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Topic No.
No.

1. Enviroment 2
2. Inside Our Earth 5
3. Our Changing Earth 6
4. Air 9
5. Water 12
6. Natural Vegetation 14
7. Human Eniviroment, Settlement, Transport And 16
Comunication

8. Human Enviroment Interaction-The Tropical And 19

Subtropical Region

9. Life In Deserts 22

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 Chapter 1 Notes
Enviroment

Overview
Environment means the place, people, things and nature that surround any living
organism. It is a combination of natural and human-made phenomena. While the
natural environment refers to both biotic and abiotic conditions existing on the
earth, human-environment reveals the activities, creations and interactions
among human beings.

Natural Environment
Natural Environment comprises land, water, air, plants and animals. Lithosphere
is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth. It is made up of rocks and
minerals and covered by a thin layer of soil. It is an irregular surface with various
landforms such as mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, etc. Lithosphere is the
domain that provides forests, grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and
human settlements. It is also a source of mineral wealth.
The domain of water is referred to as hydrosphere. It comprises various sources
of water and different types of water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc. It
is essential for all living organisms.
The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. The gravitational
force of the earth holds the atmosphere around it. It protects us from the harmful
rays and scorching heat of the sun. It consists of a number of gases, dust and
water vapour. The changes in the atmosphere produce changes in the weather
and climate.
Plant and animal kingdom together make biosphere or the living world. It is a
narrow zone of the earth where land, water and air interact with each other to
support life.
What is ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a large community of living organisms such as plants, animals
and microbes in a particular area. The living and physical components are linked
together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. There could be an ecosystem
of large rain forest, grassland, desert, mountains, lake, river, ocean and even a
small pond.
Human Environment
Human beings interact with the environment and modify it according to their
needs. Earlier, humans adapted themselves according to their natural

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surroundings and fulfilled their requirements from the nature around them. As
time went by, needs became more varied. Humans learned to grow crops,
domesticated animals and led a settled life. The wheel was invented, surplus food
was produced, barter system emerged, trade started and commerce developed.
Industrial revolution enabled large scale production. Transportation became
faster. Information revolution made communication easier and speedy across the
world.

Chapter 2 Notes

3
 Inside Our Earth

Interior of the Earth

The Earth is made up of several concentric layers with one inside another. The
uppermost layer over the earth’s surface is called the crust. It is the thinnest of all
the layers. It is about 35 km on the continental masses and only 5 km on the
ocean floors. The main mineral constituents of the continental mass are silica
and alumina. It is thus called sial (si-silica and al-alumina). The oceanic crust
mainly consists of silica and magnesium; it is therefore called sima (si-silica and
ma-magnesium).
Mantle is just beneath the crust, which extends up to a depth of 2900 km below
the crust. The innermost layer is the core with a radius of about 3500 km. It is
mainly made up of nickel and iron and is called nife (ni – nickel and fe – ferrous
i.e. iron). The central core has a very high temperature and pressure.
Rocks and Minerals
The earth’s crust is made up of various types of rocks.
Rock – Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust is
called a rock. It can be of different colour, size and texture. There are three major
types of rocks:
Igneous rocks – When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid. Rocks thus
formed are called igneous rocks or primary rocks. There are two types of igneous
rocks: intrusive rocks and extrusive rocks.
Extrusive igneous rocks – When molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it
rapidly cools down and becomes solid. Rocks formed in such a way on the crust
are called extrusive igneous rocks. For example, basalt. The Deccan plateau is
made up of basalt rocks.
Intrusive igneous rocks – Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside
the earth’s crust. Solid rocks so formed are called intrusive igneous rocks.
Granite is an example of such a rock. Grinding stones used to prepare
paste/powder of spices and grains are made of granite.
Sedimentary Rocks – Rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other and are broken
down into small fragments called sediments. These sediments are transported
and deposited by wind, water, etc. These loose sediments are compressed and
hardened to form layers of rocks. These types of rocks are called sedimentary
rocks. For example, sandstone is made from grains of sand.
Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks under great
heat and pressure. For example, clay changes into slate and limestone into
marble.

