6

Deflections of Beams:
Geometric Methods
6.1 Differential Equation for Beam Deflection
6.2 Direct Integration Method
6.3 Superposition Method
6.4 Moment-Area Method
6.5 Bending Moment Diagrams by Parts
6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method
Summary
Problems

The John Hancock Building in

Chicago with cross-bracing on its
exterior to reduce horizontal
movement due to strong winds
Joe Mercier/Shutterstock.com

Structures, like all other physical bodies, deform and change shape when
subjected to forces. Other common causes of deformations of structures
include temperature changes and support settlements. If the deforma-
tions disappear and the structure regains its original shape when the ac-
tions causing the deformations are removed, the deformations are termed
elastic deformations. The permanent deformations of structures are re-
ferred to as inelastic, or plastic, deformations. In this text, we will focus
our attention on linear elastic deformations. Such deformations vary lin-
early with applied loads (for instance, if the magnitudes of the loads act-
ing on the structure are doubled, its deformations are also doubled, and
so forth). Recall from Section 3.6 that in order for a structure to respond
linearly to applied loads, it must be composed of linear elastic material,
and it must undergo small deformations. The principle of superposition
is valid for such structures.
For most structures, excessive deformations are undesirable, as they
may impair the structure’s ability to serve its intended purpose. For ex-
ample, a high-rise building may be perfectly safe in the sense that the
allowable stresses are not exceeded, yet useless (unoccupied) if it deflects
excessively due to wind, causing cracks in the walls and windows. Struc-
tures are usually designed so that their deflections under normal service
conditions will not exceed the allowable values specified in building codes.
From the foregoing discussion, we can see that the computation of
deflections forms an essential part of structural analysis. Deflection cal-
culations are also required in the determination of the reactions and
stress resultants for statically indeterminate structures, to be considered
in Part Three of this text.
224
 Section 6.1 Differential Equation for Beam Deflection 225

The methods that have been developed for computing deflections

can be broadly classified into two categories, (1) geometric methods and
(2) work-energy methods. As these names imply, geometric methods are
based on a consideration of the geometry of the deflected shapes of
structures, whereas the work-energy methods are based on the basic
principles of work and energy.
In this chapter, we study geometric methods commonly used for de-
termining the slopes and deflections of statically determinate beams. We
discuss work-energy methods in the following chapter. First, we derive
the di¤erential equation for the deflection of beams; we follow this deri-
vation with brief reviews of the direct (double) integration and super-
position methods of computing deflections. (We assume here that the
reader is familiar with these methods from a previous course in mechan-
ics of materials.) Next, we present the moment-area method for calculat-
ing slopes and deflections of beams, the construction of bending moment
diagrams by parts, and finally the conjugate-beam method for comput-
ing slopes and deflections of beams.

6.1 Differential Equation for Beam Deflection

Consider an initially straight elastic beam subjected to an arbitrary loading
acting perpendicular to its centroidal axis and in the plane of symmetry of
its cross section, as shown in Fig. 6.1(a). The neutral surface of the beam
in the deformed state is referred to as the elastic curve. To derive the dif-
ferential equation defining the elastic curve, we focus our attention on a
di¤erential element dx of the beam. The element in the deformed position
is shown in Fig. 6.1(b). As this figure indicates, we assume that the plane
sections perpendicular to the neutral surface of the beam before bending
remain plane and perpendicular to the neutral surface after bending.
The sign convention for bending moment M remains the same as
established in Chapter 5; that is, a positive bending moment causes
compression in the fibers above the neutral surface (in the positive y
direction). Tensile strains and stresses are considered to be positive.
The slope of the elastic curve, y ¼ dy=dx, is assumed to be so small
that y 2 is negligible compared to unity; sin y ≈ y and cos y ≈ 1. Note
that dy represents the change in slope over the di¤erential length dx. It
can be seen from Fig. 6.1(b) that the deformation of an arbitrary fiber
ab located at a distance y from the neutral surface can be expressed as


