THE UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA

FACULTY OF ARTS DEPARTMENT OF

ENGLISH

AFRICAN ORAL PERFORMANCE IN THE DIGITAL ERA: THE CASE OF KOM NU

A Dissertation submitted to the Department of English in the Faculty of Arts in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Masters of Arts (MA.) in Literature
English.

ANDVUMBAIN CLOTILD NYEAH

(UBa22AP083)

SUPERVISOR
DR. NGEH ERNESTILIA

JULY,i 2024
 DECLARATION
I,ANDVUMBAIN CLOTILD NYEAH, (UBa22AP083) from the department of English in
the Faculty of Arts, The University of Bamenda, hereby declares that this work entitled
“African Oral Performance in the Digital Era: The Case of Kom nuptial songs” is my original
work. It has not been presented in any application for a degree or academic pursuit. I have
sincerely acknowledged all borrowed ideas from national and international sources through
citations.

Date Signature

…………………………….. ………………………………

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 CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that the project titled: “African Oral Performance in the Digital Era: The
Case of Kom Nuptial Songs”, is the product of research carried out by
AndvumbainClotildNyeah, (UBa22AP083) in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an
award of a Masters of Arts (MA) degree in Literature in English.

Supervisor
DR. NgehErnestilia

Date………………….………….

Signature………………..………...

Head of Department
Prof.MbuhTenouMbuh

Date………………….………….

Signature………………..………...

ii
 DEDICATION
To my husband Mr Bruno Ndjekam Bonja, and to my children: Favour Ndjekam Bonja,
Philip Manje Ndjekam and Gaius Alembom Ndjekam.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I sincerely acknowledge the wonderful support and directives that my supervisor, Dr
NGEH ERNESTILIA, gave me in the course of the work. In fact, she made sure she took her
time to go through the work and even provided me with literary works of some writers in
relation to my dissertation, which made it easy for me to write the literature review. May God
continuously guide, protect and give her long live to instill knowledge in those that will come
after me.

I am also grateful to the staff of the English Department, of the Faculty of Arts, the
University of Bamenda, for the knowledge they imparted on me.

My sincere thanks also go to my head of department, Professor MBUH Tennu MBUH,

who took time in guiding students towards the realization of their projects. This helped me a
lot and spurred me to come up with this piece of work.

I whole heartedly thank Professor KUSI David, for the timely correction he gave to my
work that made it what it is.

I owe my gratitude to my husband Mr Bruno Ndjekam Bonja, who helped out

immensely with the research, typing and arranging of this work. My sincere thanks also go to
my children, who despite their loved for attention, gave me space to carry out this research
effected. Mr Nyam Aaron and Mme Bih Bernice are not left out for organizing and
transcribing the nuptial songs used to analyze this work

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................i
CERTIFICATION...................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION........................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................................v
CHAPTER ONE:.....................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1
Background of the study.........................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................................9
Research Questions................................................................................................................9
Research Objectives.............................................................................................................10
Research Hypothesis............................................................................................................11
Scope of study......................................................................................................................11
Definition of Key Terms......................................................................................................12
Significance of Study...........................................................................................................15
Structure of work..................................................................................................................16
CHAPTER TWO:..................................................................................................................18
Review of Related Literature and Methodology.................................................................18
Conceptual Review...............................................................................................................18
Digitalization........................................................................................................................19
Empirical Review.................................................................................................................33
Theoretical Review...............................................................................................................43
Functionality of the Theory..................................................................................................44
Operationalization of the Theories.......................................................................................50
Research Methodology.........................................................................................................55
Research Design...................................................................................................................55
Research Population.............................................................................................................60
Collection of Data.................................................................................................................60
CHAPTER THREE:

THE KOM PEOPLE

The Kom Geographical Location

The Historical Background of the Kom People

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The Political Setup of the Kom People

The Oral Tradition of the Kom People

The Economic Setup of the Kom People

The Cultural activities of the Kom People

The Kom World View

CHAPTER FOUR

NUPTIAL SONGS AND THEIR SOCIOPOLITICAL VALUE OF THE KOM

COMMUNITY IN THE DIGITAL ERA

The Role of Nuptial Songs in Community cohesion

Nuptial Songs in the pre-digital era

Nuptial Songs in the digital era

Sociopolitical values in Digital Nuptial Songs

Youth involvement in the performance of Kom nuptial songs

CHAPTER FIVE

NUPTIAL SONGS AND THEIR ECONOMIC VALUE IN THE KOM COMMUNITY

The Role of Nuptial Songs in Wedding Ceremonies

The Economic Values/Benefits of Kom Nuptial songs for performers

The Impact of Kom Nuptial songs on Local Economies

Preservation of Kom Cultural Heritage through Nuptial Songs

CHAPTER SIX

GENERAL CONCLUSION

Recommendations

REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................72
APPENDICES

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
In this contemporary era, digital technology is at its peak and has significantly impacted the
manner in which African oral performance traditions are produced, disseminated and experienced.
The many innovations that come with technology has actually given the African oral performance in
general and Kom nuptial songs in particular, a different face. Ntarangwi (2016) as far as digital
transformation is concerned observes that “the digital age has transformed the landscape of African
performance, offering new platforms and modalities for the expression of cultural identities” (45).
Therefore, the integration of digital tools and online spaces has ushered in a new era for the
transmission and preservation of African orality.

African oral poetry and performance is a rich and diverse tradition that has been
passed down through generations, serving as a means of preserving cultural heritage,
conveying history, and expressing aspects of African life and identity. Africa has strong and
deep rooted cultural values which keep them united. These African cultural values form the
core of the African oral Literature, most especially oral poetry. To support the above idea,
Nol Alembong (2011) contends that ‘All Africans have stories that seek to explain the origin
or the reason behind the existence of various natural phenomena. Tales about the origin of
death abound all over Africa’ (43). All unwritten African stories and other forms of orality
are known as oral Literature. Africans themselves do not give orature the place it deserves as
a great field in the humanities. Henry KahJick (2015) says “For a long time most Africans
studied literature as if they themselves had no literature. It took some time for them to know
that Literature is not only the written texts in English, French or in other written languages,
but a quality of imaginative thought” (1). Therefore, literature involves the oral as well as the
written. All human societies largely depend on oral traditions and communications for their
meaningful existence and interaction.

Contrary to the thoughts of many, oral literature has long been the dominant mode of
cultural expression across many African societies, as Diawara (2010), opines that “the spoken
word has served as the primary vehicle for the preservation and dissemination of knowledge,
histories, and artistic expressions” (23). Recently, many African cultures have been preserved
and disseminated faster with the use of digital tools. This has caused the evolution of the
distribution of culture around African oral performance, while its authenticity remains
untouched.

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 It is worthy of note that before the advent of Ruth Finnegan, a renowned British
anthropologist who made remarkable contributions to the field of oral literature and her work
titled Orature in Africa (1970), oral literature was different. It was placed under disciplines
such as Anthropology, Folkloric study, History, Cultural studies, Religious studies and
Sociology and was never seen as literature. It is being described as very important and
ageless. To demonstrate the nature of oral literature with the oral people, Ganyi (2016) quotes
Bynum (1974) when he says:

For many millennia, the only instrument of rhythmic words and narrative known in
any part of the world was the tongue men were born with …so for long ages, so for
any way any knowledge could survive from one generation to another, was through
oral tradition. Rhythmic speech was the world’s first great medium of communication
for complex ideas and there were certainly media men of astonishing skills long
before anyone on earth knew how to write.(19)

Oral literature in Africa is not just for entertainment or expression of life’s events.
African oral poetry is part of a broader oral tradition that encompasses various forms of
cultural expression, including storytelling, proverbs riddles and songs. This tradition predates
written literature and has been a primary mode of communication and artistic expression in
many African societies. It also stands as a police to judge and punish those who go against
the African cultural norms. For example in many African traditional settings,
excommunication and death sentences serve as punishment for crimes such as rape, incest,
witchcraft and many others. It is for this reason that Kimani (2010) as quoted by Ganyi
(2016) puts it that:

Orality has been an important method of self-understanding, creative relationships

and establishing equilibrium between body, soul and environment. Through oral
literature, communities have been able to pass through values, attitudes, knowledge
and modes of practice for generations.(17).

African orature, most especially poetry is the centre of the African whole being.
Physical and inner expressions as a result of life happenings bring about the flow of oral
poetry. Its uniqueness knows no bounds for it encompasses the African life idiosyncracies. In
African oral poetry, there is oral performance. African oral poetry is meant to be performed
and experienced orally rather than read silently. It often involves dynamic elements such as
rhythm, repetition, call- and- response patterns, and improvisation. The performance aspect

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of oral poetry allows for audience engagement and interaction. In this same light, Sone
(2018) says that “through oral literature, therefore, one can say that Africans take advantage
of their ability to dance, sing, chant, narrate and use language in order to show the world how
they lived, who they are and what they can do”.(6) To concretize the above statement, Sone
(2009) opines that:

Oral literary forms such as stories, songs and proverbs are metaphors to guide moral
choice and self-examination. They are mirrors of seeing things in a particular way.
They serve as pedagogic devices (and are) a significant tool for the teaching values
that guide children’s concrete behavior in society.(162)

This brings to lime light the fact that oral literature stands as a means of teaching the
society morals through its norms, their likes and dislikes, their beliefs and taboos.

In Africa, there are two distinct forms of oral poetry: religious and secular oral poetry
and the focus of this study is on nuptial songs, which falls under secular poetry. Some
common forms include praise poetry, epic poetry, narrative poetry, and ritual poetry. Each
form has its own distinctive features, such as specific rhythmic patterns, linguistic devices,
and thematic concerns. Tala (1998) defines oral poetry as one which “generally expresses
itself in songs, ritual incantations and praise or salutation to gods and men”(44). He also puts
it that ‘It is spontaneous and covers all that cannot be expressed by ordinary everyday
speech’.Oral poetry especially its performance draws a lot of emotions especially during
performance. This is because it captures compose and perform situations determined by the
society in which he lives in -real life situations with fullness of reality. Sone (2018) puts it
that “when a literary piece has been composed orally, transmitted orally, performed orally
and presented in a special literary language, it is considered to be oral literature”,(4). This
completes the process of oral literature as it is being delivered by word of mouth and aimed at
the ear to move the whole body. Tala contends that “…in order to understand a traditional
song or poem properly, we must see it within the context of actual performance’ (44). So
much vigor is usually put in the performance. The achiever of an oral song or poem is known
as the performer. Gyamfi (1999) establishes the nature of an oral poem by saying that:

The oral poem, initially short, is learnt and given its fullest expression during
performance, when the performer lengthens it by means of his/her contributions such
as repetitions, pauses and paralinguistic devices. A good poet must therefore not only

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 compose well but also perform well, because a good delivery, usually one that is able
to arouse the audience’. (46)

The performance of oral songs and poems should and must be characterized by a lot
of creativity most especially at the level of speech, action and language depending on the
audience. Osadebay (1949) in his journal ‘West African Voices’ draws more emphasis on the
situation where oral poetry in Africa especially during sad and happy moments are
performed. He posits that “we sing when we fight, we sing when we work, we sing when we
love, we sing when we hate, we sing when a child is born, we sing when death takes toll”
(152). African oral poetry encourages unity and communal life where one person’s problem
touches the whole community. It brings to light the extreme ways in which emotions through
oral poetry are expressed. During sad and happy events, they mourn and laugh together
through dirges during funerals, birth songs during procreation, nuptial songs during
traditional weddings and many others. Oral poetry is an integral part of the human life in the
society.

Finnegan in her works highlights the oral tradition as a powerful means of

communication and cultural expression. Her ideas on oral poetry abound. She views oral
poetry as a living tradition which has been passed down through generations and lay
emphasis on the fact that oral poetry is not a static form of literature but an ever evolving art
that adapts to changing cultural contexts. Her ideas also depicts the sense of performance and
oral transmission. Here, he emphasizes on the performative aspects of oral poetry,
highlighting how oral poems are often performed in communal settings, where the words,
rhythms, and gestures of the poet creates a captivating experience for the audience. In her
works, the role of oral transmission in preserving and disseminating cultural knowledge is not
left out. Finnegan (1970) alsoargues that oral literature “is by definition dependent on a
performer who formulates it in words on a specific occasion – there is no other way in which
it can be realized as a literary product”. (2). To assess the importance performance in oral
arts, she reiterates on the fact that:

Full appreciation must depend on an analysis not only of the verbal interplay and
overtones in the piece, its stylistic structure and content, but also of the various
detailed devices which the performer has at his disposal to convey his product to the
audience.(13).

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 Oral literature has a great impact in the society in that it is not limited to the literate
group of people, but involves everybody in the society. With or without the knowledge of a
foreign language has the opportunity to participate in oral poetry performance with the use of
the source language which is the mother tongue. It actually makes everyone in the society to
gain an identity and have a sense of belonging.

More so, African oral poetry serves various functions within communities. It can be
used to praise individuals, ancestors and deities, to recount historical events, to transmit
moral and ethical values, and to provide social commentary. Themes commonly explored in
African oral poetry include love, nature, spirituality, community, identity, and the struggles
and triumphs of everyday life. African oral poetry is often associated with specialized
individuals known as oral poets or griots. According to Ndiaye (2016), “griots are the
repositories of the collective memory of their communities, entrusted with responsibility of
recounting the histories, lineages, and significant events of their people” (23). They serve as
custodians of oral tradition, preserving historical knowledge and cultural heritage through
their performances. African oral poetry is traditionally transmitted from one generation to the
next through direct oral instruction and apprenticeship. However, with the advent of writing
and recording technologies, some oral poets have adapted their work to written forms or have
had their performances recorded for wider dissemination.

This work is centered on songs which are generally known as musical compositions
consisting of lyrics (words) combined with melody and rhythm. They are also a form of
artistic expression and are typically performed or recorded for entertainment purposes. Songs
can be created in different musical genres such as pop, rock, classical hip-hop, country, jazz,
and many others. It is also generally assumed that songs are one of the most captivating and
culturally rich resources that can be easily used to convey very important messages to the
society. Griffe (1992) says that “the word song refers to pieces of music that have words,
especially popular songs such as those one hears on the radio” (1). He also puts it that:

Songs have elements in common with speech and poetry, they are a unique form. Both
songs and speech are vocally produced, are linguistically meaningful and have
melody. Both songs and poetry use words to convey meaning, both are usually written
down before publication, both can be put to music and both can be listened to. (2)

Also, throughout history, songs have played a significant role in cultures worldwide.
They serve various purposes, including entertainment, storytelling, celebration,

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communication of emotions, cultural preservation, and political or social commentary. Songs
can evoke powerful emotions and have the ability to connect people on a deep level. Many
people can be moved to tears or other strong emotions by music, and songs can acquire
strong emotional associations with people, events, and places. Songs have personal qualities
that that make the listener react as if the songs were being sung specifically for them. Songs
are also a piece of musical composition of words, verse, or poem which is sung or uttered
with modulation of the voice which expresses the thought and feeling.

As far as the function of a song is concerned, Lo and Li (1998) say that ‘songs are
invaluable tools used to develop students’ abilities in listening, speaking, reading and writing,
can be used to teach variety of language items such as sentence patterns, vocabulary,
pronunciation, rhythm, adjectives, and adverbs.(3). Songs function greatly in the field of
linguistics, psychology, cognitive, social and culture. It is not just out for entertainment, also
meant to educate the society and help in the teaching and learning of English language
especially vocabulary.

Songs are remarkable elements in Kom traditional weddings . Tubuo (2021) holds
that “there is a slight similarity between language and singing because the can express
information and emotions at the same time” (164). He also quotes Ngufor (2019) in her
article titled “The Functional Rationality of Meta Birth Songs” which accentuates the fact
that:

In Africa, songs, more than anything else are the instruments used to express
emotions of all sorts; joy, anger, frustration, hope, desire, etc. composers use ambiguity,
sarcasm, irony and strong metaphors to praise, rebuke, or simply to reflect the society as it is
as their own contribution towards re/shaping the society. So it becomes common to have
undertones of reprimand, protest, complaints and the expression of individual and communal
opinions in songs that celebrate births, deaths and in wars.(183)

Moreover, for many people writing and performing songs serve as a means of
personal expression and catharsis. Songs can capture and convey emotions, experiences, and
perspectives in a deeply intimate way. Artists often draw from their own lives and inner
worlds to create music resonates from both themselves and their audience. Songs also play
significant role in cultural traditions and rituals around the world. They are used in religious
ceremonies, celebrations, rites of passage, and communal gatherings. Folk songs in particular,

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often embody the stories, values, and histories of specific cultures passed down through
generations.

Songs have the power to reflect and shape culture, history, and social movements.
They can become anthems for specific causes, symbols of a particular era, or rallying cries
for social change. From protest songs that fueled civil rights movements to national anthems
that unite communities, songs have the ability to transcend boundaries and become ingrained
in the fabric of society. Songs are that genre of oral literature which identifies and develops
those aspects of indigenous knowledge which strengthens their identity and resistance.
Alembong (1996) puts it that “songs of struggle, songs of praise, songs of hope, for example,
were common features of their daily lives”. (121) Songs evolve and adapt to the changing
musical landscape, influencing and being influenced by cultural shifts, technological
advancements, and the creative visions of artists. The remain a vital and cherished form of
artistic expression and a powerful medium for connecting with others on the emotional and
universal level.