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Rock cycle: The process of transformation of the rock from one to another is
known as the rock cycle.
When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they
change into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks, which are still under
great heat and pressure meltdown to form molten magma. This molten magma
again can cool down and solidify into igneous rocks
Rocks are made up of different minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring
substances which have certain physical properties and definite chemical
composition. For example, coal, natural gas and petroleum. They are also used in
industries – iron, aluminium, gold, uranium, etc, in medicine, in fertilisers, etc.

Chapter 3 Notes

5
 Our Changing Earth

Overview
Lithospheric Plates – The lithosphere is broken into a number of plates known as
the Lithospheric plates. These plates move around very slowly because of the
movement of the molten magma inside the earth. The molten magma inside the
earth moves in a circular manner. The movement of these plates causes changes
on the surface of the earth.
The earth movements are divided on the basis of the forces, which cause them.
These forces are called Endogenic forces and Exogenic forces.
Endogenic forces: The forces, which act in the interior of the earth are called
Endogenic forces. Endogenic forces sometimes produce sudden movements and
at other times produce slow movements. Sudden movements like earthquakes
and volcanoes cause mass destruction over the surface of the earth.
Exogenic forces: The forces that work on the surface of the earth are called
Exogenic forces.
Volcano: A volcano is a vent in the earth’s crust, through which, molten material
erupts suddenly.
Earthquake: When the Lithospheric plates move, the surface of the earth vibrates
and it travels all around the earth. These vibrations are called earthquakes.
Focus: The place in the crust where the movement starts is called the focus.
Epicentre: The place on the surface above the focus is called the epicentre.
Vibrations travel outwards from the epicentre as waves. The greatest damage is
usually closest to the epicentre and the strength of the earthquake decreases
away from the centre.
Some common earthquake prediction methods adopted locally by people include
studying animal behaviour; fish in the ponds get agitated, snakes come to the
surface.

Major Landforms
The landscape is being continuously worn away by two processes – weathering
and erosion.
Weathering: Weathering is the breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface.
Erosion: Erosion is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents like
water, wind and ice. The eroded material is carried away or transported by water,
wind, etc. and eventually deposited. This process of erosion and deposition
creates different landforms on the surface of the earth.

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Work of a River
Waterfall: When the river tumbles at steep angle over very hard rocks or down a
steep valley side, it forms a waterfall.
Meanders: As the river enters the plain it twists and turns forming large bends
known as meanders.
Cut-off Lake: Due to continuous erosion and deposition along the sides of the
meander, the ends of the meander loop come closer and closer. In due course of
time the meander loop cuts off from the river and forms a cut-off lake, also called
an ox-bow lake.
Floodplain: As it floods, the river deposits layers of fine soil and other material
called sediments along its banks. This leads to the formation of a flat fertile
floodplain. The raised banks are called levees.
Distributaries: When the river approaches the sea, the speed of the flowing water
decreases and the river begins to break up into a number of streams called
distributaries.
Delta: The river becomes so slow that it begins to deposit its load. Each
distributary forms its own mouth. The collection of sediments from all the mouths
forms a delta.
Work of Sea Waves
Sea caves: The erosion and deposition of the sea waves give rise to coastal
landforms and they continuously strike at the rocks developing cracks. The
cracks become larger and wider over time. Due to which, hollow like caves are
formed on the rocks. They are called sea caves.
Sea Arches: When these cavities become bigger and bigger only the roof of the
caves remain, it forms sea arches.
Stacks: Erosion breaks the roof and only walls are left and these wall-like
features are called stacks.
Sea cliff – The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above seawater is called
sea cliff.
Work of Ice
Glaciers: Glaciers are “rivers of ice,” which erode the landscape by bulldozing
soil and stones to expose the solid rock below. Glaciers carve out deep hollows
there. As the ice melts they get filled up with water and become beautiful lakes in
the mountains.
Glacial Moraines: The material carried by the glacier such as rocks big and small,
sand and silt gets deposited and forms glacial moraines.