0 0 dy
dD ¼ a b  ab ¼ 2y ¼ y dy
2

Thus, the strain in fiber ab is equal to

dD dD y dy y
e¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ð6:1Þ
dx ds R dy R

in which R is the radius of curvature. By substituting the linear stress-

strain relationship e ¼ s=E into Eq. (6.1), we obtain
Ey
s¼ ð6:2Þ
R
226 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.1

in which s is the stress in fiber ab and E represents Young’s modulus of

elasticity. Equation (6.2) indicates that the stress varies linearly with the
distance y from the neutral surface, as shown in Fig. 6.1(c). If sc denotes
the stress at the uppermost fiber located at a distance c from the neutral
surface (Fig. 6.1(c)), then the stress s at a distance y from the neutral
surface can be written as
y
s¼ sc ð6:3Þ
c
Since the bending moment M is equal to the sum of the moments about
the neutral axis of the forces acting at all the fibers of the beam cross
section, we write
ð
M ¼ sy dA ð6:4Þ
A

Substituting Eq. (6.3) into Eq. (6.4), we obtain

ð
sc sc
M¼ y 2 dA ¼  I
c A c

or
Mc
sc ¼ 
I
 Section 6.2 Direct Integration Method 227

Using Eq. (6.3), we obtain

My
s¼ ð6:5Þ
I
where I is the moment of inertia of the beam cross section.
Next, by combining Eqs. (6.2) and (6.5), we obtain the moment-
curvature relationship
1 M
¼ ð6:6Þ
R EI
in which the product EI is commonly referred to as the flexural rigidity
of the beam. To express Eq. (6.6) in Cartesian coordinates, we recall
(from calculus) the relationship

1 d 2 y=dx 2
¼ ð6:7Þ
R ½1 þ ðdy=dxÞ 2  3=2

in which y represents the vertical deflection. As stated previously, for small

slopes the square of the slope, ðdy=dxÞ 2 , is negligible in comparison with
unity. Thus, Eq. (6.7) reduces to

1 d 2y
& 2 ð6:8Þ
R dx

By substituting Eq. (6.8) into Eq. (6.6), we obtain the following di¤er-
ential equation for the deflection of beams:

d 2y M
¼ ð6:9Þ
dx 2 EI

This equation is also referred to as the Bernoulli-Euler beam equation.

Because y ¼ dy=dx, Eq. (6.9) can also be expressed as

dy M
¼ ð6:10Þ
dx EI

6.2 Direct Integration Method

The direct integration method essentially involves writing the expression
for M=EI (bending moment divided by flexural rigidity of the beam) in
terms of the distance x along the axis of the beam and integrating this
expression successively to obtain equations for the slope and deflection of
the elastic curve. The constants of integration are determined from the
boundary conditions. The direct integration method proves to be most
convenient for computing slopes and deflections of beams for which
M=EI can be expressed as a single continuous function of x over the en-
tire length of the beam. However, the application of the method to
structures for which the M=EI function is not continuous can become
quite complicated. This problem occurs because each discontinuity, due
to a change in loading and/or the flexural rigidity (EI), introduces two
228 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

additional constants of integration in the analysis, which must be eval-

uated by applying the conditions of continuity of the elastic curve, a
process that can be quite tedious. The di‰culty can, however, be circum-
vented, and the analysis can be somewhat simplified by employing the
singularity functions defined in most textbooks on mechanics of materials.

Example 6.1

Determine the equations for the slope and deflection of the beam shown in Fig. 6.2(a) by the direct integration method.
Also, compute the slope at each end and the deflection at the midspan of the beam. EI is constant.