This study generally focuses on African oral poetry but specifically centered on
secular oral poetry and narrowed down to the performance of Kom nuptial songs. Kom
nuptial songs are sung and performed during Kom traditional marriages. It is also sung to
express joy and happiness as a result of procreation. There are a lot of principles governing
the performance of these songs in the Kom community.

Before the advent of Christianity, the Kom man knew God in his own way. He knew
about the existence of two gods- the good and the bad god. In a child cleansing situation, the
mother of the child in question invites the presence of a good god and wave away the
presence of a bad god (satan). Considering that he acknowledges the goodness of his own god
in his life, he always makes sure he shows his god appreciation. He did not have a particular
forum like the Christian church, but their gatherings sounded like forum to praise God and
plead for God’s mercy and continuous blessings. These gatherings portray unity among the
women and communal life where they express it in the performance of oral poetry and Kom
nuptial songs to be specific. Their nuptial song performance is an expression of joy,
happiness and thanksgiving to the gods for the happy event of traditional marriage and
sometimes also to thank the gods for the gift of a new born baby into a family.

Traditional marriages in Kom are a thing of pride. Honour is given to every family
whose sons and daughters last long in marriage. Tubuo (2021) puts forth his view on

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marriage which says that “Marriage to an African man in general and a Kom man in
particular, is not only a union between a man and a woman but also a union between two
families. The Kom people believe that marriage is eternal” (88). Girls who fail to get married
are looked upon as having bad character or prostitutes. Joseph Nsom (2015)contends that ‘the
Kom society gives very great importance to the nuptial union. It is within this union that
procreation is generally accepted and highly appreciated. …Marriage is generally defined as
a union between two persons not having the same sex’. (108). Alembong (2011) shares the
same opinion when he says that ‘These ideas of marriage are reflected in nuptial songs of the
African poeples’. (97). Procreation in Kom is linked to marriage because the sole essence of
marriage is to procreate. The people give utmost importance to marriage such that the
performance of nuptial songs is inevitable during Kom traditional weddings.Mugandani and
Vermeulen (2016) in their article put it that marriage rules were ‘…Originally created by
elderly community members who were well versed with the expectations of married
couples…(1). There are a set of rules that govern marriage in the African setting.Mtose and
Xoliswa (2011) in their article draw emphasis on the essence of nuptial songs in a traditional
marriage by saying that “On wedding days, women sing traditional songs, not only to show
their happiness; but also to educate the bride and groom” (96).Kom nuptial songs are
carefully composed on very important themes of marriage realities such as loyalty,
endurance, blessings, good upbringing, submissiveness, family growth, procreation and many
others. The language of the wedding songs is essentially based on the oral tradition, leading
to a connection between Literature and Linguistics.

Orature in recent times has greatly evolved in its manner of archiving and
dissemination of oral traditions, including Kom nuptial songs. This is due to the increasing
prominence of digital technologies. Finnegan (2002) supports the above statement by saying
that “the technologies of our time are radically transforming the contexts and modalities of
oral performance” (18). Therefore, digitalization has widely enabled the circulation of
cultural expressions around Kom nuptial songs, giving audiences access and leading to its
extensive documentation.

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Statement of the Problem

In the digital era, the preservation and transmission of African oral traditions face significant
challenges and opportunities. The Kom community in Cameroon, known for its rich cultural
heritage, has a unique tradition of nuptial songs that play a crucial role in wedding
ceremonies. These songs are not only a form of entertainment but also a means of conveying
cultural values, history, and social norms.

However, with the advent of digital technologies, the traditional modes of performing and
transmitting these songs are undergoing rapid transformation. While digital platforms offer
new avenues for preserving and sharing these oral performances, they also pose risks of
cultural dilution and loss of authenticity. The integration of Kom nuptial songs into digital
media raises critical questions about the impact of technology on cultural preservation, the
authenticity of digital reproductions, and the role of the community in maintaining their
cultural heritage.

This research aims to explore the dynamics of Kom nuptial songs in the digital era,
examining how digital technologies are reshaping the performance, transmission, and
preservation of these oral traditions. It seeks to understand the implications of these changes
for the cultural identity of the Kom people and to propose strategies for leveraging digital
tools to enhance the preservation and appreciation of Kom nuptial songs without
compromising their authenticity.

Does this align with what you had in mind? Feel free to let me know if you need any
adjustments or additional details!

Research Questions
This work is out to answer the following questions;

 How has the digitization of Kom nuptial ritual songs impacted their traditional
performance and transmission?
 What are the challenges and opportunities associated with documenting Kom nuptial
ritual songs in the digital era?

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  How has the digitalization of Kom nuptial songs helped in boosting their social-
political and economic values?

Research objectives

This research is guided by the objectives:

This study seeks to explore the impact of digitalization on the performance and
transmission of oral performance in Africa, with a focus on the challenges and opportunities
presented by emerging digital technologies and platforms.

It seeks to investigate how Kom oral poetry and other related oral poetry has been
adapted and transformed in the digital era.

It is out to examine how the Kom people and their worldview are politically, socially,
economically and socially influenced by digitalization.

To uncover the opportunities and challenges encountered by Kom community in

safeguarding their nuptial song heritage amidst the rapid technological and social changes.

To analyze how the digitalization of Kom nuptial songs has helped in boosting their
socio-political and economic values.

Research Hypothesis
This dissertation is based on the contention that digitalization plays a crucial role on
the performance and transmission of African oral poetry in general and Kom nuptial songs in
particular. The African oral performance, which is the African oral people’s primary medium
of education has been greatly facilitated by digitalization. It helps in the distribution of the
culture of performance all over the world and even to non indigenes of the community where
performance takes place. On the other hand, excessive digitalization acts as a challenge, most
especially to oral people, as there is the distortion and misrepresentation of culture when it
gets to those who neither understand the culture nor its origin. Also the frequent access to
performances on digital platforms limits the live performances, which is a problem to the oral
people as performance is the only means in which they are educated. This limited
performances also limits the performing events, thereby dwindling down the communal spirit
in the community, which is part and parcel of their lives.

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Scope of study
This dissertation titled “African Oral Performance in the Digital Era: The Case of
Kom Nuptial Songs”, is on African oral performance and the performance of Kom nuptial
songs in the contemporary digital era, exploring how Kom nuptial song traditions have
adapted to and being influenced by technological advancement. This work’s data collection is
done in Fundong subdivision, of the North West Region of Cameroon. This study is out to
analyze the modes of nuptial song performance, which duel more on live performances,
recordings and digital dissemination. In these performances, the role of technology is also
accessed in the shaping, transmission and preservation of the performance of Kom nuptial
songs traditions. Also, Kom nuptial songs are reflected on social, political, cultural and
economic aspects of the people’s lives, giving significance to the songs, particularly in the
context of marriage and family rituals. Kom nuptial song performance shapes the cultural
identity of the people, giving value to the Kom community, and a sense of belonging.

Definition of Key Terms

It is very important in every research to give definitions of the viable terms used. In
this work, the following terms such as: oral performance, digital era and nuptial songs are
defined.

Nuptial songs

According to OxfordAdvancedLearner’sDictionary,nuptial is defined as ‘Connected

with marriage or a wedding: nuptial bliss- nuptial mass’. (2020:1065). Therefore, nuptial
songs are songs sung and performed during wedding celebrations.

Nuptial according to Collins English Dictionary ‘ is used to refer to things relating to a

wedding or a marriage’. Here, synonyms for nuptial are also mentioned such as: marital,
wedding, wedded, bridal and many more.

Alembong (2011) opines that the ‘ideas about marriage are reflected in nuptial songs of
African peoples. The idea of marriage as drama seen in various ceremonies that go with
nuptials, role play, décor, orchestration, singing and dancing. To him, a greater number of
nuptial songs in Africa are used to caution young girls to be careful in choosing their future
husbands. Some of these songs have ‘ to do with flatteries which much unmarried girls are
lulled into thinking that all will be a bed of roses in a marital home whereas the contrary may
be the case’.( 97)

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 More so, Segal (1969) defines nuptial songs as “a special type of epithalamium, or
marriage song, which is sung at or near the time of the wedding ceremony” (3). These songs
are also known according to him as “a special kind of lyric poetry which celebrates the
marriage of a particular couple” (3). These songs do not just provide good music for the
entertainment of the wedding guest, but at the same time acts as a medium of education as
well. The good morals of patience, endurance, loyalty and many others around marriage are
also to the couple and the entire community. Bonwie (1970) ideas on the definition of nuptial
songs are similar to those of Segal (1969) as he opines that nuptial songs are “songs
composed for a specific wedding occasion, which celebrates the marriage of the couple and
wish them happiness and fertility” (64). These songs during weddings are very important for
they form an integral part of the wedding ritual.

Marriage embodies many qualities, for it is a societal virtue that takes much to survive.
In this line, Wyles (2011) defines nuptial songs as “hymes sung at the wedding ceremony
itself, marking the transition of the couple from unmarried to married status” (15). According
to him, these songs often “invoke the gods and the goddesses of marriage, love and fertility,
and bless the new couple with wishes for a fruitful and happy union” (15).

The Encyclopedia Britannica on the definition of nuptial songs puts it that ‘Nuptial songs,
also called wedding songs, songs that are performed during marriage ceremonies or
celebrations. Nuptial songs are found in many cultures and serve a variety of purposes, such
as invoking blessings on the couple, celebrating the union, guiding the couple through the
ceremony, and entertaining guests’.

Digital

The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2005) defines digitalization as ‘Connected with
the use of computer technology, especially the internet: communication in digital age. Digital
technology continues to evolve rapidly’.(431)

Ekbai (2009) views digitalization in terms of digital artifacts which he enumerates as blogs,
wikis, personal profiles in social networking sites and portrays them as a clear identity, a
condition attributed to the constant change they undergo. He claims that artifacts of this sort

12
exhibits an ambivalent ontology. He describes digital artifacts as performative, constructing
social relationships, rather than simply representing something out there. To him, digital
artifacts lack the stability and adequacy characteristic of traditional objects and are better
seen as quasi objects, a condition whose implications he empirically explores in the context
of open source software development.

Kallinikos et al (2020) define digitalization as the process of converting analog information

or objects into a digital format that can be processed, stored, and transmitted electronically. It
involves the transformation of data, documents, images, sounds, and other forms of
information into binary code, which can be understood and manipulated by computers.

Bharadwaj et al (2013) establish the importance of digitalization, as it is increasing in the

fields of business, education, healthcare and government. To them, in business context,
digitalization involves leveraging digital technologies to improve operational efficiency,
enhance customer experiences, and enable new business models. For example, companies
may digitize their paper-based processes, adopt cloud computer platforms, utilize data
analytic, and implement automation to streamline operations, reduce costs, and gain
competitive advantages.

In the perspective of education, Selwyn (2020) refers to digitalization as the integration of

digital technologies into teaching and learning processes. This includes the use of computers,
tablets, and smart phones for accessing educational resources, interactive multimedia tools
for instruction, online learning platforms for remote education, and digital assessment
methods. Digitalization in education aims to enhance student engagement, facilitate
personalized learning experiences, and provide flexible and accessible educational
opportunities.

According to Encyclopedia Britannica, digitalization is defined as ‘the process of converting

information into a digital (i.e., computer readable) format, in which the information is
organized into bits. The result is the representation of an object, image, sound, document or
signal (usually an analog signal) by generating a series of numbers that describe a discrete set
of its points or samples. The result is called digital representation or, more specifically, a
digital image, digital video, digital audio, etc’

Performance

13
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2005) defines performance as ‘the way a person
performs in a play, concert, etc: she gave the greatest performance of her career…It is also
‘the act or process of performing a task, an action, etc: she has shown enthusiasm in the
performance of her duties’. (1147)

According to Brown and Yule (1983), oral performance refers to ‘the ability to produce and
understand spoken language in real-time interaction’. (37)

Lutterbie (2012) defines oral performance in the context of theatre studies as ‘ the enactment
of a dramatic text through speech, voice, and physical gestures by actors on stage’ (31).

According to Perks and Thomson (2006), in the context of oral history research, oral
performance refers to ‘the act of narrating personal or collective memories through spoken
words, often in an interview or storytelling setting’ (125).

Smith (2018) in his book sees oral performance as ‘the act of delivering a spoken
presentation, speech, or performance in a live or recorded setting’. (45)

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, ‘Oral performance, is any communication or

entertainment carried out in spoken rather than written words, with the performer and the
audience present together in time and space. Oral performance includes storytelling, folk
songs, epic reactions, vocal instrumentals, and theatrical productions’.

Significance of Study
ThisdissertationisvaluablebothstudiesinLiteratureandorature.AstudyofAfricanoralpoetryingen
eralandthatofKomnuptialsongsinparticularisverysignificanttothefollowing:

Totheindividual

This study will go a long way to promote and uplift the known and unknown culture
around the performance of African oral poetry in general and Kom nuptial songs in
particular. Many Africans don’t have interest in their cultures, but prefer to borrow the
Western culture, thereby cutting themselves from their roots.Idang (2015) holds that‘The
culture of a people is what marks them out distinctively from other human societies in the
family of humanity’. (97).There is need for everyone to be versed with their culture. It will
help to expose the Kom culture to non indigenes of Kom for admiration and adoption.

TotheUniversity

14
 This study will contribute to the knowledge store of the university and other students
will be able to benefit from such for either academic or empirical knowledge. This point is
very important most especially people specialized in orature are very few.

Tothesubdivision

This study carried out in the North West Region of Cameroon, Boyo Division and in
Fundong Subdivision to be precise will be of great benefit to the subdivision. It brings
people especially women together to be able to live a communal life and help each other
grow. ‘Njangwain’ or nuptial songs are also performed during social gatherings where there
is a lot of price giving and group compensation which help in providing some of the women’s
needs. The authorities interviewed for data collection will have an opportunity to share their
knowledge to many. Many of these interviewees will be known and cited in academic works
which is an advantage not just to them but to the subdivision as well.

Structure of work
This work is divided into six chapters. Chapter one is the general introduction, made
up of Background of study, the general introduction, which is centered around historical
issues related to the study, Definition of key terms (oral performance, digital and nuptial
songs), The Research Problem, Research Questions, Research Objectives, Hypothesis,
Significance of Study, Scope of Study and the Structure of work.

Chapter two is titled ‘Review of Related Literature and Methodology’. The Literature
review is centered on the knowledge that previous researchers have discovered as far as Kom
Oral poetry and nuptial songs are concerned. This helps the researcher to avoid repetition of
work and equally helps the researcher to build more knowledge on what has been found and
what has not yet been found at the theoretical, conceptual and empirical levels. The
methodology tells us more on how the researcher collects data.

Chapter three is titled ‘The Kom People’. In this chapter, the researcher looks at the
vital information about the Kom people which leads to a better understanding of the
performance of Kom nuptial songs. The researcher’s objective here is to bring out the
importance of oral performance.

Chapter four “Nuptial songs and the Sociopolitical value of Kom Community in the
Digital Era”This is focused on the importance of Kom nuptial songs and how it goes a long
way to give value to the Kom culture of love and marriage, procreation and continuity. It
15
helps in the transmission of cultural heritage and how this form of oral poetry which can be
used as a tool to resist the impactsof globalization. In this same chapter, the sociopolitical
values of theKom people are also portrayed through the performance of nuptial songs. These
songs do not just end at the level of performance but go a long way to give value to the
performers.

Chapter five is titled “Nuptial songs and their Economic Value in the Kom
Community” This chapter is aimed at portraying Kom nuptial songs as a tool for educating
the society, showcasing the culture through songs and establishing how it brings out their
economic values.

Finally, there is chapter six, which is the conclusion and summarizes the entire work.
This section includes the relevance or significance of nuptial songs in contemporary society,
findings and propositions or recommendations on how the manner of usage or performance
of nuptial songs should be improved upon in the society for a better change and finally the
bibliography and appendix.

16
 CHAPTER TWO
Review of Related Literature and Methodology
This literature review chapter serves as a critical component of a research study,
providing a comprehensive examination and analysis of existing scholarly works relevant to
the research topic. It plays a vital role in establishing the context and theoretical framework
for the study, identifying gaps in the knowledge, and justifying the need for further research.
By synthesizing and evaluating existing literature, this chapter aims to contribute to the
existing body of knowledge and lay a solid foundation for the research to follow. This chapter
embarks on an exploration of the existing literature surrounding ‘African Oral Performance in
the digital era: The Case of Kom Nuptial Songs’. By delving into rich tapestry of scholarly
works, the researcher seeks to gain a deeper understanding of the key concepts, theories, and
methodologies that have shaped this field of study. This review encompasses journals,
articles, books, dissertations, conference proceedings and other relevant sources, ensuring a
comprehensive and balanced evaluation of the current state of knowledge. Through an in-
depth analysis of previous studies, this research seeks to identify the major themes, trends and
debates that have emerged in the field. It is also intended at critically evaluating the strengths
and limitations of this study, assessing their methodological rigor, theoretical underpinnings,
and empirical findings. Such a critical appraisal will enable in the identification of gaps and
discrepancies in the literature. This chapter also serves as an intellectual roadmap, guiding the
reader through the existing landscape of knowledge while elucidating the rationale and
objectives of this research. By critically engaging with literature, aims to build a strong
theoretical framework and contextualize this study within the broader academic discourse.
Through this synthesis of existing works, this research aspires to contribute to the ongoing
dialogue and shape the future direction of research in the field of ‘African Oral Performance
in the digital era: The Case of Kom Nuptial Songs’.