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Work of wind
Wind: In the desert, an active agent of erosion and deposition is wind.
Mushroom Rocks: In deserts, rocks can be shaped like a mushroom, commonly
called mushroom rocks.
Sand Dunes: When the wind blows, it lifts and transports sand from one place to
another. When it stops blowing the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill like
structures. These are called sand dunes.
Loess: When the grains of sand are very fine and light, the wind can carry it over
very long distances. When such sand is deposited in large areas, it is called
loess.

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 Chapter 4 Notes
Air

Overview
Atmosphere: An atmosphere is a layer of air surrounding our planet Earth. All
living beings on this earth depend on the atmosphere for their survival. It is this
mass of air that has made the temperature on the earth liveable.

Composition of the Atmosphere

In the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen are found in bulk quantities. Carbon
dioxide, helium, ozone, argon and hydrogen are found in lesser quantities. Apart
from these gases, tiny dust particles are also present in the air. Nitrogen is the
most plentiful gas in the air. When we inhale, we take some amount of nitrogen
into our lungs and exhale it.
Nitrogen is essential for plants to survive. They cannot take nitrogen directly from
the air. Bacteria, that live in the soil and roots of some plants, take nitrogen from
the air and change its form so that plants can use it.
Oxygen is the second most plentiful gas in the air. Humans and animals take
oxygen from the air as they breathe. During photosynthesis, green plants
produce oxygen. In this way, oxygen content in the air remains constant.
Carbon dioxide is another important gas. Green plants use carbon dioxide to
make their food and release oxygen. Humans or animals release carbon dioxide.
The amount of carbon dioxide released by humans or animals seems to be equal
to the amount used by the plants which make a perfect balance.

Structure of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from the earth’s surface. These
are Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere.
Troposphere: This layer is the most important layer of the atmosphere. Its
average height is 13 km and the air we breathe exists here. In this layer, all-
weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and hailstorm occur.
Stratosphere: Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere. It extends up to a
height of 50 km. This layer is free from clouds and associated weather
phenomenon, which makes it most ideal for flying aeroplanes. It contains a layer
of ozone gas.

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Mesosphere: This is the third layer of the atmosphere. It lies above the
stratosphere. It extends up to a height of 80 km. Meteorites burn up in this layer
on entering from space.
Thermosphere: In thermosphere, temperature rises very rapidly with increasing
height. Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400 km. This layer
helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are
reflected back to the earth by this layer.
Exosphere: The uppermost layer of the atmosphere is known as exosphere. This
layer has very thin air. Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into space from
here.

Weather and Climate

Temperature
Temperature: The temperature that we feel every day is the temperature of the
atmosphere. The degree of hotness and coldness of the air is known as
temperature. The temperature changes between day and night and season to
season. Summers are hotter than winters.
Insolation: An important factor that influences the distribution of temperature is
insolation. Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth. The
amount of insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles. Therefore,
the temperature decreases in the same manner.
Temperature in cities is much higher than that of villages. The concrete and
metals in buildings and the asphalt of roads get heated up during the day. This
heat is released during the night. Also, the crowded high rise buildings of the
cities trap the warm air and thus, raise the temperature of the cities.
Air Pressure
Air pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s
surface. As we go up the layers of the atmosphere, the pressure falls rapidly.
The air pressure is highest at sea level and decreases with height. Horizontally
the distribution of air pressure is influenced by the temperature of the air at a
given place.
In areas where temperature is high the air gets heated and rises. This creates a
low-pressure area. Low pressure is associated with cloudy skies and wet
weather. In areas having lower temperature, the air is cold and heavy.
Heavy air sinks and creates a high pressure area. High pressure is associated
with clear and sunny skies. The air always moves from high-pressure areas to
low-pressure areas.