FIG. 6.2

Solution
Reactions. See Fig. 6.2(b).
P
þ ! Fx ¼ 0 Ax ¼ 0
P
þ ’ MB ¼ 0


L wL
Ay ðLÞ þ wðLÞ ¼0 Ay ¼ "
2 2
P
þ " Fy ¼ 0


wL wL
 ðwLÞ þ By ¼ 0 By ¼ "
2 2

Equation for Bending Moment. To determine the equation for bending moment for the beam, we pass a section at a dis-
tance x from support A, as shown in Fig. 6.2(b). Considering the free body to the left of this section, we obtain


wL x w
M¼ ðxÞ  ðwxÞ ¼ ðLx  x 2 Þ
2 2 2

Equation for M/EI. The flexural rigidity, EI , of the beam is constant, so the equation for M=EI can be written as
d 2y M w
¼ ¼ ðLx  x 2 Þ
dx 2 EI 2EI

continued
 Section 6.2 Direct Integration Method 229

Equations for Slope and Deflection. The equation for the slope of the elastic curve of the beam can be obtained by inte-
grating the equation for M=EI as


dy w Lx 2 x 3
y¼ ¼  þ C1
dx 2EI 2 3
Integrating once more, we obtain the equation for deflection as


w Lx 3 x 4
y¼  þ C1 x þ C2
2EI 6 12
The constants of integration, C1 and C2 , are evaluated by applying the following boundary conditions:
At end A; x ¼ 0; y¼0
At end B; x ¼ L; y¼0
By applying the first boundary condition—that is, by setting x ¼ 0 and y ¼ 0 in the equation for y—we obtain C2 ¼ 0.
Next, by using the second boundary condition—that is, by setting x ¼ L and y ¼ 0 in the equation for y—we obtain


w L4 L4
0¼  þ C1 L
2EI 6 12
from which
wL 3
C1 ¼ 
24EI
Thus, the equations for slope and deflection of the beam are


w Lx 2 x 3 L 3
y¼   (1) Ans.
2EI 2 3 12


wx x3 L3
y¼ Lx 2   (2) Ans.
12EI 2 2
Slopes at Ends A and B. By substituting x ¼ 0 and L, respectively, into Eq. (1), we obtain
wL 3 wL 3
yA ¼  or yA ¼ @ Ans.
24EI 24EI
wL 3 wL 3
yB ¼ or yB ¼ ’ Ans.
24EI 24EI
Deflection at Midspan. By substituting x ¼ L=2 into Eq. (2), we obtain
5wL 4 5wL 4
yC ¼  or yC ¼ # Ans.
384EI 384EI

Example 6.2

Determine the slope and deflection at point B of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 6.3(a) by the direct integration method.

Solution
Equation for Bending Moment. We pass a section at a distance x from support A, as shown in Fig. 6.3(b). Considering
the free body to the right of this section, we write the equation for bending moment as
M ¼ 15ð20  xÞ

continued
230 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

15 k

A B

20 ft
EI = constant
E = 29,000 ksi
I = 758 in.4
(a)

MA = 300 k-ft 15 k

B
A

Ay = 15 k

x
(20 – x)

(b)
FIG. 6.3

Equation for M/EI.

d 2y M 15
¼ ¼  ð20  xÞ
dx 2 EI EI
Equations for Slope and Deflection. By integrating the equation for M=EI , we determine the equation for slope as


dy 15 x2
y¼ ¼ 20x  þ C1
dx EI 2
Integrating once more, we obtain the equation for deflection as


15 x3
y¼ 10x 2  þ C1 x þ C2
EI 6
The constants of integration, C1 and C2 , are evaluated by using the boundary conditions that y ¼ 0 at x ¼ 0, and y ¼ 0
at x ¼ 0. By applying the first boundary condition—that is, by setting y ¼ 0 and x ¼ 0 in the equation for y—we obtain
C1 ¼ 0. Similarly, by applying the second boundary condition—that is, by setting y ¼ 0 and x ¼ 0 in the equation for
y—we obtain C2 ¼ 0. Thus, the equations for slope and deflection of the beam are


15 x2
y¼ 20x 
EI 2


15 x3
y¼ 10x 2 
EI 6
Slope and Deflection at End B. By substituting x ¼ 20 ft, E ¼ 29;000ð12 2 Þ ksf, and I ¼ 758=ð12 4 Þ ft 4 into the foregoing
equations for slope and deflection, we obtain
yB ¼ 0:0197 rad or yB ¼ 0:0197 rad @ Ans.
yB ¼ 0:262 ft ¼ 3:14 in: or yB ¼ 3:14 in: # Ans.