Conceptual Review
This section aims at describing the concepts under study to the researcher, create
relationships among the concepts while showcasing the various areas of study discovered in
Literature reviews. It introduces new ideas in Literature and is out to enunciate the peculiarity
under study through written descriptions and presentations. It is imperative in every research
to do conceptual viewpoints of functional terms used. The following terms that are recurrent
in this study will be discussed according to diverse authors: oral performance, nuptial songs
and digitalization.

17
Digitalization
The concept of digitalization is established by Tsaaior (2012) when he says that Nigerian
oral poetry, most especially the music genre, has greatly undergone the digital process, due to
new technologies. “The alternative existence acquired by the oral forms manifests itself in
digital technological modes like CDs, VCDs, DVDs, digital radio and television and the
internet which assure them of longevity”(97) In the digital cultural ethos where
communication technology has reached vertiginous heights, the traditional idea or concept of
authorship has been comprehensively altered or transformed. Franklin et al (2005) say that
with digitalization, information relating to its concepts gets “transmitted much faster and in a
higher quality than previously possible” (314) This transmission tampers so much with the
originality of the oral poem as in the contemporary society, people recompose the already
composed songs, modifying it and changing its sense and originality.

Digitalization is a global phenomenon that a great impact in all sectors of life. Yoo, Lyytinen,
and Boland (2012) define digitalization as “the process of converting analogue information
into digital format, enabling it to be processed, stored, and transmitted by electronic devices
and computer systems”. This has brought a lot f change from the traditional way of doing
things to the modern and easier way. Hughes (2017) talks about digitalization based on the
volume of digital cultural heritage when she puts it that: “The results of their analysis …
shows that over ten percent of the collections of European museums, archives and
librarieshas been digitized, over 300million items. At the present scale of progress, it will
take over 30 years to digitize the rest…” (37). In the digital world, some analogue materials
such as audio and videotapes are at the verge of ending the life cycle, and there is need to
digitalize them before equipment obsolescence and media deterioration makes the data
irretrievable.

Lule, Omwansa and Mwololo (2012) talk about digitalization in terms of the advantages of
technology by saying that “today’s major technologies enable people to collect, send and
receive information in minutes whatever they are”(1).Digitalization is practiced in every
sector and helps to improve on its functioning. They talk about using digitalization to
improve on the banking system by adopting Technological Acceptance Model in M-banking
application in Kenya, an innovation perpetuated by the wide spread of mobile communication
technology.

18
 Digitization is also viewed in terms of cultural heritage as every aspect of it is being
changed from its traditional mode of operation to a modern one. TrilceNavarrette (2013)
posits that “ digitization- the process of adapting to developments in media technology-
implies far more than just adopting technology.(1) Navarrette (2013) defines digitization as
“making content digital. It represents the translation of information using a data technology
of discrete values(e.g braille, DNA, abacus) to transfer content. Digitization of cultural
heritage refers to making heritage objects and services digital”(2)

Also, according to him, digitization has three fundamental changes which functions with
respect to cultural heritage content. These fundamental changes by Navarrette act as the
advantages digitization has on cultural heritage. These changes are:

Technology has prompted the creation of a digital heritage product, digitization has resulted
in a process to formalize heritage knowledge as an exchangeable good. Secondly, the
consumer has gained a certain independence to acquire digital content, no longer linked to
the producer’s physical location. Thirdly, adoption of digital technology in all segments of
life have led to a change in consumer expectations, with a demand for digital heritage
content at the right place and time, and even an option to participate in the production
process.(1)

Furthermore, Navarrette puts forth the effects of digitization on cultural heritage supply
which are factors such as: the reason for production, the expectation on demand, the
expectation of future price changes, joint supply of products, and total number of suppliers.

Digitalization also obtains in the domain of cultural heritage representation and

preservation. To conform with the above statement, Marsili and Orlandi (2019) say that “the
documentation, preservation, publication, and enhancement of the cultural and artistic
heritage can now be accomplished in a wide variety of ways, from digital libraries to fully
operational 3-D models, which can be exported, used, and exploited by a large audience. (3)
The task of working with heterogenous media collections in different states of preservation
required specific strategies for digitalization. This process combines the conversion of
analogue material into digital format and the creation of metadata set that took the diverse
starting points in into account.

Digitization plays an important role as it converts natural cultural heritage to digital

heritage cultural and is very essential for it helps in preservation, protection and maintenance

19
of cultural heritage, in research, education, dissemination and accessibility. This therefore
makes digitization a very important tool in the accomplishment of every life sector. The
benefits of digitization are enormous and are as follows: it maps morphological information
at the time of digitization, and provides information on a particular cultural heritage. It
enhances the educational process with innovative game role playing, creates complete
cultural heritage representation with interactive experiental experience by adding multimedia
(images, videos, content) to model, increases awareness and dissemination to a wide range
audiences specialized or not, it increases tourism, creates a cultural heritage identity, and it
also creates more opportunities for research activity.

According to Katuu (2020), digitalization in general is “the process of converting

information from analogue to digital format. This information may originally in the form of
an object, an image or a document.” He also establishes the result of digitalization as “a
digital surrogate of the information i.e. digital data in the form of binary numbers that
facilitate processing using computers. Though digitalization and digitization are similar in
meaning, they have differences. Katuu (2020) brings out this difference in the definition of
the two words. He puts it that “digitization is the process of changing from analog to digital
form, also known as digital enablement” (22). While “digitalization is the use of digital
technologies to change a business model and provide new revenue and value- producing
opportunities; it is the process of moving to a digital business”. (21). He also adds that
“digitalization enables or improves processes by leveraging digital technologies and digitized
data”. (24) In a nutshell, he puts the difference between digitization and digitalization as
digitization being a technical process while digitalization is a socio-technological process of
of applying digitization techniques in a broad institutional or societal context.(1) Also, during
digitalization, there is a lot of digital transformation, which encaptulates the transformational
effect of new digital technologies such as social, mobile, analytical, cloud technologies and
the internet of things.

Also, Schelenz (2018); and Parviainen, et al. (2017) define digitalization in terms of its
transformation of the society as they contend to the fact that “digitalization is transforming
the world in almost every aspect of life during the last few decades. The access to internet,
increase of people using mobile phones, social media and other ICT services changed the
way people interact, communicate, learn and work in almost every country”. In emphasize on
the meaning of digitization, Parviainen et al (2017) define digitization as” the action or
process of digitizing; the conversion of analogue data (esp. in later used images, video, and

20
text) into digital form. This boils down to the fact that digitization is the integration of digital
technologies into every day life at processes, organizational, business and other society
domains. In the business perspective, digitalization focuses on the adoption and use of digital
technology by the key market players and other players including distributors, producers,
consumers, film practitioners, associations, policymakers and politicians.

Oral Performance

For an oral piece to be complete, it must be composed, performed and transmitted. Oral
performance typically refers to the act of delivering a spoken presentation or performance,
often in public setting. It involves the use of verbal communication skills, such as speaking
clearly, articulating ideas effectively, and engaging with an audience. The forms of oral
performance are speeches, presentations, debates, storytelling, acting, recitations, and spoken
word poetry. It encompasses aspects such as articulation, pronunciation, vocal quality,
intonation, fluency, and overall effectiveness in conveying the intended message.

Oral performance can take place in different contexts, including academic settings,
business environments, public speaking engagements, or even informal situations. It often
involves the use of language, gestures, facial expressions, and body language to engage and
communicate with the audience effectively. The goal of an oral performance is to effectively
convey information, persuade or influence others, entertain, educate, or inspire the audience.
It requires careful preparation, organization of ideas, and effective delivery techniques to
engage listeners, maintain their attention, and convey the desired message.

Manieson and Mireku-Gyimah (2012) in their work disclose the importance of oral
performance in the study of African oral literature, such that even in contemporary times, its
originality remains untouched, because it continues to be passed on from generation to the
next with word of mouth. To be detailed, they quote Finnegan (1970) by saying that “The life
and reality of oral performance is dependent on the audience. In other words, the existence of
oral literature is dependent on an audience” (1) They also throw more light on Finnegan
(1970) by saying that “Oral performance is a two- way affair. It takes the performer and the
audience to make it complete. At times, depending on the two occasions, the roles of the two
becomes intertwined, merging as one.

Also, as far as oral performance is concerned, Manieson and Mireku-Gyimah focus much
on the role of the performer during performance as they contend to the fact that:

21
The oral performer employs many resourses to enhance and enliven the performance. These
include language itself; then the dramatic elements such as body language-gestures, facial
expressions and mimicry to convey messages which, if in print, could hardly convey the same
impact. The atmosphere of the performance, whether formal or informal, is further enhanced
by the dress, accoutrement or visual bearings of the performer.(1)

Furthermore, they compare audience involvement in a performance before and in present

times. The audience participation in oral performance has gradually declined in recent years.
Audience of oral performance have turned from active to passive. They don’t value the
beliefs, interest and cultural sensibilities that pulled them together with a lot of emosion and
give them the zeal as audience to participate during oral performance.

Drewal (1991) as far as oral performance is concerned, has it as her perspective that “
Performance raises fundamental issues about bodily praxis, human agency, temporality, and
discursive knowledge and calls into question conventional understanding of tradition,
repetition, mechanical reproduction, and ontological definitions of social order and reality”
(1). She also holds that the word performance does not have a specific definition, but is open-
ended, but privileges process, the temporary or processually constructed nature of human
realities, and the agency of knowledgeable performers who have embodiedparticular
techniques and styles to accomplish it. Also to her, “performance is the praxis of everyday
social lfe; indeed, it is the practical application of embodied skills and and knowledge to the
task of taking action”(1). Therefore,

Performance is the fundamental dimension of culture as well as the production of knowledge

about culture. It might include anything from individual agents’ negotiations of everyday life,
t stories people tell eachother, popular entertainments, political oratory, guerrilla warfare, to
bounded events such as theatre, ritual, festivals, parades. And more.

The performance of oral literature is very significant in the realization of an oral piece.
Literature is termed oral only when it has gotten to its stage of completion which is oral
performance. To this effect, Finnegan puts it that:

The connection between transmission and the very existence is a much more intimate one and
questions about the means of actual communicatin are of the first importance-without its oral
realization and direct rendition by singer or speaker, an unwritten literary piececannot easily
be said to have any continued or independent existence at all…The significance of

22
performance in oral literature goes beyond a mere matter of definition: for the nature of
performance itself can make an important contribution to the impact of a particular literary
form being exhibited. (13)

Inorder establish the importance of an oral performance, Finnegan emphasizes that a

performer does not just emits spoken words; he or she also plays upon the flexible and
remarkable instruments of the voice to exploit a vast range of non-verbalized auditory
devices. He or she endeavours to maintain the beauty of rhyme, alliteration, assonance,
rhythm and acoustic parallelism. He or she is also conscious of subtleties of volume, pitch
tempo, intensity, repetition, emphasis, length, dynamics, silence, timbre, onomatopoeia, and
the multifarious non-verbal ways. He or she can use sound to convey, for example, character,
dialect, humour, irony, atmosphere, or tension.

Ngam (2019) in his definition of oral performance, brings out the difference between it and a
public speaker. Hedefinesoral performance through the oral performer by quoting may
scholars. Chukwuma (1981) puts it that an oral performer is “ every man and any man or
woman sufficiently knowledgeable in the literary traditions of the people and capable of
communicating this in an entertaining way to the audience”(220) The above mentioned
qualities should be taken into consideration during an oral performance. In the same line of
thinking, Tala (1989) sees a performer as “the person who selects the social identity of the
story-teller from among the multiple social identities of his social persona” (28). According
to Ngam (2019),

Oral performers use gestures to vivify narration, the songs, the dance steps, in brief, all
elements that give the story stylistic unity and amplitude combined to produce aesthetic
charm. African oral performers are therefore artists who entertain, inspire, and educate their
audience. They know how to captivate the audience with more than just words. They use
gestures, singing, facial expression, and impersonations to arouse the audience.(452)

Nuptial Songs

Nuptial songs also known as wedding songs or marriage songs, are a form of oral poetry
that celebrates and accompanies the union of two individuals in marriage. These songs are
found in various cultures around the world and often serve as way to convey blessings, well-
wishes, and cultural traditions associated with weddings. These songs are specifically

23
composed and performed to celebrate weddings and matrimonial ceremonies. They often
serve as a form of entertainment, expressing joy, love, and blessings for the newly married
couple. Nuptial songs form the entire core of study and has been defined in various ways by
many scholars and theorists. Nuptial songs are generally presumed to mean songs sung and
performed during weddings and traditional weddings in this case. These theorists have their
own perceptions on nuptial songs and after establishing their views, I will then bring in my
own perception and thought on nuptial songs.

Mugandaniand Vermeulen (2016) has Jangwa music as their main focus and stresses on the
importance of traditional music style of the Manyika people of Zimbabwe. To them,
“Jangwa music developed as a choral tradition during the post-colonial era, and songs
performed at wedding ceremonies became one of its main functions”. Nuptial song
performance has become part and parcel of this community due to its performance in
occasions. ”During these occasions, life skills and knowledge about married life were shared
with the young couple through jangwa songs”. ( 1). The performance of these songs are not
just for entertainment, but also for didactic purposes.

Also, they underscore the fact that Jangwa music like other African music, integrates
traits such as lead and response, cyclic or repetitive form and interlocking rhythms and
Western harmony. It is worth noting that jangwa music is based on Western harmony and
was “originally created by elderly community members who were well versed with the
expectations of married couples in the Manyika culture.”( 2). Songs rehearsals for a wedding
feast took place in the evenings by the younger generation in preparation for wedding
ceremonies which were to be held during the day.

In talking about Jangwa wedding songs performance, Mugandani and Vermeulen

lament on the effect of colonialism in the performance of Jangwa wedding songs. They say
that “There is an eminent danger of enculturation taking place at the expense of traditional
African wedding rituals”. They also lament on the behavior of contemporary generation for
their abuse on the African cultural values.”Presently the young generation is in favour of
Western recorded music which, in most cases, does not promote African cultural values;
hence traditional music is at the brink of extinction”. ( 2). This is one of problems faced by
the oral performance of nuptial songs during the digital era. To throw more light to this, he
quotes Mupotsa (2014) who says that “the norm for contemporary African weddings is that

24
two ceremonies take place; an amalgamation of African cultural practices and Western white
wedding rituals, which could lead to a loss of indigenous wedding music’.( 65).

As far as the performance of Jangwa wedding music is concerned, members of a

community engage in through singing, interacting, and dialogue with the performers as
participant observer during the four jangwa wedding song performances, which elicits an
untold understanding of the meanings and functions of jangwa song lyrics. These wedding
song lyrics are related to a specific way of life, bringing out much of the beauty of the music
among the Manyika people. Many of these wedding songs carry messages which are
attributed to each of the audiences present during performance. Here, three types of songs are
described namely songs for the bride, songs for the bridegroom and songs for unmarried
young men and women.

Moreover, Mugandani and Vermeulen contend to the fact that ‘songs for the bride
focus on the significant changes in the roles of a woman once she gets married. Wedding
songs taught the newlyweds of the changing responsibilities in their lives’ ( 4). Songs for the
bride were different from songs for the bridegroom because their responsibilities were
different. The newlywed wife is treated by the community as a pillar of the home. However,
the mirror image of pillar-of-the-home symbol conceals the invisible and absolute power
which the traditional Manyika wife wields within her domestic domain. In this respect, the
Manyika have the saying which goes that ‘home is home because of the woman’.

Also, some of the songs sung during this occasion are to portray the responsibilities of
a wife in domestic chores which she is expected to do in the marriage household is one of
them. Another responsibility of the newlywedded wife in this community is for
companionship and friendship which is stated that a good wife is supposed to be
accommodating most especially when it concerns her in-laws. Some of these nuptial songs
bring out the dangers a home faces when a man gets married to a lazy wife. To avoid this,
they go for hardworking men and warn the bride’s relatives on the continuous hard working
nature of their daughter. The bride according to the performance of Jangwa songs is a home
organizer. There is further sruteny of the which suggests that the prescribed roles of Manyika
married women do not only posit domestic work but that out of the work come some benefits.
Here, there is a general perception that ‘when a woman is responsible and organised it helps
to bring order, stability and prosperity in the home’.( 7). The Manyika women in some of

25
their nuptial songs in hidden meaning, portray the sexual role of the bride as part of her
responsibilities.