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Wind
The movement of air from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas is called
wind. Winds can be broadly divided into three types.
Permanent winds – The trade winds, westerlies and easterlies are the permanent
winds. These blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction.
Seasonal winds – These winds change their direction in different seasons. For
example monsoons in India.
Local winds – These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a
small area.
Moisture
When water evaporates from land and different water bodies, it becomes water
vapour. Moisture in the air is known as humidity. When the air is full of water
vapour we call it a humid day. As the air gets warmer, its capacity to hold the
water vapour increases and so it becomes more and more humid.
When the water vapour rises, it starts cooling. The water vapour condenses
causing formation of droplets of water. Clouds are masses of such water
droplets. When these droplets of water become too heavy to float in the air, then
they come down as precipitation.
Precipitation that comes down to the earth in liquid form is called rain. On the
basis of mechanism, there are three types of rainfall: the convectional rainfall, the
orographic rainfall and the cyclonic rainfall.

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 Chapter 5 Notes
Water

Overview
Water Cycle: The process by which water continually changes its form and
circulates between oceans, atmosphere and land is known as the water cycle.
The major sources of freshwater are the rivers, ponds, springs and glaciers. The
ocean bodies and the seas contain salty water. Most of the salt is sodium
chloride or the common table salt that we eat.

Distribution of Water Bodies

Three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered by water. Water is absolutely
essential for survival. Water alone can quench our thirst when we are thirsty.

Ocean Circulation
The movements that occur in oceans can be broadly categorised as waves, tides
and currents.
Waves
When the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately, they are
called waves. During a storm, the winds blowing at very high speed form huge
waves. These may cause tremendous destruction. An earthquake, a volcanic
eruption or underwater landslides can shift large amounts of ocean water. As a
result a huge tidal wave called tsunami is formed.
Tides
The rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day is called a tide. It is high
tide when water covers much of the shore by rising to its highest level. It is low
tide when waterfalls to its lowest level and recedes from the shore.
The strong gravitational pull exerted by the sun and the moon on the earth’s
surface cause the tides. During the full moon and new moon days, the sun, the
moon and the earth are in the same line and the tides are highest. These tides are
called spring tides.
But when the moon is in its first and last quarter, the ocean waters get drawn in
diagonally opposite directions by the gravitational pull of sun and moon resulting
in low tides. These tides are called neap tides.

Ocean Currents
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Ocean currents are streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in
definite directions. The ocean currents may be warm or cold. The warm ocean
currents originate near the equator and move towards the poles. The cold
currents carry water from polar or higher latitudes to tropical or lower latitudes.
Warm currents bring about warm temperature over land surface. The areas where
the warm and cold currents meet provide the best fishing grounds of the world.
Seas around Japan and the eastern coast of North America are such examples.
The areas where a warm and cold current meets experience foggy weather
making it difficult for navigation.

Chapter 6 Notes

13
 Natural vegetation
Overview
The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture. It also depends
on factors like slope and thickness of soil. The type and thickness of natural
vegetation varies from place to place because of the variation in these factors.
Natural vegetation is generally classified into three broad categories as follows:
Forests: It grows where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree
cover. Depending upon these factors, dense and open forests are grown.
Grasslands: Which grow in the region of moderate rain.
Shrubs: Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in the dry region.

