Int. J. Agron. Agri. R.

International Journal of Agronomy and Agricultural Research (IJAAR)

ISSN: 2223-7054 (Print) 2225-3610 (Online)
http://www.innspub.net
Vol. 24, No. 2, p. 13-21, 2024
RESEARCH PAPER OPEN ACCESS

Prevalence and risk factors associated with Nematode and

Eimeria infection under smallholder dairy farming in North
East Tanzania
Damian Kilyenyi*1, Robinson Mdegela2, Lughano Kusiluka3, Gabriel Shirima1
1
Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania
2
Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
3
Mzumbe University, Morogoro, Tanzania

Article published on February 18, 2024

Key words: Prevalence, Intensity, Nematodes, Eimeria, Risk factors

Abstract

A cross-sectional survey was carried out from October, 2016 to May 2017 to determine and describe the
prevalence, intensity of gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) and Eimeria infection and associated risk factors
under smallholder dairy farms in North East Tanzania. In this study a total of 384 dairy cattle were included
to detect whether they are harboring GIN and Eimeria oocytes. Fecal samples were collected and
coprological examinations were done by using standard flotation technique and the overall prevalence was
50.8% (n=195) and the prevalence was significantly associated with Age, Sex, deworming, body condition
score and routine of dung removal at p<0.05. The major nematodes genera identified in this study were
Haemonchus sp. (33.49%), Trichostrongylus sp. (20.93%), Oesophagostomum sp. (17.21%), Cooperia sp.
(14.88%) and Bunostomum sp. (13.49%). Questionnaires were administered to collect individual animal and
management data. In conclusion, nematodes were common in the gastrointestinal track, therefore,
prevention of dairy cattle from these nematode infection using strategic deworming and an improved
feeding and management of cattle should be endeavored. Further detailed epidemiological study should be
needed and identification of the nematode species should also be recommended.
* Corresponding Author: Damian Kilyenyi  dkilyenyi@gmail.com

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Introduction Materials and methods

Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infection in cattle Study area
are of considerable economic importance causing This study was carried out in two districts (Lushoto
both subclinical, clinical and mortalities, but more and Korogwe) in Tanga region where as Lushoto is
importantly causing subclinical chronic production situated in northern part; lies between 4˚25′–4˚55′S

losses as a result of weight loss, reduced weight gain and 30˚10′–38˚35′E (Fig. 1). It has an altitude of

and reduced milk production (Over et al., 1992). 1000-2100 meters above the sea level with average
annual temperature of 17.3˚C and 1074 mm of
rainfall. Korogwe is located at 4˚15′–5˚15′S and
GIN infections have been observed to affect younger
38˚0′–38˚45′E with annual average temperature of
cattle more than adults, with the super family
26˚C and rainfall of 1051mm. Selection of sites
Trichostrongyloidea having the biggest impact,
(villages) was based on availability of adequate
leading to clinical manifestations including pale
number of improved dairy breeds kept under zero
mucous membranes due to anemia, poor body
grazing management system.
condition (Urquhart et al., 1996) and reduced
immunity (Charlier, 2009).

In Africa, a study carried out in Ouagadougou,

Burkina Faso, on the prevalence of GIN in cattle
showed that Cooperia was most prevalent (89.4%),
followed by Haemonchus contortus (66%), and
Oesophagostomum radiatum (42.6%), whereas
Haemonchus became predominant in the rainy
season as it was able to withstand harsh climatic
Fig. 1. Map of the study villages in Lushoto and
condition through arrested development in the L4
Korogwe districts, North East Tanzania.
stage (Belem et al., 2001). In Kenya, infestation with
GIN in dairy cattle was common (Kabaka et al.,
Study design and selection of farms and animals
2014). A study carried out on cattle in Central Kenya
The study was a cross-sectional study where dairy
showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus,
cattle from 130 smallholder dairy farms of North East
Cooperia and Oesophagostomum were responsible
Tanzania were selected using simple random
for parasitic gastroenteritis, Haemonchus placei sampling method. The sample size was determined by
being the predominant nematode (Waruiru et al., the formula given by Thrusfield (2005), where
2001). A study done in Zimbambwe on 16,264 number of dairy cattle involved in the study was
communally grazed cattle, by Pfukenyi et al. (2007), determined by using the formula.
showed the prevalence of GIN to be 43%. In Tanzania n = {1.962 ×pexp (1-pexp)}/d2
the study carried out in Ngorongoro District on = {1.962 × 0.5(1-0.5)}/(0.05)2
pastoral cattle found the prevalence of GIN to be 20% = 384 Dairy Cattle
(Swai et al., 2006). Parasites may cause both clinical Where: n= sample size required Pexp= expected
and nonclinical diseases leading to economic losses. prevalence=50% 1.96= the value of Z at 95%
In Tanzania researchers’ have carried out few regional confidence interval D= Desired level of precision at
studies, however, the results are outdated and 95% confidence interval.
limited. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to
assess the prevalence of GIN and coccidian infection Animals in each farm were categorised into sex, three
in dairy cattle and associated risk factors on age groups, i.e. calves (<8 months), Weaners/yearlings
smallholder dairy farms in North East Tanzania. (8-12 Months) and adult (>24 months), body