The performance of the Jangwa wedding songs of the Manyika people also educate the
audience and the society at large on the responsibilities of a man in marriage, which centers
around taking care of the wife and the entire household. The unmarried audience through
these nuptial songs also learn as they yearn to get married one day. Jangwa nuptial songs are
very educative and each word in it contains a lot of meaning.

Abukaeva and Krasnova (2015) have it as their perspective that “Mari wedding songs
consistently reproduce the main stages and features of the wedding ceremony” (17). The
components of performance are clear in these wedding songs as the wedding ceremony is
associated with its participants and guests, with their characteristics, actions and conditions
which are the main objects of symbolism. Abukaeva and Krasnova present the manner of
nuptial song presentation and their symbols as follows:

…wedding ceremony in songs is presented as the process of picking up berries, a

harvest, road connections, cutting of trees. Unripe berries, a rowan, a poppy, a beautiful,
golden bird, a chicken are the symbols of a bride. Agroom is associated with a high spirited
horse. Symbols and images of the groom’s parents are created by using such characters as
the white dove, hatching dove…( 17).

Another author known as Ndao (2023) sees nuptial song performance to be inter-
twined with culture and contends to the fact marriage completes every African society and
that on wedding days, women sing traditional songs not just for the sake of happiness but to
educate the bride and the bridegroom. Ndao further puts it that “based on oral tradition and
linguistic facts, the society of Saloum in the view of others perform a lyrical historical and
cultural narrative to convey messages with such wedding songs. The songs or words of
transmit pragmatic meaning and moral and moral, religious, and cultural values” (126). Also,
the language of wedding songs is essentially based on the oral tradition, which makes a
junction between literature and linguistic. A majority of Saloum wedding songs focus is to
motivate the couple, most especially the bride as she plays a pivotal role in marriage and for
her to accomplish this, she needs the assistance and supervision of parents.

26
 Furthermore, Ndao sees wedding songs to be an important aspect in the Saloum
society and mainly considered as social, educational, and traditional issues. In order to put
more emphasis on this view, he quotes Yahya (1986) as he says that:

Wedding songs are generally believed among the Hausa to bring about conformity to the
approved modes of behavior regarding married life. For example, there are songs that are
instructive as the they teach the bride to obey and respect her husband, her parents-in-law,
and her husband’s close kin. Similarly, there are songs that warn the bride to be careful with
her co-wives (in case of polygamous household), and be ready to defend herself from any
mischief from them. There are also songs that the bride sings to lament the loss of her
girlhood freedom or to praise her intended bridegroom. Likewise, some songs are directed at
the would-be husband -in which he is urged to be a good husband by treating his wife fairly
and respecting his in -laws (2402).

In order to make an oral piece original, field work must take place, where information is
derived from the performers or actors in the field. Wedding songs in the Saloum community
are governed by ‘a playful and moral eloquence’ in view of participants and actors. Here,
women really have to experience these traditional requirements in the sacred unions and
explain to their younger generation the need to emulate their examples and successfully
prepare themselves for marriage as they did. People involved in these cultural practices find
that the worshipping conditions should be adapted to social needs. A majority of Saloum
wedding songs according to Ndao reflect all the devotion that a woman must show to keep
her home safe.

Fowler (1977), attributes the meaning of nuptial songs to be “applied to the

ceremonies of marriage” (38). He describes the process of the ancient marriage rites from the
period of 1575-1625 to have taken place in the evening.

The ancient marriage rites took place in the evening. In Rome, a feast was prepared at the
home of the bride. After the banquet she was taken from her mother with a token show of
force, which was supposed to commemorate marriage by capture. As she approached, her
new home, she was greeted by a chorus of singers, bearing torches. Then she was carried
over to the threshold, welcomed by her husband, and given the keys to the home, which
signified that she was the mistress of the household. Next the bride was settled by the…
Finally, she was joined to her husband, and the chorus sang its congratulations and good
wishes (38).

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 The institution of marriage is very important in the Yoruba land, confirming their saying
that ‘A man cannot just keep quiet without a wife, keeping quiet about it only results in a
problem.’ These wedding ceremonies are always accompanied by celebrations with the aid of
nuptial song performance. Ajibade (2005) affirms to this in the Yoruba land by saying that

…Many activities have been constructed to celebrate the beginning of the

institution. Among these activities is the singing of nuptial songs and chanting of
bridal poetry that vary by area of performance. This performance, which involves
songs in some parts of Yoruba land, is mainly marked with poetry in other parts…The
performance is a mixture of songs, chants and recitations among the Yoruba…(99).

Also, Ajibade contends t the fact that among the Yoruba people, nuptial songs are
performed in a group with the bride one of the performers in the company of her friends. This
occasion takes place a day before the bride leaves for her husband’s house. To throw more
light on the mode of performance of Yoruba nuptial poetry, he quotes Barber (1994) who
says that:

On the day before the girl moves into her husband’s house, she makes a ceremonial tour
around the town, starting with her own compound, saying farewell to all her kin and
announcing her impending change of state…chants she performs as she goes round. Almost
all girls learn these chants, beginning from the early age. On the day of her outing, the bride
is escorted by a party of younger girls from her compound. As the bride chants her laments
and farewells, the girls provide a sympathetic chorus chanting in unison. Their role can be
quite substantial; sometimes the performance develops into a dialogue where the chorus has
almost as much to say as the bride (151)

In Yoruba land like many other communities, naming ceremony and marriage are closely
related because the essence of getting married in many African communities is to procreate.
According to Ajibade, after the marriage engagement process is done with, then comes the
‘bride’s eve’ or bride’s enjoyment’, which usually lasts for eight days. She is always
accompanied by her friends for seven days up to the final day of the marriage ceremony.
They in the company of the bride perform nuptial poetry daily around the town. This
performance takes place at night for some hours on the first six days. On the last day, it will
be performed from evening to dawn. The bride usually perform the poetry from her father’s
house until she goes to her husband’s house.

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 Furthermore, nuptial poetry is not just performed by the bride and friends. It is also
performed by the housewives of the bride’s prospective husband in case of polygamy. These
women sing in their union while waiting to receive the new bride.

…On the last day of performance of nuptial poetry, the bride will be accompanied
by her family housewives who will hand the bride to the groom’s family only after the
have been satisfied with by the performance of the latter’s housewives with regards to
the content of their nuptial songs and presentation of gifts to them. It is worthy of
mention here that that the groom’s housewives must prove to be satisfactory by
revealing in their songs that they will take adequate care of the new bride, that she
will not suffer, and that they will not pose any problem to her as the senior wives of
the family (102-103).

Also, to Ajibade, though the Yoruba community is highly patriarchal, its women play
a vital role in the community. Nuptial poetry here is performed by women with lessons to the
audience, full of obscenities as its content. Yoruba nuptial songs express a lot of eroticism.
For example:
The penis is a nerve
The vagina is elastic
The scrotum is soft flesh
The clitoris is plastic…
The penis is a heady person
The scrotum is a criminal
It will not desist until it penetrates the vagina ‘forcefully’
Is there nobody with the penis in this community?
Vagina is just roaming about like dilapidated walls….
Aladuke has returned from the farm
Let her vagina open and receive penis (204-205).
Yoruba women in Ajibade’s view express a lot of eroticism in their nuptial poetry. In
this community, love affairs are treated with a lot of secrecy and in hiding. Through nuptial
poetry, Women have the opportunity to express themselves especially on issues around love,
calling a spade a spade and asserting their identities in the process.
Other authors on nuptial songs known as Maguraushe et al (2014) portray the Shona
culture as patriarchal, leading to female vulnerability. This is portrayed by the Shona women
through the performance of traditional bride welcoming ceremony songs. These songs form a

29
core of Shona culture. Also, in their perception, these bride welcoming songs of the Shona
people are performed to welcome the newly wedded bride into her husband’s house as they
say that:

These songs that are sung for bride on the day when she officially joins her husband-to-be’s
family. As she enters her in-law’s homestead, members of that community welcome her
through song and dance to mark the arrival of a new member of their community. Her
husband-to-be’s sisters and aunts particularly get very active during this ritual as they
celebrate their brother or nephew’s achievement. The singing can go on until late into the
evening sometimes.(42).

The reception of the newly wedded bride with a lot of nuptial poetry to express their joy
and happiness, is an indication of communal life in the Shona community. The performance
of nuptial poetry here when the bride goes to her husband’s house is to show her the reality of
the institution of marriage which she is getting into. It is worthy of mention that in shona
land, a woman does not get married to her husband, she also becomes “a wife of the wider
patrilineage. In Shona culture, song are a fundamental mode of teaching so that the woman is
prepared to understand different signs of both dangers and blessings in her marriage.”(46).
Songs are very important in the Shona people daily lives as they punctuate all stages of life.
Songs are used during many occasions such as initiation rites, young people’s socializing
outings. In a nutshell, songs are used in the context marriage initiation rites and acts as a tool
for creating the identity of a married woman and also depict her expected behavior.
Therefore, songs, which are part of the manner in which the newly wedded brides are ushered
into the groom’s houseare used to issue marriage instructions to the young brides on the way
to behave as a newly wed.

Furthermore, Maguraushe et al in their work outline the mode of performance of the

bride’s welcoming ceremony and significance of songs used during performance by saying
that:

The ceremony comprises singing, dancing, and ululating as the groom’s family and village
community welcome their new bride. The groom’s aunts and sisters…and members of the
village community sing the bride welcoming songswhich are sometimes punctuated with
teachings, mockery and denigration. They sing in jest of sarcasm…(54).

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 Ndebele (2022) puts it that his article is out to manage and prevent marital challenges
which will destabilize the marriage bond and lead to divorce. This is mostly done through a
“philosophical analysis of traditional wedding songs”. He further holds that “Wedding songs
are structured cultural expressions that reflect society’s marriage values and its efforts in the
promotion of marital stability and success” (272). Nuptial songs are not just composed for
composition sake. They are pregnant with a lot of meaning as the composers are out to
educate not just the bride, groom and the audience, they are out to educate the general public
on the values of marriage and what can be done to solidify it.

As far as singing of nuptial songs and welcoming of the bride is concerned, Timammy
(2002) says that the bridegroom and friends gather at the groom’s house, where they partake
in the singing and dancing of nuptial songs. They move, accompanied by singing, with the
wedding items in a suitcase. At the bride’s house, the family, relatives and friends gather and
there is singing and dancing. When the groom’s relatives approach, the bride’s ralatives go
out to welcome them with bed sheets. The groom’s close relatives get under the bed sheet as
a welcome ceremony. The two groups remain outside with continuous nuptial song
performance.(47)

Also, there is the performance of nuptial songs sung during wedding preparations. The
bride is isolated from the general public where she is beautified. These songs are sung to
entertain and educate her on wifely duties which her responsibility is to take care of her
husband. The content of the songs is to always appear beautiful before her husband for her
marriage to last. For example:

As to bathing and perfuming yourself

And plaiting your hair

And stringing jasmine blossoms
And strewing them upon the coverlet.
Do adorn yourself with finery
That you remain like a bride
Put anklets upon your ankles
And bracelets upon your arms...(49)
Furthermore, in this community, singing also happens when the wedding date has been
fixed and the two families come together. The content of the song here is informing people

31
about a wedding and warning those who don’t help out in weddings by letting them know
that the same thing will be done to them when it gets to their turn.

In oral poetry, nuptial songs are typically sung and recited by skilled poets or performers
during the wedding festivities. These songs may have a specific structure, style or rhythm that
distinguishes them from other forms of oral poetry within the culture. They may also
incorporate traditional melodies or musical accompaniment to enhance the celebratory
atmosphere. The content of nuptial songs can vary widely depending on the cultural context
and the preferences of the performers. They may convey sentiments such as love,
commitment, fidelity, and the hopes for a prosperous and harmonious union. Nuptial songs
often praise the beauty, virtues, and qualities of the bride and groom, highlighting their
positive attributes and wishing them a happy and successful marriage.

Also, in some cultures, nuptial songs serve a didactic purpose, conveying moral values
and societal expectations related to marriage and family life. They may contain advice for the
couple on how to maintain a strong and enduring relationship or emphasize the importance of
familial and communal bonds. It is worthy of note that specific characteristics of nuptial
songs varies greatly across different cultural traditions. Each culture may have its own unique
customs, musical styles, and poetic forms associated with wedding celebrations. Therefore,
the nature and significance of nuptial songs differ considerably depending on the cultural
context in which they are found.

Empirical Review
In a scientific work, empirical review plays an pivotal role in advancing knowledge by
systematically evaluating and consolidating existing research. By critically examining a body
of empirical studies, researchers uncover patterns, identify research gaps, and generate new
insights in a given domain. The empirical review aims to shed light on “African Oral
Performance in the Digital era: The case of Kom Nuptial Songs” by synthesizing and
analyzing a diverse range of studies. Understanding the intricacies and implications of this
study holds great importance, in the exploration of knowledge on this field. This review seeks
to address a comprehensive survey on existing literature on this study, to identify trends and
patterns and controversies within the field, and propose avenues for future research. The aim
of this empirical review is to contribute to the growing body of knowledge on “African Oral
Performace in the Digital era: The case of Kom Nuptial Songs” and provide a foundation for
informed decision-making and further inquiry within the field. The empirical knowledge here

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is on Kom Oral poetry which embodies many forms of oral poetry such as : riddles, proverbs,
war songs, work songs nuptial songs, children game verse, praise songs to the gods, birth
songs, lullabies, and many others. Kom people are very rich in this aspect of cultural heritage
but due to the fact that they have limited work on their oral poetry in books, the empirical
knowledge here is on related literature. Works from other areas not just from Kom on oral
poetry will also be reviewed.

To start with, proverbs constitutes a core of Kom oral poetry and are generally assumed to
be short, concise statements that express a general truth or piece of wisdom are used by the
wise to convey messages in a highly adorned language. They are typically based on common
sense, cultural beliefs, or observations about life. Proverbs are found in many different
cultures and languages, and they often reflect the values, customs, and experiences of a
particular society. Proverbs are usually memorable and often use metaphorical or figurative
language to convey their message. They can cover a wide range of topics, including human
behaviour, ethics relationships, and practical advice for everyday life. Proverbs are often
passed down from generation to generation as a way of preserving cultural knowledge and
imparting wisdom.

Jick (2006) sets out in the cross-cultural study to demonstrate that proverbs collected from
two distinct cultures,(Kom and Bakweri)can contribute to the process of national
development, most especially in a heterogenous, multilingual, and cultural pluralistic
Cameroon that cultivates a sense of national identity to its citizens.

He brings to limelight the content of Kom proverbs through oral style by stating that ‘when
an oral artist performs a proverb or any other genre of oral literature, it is because he/she
wants t communicate with his/her audience.(81) There is a way of going about this
communication which is the style in which Jick uses to portray Kom proverbs that will lead
to national development. He makes use of alliteration, which is a literary device that involves
the repetition of initial consonants sound in neighbouring words or stressed syllables. It is a
technique commonly used in poetry, prose, and advertising to create a musical or rhythmic
effect, enhance the mood or tone of a piece of writing, or simply to make the language more
memorable. An example of a Kom proverb according to Jick that contains alliteration is

When a cunning person dies, a cunning person buries .

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 The word cunning is recurrent in the phrase, while conveying an important message of
the fact that things or people who have similar attributes move together. He also makes use of
euphemism, which to him is

An effort to avoid the use of harsh, indecent, obscene and indelicate expressions. It is the use
of more refined and pleasant language usually in an attempt to make dreadful and vulgar
statements sound appealing to the ears. It is generally proverbs that deal with death which
makes use of euphemism. Any nation that must develop must be aware of morals and be
ready to encourage her citizens not to be disillusioned by natural phenomena that cannot be
avoided or prevented.

An example of a Kom proverb of this nature is

The water has spilt but the gourd has remained.

This is a way of consoling someone by letting the person know that not all hope is lost. It
ekindles hope in the hearts of the disillusioned people. The message is passed across the them
in a most subtle manner in order to make their pain bearable. Water has spilt but the gourd is
still there, so it can be refilled.

He makes use of metaphors, hyperbole, allusion, parallelism, personification, rhetorical

question and rhyme and rhythm.

Jick’s findings are very pertinent as he sheds light on many aspects of proverbs. He uses
several common examples to demonstrate how the themes of proverbs can effectively
contribute to national development. The style he uses is very simple and straight and instructs
every new researcher in oral literature. He has a simple diction that is readable and
accessible. It talks about the importance of proverbs in the society and also tries to encourage
various cultural aspects which help in effective and stable development.

Luke Eyoh (2011) establishes Nigerian oral poetry as a tool for national unity and
development. He quotes Ikiddeh (2005) who enunciates the fact that “Literature, particularly
of the oral mould, is a social product that has its roots in a defined cultural context” (59). This
according to Eyoh implies that oral literature of a people is intricately tied to the social,
cultural and political aspirations and goals of the people which invariably encompass national
unity and national development attainable through peaceful co-existence. In every
community, when people come together, during a sad or happy moment, there is definitely

34
the performance of oral poetry of the people. They get together during happy and sad
moments in order to commune with each other and fulfil their qualities of communal life.
Okoh (2008) in a bid to establish the importance and the educative nature of oral poetry in the
Igbo society says that:

…oral literature has enormousdidactic dimensions which can be channeled to the

benefit of our society. In addition to being an art, oral literature constitutes a
pleasurable mode of learning. In other words, there are other possibilities beyond this
element of enjoyment. (236).