Forests
Tropical Evergreen Forests
Tropical Evergreen forests are also called tropical rainforests. These thick forests
occur in the regions near the equator and close to the tropics. These regions are
hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year. As there is no dry season, the
trees do not shed their leaves. This is the reason they are called evergreen. The
thick canopies of the closely spaced trees do not allow the sunlight to penetrate
inside the forest even in the day time. Hardwood trees like rosewood, ebony,
mahogany are common here.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests found in the large part of India,
northern Australia and in Central America. These regions experience seasonal
changes. Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water. The
hardwood trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem and shisham which are
used to make furniture, transport and constructional materials. Tigers, lions,
elephants, langoors and monkeys are the common animals of these regions.
Temperate Evergreen Forests
The temperate evergreen forests are located in the mid latitudinal coastal region.
They are commonly found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., In
south-east USA, South China and in South-East Brazil. They comprise both hard
and softwood trees like oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc.
Temperate Deciduous Forests
Temperate Deciduous forests are found towards higher latitudes. These are
found in the northeastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile and also found
in the coastal regions of Western Europe. They shed their leaves in the dry

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season. The common trees are oak, ash, beech, etc. Deer, foxes, wolves are the
animals commonly found. Birds like pheasants, monals are also found here.
Mediterranean Vegetation
The west and south-west margins of the continents are covered with
Mediterranean vegetation. It is mostly found in the areas around the
Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia. This kind of vegetation is also
found outside the actual Mediterranean region in California in the USA, south-
west Africa, southwestern South America and Southwest Australia. Citrus fruits
such as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly cultivated here.
Coniferous Forests
In the higher latitudes of Northern hemisphere, the spectacular Coniferous
forests are found. These are also called Taiga. These forests are also seen in the
higher altitudes. Chir, pine, cedar are the important variety of trees in these
forests. Silver fox, mink, polar bear are the common animals found here.

Grasslands
Tropical grasslands: These occur on either side of the equator and extend till the
tropics. This vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
The grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height. Savannah grasslands
of Africa are of this type. Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are common
in tropical grasslands.
Temperate grasslands: These are found in the mid latitudinal zones and in the
interior part of the continents. Usually, grass here is short and nutritious. Wild
buffaloes, bisons, antelopes are common in the temperate region.
Thorny bushes: These are found in the dry desert-like regions. Tropical deserts
are located on the western margins of the continents. The vegetation cover is
scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat.
In the polar region, the growth of natural vegetation is very limited. Only mosses,
lichens and very small shrubs are found here. It grows during the very short
summer. This is called Tundra type of vegetation.

Chapter 7 Notes
Human Eniviroment, Settlement, Transport

15
 And Comunication
Overview
Settlements are places where people build their homes. Early human beings lived
on trees and in caves. Settlements can be permanent or temporary.
Temporary settlements – Settlements which are occupied for a short time are
called temporary settlements. The people living in deep forests, hot and cold
deserts and mountains often dwell in such temporary settlements. They practice
hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation and transhumance.
Permanent settlements – Permanent settlement means where people built homes
to live in.
Settlement can be further classified into two categories: the rural and urban
settlements.
Rural settlement – The villages are rural settlements where people are engaged in
activities like agriculture, fishing, forestry, crafts work and trading etc. Rural
settlements can be compact or scattered.
 Compact settlement – A compact settlement is a closely built area of
dwellings, wherever flat land is available.
 Scattered settlement dwellings – These types of settlements are spaced over
an extensive area. This type of settlement is mostly found in hilly tracts, thick
forests, and regions of extreme climate.
In rural areas, people build houses to suit their environment. In regions of heavy
rainfall, they have slanting roofs. Places where water accumulates in the rainy
season the houses are constructed on a raised platform or stilts. Thick mud-
walled houses with thatched roofs are very common in areas of hot climate.
Urban settlement – In urban areas, people are engaged in manufacturing, trading,
and services.

