m Application efficiency: 75%
FC: 17% PWP: 5%
Bulk density: 1.72gm/cm3
Ans: d = 24.77cm; f = 10days
 Irrigation interval vs. Irrigation period

Irrigation interval … the number of days between two successive
irrigation applications.

Irrigation cycle … the number of days allowed to complete one

irrigation.
Example: If the calculated irrigation interval is 7 days and if an irrigated
area is divided into 6 sub-areas to be irrigated in shift. The irrigation
cycle is 6days.

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6
 Design capacity/Estimation of Discharge

Design capacity --- the flow rate determined by the water
requirement, irrigation time, irrigation period and the irrigation
application efficiency.

It is the flow rate required at the water supply source or that
required to determine channel x-sections.

A. dn
Qc =
F. H . Ea
Where,
Qc is the Desired Design Capacity;
d is the Net Irrigation Depth = Readily Available Moisture;
F is the number of days required to complete the Irrigation
H is the number of hours the System is operated (hrs/day) and
Ea is the Irrigation Efficiency
 Design capacity/Estimation of Discharge
Example: A 12-hectare field is to be irrigated with a sprinkler system.
The root zone depth is 0.9m and the field capacity of the soil is 28%
while the permanent wilting point is 17% by weight. The soil bulk
density is 1.36 g/cc and the water application efficiency is 70%. The
soil is to be irrigated when 50% of the available water has depleted.
The peak evapotranspiration is 5.0mm/day and the system is to be
run for 10 hours in a day. Determine:
(i) The net irrigation depth
(ii) Gross irrigation depth
(iii) Irrigation period
(iv) Area to be irrigated per day and
(v) the required system capacity.

Ans:
i) 67.5mm; ii) 96.4mm; iii)f =13days;iv)1ha/day;
V)Qc = 89m3/hr or 25 lit/sec
 Base, Delta and Duty
Base Period, B ... The time between first watering and last watering.
B = length of growing period

Delta, ∆ … total depth of water required in a growing period.

Duty, D … relates volume of irrigation water and area to be

irrigated. It refers to the area irrigated for 24hrs per unit discharge
in a base period B.

∆ = Volume
Area
= (Disch Area
arg e × time )
Where,
1× 60 × 60 × (24 × B ) ∆ = delta in cm,
∆ = D ×104 B = base period in days, and

∆ = 864 B
D
D = duty in ha/m3/s
 Base, Delta and Duty
Example 1. If a crop requires 20cm of water every 5days. Compute
the discharge required to irrigate 3000ha.

Solution:
Here, delta = 20cm; B = 5days

Using the relation, Delta = 864xB/D, D = 864*5/20 = 216 ha/cumec

Therefore, the required discharge to irrigate 3ha = 3000ha/483.84

= 13.89 cumec
 Base, Delta and Duty
Example 2. A channel is to be designed for irrigating 5000ha. The
water requirement of the crop to be irrigated is 25cm every 2weeks.
Determine the discharge of the channel for which it is to be designed.

Solution: Here, delta = 25cm; B = 2weeks = 14days

Using the relation, Delta = 864xB/D,
D = 864*14/25 = 483.84 ha/cumec
Area = 5000ha
Required discharge of channel = 5000ha/483.84 = 10.33 cumec

So, the channel is to be designed for the maximum discharge of

10.33 cumec
Other Irrigation project related terms
Gross Command Area (G.C.A) --- the total area included in an
irrigation project (both cultivated and uncultivated).

Culturable Command area (CCA) --- cultivable part of the GCA.

Unculturable Command area --- uncultivable part of the GCA.

Intensity of Irrigation (I) --- a ratio of the cultivated area to the CCA
CA
I= ×100
CCA
Base, Delta and Duty
Problem 1. The total command area of an irrigation project is 15,000ha,
where 750ha is unculturable. The area covered with crop A is 6000ha and
that of crop B is 4000ha. The duty of crop A is 3000ha/cumec and the duty
of crop B is 4000ha/cumec. Find a) the design discharge of a channel
assuming 10% transmission loss; b) intensity of irrigation
Ans: a) QA = 2.2cumec and QB = 1.1cumec; b) IA= 42.1%; IB=28.07%

Problem 2. The command area of a channel is 4000ha. The intensity of

irrigation of a crop is 70%. The crop requires 60cm of water in 15 days,
when the effective rainfall is recorded as 15cm during that period. Assume
total losses as 15% and find:
a) the duty at the head of the field
b) the duty at the head of the canal
c) Discharge at the head of the canal
Ans: a) Df = 288ha/cumec; b) Dc = 244.8ha/cumec; c) Q = 11.44cumec
 2.6 Measurement of irrigation water
Irrigation Amount … expressed in depths of water (usually mm or cm).
It refers to the volume of water per unit command area. i.e.

θ v AL
d = = θvL
A
Where,
d = equivalent depth of water in a soil layer
L = depth (thickness) of the soil layer
 2.6 Measurement of irrigation water
Discharge/flow rate … expressed in units of m3/sec or lit/sec.

Discharge in small canals may be estimated by:

Volume method

Velocity-area method (e.g. float method)

Float method
Direct method of measuring Discharge -Weirs

Rectangular Weir
3/ 2
Q = 0.0184(L − 0.2H )H

Trapezoidal Weir
3/ 2
Q = 0.0186LH

Triangular Weir
5/ 2
Q= 0.0138H
Direct method of measuring Discharge -Weirs
Direct method of measuring Discharge -Flumes

Parshall flume

Cutthroat flume