Also, in connection to national unity, Eyoh (2011) identifies proverbs as a source of the
Tivral poetry, which according to Hagher (1981), “proverbs with other art forms assume a
unique status among the Tiv as an exclusive language of elders in the society. Many of these
proverbs stress on the principle of national unity. Examples of some these proverbs are:

The king is immune to insult; not to argument.

When there is peace, then somebody comes out as a leader.(89)

These two great proverbs are very educative and is a clear indication on how
proverbs , which is a form of oral poetry contributes in national unity. Respecting the king,
underscores the value of the rule of law in the society and peace is very important in forging
national unity.

In the Igbo patriarchal society, child birth is celebrated with a lot of happiness and merry
making, especially the birth of a male child. Sunday and Ume (2020) contends to the fact that
“The birth of a new child is announced with a special song called irrimuo, and it I sung in
celebration of the birth.” (193). He quotes Chukwu (2015) which says that “childbirth is an
avalanche of blessings from nature to man”. In Igbo land according to them, the celebration
of birth starts at conception to the the time when the baby is finally born.The joy of the
expectant mother knows no bounds as she cheerfully sings and dances harmoniously,
swerving her body mass tenderly from the right to the left, unknown to her that her songs
have enchanted neighbours. Here, the happiness of an expectant mother is that of everyboy in
a communal Igbo society, whose sole aim of getting married is for procreation.

In the Igbo society, “every childbirth celebration is looked upon as an occasion to

express thanksgiving to God, feast and so every festal feature, especially good music is

35
provided”. (197) In Igboland, music in an occasion especially childbirth occasion, makes it
merrier, thus music springs from childbirth. The content of many of these songs performed
during omugho have texts containing allusive /sex education passages, which are intended to
call attention to the act of procreation and the pleasures derived from it. Azuonye (2007) puts
it that “it calls attention to the mystery of human procreation and conducts sex education in a
very innocuous way. Above all, it is intended to explain procreation as well as motivate
unmarried men to get married”(198). Some of the Igbo birthsongs are:

Who hears the cry of a baby eeeeh

Whoever hears the cry of a baby, hurry
A child does not belong to one person.
There is a general saying that a child belongs to the mother only its in the womb. Once it is
born, it belongs to the entire community. This saying applies squarely to the Igbo society of
communal life, where it takes the whole community to raise a child and not just its parents.
Therefore, when there is thew cry of a baby, everyone must rush there inorder to be a
partaker of the good news. Azuonye (2007) says that “this song asks everyone who hears the
cry of an infant to rush to the scene, and if the infant is hungry, to feed it, if the infant is in
pain or injured, to assist in any way, to soothe the infant, or if the infant is simply lonely, to
provide company” (199)

The gong beater is beating me like a gong

With power, with power, with power
The gong beater is beating me like a gong
With power, with power, with power
Old man, old woman, They are suing me
Because of ‘Nwanchoronwu’
The gong beater is beating me like a gong
With power, with power, with power.
This song is basely on a musical performance to indicate sexual acts that leads to
procreation. This song asserts that the woman sees herself almost like amusical instrument,
being beaten by the man in such a great rhythm that she responds and gets vocal in the
process.

According to Oyeleke (2023), “The beauty of poetry is fully achieved when presented in
the oral form”. To make this more effective, he steps in with Yoruba lullabies which to him, a

36
lullaby is “a cradlesong or a soothing poem that is sung to make children calm or soothe them
to sleep. The purpose of lullaby varies. Lullaby in the Yoruba society is not only used to calm
or lure babies to sleep but may also serve as a supplication and a medium to transmit cultural
norms and traditions.”

Yoruba lullabies are taken as samples to describe the characteristics of oral poetry as well
as its sociocultural functions as it is the cosmology of the Yoruba people of Nigeria. These
songs are sung by mothers or babysitters using their natural words of mouth, which are all
communally owned in the Yoruba society. Some of the Yoruba lullabies are:

Who beat it?

A young bird
Pelt stone at it
Let itrunaway.
This particular lullaby according to Oyeleke in the Yoruba society is usually sung by the
babysitter, in order to soothe a crying baby and bring it to calmness. During this performance,
the singer the singer makes an imaginary point as if there were a bird around to attract the
baby’s attention to seeing the imaginary ‘young bird’ that has come to disturb its peace.
Therefore, this song encourages the baby to throw a stone and chase away the bird that has
come to disturb its peace. This is their way of soothing a crying baby to calmness. The young
baby is ften goggled or dangled up and down by the babysitter while performing this
cradlesong.

Owner of heaven, don’t take my life

On my wedding day
Owner of heaven, don’t take my life
So I can witness as spouse’s mother
The rich will come
The eminent will come
The paupers will remain in their house.
The performance of lullabies in the Yoruba society does not have just one dimension as the
second lullaby far from sing a song to calm a crying baby unlike the first. To Oyeleke, this
lullaby functions as a supplication and is usually sung by mothers in the Yoruba society. The
performer calls on ‘the owner of Heaven’, God as she anticipates her baby’s wedding. Its so
amazing that the baby’s mother is able to project in to the future of her baby through oral

37
poetry. She views in her mind’s picture her daughter’s attraction to prominent suitors. Oral
poetry acts as a source of hope to the people, giving them the zeal to procreate and take care
of their children. It also gives them the hope for their future and that of their children. It also
brings these women together to fulfil their communal rites.

South African (Basotho) oral poetry origin appears in three forms: dithoko, diboko, and
difela and the focus here is on praise songs. Schapera (1962) defines a praise poem as “…a
type of composition intermediate between the pure, mainly narrative, epic, and the pure,
mostly apostrophic, ode, being a combination of exclamatory and laudible apostrophizing”
(2) This kind f poetry was composed and transmitted orally in performance.

According to Swanepoel (1990), “available records of oral poetry go back only about
one-and-a-half century and mainly reflects the history of that period. However, there can be
little doubt that the tradition had existed a long time before”(264) Swanepoel puts it that the
earliest praises of Basotho chiefs were those of the Makoanyane and Moshoeshoe’s own
cattle raid poem. An example of a praise song of this nature is:

I am a Moshoeshoe, Barber of Kali,

Shaver who’s skinned off Ramonaheng’s beard;
And so for growing, it hasn’t grown yet,
It remains to grow in years to come (14)
Dominic MamahloKgobe (1994) in his perceptions on praise poetry in Northern Sotho, gives
a clear and coincise meaning of oral poetry as he says that “oral poetry is poetry that lives in
the mouth of the people and is transmitted verbally from one person to another”. (10) He also
puts it that “oral poetry is not only a poem that tell a story, it is also a poem that, regardless of
its manner of composition, has been changed in the process”. (11) To make the meaning
clearer, he quotes Finnegan (1970) who says that:

Oral tradition (including what we should now call oral literature) is passed down word for
word from generation to generation and thus reproduced verbatim from memory through out
the centuries, or alternatively, that oral literature is something that arises communally, from
the people of the folk as a whole, so that there can be no question of individual authorship or
originality. (14)

According toKgobe, praise poetry is but one facet of Northern Sotho oral poetry and may be
engaged in by almost everybody, in a number of contexts, and directed at a variety of a

38
people, animals or objects. Herdboys praise their clay oxen, the animals in their care, or their
friends: a ploughman praises his lead ox; a hunter his dogs; a father may praise one of his
childrenor his homestead; a wife, her husband, and so on. It is also addressed to kings, chiefs
and ordinary people, including children. (15) Sotho praise poetry is a collective art and is a
communal property whose whose spiritual qualities are shared and experienced by all. It
communicates with people of all races and cultures and the positive outcomes of all great
currents of human thought.

Praise poetry of the Sotho people are multidimentional due to the fact that these praises
are directed at so many, from humans, animals to objects. Some of these praise songs abound.
According to Sehlodimela (1962),

(I am the leopard
Leopard roamer of the mountains
I am the beautiful one who does not like to
Be pointed at) (51)
Praises do not just go to humans and animal. Birds are also praised. In the process of praising
birds, attention is often given to the colour of the birds, their physical characteristics and their
specific habits. For example, the weaver bird is collectively praised for going about in a flock
and making so much noise, its destructive nature, the nature of their beaks, and their habitat.

RespiciusShumbusho Damian (2006), in Abanyambo oral poetry, establishes the role of

children’s songs, which these children’s songs and games have been identified as a
contribution to their future positions. These songs in this community acts as form of
socialization. “They work as a part of cultural identities of the society as well as a means f
imparting cultural consciousness to the young generationsof the Abanyambo society”(1) .
The Abanyambo society has its own songs full of meaning and cultural ties. These songs
reflects the social, economic, and political practices of the Abanyambo people. It also touches
societal realities as it embedded with activities such as cultivation, animal keeping, hunting,
and a bit of iron working. All these are activities that happen in our contemporary society. To
demonstrate the importance of these songs, Finnegan (1970) “…the importance of the songs
is attached to the value of the society” (38) Their songs are classified into songs that can be
sung in the presence of adults, songs that are always sung in the absence of adults and
seasonal Vs all times songs. Example of Abanyambo songs are:

Rain Down

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Rain! Rain down, rain down, rain down
Father is pruning (banana plants)
Mother is peeling (banana)
A child is crying (29)
From the above example, there is a clear indication children songs and game verses of the
Abanyomba people acts as a tool for socialization and entertainment. This authomatically
makes their oral poetry oof great significance to the present and futures of these children.
These songs are very didactic in nature, painting a family setting and giving the benefits of
education. Marandu et al unanimously “portray children’s songs as responsible in shaping
children’s behaviour”. In the same light, Kimbavala (1985) posits that songs are the most
important way of teaching the children of what children are expected to do as members of a
society. Minzi (1983) asserts tha;t though “through children’s songs, the children are shaped
iin a way that their behaviourmust suit the needs of the society”. These poems actually do not
just help the children in socializing, but also moulds them and make them fit to overcome
future challenges.

School
Father I am going to school
Mother, I am going to school
The day I do not
I loose intelligence
Father, I reveal
Mother, I reveal
School is decorative
As good as the throne. (30)
This section on empirical review, which is centered on Kom oral poetry and other related
poetry, provides valuable insights into the significance and impact on various aspects of
cultural heritage and human communication. Through a comprehensive analysis of numerous
studies, it is evident that oral poetry here serves as a powerful tool for preserving and
transmitting cultural traditions across generations. The review highlights the role of oral
poetry in fostering communal identity, promoting social cohesion, and strengthening
intergenerational bonds within communities. Furthermore, the findings underscore the rich
artistic expressions and creative storytelling techniques embedded within oral literature,
which captivates audiences and evoke emotions. It also emphasizes on the importance of

40
recognizing oral literature as a distinct form of knowledge production, worthy of scholarly
attention and preservation efforts.

The oral tradition and performance of a people’s oral poetry constitutes its culture, which
plays a crucial role in shaping individuals and societies, showcasing the ways of living of
many societies and identifying areas of cultural heritage, yet there exists significant gaps in
our understanding of its intricate nuances and effects. This study’s empirical review aims at
identifying and addressing these gaps, with the purpose of expanding knowledge and
enhancing cultural understanding. By synthesizing existing research and highlighting areas of
deficiency, this study aims to provide a foundation of future investigations into the
multifaceted nature of oral poetry performance and digitalization. To address these gaps, an
empirical review has been conducted and a comprehensive literature search performed,
encompassing scholarly articles, books, and relevant research publications. The review
focused on identifying the key gaps and limitations in the existing literature, as well as
synthesizing findings from diverse contexts.

Culture, which is embedded in oral tradition and performance, is complex and a

multifaceted phenomenon that encompasses various aspects of human life, including beliefs,
values, traditions, language, and social norm. All these aspects that encompass human life are
found in every community’s oral tradition and there is the urge to give it value.
Understanding culture is essential for fostering inter-cultural understanding, promoting social
cohesion and addressing issues of diversity and inclusion. However, despite its significance,
there are several gaps that hinder the ability to fully comprehend its impact on individuals
and society. The gaps in the empirical review revealed several major gaps in the current
understanding of African oral performance, its association with culture and its significance.

The intersection of culture, African oral performance and the digital world presents a rich
and complex area of exploration. While extensive research has been conducted on various
aspects of African oral traditions and the impact of digital technology on culture- oral
performance, there may still be certain aspects that have not yet been extensively covered.
Below are the few potential areas that may warrant further exploration:

African oral performance ought to be improved upon, by introducing digital preservation

of oral traditions. With the advent of technologies, there are opportunities to preserve and
document African oral performances in new ways. Exporing the methods, challenges, and
implications of digitalizing and archiving oral traditions can shed light on how digital

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platforms can serve as repositories for cultural heritage. If original oral performances are well
preserved and documented, it will used for ages with its originality in tact. Also, digital
platforms as spaces for African oral performance needs to be explored. There has to be the
examination of how digital platforms such as social media, YouTube, podcasts, or virtual
reality, are being used by African communities to perform and share oral traditions, and how
they can provide insights into the preservation, adaptation, and dissemination of these
performancesin the digital age.

Another fascinating area of research is using digital storytelling and narrative

traditions to explore how digital tools and platforms are shaping the expression and
transmission of these narratives as well as evolving the nature of storytelling in the digital
realm. Also, investigating the social and cultural implications of the digital divide will
provide valuable insights in the field of African oral performance. Access to digital
technologies and the internet is not uniform across Africa, and the digital divide can
significantly impact the participation and the representation of African oral performances in
the digital world

Most importantly, copyright, ownership, and ethical considerations as far as oral

tradition in general and African oral performance in particular are concerned, must be
explored. The digital world raises complex questions about intellectual property rights,
ownership, and the ethics of sharing and disseminating cultural performances. Exploring
these issues, particularly in the context of African oral traditions, can contribute to
discussions on cultural preservation, authenticity, and the impact of digital platforms.

The above mentioned are just few potential areas of exploration. As research and
technology continue to evolve, it is important for scholars, cultural practitioners, and
technologists to delve deeper into these topics to better understand the complex dynamics
between culture, African oral performance, and the digital world.

Theoretical Review
In a world driven by curiosity and a thirst for understanding, theoretical knowledge plays a
vital role in shaping our perceptions, expanding our intellectual horizons, and pushing the
boundaries of human thought. It is the realm where ideas are born, hypotheses are
formulated, and profound insights emerge. The world of theoretical knowledge is a
captivating realm where ideas come to life, boundaries are challenged, and new frontiers are
explored. Researchers embarking on this intellectual journey, open up a world of ideas that
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have the power to transform our understanding of the universe and place within it. In this
study ‘African Oral Performance in the Digital Era: The Case of Kom Nuptial Songs’ two
theories, the postcolonial theory and new historicism will help in the better understanding of
this work.

The postcolonial theory is a critical framework that emerged in the late 20 th century as a
response to the lingering effects of colonialism. It seeks to examine and challenge the power
dynamics, cultural hegemony, and inequalities that were established during the era of
European colonial expansion and its aftermath. Postcolonialism aims to deconstruct and to
critique the ways in which colonialism has shaped societies, cultures, and identities. It
emphasizes the experiences of colonial peoples and the impact of colonization on their lives,
histories, languages and cultures.

Cultures especially African have suffered greatly as a result of colonialism. It has led to
the hybridization and neglect of many cultures. Yong and Loomba (2021, 1998) hold that:

…Postcolonial theory unfortunately does not reproduce the old native culture,
nor does it bring a totally new culture, but it produces a dislocated culture, a mixture
of words -a ‘fragmented and hybrid theoretical language’ withina conflictual cultural
interaction. (69; 15).

Postcolonialism has been shaped by multiple scholars and thinkers, who have offered various
perspectives within it. While it is difficult to provide an exhaustive list of all the propounders
of postcolonialism, I can certainly mention some key figures who have made significant
contributions to the field. The few propoundersare: Frantz Fanon, Edward Said, Homi K.
Bhabha and GayatriChakravortySpivak.

Functionality of the Theory

The postcolonial theory is a multidisciplinary framework that analyzes the social,
political, and cultural consequences of colonialism and imperialism. It emerged as a critical
response to the dominant Eurocentric narratives and perspectives that shaped colonial
discourse and the representation of colonized peoples. The functioning of the postcolonial
theory can be better understood through its key concepts such as: decolonization,
subalternity, hybridity and Third space, orientalism, power and knowledge, and globalization
and neocolonialism. All these and more will be expatiated below in relation to the
propounders of postcolonialism as follows:

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Homi K. Bhabha, an influential postcolonial theorist and cultural critic, has made significant
contributions to the understanding of postcolonialism. His works explores the complexities
and nuances of cultural identity, hybridity, and power dynamics in the context of colonial and
postcolonial societies.