Transport Services
Transport is the means by which people and goods move. In the early days,
people used to walk and animals are used to carry their goods. Invention of the
wheel made transport easier.
The early traders from other countries used to take several months to reach India.
They took either the sea route or the land route. Modern means of transport thus
saves time and energy. The four major means of transport are roadways,
railways, waterways and airways.
Roadways
The most commonly used means of transport, especially for short distances, are
roads. They can be metalled and unmetalled. Roads have also been built in
terrains like deserts, forests and even high mountains. Manali-Leh highway in the

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Himlayan Mountains is one of the highest roadways in the world. Roads built
underground are called subways/under paths. Flyovers are built over raised
structures.
Railways
The invention of the steam engine and the Industrial Revolution helped in speedy
development of rail transport. Diesel and electric engines have largely replaced
the steam engines. The railway network is well developed over the plain areas.
Advanced technological skills have enabled laying of railway lines in difficult
mountain terrains also. The Indian railway network is well developed. It is the
largest in Asia.
Waterways
Waterways are the cheapest for carrying heavy and bulky goods over long
distances. They are mainly of two types – inland waterways and sea routes.
Navigable rivers and lakes are used as inland waterways. Some of the important
inland waterways are the Ganga-Brahmaputra river system, the Great Lakes in
North America and the river Nile in Africa.
Sea routes and oceanic routes are mostly used for transporting merchandise and
goods from one country to another. These routes are connected with the ports.
Some of the important ports of the world are Singapore and Mumbai in Asia, New
York, Los Angeles in North America, Rio de Janerio in South America, Durban
and Cape Town in Africa, Sydney in Australia, London and Rotterdam in Europe.
Airways
Airways is the fastest way of transport developed in the early twentieth century. It
is also the most expensive due to the high cost of fuels. Air traffic is adversely
affected by bad weather like fog and storms. It is the only mode of transport to
reach the most remote and distant areas, especially where there are no roads and
railways. Helicopters are extremely useful in most inaccessible areas and in times
of calamities for rescuing people and distributing food, water, clothes and
medicines.

Communication
Communication means conveying messages to others. With the development of
technology, humans have devised new and fast modes of communication.
Different modes of communication are used to provide information, to educate as
well as to entertain. Through newspapers, radio and television we can
communicate with a large number of people. They are therefore called mass
media.
The satellites have made communication even faster. Satellites have helped in oil
exploration, survey of forest, underground water, mineral wealth, weather
forecast and disaster warning. Wireless telephonic communications through
cellular phones have become very popular today. Internet not only provides us
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with worldwide information and interaction but has also makes our lives more
comfortable. With this kind of interconnectivity of people, services and
institutions – across the world, we are a large global society.

Chapter 8 Notes
Human Enviroment Interaction-The Tropical
And Subtropical Region

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Life in the Amazon Basin
The tropical region, which lies very close to the equator is referred to as the
equatorial region. The place where a river flows into another body of water is
called the river’s mouth. Numerous tributaries join the Amazon River to form the
Amazon basin. The river basin drains portions of Brazil, parts of Peru, Bolivia,
Ecuador, Columbia and a small part of Venezuela.

Climate
The Amazon Basin stretches directly on the equator and is characterized by hot
and wet climate throughout the year. The day temperatures are high with very
high humidity. At night the temperature goes down but the humidity remains
high.

Rainforests
The forests of Amazon are thick and dense that does not even allow the sunlight
to reach the ground. Orchids, bromeliads grow as plant parasites. The rainforest
is rich in fauna. Birds such as toucans, hummingbirds, bird of paradise,
oversized bills, etc. Animals like monkeys, sloth and ant-eating tapirs are found
here. Various species of reptiles and snakes also thrive in these jungles.
Crocodiles, snakes, pythons, anaconda and boa constrictor are some of the
species. Besides, the basin is home to thousands of species of insects. Several
species of fish including the flesh-eating Piranha fish are also found in the river.