Bhabha (1994) in the postcolonial theory makes known the fact that, the postcolonial culture
is an ‘an inevitably hyhridized’ phenomenon and defines hybridity as

The sign of productivity of colonial power, its shifting forces and fixities; it is the
name for the strategic reversal of the process of domination through disavowal (that
is the production of discriminatory identities that secure the ‘pure’ andoriginal
identity of authority). It is ‘ the revaluation of the assumption of colonial identity
through the repetition of discriminatory identity effects.(112).

One of Bhabha’s central concepts is the notion of ‘third space’ or ‘thirdness’. He

argues that in the colonial encounter, there is a space of ambivalence and negotiation between
the colonizer and the colonized which he refers to as the ‘third space’. This space is
characterized by cultural hybridity, where the colonized subject appropriates and reinterprets
elements of the dominant colonial culture, creating new forms of identity and representations.

Bhabha also highlights the significance of ‘mimicry’ and ambivalence in postcolonial

discourse. To him, the colonized subject often mimics or imitates the cultural practices and
norms of the colonizer as a strategy for survival and negotiation. However, the mimic is
never a straight forward replication but involves in a subversive element of difference and
rearticulation that challenges the authority of the colonizer. According to Huddart (2006),

…this mimicry is not slavish imitation, and the colonial is not being assimilated
into the supposedly dominant or even superior culture. In fact, mimicry as Bhabha
understands it is an exaggerated copying of language, culture, manners and ideas.
This exaggeration means that mimicry is repetition with difference, and so it is not
evidence of the colonized’s servitude. In fact, this mimicry is also a form of mockery,
and Bhabha’s postcolonial theory is a comic approach to colonial discourse, because
it mocks and undermines the ongoing pretentions of colonialism and empire. (39)

GayatriChakravortySpivak, who is also an influential postcolonial theorist, has made

significant contributions to the field of postcolonial studies. She is known for her complex
and nuanced analysis of power dynamics, subalternity, and the role of intellectuals in

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postcolonial contexts. One of Spivak’swell known concept is the notion of the ‘subaltern’.
She focuses on the marginalized and oppressed groups within postcolonial societies,
particularly women from the Global South. She argues that these subaltern groups are often
silenced and excluded from mainstream discourse. Spivak critiques Western feminist
perspectives that tend to harmonize the experiences of women and neglect the voices and
struggles of subaltern women. Spivak in ‘Can the Subaltern Speak’?, rearticulated the
subaltern women’s histories. She contributed greatly to the feminist thought by constantly
demanding that ‘feminism seriously consider the material histories and lives of ‘Third World’
women in its account of women’s struggle against oppression.

Furthermore, Spivak has written extensively on the relationship between knowledge

production, power, and colonialism. She examines how colonialism and imperialism shape
knowledge systems, often privileging Western perspectives and marginalizing indigenous
knowledge. She challenges the Eurocentric construction of knowledge and calls for a
decolonization of the curriculum and the inclusion of non- western epistemologies. To her,
knowledge is never innocent, it is always by Western economical interests and power. The
presence of the colonizers in the colonized regions is for their own interest.

The Western scholars have always presented themselves and their knowledge about
the Eastern cultures as objective. The knowledge about the third world is always
constructed with the political and economic interest of the West.(48)

Moreover, to Praveen, Spivak speak more on the concept of worlding, which is ‘a

process through which the local population was ‘persuaded’ to accept the European version
of reality for understanding their social world’ (49). She portraits the fact that, the colonized
regions have been wrecked of all their resources such that there is nothing to recollect from
their precolonial past. ‘A nostalgia of lost origin, roots and native culture is flawn project
because there is no ‘pure’ precolonial past to recover: it has been changed by colonialism’.
(49). The colonized have lost all their values to colonialism. The colonized cultural heritage
has been completely shattered by the colonized who consider it inferior, thereby taking away
their identity and sense of belonging.

LuftiHamidi (2014) in ‘Edward Said: The Postcolonial Theory the Literature of

Decolonization’ puts Said’s perspective of postcolonialism in Orientalism as:

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 Mainlybased on what Said considers the false image of the orient fabricated by
Western thinkers as a primitive ‘other’ in contrast with the civilized West. He believes
that the consequences of colonialism are still persisting in the form of chaos, coups,
corruption, civil wars, and bloodshed, which permeates many ex-colonies. The
powerful colonizer has imposed a language and a culture, whereas that of the oriental
peoples have been ignored or distorted. (39).

Said’s theory of postcolonialism is based on what he considers the false image of the
orient or the East that has been fabricated by the Western explorers, poets, novelists,
philosophers, political theorists, economists and imperial administrators since Napoleon’s
occupation of Egypt in 1798. To Said, these have always shown the orient as the primitive,
uncivilized ‘other’ in an attempt to create the contrast between the advanced civilize West
and the orients.

Said considers Orientalism as ‘a style of thought based upon the ontological and
epistemological distinction made between ‘the orient’ (and most of the time) ‘the occident’.
He believes that such discourses have been used either in preparation to military campaigns
and colonialism against the orient, or as a justification for the occupations and honors that
accompany them. Said believes that ‘a powerful colonizer has impose a language and a
culture, whereas cultures, histories, values and languages of the oriental peoples have been
ignored and even distorted by the colonialists in their pursuit to dominate these peoples and
exploit their wealth in the name of enlightening, civilizing and even humanizing them. To
Said, it is so infuriating that such peoples, who in most cases have completely different
cultures, have always been stereotyped by the so called orientalists, who so simply cross out
all the distinctions and national characteristics of these diverse cultures. Consequently, the
colonial texts have depicted the Indians, the Egyptians, the Palestinians, the Latin Americans
and many others as almost the same, the orient, the ‘other’, in juxtaposition with ‘us’ the
occidental.

This work cannot be analysed with the use of just one theory. Therefore, New historicism
is another theory that will be used in the analysis of this study. It focuses on the interplay
between literature and historical context, emphasing the idea that a literary work is shaped by
the cultural, social and political conditions of the time in which it was produced. New
Historicists argue that a text cannot be fully understood without considering its broader
historical facts.

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 New Historicists lay emphasis on context, which brings to lime light the importance of
historical context in the interpretation of literary texts. Stephen Greenblatt (1998), a
prominent New Historicist scholar states that “texts are not self-contained but are always in
dialogue with the culture and society in which they were produced”. (5). Another key point
on New Historicism is power and politics, which explores the power dynamics and political
ideologies embedded in literary works. Michel Foucault (1990) in his concept of power is
influential in this regard as he argues that “power is not solely held by individuals but is
dispersed throughout society, shaping cultural production and textual meaning”.(27).

New Historicists also use the key point of subversion and Resistance, which examines
how texts can challenge or subvert dominant ideologies. Louis Montrose (1996) as an
example, argues that “Shakespeare’s plays reflect the tensions between the ruling class and
marginalized, highlighting the potential for resistance within literary works”. (79). Another
key point to note is fragmented history, in which New Historicists reject the notion of a
unified, objective history. Instead, they recognize the fragmented nature of history and the
multiplicity of perspectives that shape our understanding of the past. Hayden White’s (1990)
concept of historical narrative as a form of storytelling is often invoked in discussions of New
Historicism.(34). The last but not the least key points to be noted in New Historicism is
intertextuality, which explores the connections between literary texts and other cultural
forms, such as art, music, and popular culture. They view this intertextual relationships as
crucial for understanding how meaning is produced and circulated within a given history.

The field of New Historicism has many scholars who have contributed to its
development but scholars such as: Stephen Greenblatt, Michel Foucault, Louis Montrose,
Catherine Gallagher and Jonathan Dollimore have played significant roles in shaping and
advancing this field.

Stephen Greenblatt is a prominent literary critique and one of the key figures associated
with the development and popularization of New Historicism. New Historicism is an
approach to literary analysis that emerged in the late 20 th century emphasizing the
interconnectedness of literature and its historical and cultural contexts. His work often
explore the power dynamics, social structures and ideological influences that shape literary
texts. According to Greenblatt, New Historicism seeks to understand literature as a product of
its historical moment, rather than treating it as a timeless work of art. He argues that literary
texts are not autonomous entities but are influenced by the social, political, and cultural

47
forces of the time in which they were written. Literature, therefore becomes a window into
understanding the societies in which it was produced.

Also, Greenblatt in New Historicism lay emphasis on the importance of examining the
historical contexts surrounding a text and investigating the power dynamics and social
structures that shape it. He believes that by studying the historical conditions under which a
work was created, readers can gain a deeper understanding of its meaning and significance.
He also contends that New Historicism challenges traditional notions of authorship and
literary value, as it emphasizes the role of multiple voices and perspectives in the
construction of meaning. Rather than focusing solely on the intensions of the author, New
Historicism recognizes the diverse range of influences that shape a text and encourages
readers to consider the marginal and subversive voices within it.

Michel Foucault, a prominent philosopher and social theorist, did not specifically address
‘new historicism’ as a concept due to the fact that he died in 1984. Many new historicists
always draw inspiration from Foucault ideas to analyze the interplay between power,
knowledge, and historical contexts within literary and cultural texts. His ideas and
methodologies in his works such as ‘The Archaeology of Knowledge’ and ‘Discipline and
Punish’, which offers insights into the relationship between power, knowledge, and historical
analysis greatly influenced new historicist approaches. In his works, he argues that
knowledge is not a static entity but is historically a contingent construct shaped by various
social, political and cultural forces. His approach lay emphasis on the examination of
discursive, epistemes, and the ways in which power operates within them. In his work,
‘Discipline and Punishment’, he explores the mechanisms of power and surveillance in
relation to the institutions of punishment. He examines the historical development of
disciplinary techniques and the ways in which power is exercised and maintained through
various forms of surveillance and control. This analysis of power dynamics and the historical
context of disciplinary practices has influenced new historicists scholars in their examination
of power relations within cultural texts.

Another prominent literary scholar known as Louis Montrose is known for his immense
contributions to the field of new historicism as he played a significant role in shaping new
historicism as a literary theory. He emphasized on the importance of historical context and
the interplay between literature and the social, cultural, and political conditions of the time in
which it was produced. He argued that texts should be analyzed not in isolation but in relation

48
to the broader historical and cultural milieu. In ‘Cultural Poetics’, one of his key concepts, he
argued that literature should not be seen as a site for cultural contestation, where different
social and ideological forces converge and compete. He believed that historians,
anthropologists, and other scholars from various disciplines could contribute to a more
comprehensive understanding of literary texts. He also puts it that scholars could illuminate
the complex relationships between literature, history, and culture.

Catherine Gallagher and Jonathan Dollimore are both influential scholars associated
with the field of new historicism but differ in their perspectives on new historicism. Catherine
Gallagher is known for her great contributions to the development of new historicism. In her
essay, ‘The Rise of Fictionality’, she explores how literature influenced the rise of
professional historical writing in the late 18 th and early 19th centuries. She argues that
fictionality, or the imaginative construction of narratives, played a significant role in shaping
historical consciousness and the ways in which history was written. In her novel, she
contends to the fact that fiction is a tool always already available in everyone’s material
toolkit but suggests that ‘there is mounting historical evidence for the…proposition that the
novel discovered fiction’ She emphasizes the interplay between literature and history,
highlighting how literary techniques and narrative strategies influenced historical writing.

Dollimore on the other hand, is associated with the application of new historicism to the
study of renaissance literature. In his book titled ‘Radical Tragedy: Religion, Ideology, and
Power in the Drama of Shakespeare and his Contemporaries’, he explores the political and
the ideological dimensions of renaissance drama. He argues that the works of Shakespeare
and other playwrights of the time are not merely aesthetic creations but also expressions of
social and political tensions. He employs new historicist methods to uncover the subversive
potentials of these plays and to reveal the ways in which they engage with and challenge
dominant ideologies.

Operationalization of the Theories

The postcolonial theory which is an academic and intellectual movement that emerged in
the mid-20th century and seeks to portray and analyze the effects and legacies of colonialism
and imperialism on societies that were colonized by European powers. Its aim is to challenge
and deconstruct the dominant narratives and structures that perpetuate inequality, power
imbalances, and cultural hegemony between the colonizing and the colonized societies. It
examines how colonialism has shaped and continues to shape social, political, economic, and

49
cultural systems in former colonies by following its key terms such as: power and resistance,
identity and hybridity, marginalization and subalternity, representation and orientalism and
decolonization. In a nutshell, postcolonialism is out to foster a deeper understanding of the
historical, social, and cultural ramifications of colonialism and to promote social justice,
equality, and inclusivity in a postcolonial world. In relation to the topic under study, ‘African
Oral Performance in the Digital Era: The case of Kom Nuptial Songs’ according to the
postcolonial theory operates in relation to culture, an African root that was gravely destroyed
and cut off during colonization. This theory here will critically examine the impacts of
colonialism and its legacies on cultural practices, identities, and power dynamics that exist
between colonizers and colonized.

In Kom, traditional weddings during this period of digitalization as the aftermath of

colonialism, the performance of nuptial songs are on the verge of loosing their originality,
due to the neglect of some very important aspects of culture. Some, in the process get
confused because they are deep rooted in their culture, but at the same time want to follow a
‘superior’ culture. The end result here is the creation of a unique culture- the hybrid culture.
Bhabha in his perspective in the postcolonial theory puts forth its concept, which cultural
hybridity is one of its notions and refers to the mixing and blending of different cultural
elements that occur as a result of colonial encounters. Colonization has led to the introduction
of digital tools in Africa such as podcasts, social media, VR, smart phones and many others.
These digital tools have greatly affected the performance of Kom nuptial songs and other
performances.

The culture that surrounds Kom traditional weddings and nuptial songs have been highly
hybridized due to the fact that cultural hybridity is a central aspect of colonial and
postcolonial societies. There is loss of identity and no sense of belonging for they are torn
between two cultures. Bhabha describes the concept of hybridity by introducing the notion of
third space which emerges from the interactions between colonizer and colonized, where
neither culture dominates completely. He also argues that the cultural hybridity challenges
the idea of a fixed and homogeneous national and cultural identity. Hybrid subjects is also an
embodiment of the complex negotiations and contestations between cultures. Hybridity
destabilizes the notion of singular, authentic identity and instead emphasizes on the fluid and
dynamic nature of identity formation. Kom nuptial songs now are a combination of studio
recordings and nuptial songs as opposed to the original nuptial performance with just singing
and dancing, without instruments. Here, there is no fixed homogeneous cultural identity for

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the cultures around the performance of nuptial songs keep undergoing evolution every day. In
the traditional wedding rites, many aspects have been neglected, while some substituted. For
example, the camwood that was originally smeared on the bride as a sign of fertility, has been
replaced by heavy make-up, which at times the bride is not recognizable.

In the portrayal of culture in Africa in general and Kom in particular, aspect of

Western culture dominate. This is the reason why digitalization has been so much embraced
and its tools used by many in fostering oral literature. Thisties with aspect of postcolonial
theory which is the critique of Eurocentricism and the valorization of Western culture.

Moreover, despite the resistance the colonized put up against the effects of
colonialism, all gets to nothing because the African resources including its culture has been
wrecked and there is nothing left in the precolonial past for them to go back to. The harm in
which colonialism has put the colonized through is enormous. For example, in the Kom
culture of traditional weddings and the performance of Kom nuptial songs, the neglected
aspects of culture are hardly valorized but as far as scientific innovations are concerned,
evolution takes place every day. The postcolonial theory emphasizes on the agency and
resistance of the colonized. It highlights the ways in which colonized individuals and
communities have challenged and subverted colonial power structures. Frantz Fanon in
‘Black Skin, White Masks’ explores the psychological effects of colonialism on the colonized
and discusses how they can reclaim their agency and challenge the dominant cultural norms.

The production of culture in Kom as far as traditional weddings and performance of

nuptial songs are shaped by colonial dictates. In postcolonial studies, Spivak argues that it’s a
critical framework that challenges the legacies of colonialism and imperialism and examines
the power dynamics and cultural implications of these historical processes. She lays emphasis
on the manner in which colonialism has shaped cultural production, representations, and the
construction of knowledge. Here, the European powers are highlighted by her to have often
imposed their cultural values, norms, and systems of knowledge onto colonized societies,
suppressing and marginalizing indigenous cultures were seen as integral to the larger project
of colonial control and exploitation. The colonizers had a grip and are still having a grip on
the Kom traditional wedding and nuptial song performance. These foreign cultures have been
adopted, while many aspects of the indigenous culture are neglected. Cakes, which
constitutes part of the Western culture has replaced the natural fufu and egusi huckleberry
‘fufu with condition’, diminishing the originality of this cultural aspect.

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 The post colonial theory emerged as a powerful framework for analyzing and
understanding the complex legacies of colonialism and imperialism. Through out this
discourse, it has become evident that postcolonialism not only interrogates the historical and
political dynamicsof colonial rule, but also engages with issues of identity, power, culture and
representation. By examining the experiences of former colonized societies and their ongoing
struggles for self-determination, the postcolonial theory challenges the dominant narratives
and structures that perpetuate inequality and oppression.

New historicism which is associated with the work of Stephen Greenblatt and Michel
Foucault emphasizes the interrelation between literature and the historical and cultural
contexts in which it is produced. New historicism argues that literary texts are not isolated
works of art but are embedded within larger social, political, and cultural discourses. In the
society, the theory of New historicism is operational in several ways, particularly in relation
to culture. The text of this study which is on Kom nuptial songs is a full reflection of the Kom
culture, and many aspects of Kom culture are reminiscent in its history. Kom nuptial songs is
a part of its oral tradition and the history and origin of Kom is found in other genres of
orature known as legends and myths. Therefore, to better understand the context of nuptial
songs, the history and culture of Kom has to be understood, which is the confirmation of the
new historicists. The Kom traditional marriage rites where nuptial songs are performed
constitutes the integral part of the Kom culture. This theory helps to unveil the complex
interplay between literature, history and power dynamics, shedding light on the cultural and
ideological forces that shape both the production and reception of literary works.

In the society, new historicism is evident in the ways in which the people live their lives
and what surrounds their environment. The analysis of Kom nuptial songs, performed
according to the rites and activities of the Kom traditional wedding, brings out its new
historicist aspect of it. This theory illuminates the intricate relationships between literature,
history and culture. Through this approach, scholars gain a deeper understanding of literary
texts are shaped by and participate in broader socio-political and cultural discourses. It is
worthy of note that the knowledge on Kom nuptial songs cannot be fully understood without
the knowledge on the history and culture of Kom people in question.

Kom oral tradition in general is an embodiment of the history and culture of the Kom people.
This history and culture are the key factors in new historicism. Nuptial songs are performed
in Kom traditional weddings which the performance is an aspect of culture that must be

52
carried out. Many of these nuptial songs which is the text here depicts cultural aspects of the
Kom people known as children receiving their parent blessings during wedding, the fact that
getting married is not just between a man and a woman but a union between two families and
the fact that marriage is some sort of exchange. A girl child is exchanged with the boy, which
implies that a daughter and son-in-law are considered as children of the home in which they
are newly married into. These are aspects of Kom tradition that surrounds traditional
marriage and are found in nuptial songs and if well understood, will lead to a better
understanding of the text of this study, which is the collected nuptial songs that will be used
in this study.

New historicism here is being established by applying “performance –centered

approach, which typically refers to an approach or methodology that focuses o optimizing
and improving performance in a specific context. Its primary goal is to enhance performance
outcomes by identifying and addressing the factors that impact performance. This approach
goes beyond simply acquiring knowledge or skills and emphasizes the actual application and
results of those abilities in real-world settings. New historicism which draw emphasis on the
interrelation between literature and the historical and cultural context in which it is produced,
is so much related to oral literature. Oral poetry which is center of this study, is embedded in
the people’s culture, and there is no people without a culture or history, making the theory
very essential. This oral poetry in connection with its origin and theKom culture of nuptial
songs will be established in relation with performance centered approach in the following
ways:

To start with, the following the history of Kom, this kind of performance is result-
oriented, which implies that culture must take place during traditional weddings. During
performance, the use of peace plants and the smearing of calmwood on the bride also
constitutes part of the culture. The main goal in this performance is to make the performance
to be authentic and original. All these are done taking into consideration the Kom history and
culture, which is what the new historicist theory emphasizes on.

Also, the performance of Kom nuptial songs must be contextualized. This context all
boils down to the history and culture of Kom. For example, every activity in the performance
of Kom nuptial song has songs allocated to them. A child born out of wedluck and is to be
traditionally handed to the couple during traditional wedding, palmoil with much pepper and
boiled cocoyams are presented with chants of nuptial songs with meaning that urges the

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groom’s family to pay money before seeing the child. Also, following the context of history
and culture, there are songs for the bride, groom and the unmarried audience. Sometimes, the
audience takes part in some thrilling performances.

This culture and history around the performance of Kom nuptial songs though static,
there is continuous evolution in its performance. For example, the emergence of digitalization
and the introduction of digital tools, which has its advantages and disadvantages. Now, where
there are no performers, the recorded versions are played, though not original.

New historicism analyses literature by examining its historical and cultural contexts. By
exploring the interplay between a literary work and the historical it was created in, new
historicism aims to uncover the ideological, social, and political forces at play within the text.
It offers a valuable lens through which to view literature, as it highlights the
interconnectednessof literature and history, emphasizing the ways in which texts both shape
and are shaped by the cultural and historical circumstances in which they are produced. By
engaging with the historical context of a work, it allows readers to gain a richer
understanding of the complexities and nuances embedded within the text, ultimately leading
to a more comprehensive interpretation of the literary work.

Research Methodology
In this section of the work, the researcher explains how this research was conducted. It
provides a structured approach to guide researchers through out the research process, helping
them to formulate research questions, make informed decisions, collect and analyze data, and
draw valid conclusions. In this study, methods used to gather information are field work and
library-based.

Research Design
Every research carried out must have a clear cut understanding of the various types of
research designs in order to choose the best model for a particular study. Research designs are
classified under quantitative and qualitative. This section of work therefore helps the
researcher in the discussion of the research design used in this study.

This work makes use of qualitative research design because its main focus is on
obtaining data through conversational communication rather than statistical or numerical
analysis of data collected through questionaire and surveys (quantitative design). In the
research process, a one-on-one interview is done, which gives a perfect opportunity for the

54
researcher’s detailed and in-depth information from the respondent. This study’s data is
carried out on Kom oral poetry in general and specifically on Kom nuptial songs. While
interviewing people on Kom nuptial songs, questions were asked on meanings,
interpretations, origin, occasion of performance, the main participants in the performance, the
messages conveyed to the audience during performance, and how Kom nuptial songs can be
encouraged and preserved. These many questions and provision of answers help greatly by
providing a medium through which research was properly done.

Moreover, the method of data collection through conversational method has numerous
advantages as it gives a great opportunity to gather precise data about the people’s beliefs,
thoughts about the aspects of Kom oral poetry and their motivations whenever they follow
the performance of any form of Kom oral poetry. Aside from one-on-one interviews done to
collect an in-depth information, there is also data collected from documents. Authors have
written extensively on Komnuptial songs, which has helped immensely in this study. Field
work was done and many performances were followed. The active participants in these
performances were interviewed, where they provided authentic and explicit information
required in this study.

Field Work

For thisworkto be realised, there is need for intense fieldwork. It entails the careful collection
of nuptial songs produced in Kom, in Boyo division of the North West region of Cameroon.
This section is on how data used in this study is carried out and also to expose the
performance principles and performance contexts in order to add enthusiasm and validity to
the work. Tala (1998) says “field work refers to the careful observation of orature as it
occurs in its natural setting which, in the case of Africa is the village.” He further says that “it
is often conducted in an alien environment, and naturally gives rise to certain situations that
the field worker must anticipate by preparing a range of possible responses”.(22) Field work
is perceived from different perspectives, by different researchers. According to Ayanga, field
work is primarily subjective. It is not always subjectivity that allows us to study culture.
Subjectivity allows us to uncover some aspects of culture that are not always apparent.
Therefore, field work is the act and process of going out to a community to collect oral
literature materials and related information for study and analysis. Field work is necessary for
the student to relive the performance of oral literature. Ayanga encourages that field work
should emphatically connect with communities studied and it must also create environments

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that enable source communities to engage constructively with researchers as agents and not
mere data mines. This implies that every field work should relate to the community or
environment under study and the researcher must be involved and not mere collection of
static data. The success of this work lies on field work in order to gather information. This
field work was carried out between the months of October to December, 2023. Fieldwork
covered areas among Fujua, Atoini, Juafef and Alim of Fundong sub division.

In the collection of data, we observed the participant observation method and the
interview methods. These methods are apt because they are in line with the perceptions of the
French philosopher, August Comte (1853) as quoted by Dzekem(2019), who encaptulates
that, “All good intellects have repeated, since Bacon’s time that there can be no real
knowledge but that which is based on observed facts.” (4) Here, five traditional weddings
were attended with the aid and recommendation of the Kom traditional wedding animator, Mr
Aaron Nyam ‘Gwedeng’. The performance actors range from average-aged to elderly
women. During the performance, we were so immersed in it due to the fact that we were
versed with it. The language of performance was the Kom language Itanghi-kom, which we
were so versed with,which therefore led to a better understanding of the performance. Before
we approach the place of performance, in order to avoid ethical delimas, in participation
observation especially when pictures and audios were to be taken, we sought the help and
company of the quarterheads. Our introduction by the quarterheads allowed them to interact
freely with us during performance where we gathered enough songs. After performance, oral
questions were addressed to them concerning the Kom oral tradition of nuptial songs
performance and Kom traditional weddings. Many reacted to the interviews and gave vital
information concerning the nuptial songs performance which were written down, then later
selected and used to suit the aim of this study. All these interviews from the five traditional
weddings took the same format and produced uniform results with many nuptial songs
performed.

On the field, observation of performance and interviews or oral questions were used as
a method of collection of data for a proper research work. Due to the fact that this work was
largely based on nuptial songs, the performance is not limited to a particular set of people.
Though mostly performed by women of average and old age, young girls, some men and
even foreigners can take part in its performance. In summary, this work advocates the rapid
spread information concerning nuptial songs and their performance in order to give culture
the value it deserves. In the interview process, it was noticed that though the Kom culture of

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nuptial songs and other oral poetry forms, like every other culture can go global. The essence
of this study is also to showcase the Kom oral tradition to the outside world, for education
and entertainment.

In this data collection, the researcher’s establishment is that for Kom oral tradition,
nuptial songs should be encouraged and preserved by using which will contribute immensely
to the spread of culture and Kom oral poetry. Nuptial songs should be documented such that
people willing to learn can read about them and pass them down to their generations. All
children from tender age should be educated on their own (Kom) oral tradition, most
importantly their oral poetry-nuptial songs. They should know its origin, mode of
performance and other aspects surrounding the Kom oral tradition. Also since this generation
is faced with globalization and a lot of scientific innovation, coupled with the use of android
phones, most of these forms of oral poetry should be uploaded in the internet.

In this research, a few secondary sources were also involved in the collection of data
due to the fact that much has already been gathered in the field. From the library, many
books, articles, theses, and journals were used to get more information on Kom oral poetry
and Kom nuptial songs.

Interviews

During interviews, a standardized set of questions made up of semi-structured questions were

asked after performance about the following subjects: when are nuptial songs performed, who
performs nuptial songs, what are the ideas portrayed in performance, when are particular
nuptial songs performed and by whom?, what material items usually accompany the
performance of nuptial songs?, what message do nuptial songs usually convey to the audience
(married and unmarried), what is the link between nuptial songs and culture? And how can
these nuptial songs be encouraged and preserved for future use.

From the interviews, though some of informers were not expressive, so many similar
answers were given. The results gotten from the interviews are that nuptial songs constitutes
that integral part of culture which always expresses joy and happiness in Kom society when
something good happens. It is the language spoken by women in the Kom highly communal
society to let their fellow comrades understand that something good has happened and there
is the need for them to celebrate through singing dancing. The good events here are
weddings, procreation, the success of children, the introduction of suitors, singing to

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welcome an elite or a community’s philanthropist. These songs also carry a lot of messages
and are performed during traditional weddings according to their different activities. A
majority of these songs messages are addressed to the bride, giving her insights on how to run
her home and become a responsible wife. Few of these songs meanings are directed to the
groom on being a responsible husband. He should provide for his family by clearing the farm
for the wife to cultivate.

It worthy of note that during these interviews, the elderly who are so versed with the
Kom original oral tradition frown a lot about the contemporary oral performances. Nuptial
songs are hardly performed in its original form due to digitalization and the use of digital
tools, which has occupied the minds indigenous population ( both elders and the youths). The
culture of oral performance has been watered down by Western values. Today, many Kom
nuptial songs are an amalgamation of nuptial songs and Western lyrics gotten from foreign
musical instruments. Many then belief that the performance of the original Kom oral poetry is
old fashion, which according to them has to undergo evolution.

In a nutshell, during the oral interviews, a lot of data was gathered on Kom nuptial
songs, its usage and preservation. So many society members should be encouraged to sing
and perform nuptial songs. No traditional wedding should lack performers. This helps in
building up the lost culture and gives it more value. It helps to rekindle, revamp and bring to
life the little pieces left from colonial destruction. To valorize this culture, aspects of this
culture should be should documented in books, and also exposed online so that it should not
be completely erased.

Participation

During the performance, we participated in the dance itself, then as observers, we

watched the performance- the dance moves, and their manner of body movements, their
melodies from the mélange of their various voices, and the comments of excitement made out
of their happiness. While observing, we took down notes, recorded, and videotaped the
performance. After observation, we asked many tactical questions with the main objective
which is to know how the performance of nuptial songs can be preserved in order to maintain
its authenticity . From these questions, fresh data was collected. The interview was lifely and
apprehensive. Participating in the interview gave the gate way to have more details in the
meaning of nuptial songs used during specific activities duringKom traditional weddings.
During these interviews, its not only performers that participated. Some elderly people who

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were not participating in the performance but had more knowledge on it, were also
interviewed.

Research Population
During this research, the people contacted for interviews were wmen and some men from
middle age to old age. These people are experienced with the Kom culture and some of them
are custodians of the Kom tradition. My target of this particular research population was
through a reknown traditional animator, Mr Aaron Nyam, who usually animates in many
Kom traditional weddings and also in charge of nuptial song performance in every stage of
the occasion. We accompanied him to five different traditional weddings where data was
collected. I only stated my intensions to him, but while there, I observed, participated and
conered the most eloquent performers for interview. At first, they were surprise and reluctant
to give out to out information. But when I told them my motive and who accompanies me
(MrNyam Aaron), They gladly provided me with the information I needed for this study.

Collection of Data
Data was collected in the mother tongue (‘itanghiKom’), the original language of its
performance and later transcribed and translated in the English language by professionals.
Information was collected by making notes, taking pictures, videos, and recordings during the
semi-structured interviews, observation and reading.

Translation and Interpretation

Data collection in the mother tongue brings out the authenticity, value, beauty and the
originality of the work. Translation of data is very necessary for the understanding of the
readers and accessibility. The nuptial song performed in the mother tongue was given a
contextual translation, analysis and interpretations by professionals after collection. Though
the meaning is still in tact, part of the information especially its meaning has been distorted.

Performance Principle and Performance Contexts Kom Nuptial Songs

Gone are those days where research on oral literature was done just to know the oral tradition
and of a particular group of people and establish its significance. Today, research on oral

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literature is different for it suits perfectly into the realities of the contemporary society
through oral performance. These contemporary realities are evident in the performance
contexts of Kom nuptial songs. This study will bring out many nuptial songs collected, those
who produce them, how they can be used as functional tools in the maintainance and
valorization of culture in the Kom community, despite the high level of digitalization.

The performance of an oral piece makes it authentic. Fazzini Marco et al put forth their
perspectives that performance is the main feature of oral poetry since it is what distinguishes
the oral from the written. The poet, while composing the lyrics already thinks about its final
performance. Therefore, he can be considered a performer himself, besides being a poet. His
purpose is not to communicate through a dull page: he has a direct contact with his audience.
Oral performance according to Okpenwho (1992) is “an art form created in the warm
presence of an audience as against the cold privacy of the written work”.(42)

It is worthy of note that there is a direct exchange between the performer and the audience,
which makes oral poetry a special form of art on the grounds that written form is a one way
communication while here, we are dealing with bilateral exchange based on the impact of the
performer in his audience and the reaction of the latter. Performance is dynamic and not static
for it keeps changing especially in interpretation and meaning according to the audience.
According to Okpenwho, the reason for this dynamism is “the age and the energy of the
performer, the nature of the occasion, the type of setting, whether or not any musical
accompaniments are used especially by the performer” (42)

Moreover, the ‘emotional relation’ between the audience and performer determines the
success of the performance. Okpenwho (1992) holds that ‘Oral literature is fundamentally
literature delivered by word of mouth’ ( 42), therefore, the bare words cannot be allowed to
speak for themselves. Also, to have a better understanding of the work, the audience has to
pay attention all the ‘nonverbal’ aspects of performance which ‘occur side by side with the
text or the words in literature. (46). He expatiates on the essence of performance by saying
that:

One of these resources is the histrionics of the performance, that is movements made
with the face, hands, or any part of the body as a way of dramatically demonstrating
an action contained in the text(…) So important are there dramatic movements
considered for the effectiveness of the story that that in many traditions of narrative
performance acrossAfrica, a story is told in convenient movements or episodes, in

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 such a way that each episode is preceded by a meaning of its basic details. Without
these subtle dramatic efforts, the story in the oral tradition is often considered to have
been ineffectively told (46)

Oral Performance

Performance is premodial in the realization of an oral piece, for without it, unwritten
literature will not exist. An oral piece cannot be complete without its performance. In line
with this, Finnegan (1970) puts it that “The significance of performance in oral literature goes
beyond a mere matter of definition: for the nature of the performance itself can make an
important contribution to the impact of the particular literary form being exhibited (5) A good
performance paves a way for a better interpretation by the audience. Here, the performer
plays a better role than the composer. The ‘visual impact anticipates the sound meaning of the
words because the audience judges the performance as successful or not starting from its
extra-verbal features and not strictly from its words. Performance context involves the
performer, audience, occasion and the performance. Ganyi and Okpiliya (2019) say that:

The oral performance is the center of oral literature and the means by which several
genres of oral or verbal art, including drama are realized, actualized and
externalized. This is done through the interaction between performers and audiences.
The most petinent way in which oral literature is conceptualised. There is, as such, no
oral literature without the performance context. African traditional drama, as a genre
of oral literature can therefore only be properly appreciated within its performance
context. In literary parlance, this implies the ‘aesthetics’ or the beauty of the
techniques of oral rendition. As a genre, drama depends on dialogue, costumes, props
and the spectacle created by effective combination of all these to aid the deliverance
of a message. These techniques employed by the performers or actors in the
realization of aesthetic pleasure, along with the context within which the performance
occurs constitutes the dynamics of perception of traditionaldrama…(123)

The performance of Kom nuptial songs is done without the use of any musical
instrument, therefore concluding the fact that performance is based on talent. Their voices
alone bring out the beautiful melody in it, making its performance to be unique. In addition to
their melody is the sound produced from the stamping of feet on the dance floor. The swift
movement of their bodies from left to right makes the performance awesome. The most
eloquent performers make very exiting comments and sounds that make it enjoyabable. For

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example at each stamp of foot, there is the re-echoeing of ‘hah, hah, hah’ and coments like
‘something that emanates from Kom’. At this point, audiences that are trilled by the
performance spray money or other valuable items on them. Their performance sometimes
leads to their invitation to other social events.