People of the Rainforests

People grow their food in small areas after clearing some trees in the forest. Men
hunt and fish along the rivers and women take care of the crops. They mainly
grow tapioca, pineapple and sweet potato. They practice “slash and burn
agriculture”. The staple food is manioc, also known as cassava that grows under
the ground like the potato. They also eat queen ants and egg sacs.
Cash crops like coffee, maize and cocoa are also grown. The rainforests provide
a lot of wood for the houses. Some families live in thatched houses shaped like
beehives. There are other large apartment-like houses called “Maloca” with a
steeply slanting roof.
In the olden days, the heart of the forest could be reached only by navigating the
river. In 1970 the Trans Amazon highway made all parts of the rainforest
accessible. Aircraft and helicopters are also used for reaching various places.
The indigenous population settled in new areas where they continued to practice
their distinctive way of farming. The developmental activities are leading to the
gradual destruction of the biologically diverse rainforests. It is estimated that a
large area of the rainforest has been disappearing annually in the Amazon basin.

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Life in the Ganga – Brahmaputra Basin
The tributaries of rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra together form the Ganga-
Brahmaputra basin in the Indian subcontinent. The basin lies in the sub-tropical
region that is situated between 10°N to 30°N latitudes. The tributaries of the River
Ganga like the Ghaghra, the Son, the Chambal, the Gandak, the Kosi and the
tributaries of Brahmaputra drain it. The plains of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra,
the mountains and the foothills of the Himalayas and the Sundarbans delta are
the main features of this basin. Ox-bow lakes dot the plain area. The area is
dominated by monsoon climate. The monsoon brings rains from mid-June to mid-
September. The summers are hot and the winters cool.
The basin area has varied topography. The environment plays a dominant role in
the distribution of the population. The mountain areas with steep slopes have
inhospitable terrain. Therefore, less number of people live in the mountain area of
the GangaBrahmaputra basin. The plain area provides the most suitable land for
human habitation. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people, where flat
land is available to grow crops. The density of the population of the plains is very
high. The main crop is paddy. Since cultivation of paddy requires sufficient water,
it is grown in the areas where the amount of rainfall is high.
Wheat, maize, sorghum, gram and millets are the other crops that are grown.
Cash crops like sugarcane and jute are also grown. West Bengal and Assam are
famous for tea plantations. Silk is produced through the cultivation of silkworms
in parts of Bihar and Assam. Crops are grown on terraces in the mountains and
hills. The vegetation cover of the area varies according to the type of landforms.
In the Ganga and Brahmaputra plain tropical deciduous trees grow, along with
teak, sal and peepal. Thick bamboo groves are common in the Brahmaputra plain.
The delta area is covered with mangrove forests. In parts of Uttarakhand, Sikkim
and Arunachal Pradesh, coniferous trees like pine, deodar and fir can be seen
because the climate is cool and the slopes are steep.
Elephants, tigers, deer and monkeys are common. The one-horned rhinoceros is
found in the Brahmaputra plain. In the delta area, Bengal tiger, crocodiles and
alligator are found. Aquatic life abounds in the fresh river waters, the lakes and
the Bay of Bengal Sea. The most popular varieties of the fish are the rohu, catla
and hilsa. Fish and rice is the staple diet of the people living in the area.
The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain has several big towns and cities such as
Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna and Kolkata all with a population of
more than ten lakhs. The wastewater from these towns and industries is
discharged into the rivers, which lead to the pollution of the rivers.
All four ways of transport are well developed in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin. In
the plain areas, the roadways and railways transport the people from one place to
another. The waterways are an effective means of transport, particularly along the
rivers.
Tourism is another important activity of the basin. Taj Mahal on the banks of
River Yamuna in Agra, Allahabad on the confluence of the Rivers Ganga and

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Yamuna, Buddhists stupas in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Lucknow with its
Imambara, Assam with Kaziranga and Manas with wildlife sanctuaries and
Arunachal Pradesh with a distinct tribal culture are some of the places worth a
visit.

Chapter 9 Notes
Life In The Deserts
Overview
Desert is an arid region characterized by extremely high or low temperatures and
has scarce vegetation. Depending on the temperatures there can be hot deserts
or cold deserts.