The Occasion

The occasion of a performance is what triggers it. It is the most significant factor of oral
literature. For an oral piece to be realised, there must be an occasion for the performer to
display his or her artistry and mastery of language. There will be no performance without a
location.

Kom nuptial songs are performed during traditional weddings, when procreation takes place,
during celebrations in social gatherings, to express joy and happiness when something good
happens within the confines of the family. In this context, the performance is that of nuptial
songs, whose occasion of performance is traditional weddings. Kom nuptial songs are full of
meaning and are performed at different stages of the occasion depending on the activity. For
example, during the wedding, the bride and her friends are being ushered on stage while
singing particular nuptial songs. These songs content is on praises to the beauty and worth of
the bride and also to the parents for bringing forth such a beauty. The songs at this level are
sung by elderly women, making the bride a priority over everything. One of the song of this
caliber is:

Lalisa me luam ma tom wiwainwom(2x)

Wu laedzi ma dzindoyem.

Translation: vacate my farm for my daughter for she will morn me and my entire family.

Kom nuptial song have a very rich content. Their culture is also portrayed in performance.
The daughter -in -law is not just married to her husband, but to the entire family. She plays a
great role during the burial of her mother-in-law and other in-laws. The performer of this
song says ‘wulaedzi ma dzindondoyem’ meaning she will morn her including her entire
household. These are the supposed word of a mother-in-law, welcoming her daughter-in-law
into the family with full zest.

Another stage of performance when the groom and friends are ushered to the floor for
introduction. The main actors of performance here are the elderly women most especially

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from the bride’s family. The songs give praises to the bridegroom, thank the groom’s parents
for providing them with such a young and handsome groom and creates a safe path for the
groom to come in without any inconveniences. For example

Give me a broom let me sweep the floor

So that the child should not comeback with pride and will not be able to find me.

In Kom, the essence of marriage is to procreate such that there are always problems in a
childless union. Every child born out of wed luck is usually considered as the grandfather’s
child. If the biological parents of the child who are unmarried decide to get married, that child
is usually adopted traditionally by them. The adoption is done during their parent’s traditional
wedding, followed by the performance of songs that pertain to that particular activity. This
stage is known as ‘fisus fi wayn’. The items needed for this activity are boiled cocoyams and
fried pepper in much palm oil. The main actors of this performance are the aunts of the bride.
The songs content are on the importance of a child to a union in particular and to the society
in general.

Aghi-andowayn-ayelumwi-e (2x)
Saynwi-eh ma ti se gayngha
Wabziwaynlumniwachemyaisiwuyn-a
Lae ghi-a chi-ewalu-a
Wu tim ives-a jangngvah fi bonglaeti va.
Translation: What is going on in the house where a good thing has happened-the birth of a
child and the house is neither hot nor cold.

When you give birth to a boy child, you are dance in happiness, for the you die, he will call
his age grade to come and bury you.

This song portrays procreation as a very good thing. It goes ahead to reiterate on the fact
that parents at old age are usually taken care of by their children. Therefore, giving birth is
preparing for old age or bringing forth someone who will take care of one’s burial. This is the
reason why it is so painful for parents to burrytheir own children.

During this performance, the aunts of the bride dance forth and back, hiding the child
from the groom’s people and making them anxious to see the child. This child this instance
can only be released to them after some gifts or money has been given.

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Tala contends that there are three types of performance occasions which are discernible in
most traditional African societies by stating that:

In the first situation, the individual artist occupies the center stage and is the prime
move of the occasion. Here, the story teller or the poet exhibits his skills and artistry on his
own for the benefit of the audience. The second type of occasion is associated with the
recreational or festival events where several creative artists may perform together in order to
share their creative joy with their audience. The third performance occasion is formal and
consists of a central event such as ritual whose primary objective is given added expression
by creative performances organized in relation to the central event.(13)

In Tala’s words, an oral occasion where the performers perform, appear in three forms. In
the first occasion, the center stage is occupied by the performer, who owns the stage at that
moment and is the only actor permitted to be on stage, where he performs and the audience
listen. Another occasion is during recreational festivals where there is a come together of
many artists with their creative ideas and with the motive to entertaintheir audience. The last
occasion is very formal, where performance takes place only when necessary. Examples of
these events includes mostly rituals and rites and may not be performed before ordinary
audience, but before high personalities in the society or those initiated into secrete traditional
societies.

Nuptial song performance belong to the above contentions. There must be a special or
formal occasion for its performance. These occasions are during traditional marriages, when
procreation takes place, during groups social outings, when something good happens in a
family and many others. When all these happen, for the mothers to express their joy and
happiness, they think only of nuptial songs and the benefit of procreation. The only difference
from the above contention is that the audience of nuptial songs are selected. Everybody can
be the performer as well as the audience.

There are different ways in which people carryout Kom nuptial song performance. There
is no use of musical instruments. The music comes from a plethora of voices with sweet
melody. The strength in which they move their feet on the performance floor produces more
music and makes the performance enjoyable.

The Role of the Performers (actors)

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 The performer(s) in any form of oral literature play a primordial role in the realization of
the oral piece. The performer(s) determine how the performance will look like in what he or
she is going to say or sing. Finnegan comments on the role of the performer as she argues that
orature is dependent on a performer who formulates it with words at every opportunity.
Without its oral realization and direct rendition by a singer or speaker, an unwritten literary
piece cannot easily be said to have any continued or independent existence at all. The singers
in most specific occasions are the performers who in the process of singing to the audience,
realize an unwritten literary piece. Tala (2012) again comments on the performer and his role
as far as oral performance is concerned and puts it that “the person who actualizes a piece of
orature, that is, the story teller, praise singer, bard, or poet is known as the performer”. He
further says that:

They usually aims at establishing a relationship with the creative piece that he
realizes through his performance. In other words, he tries to draw on the visual
resources at his disposal and to make use of the literary qualities of his language to
delight his audience and at the same time, excite its performance. (11)

Here, the actors are the performers, whose aim is to make good use of the resources at
their disposal, language and acting skills to make the performance authentic, original, and
interesting to the audience he or she is entertaining. The place of the performer becomes
therefore very important in rendering and realizing the oral piece, which in this context the
performance of Kom nuptial songs.

The best nuptial songs are being mastered by the elderly women in the Kom community.
They perform it with a lot of emotion as if it is the last thing they are going to do on earth.
It’s a kind of performance with slow dance moves, full of emotion which gives another
interpretation of the song. Here, their expression of happiness and joy as a result of a
wedding, which is a good thing genuine and their performance at a village setting is original.
The best performance of nuptial songs comes from the elderly, following the emergence of
colonialism -scientific innovation and globalization, which has altered the sense of its
performance. The youths and middle-aged women at traditional weddings have a limited
knowledge on about its performance. What they perform is something similar to the original
one. Some don’t even know the songs and do not want to know, since they consider them old
fashion. Many middle-aged women do the performance in a hurry and with a lot of agility,
thereby not bringing out the complete sense of the performance.

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 The mode of nuptial song performance is different from other forms of oral literature.
Oral forms like tales rendered in the evening when people are gathered in the courtyard,
roasting and eating corn and groundnuts. This contrasts with the performance of Kom nuptial
songs, a form of social oral poetry, which are songs performed during traditional weddings,
other social gatherings, and when procreation takes place.

Also, unlike most forms of orature which hardly goes through the process of composition,
forms like the tale, poem and most importantly songs go through composition or rote
memorization. During nuptial song performance, there is usually full attention on the
performers most especially when the performance is interesting and instills a lot of emotion
on the audience. All nuptial songs are out to educate and entertain the audience as such, they
carry a lot of meaning which the performers stresses much on during performance. Therefore,
the performers do not just educate the couple and the unmarried audience but the entire
society on the virtue of marriage and how to sustain it. A Kom nuptial song with a lot of
meaning is:

Waynwi ni ma-eee, waynlumni

Ma ti na bong va li—eendumaeiqvil-a
Blangiyem-a luwo.
Translation: My son my daughter, if I had aborted you when I was pregnant, where will my
blanket come from?

This nuptial song is a question thrown to many to learn from. This song does not just
stress on the benefits that come as a result of procreation, but also educates the entire society
on the dangers of abortion. This song educate the entire society on how to live a life filled
with morality and make the society a better place. Nuptial songs stands as a police to shape
the morality of the society especially in contemporary times where there is the death of
morality and every nonsenseseems to obtain.

In the Kom nuptial song performance context, it is the performers who on specific
occasions sing in the presence of the audience. Finnegan (1970) encaptulates that “Oral
literature is by definition dependent a performer who formulates it in words on a special
occasion – there is no other way in which it can be realized as a literary product”. (4) By
saying this she establishes the significance of a perfomer in a performance. During
performance, the performers have various visual resources at their disposal, including the

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audience. The performers or actors are face to face with the audience and give their best
performance for interpretation.

The Role of the Audience

In the absence of the audience, there will be no performance and an oral piece will not be
realized. The audience in the process, interpretes all performances and absorb the educative
messages dished out to them through oral performance. In the performance of Kom nuptial
songs, the audiences are those who are in the occasion to witness the union. Since songs are
allocated to each group of persons, some are also directed to the audience.

Here, the role of the audience is to watch, listen and respond in a concentrated way.
Rose Bruford College (2017) contends that we are required to pay attention at a level that
extends ‘daily behaviour (26). The above contention leave us with the impression that no oral
piece can be rendered without performers on one hand and the audience on the other hand. It
is therefore difficult to talk about the performer without talking about the audience, since they
both sides of the same coin; one compliments the other.

During performance, a lot is expected from the audience and the performers. They both
have their different characteristics. Walter Ong in his article outlines some characteristics of
oral performance. Most of the points reflects the responsibilities of the performers on stage.

To start with, during performance, the performer must have a face-to-face interaction
with an audience. Most at times, communication flows better when there is a face-to-face
interaction. It permits the audience to see the seriousness or gravity of what the performers
are saying or singing. During demonstration, the performer becomes interesting. Most
folklores are performed orally to send out to send out a moral lesson. Therefore, the
performers demonstration before the audience gives them an insight on their culture.

Also, a performer should not be dumb or have disability in speech. This will hinder a lot
of people (the audience) from understanding what is being said or sung. Also, during
performance, the performers needs to be bold enough and very audible especially if the
audience is populated. Being bold and audible portrays the seriousness in the message and
lays emphasis on some points.

Furthermore, a good memory is very important in the performer. If the performers do not
have good memory, they will just be blabbing during performance. Orature is literature told

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by words of mouth and has been passed down for generations to create an awareness and
consciousness in the minds of the growing generation. If any form of oral literature cannot be
told exactly by the performer, then the audience will not be able to learn from the folklores
and retell them.

Moreover, for the performers to sound more interesting, they must follow a strong and
regular pattern of movement and sound during speech. There must be uniformity. This is
called rhythm. Also, the rhythm should go along with ‘breath’ and probably chant music for
communication to flow properly and more interesting. Every literary piece must have a
rhythm and the performers during speech realization should always take a breath to ensure
concentration from the audience.

Also, during oral performance, the performer makes good use of repetition of words and
phrases such as parallelism for emphasis. Sometimes, parallelism may create a parallel
position between opposite ideas as a means of emphasizing contrast. This contrast greatly
aids the audience to know the difference between admirable and deplorable acts. The speaker
equally during repetition is redundant. The performer repeats words, phrases, and even
sentences which are needless to do so. This is done to maintain continuity and connectivity in
case those being addressed have been distracted at some point.

More so, during performance, the performer must master some formulas. In orature,
formula may be a case where story lines and plots have been re-used to the extent that the
narratives are predictable of what is coming up next. Some phrases are often used such that a
good performer will easily recognize when a particular phrase, and type-scene is coming up.
The performer makes use of motif as formula. Motive equally consists of repeated elements
or recurring images, which helps to illuminate dominant ideas, central themes and deeper
meaning of a story. If the performer masters the formula, then the flow between them and
audience will be adequate as the performer is so confident to themselves.

All the above etiquettes if maintained by the performer during performance, making the
event to be an interesting one, the mission to impact knowledge on people will easily be
accomplished Therefore, every performer should be able to maximize these points during an
oral performance. Regardless of the oral genre, be it riddles, proverbs, incantations , birth
songs , wedding songs and many others, the performers should try to implement the above
characteristics in order to have a good performance.

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Nuptial songs like other forms of orature follows the same pattern which is the performers
and are the group of elderly and middle-aged women. Nuptial songs performers do not have
age limits, neither are they limited to the female gender. The performers are not selected. The
performers are those who are talented and do the performance with so much eloquence. Even
children can be performers if they are talented.

It is worthy of note that for every performance taking place, whether formal or informal,
there must be the use of performance principles to make the performance more interesting
and comprehensible. Performance principles do not have a direct definition but in orature,
they are those concepts or ideas a performer will take into consideration while sending out
information. As briefly mentioned by Finnegan, performance principles will include the
following; sexual boundaries, meaning the sex of audience is supposed to be taken into
consideration. For instance, there are some songs performed by males and some performed
by females. Another performance principle is the visual status. Performers usually perform to
an audience with good sight view. It is difficult performing to the blind as it is hard for them
to view the gestures and facial expressions of the performer.

Another performance principle is the social status. Here, the performer may be referring
to rulers, Aristocrats or the poor. Also, consideration of time and space is very important.
Some folklores take place at a particular time or place. In addition, audience composition is
equally taken into consideration during performance. Some performances constitutes males
only and females only, while some are mixed. Renumeration system is one of the
performance principles especially in riddles. It is the reward of the performer to the audience
who successfully answers a question or a riddle. The reward can either be money, cowries or
position. Most often, the content and the context are very important aspects, where the
content is the subject while the context is the space.

The performer uses his mood as one of the performance principles. His mood may either
be sad, happy or that of regret. Thus, face-to-face expression is very important to figure out
the performer’s expression. The last but not the least performance principle is the
professional status. Are the performers professionals or anybody can perform? If the
performers use some of these principles during performance, then the message will create a
greater impact on the audience.

Costumes

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As already mentioned, nuptial songs have specific occasions where they are performed-
traditional weddings, procreation, public events, when something good happens in the family.
The purpose of nuptial song performance is not just to entertain but also to educate and
admonish its audience. Due to the fact that nuptial songs have specific occasions, to some
extent, there is the use of costumes. During traditional weddings, there is no specific attire
aside the fact that the performers put on loin cloth or any dress made from the local fabric.
During born house, the performance is done putting on loin cloth with the lead dancer
holding a clean calabash of water with peace plant placed at the mouth of the calabash. The
same goes with public outings. When it has to do with the performance as a result of a good
happening in the family, there is no specific costume, but performers must put on loincloth.

Oral literature like other forms of literature has its specificities and also has its
divergence when one looks at the different forms of oral literature. It is clear that the different
genres also have some specificities that are unique to these different genres. This is why
nuptial songs have unique aspects about them that are not found in other forms like the tale,
riddle, incantations and many others. Coupled with the ideological evolution that takes place
within the passage of time, the different oral genres keep undergoing some mutation. This has
left some oral traditions that used to be carried out in the distant past to be changed in order
to suit the changing times. It is for this reason that nuptial song which used to be performed
in a pure village setting now takes place in towns and performance is partial. This is to cope
with the socio- political crises in Cameroon where there is insecurity in the villages. In oral
literature, nuptial songs along with birth songs have a unique way in which they are
performed. There is no use of musical instruments. A beautiful performance depends on the
ability of the performers to sing and dance, with nothing to complement it. It’s a performance
purely based on talent.

70
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