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The Hot Desert – Sahara
Sahara is the world’s largest desert. It has an area of around 8.54 million sq. km.
The Sahara desert touches eleven countries – Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali,
Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara. In the Sahara
desert, there are gravel plains and elevated plateaus with bare rocky surface.
These rocky surfaces may be more than 2500m high at some places.
Climate
Sahara desert climate is extreme, scorching hot and parched dry. It has a short
rainy season. The sky is cloudless and clear. Here, the moisture evaporates faster
than it accumulates. The temperatures during the day may soar as high as 50°C,
heating up the sand and the bare rocks, which in turn, radiates heat making
everything around hot. The nights may be freezing cold with temperatures
nearing zero degrees.
Flora and Fauna
In the Sahara desert vegetation includes cactus, date palms and acacia. In some
places, there are oasis – green islands with date palms surrounding them.
Camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes, scorpions, many varieties of snakes and lizards
are the prominent animal species living there.
People
The Sahara desert has been inhabited by various groups of people, who pursue
different activities. Among them are the Bedouins and Tuaregs who are nomadic
tribes rearing livestock such as goats, sheep, camels and horses. These animals
provide them with milk, hides from which they make leather for belts, slippers,
water bottles; hair is used for mats, carpets, clothes and blankets. They wear
heavy robes as protection against dust storms and hot winds.
The oasis in the Sahara and the Nile Valley in Egypt supports settled population.
Since water is available, the people grow date palms. Crops such as rice, wheat,
barley and beans are also grown. Egyptian cotton, famous worldwide, is grown in
Egypt. The discovery of oil is constantly transforming the Sahara desert. Other
minerals found in the area include iron, phosphorus, manganese and uranium.
The cultural landscape of the Sahara is undergoing change. Gleaming glass
cased office buildings tower over mosques and superhighways crisscross the
ancient camel paths. Trucks are replacing camels in the salt trade. Tuaregs are
seen acting as guides to foreign tourists. More and more nomadic herdsmen are
taking to city life finding jobs in oil and gas operations.

The Cold Desert – Ladakh

Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas, on the eastern side of
Jammu and Kashmir. The Karakoram Range in the north and the Zanskar
mountains in the south enclose it. Several rivers flow through Ladakh, and

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among them, Indus being the most important. Several glaciers are found in
Ladakh, for example, the Gangri glacier.
The altitude in Ladakh varies from about 3000m in Kargil to more than 8,000m in
the Karakoram. Due to its high altitude, the climate remains extremely cold and
dry. The air at this altitude is so thin that the heat of the sun can be felt intensely.
The day temperatures in summer are just above zero degrees and the night
temperatures well below –30°C. Ladakh lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas,
due to which it receives little rainfall, as low as 10 cm every year. The area
experiences freezing winds and burning hot sunlight.
Flora and Fauna
Due to high aridity, the vegetation is sparse. There are scanty patches of grasses
and shrubs for animals to graze. Groves of willows and poplars are seen in the
valleys. During the summers, fruit trees such as apples, apricots and walnuts
bloom. Robins, redstarts, Tibetan snowcock, raven and hoopoe are sighted in
Ladakh. Some of these are migratory birds. The animals of Ladakh are wild goats,
wild sheep, yak and special kinds of dogs. The animals are reared to provide for
the milk, meat and hides.
People
People of Ladakh are either Muslims or Buddhists. In fact, several Buddhists
monasteries dot the Ladakhi landscape with their traditional ‘gompas’. Some
famous monasteries are Hemis, Thiksey, Shey and Lamayuru.
In the summer season, the people are busy cultivating barley, potatoes, peas,
beans and turnip. The climate in winter months is so harsh that people keep
themselves engaged in festivities and ceremonies. The women work not only in
the house and fields, but also manage small business and shops. Leh, the capital
of Ladakh is well connected both by road and air.
Tourism is a major activity with several tourists streaming in from within India
and abroad. Life of people is undergoing change due to modernisation. The
people of Ladakh over the centuries learned to live in balance and harmony with
nature. Due to scarcity of resources like water and fuel, they are used with
reverence and care.

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