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conditions (poor, Medium and Good), as described by score (c) source of fodder (d) on farm management
Jodiel (2009). For this study, a dairy farm was defined and husbandry practices.
as any livestock establishment with a minimum of one
dairy cattle/animal. Cattle management system in the Statistical analysis
area was a small-scale dairy system, mainly zero The data collected from the study area were coded
grazing; which is a cut and carries system. and analyzed by using IBM SPSS version 21.0. The
prevalence was calculated by dividing the number of
Sample collection and processing animals’ harbourling a given parasite by the total
A total of 384 faecal samples collected directly from number of animals examined. The percentage to
the rectum of selected animals using a gloved hand measure the prevalence of nematode and Eimeria
and placed in Air and water proof sample vials. infection and chi-square (χ2) to measure the
Samples were immediately transported to the
association between prevalence, intensity of infection
Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of
and age, sex, body condition, deworming history and
Parasitology, Microbiology, Biochemistry and
management practices.
Physiology, Sokoine University of Agriculture. During
sampling the data with regard to age, sex, body
Software by applying Chi square (χ2) test and subjected
condition, date of collection, name of the owner date
to multivariate binary regression model analysis with
and place of sample collection were recorded for each
significant association at p< 0.05 (Two sided). The p
sampled animal. The samples were examined for the
values for data inclusion and exclusion were at set at
quantitative assessment of worm burden using
0.05 and 0.1 respectively. The final model was
modified floatation technique (Iqbal et al. 2006) and
Modified Mc-Master egg counting technique was used constructed with a significance level of p< 0.05.

to identify the degree of infection based on the

previous work by MAFF (1981) and the eggs of Results

different parasite species were identified using keys Prevalence and risk factors of nematode and
given by Soulsby (1982). The Level of the worm coccidian infection
infection were extrapolated from severity index Out of 384 cattle tested, 195 (50.8%) cattle were
defined by RVC/FAO (2009), where cattle are said to positive to nematode, Eimeria and mixed infection.
have low, moderate and severe nematode infections if Three GIN, parasite egg type was detected together
their faecal egg counts are less than 100 to 250, >250 with Eimeria and mixed infection (Table 1).
to 500 and more than 500, respectively.
Table 1. Overall prevalence gastrointestinal
The positive samples were subjected to coproculture nematodes and Eimeria in 384 examined dairy cattle
according to the method described by Zajac and Type of parasite eggs No. of cattle Percentage
Conboy (2006). The third-stage strongyle larvae (L3) tested positive
were isolated through Baermann test and identified Strongyles 107 27.9
Trichuris 22 5.7
by the descriptions given by MAFF (1986) and Zajac Strongyloides 40 10.4
and Conboy (2006); (Khan. 2010). Eimeria 20 5.2
Mixed infection 6 1.6
Total 195 50.8
A well-structured questionnaire was prepared using
closed ended questions (dichotomous and multiple The prevalence was high in adult cattle 21.1%,
choice) which was refined through informal and followed by calves 15.6% and Weaner/yearlings
formal surveys (Thrusfield, 2007). Included in the 14.1%; and was significantly different between sex,
questionnaire were: (a) farm and owner details; (b) age, deworming history, Body condition score and
details of animals including age, sex, body condition routine of dung removal (p<0.05) (Table 2).

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Table 2. Risk factors that influenced prevalence of GIN in dairy cattle in the study area
Categorical factor No. of Animals Examined No. Positive Animals Prevalence (%) χ2 p-value
Sex
Female 297 131 34.1 23.358 0.0001
Male 87 64 16.7
Age
Calves 85 60 15.6 31.187 0.0001
Weaner/Yearling 87 54 14.1
Adults 212 81 21.1
Deworming
Dewormed 204 74 19.3 36.643 0.0001
None dewormed 180 121 31.5
Body condition score
Good 124 48 12.5 38.106 0.0001
Medium 192 90 23.4
Poor 68 57 14.8
Dung removal routine
Once daily 113 38 9.9 69.438 0.0001
Twice daily 135 32 8.3
Twice per week 53 49 12.8
Weekly 81 67 17.4

Table 3. Risk factors associated with intensity of Nematode and Eimeria infection in dairy cattle from the study
area
Risk factors No. Animals (N) Mean EPG/OPG F 95% CI p-value
Sex
EPG Female 297 108 ± 11.62 5.48 85.04 - 130.78 0.02
Male 87 164 ± 20.32 123.97 -204.76
Age
EPG Calves 85 172 ± 22.57 10.53 127.47 -217.24 ˂0.0001
Weaners 87 170 ± 25.16 120.09 -220.14
Adults 212 80 ± 11.59 56.87 - 102.56
Feeding troughs
EPG Yes 276 135 ± 12.86 5.36 110.01 -160.64 0.021
No (ground) 108 83 ± 14.46 54.68 - 111.99
Dewormed
EPG Yes 204 80 ± 11.17 18.91 58.13 - 102.16 ˂0.0001
No 180 167 ± 16.99 133.14 -200.19
OPG Yes 204 5 ± 1.90 6.48 1.15 - 8.66 0.011
No 180 26 ± 8.72 9.17 - 43.60
BSC
EPG Good 124 66 ±10.36 41.431 45.22 - 86.23 ˂0.0001
Medium 192 93 ± 11.91 69.22 - 116.20
Poor 68 300 ± 35.15 229.33 -370.17
Dung removal
EPG Once daily 113 115 ± 15.71 18.224 83.48 - 145.73 ˂0.0001
Twice per day 135 40 ± 8.81 22.96 - 57.79
Twice per week 81 189 ± 26.62 135.90 -241.88
Weekly 55 230 ± 37.37 155.07 -304.93

However, the prevalence was not associated with floor deworming history, body condition score and routine
type (χ2=3.557, p=0.169), drug used for deworming of dung removal (p<0.05) and oocyst count (OPG)
(χ2=1.547, p=0.214), presence or absence of feeding was significantly associated with deworming history,
troughs (χ2=1.209, p=0.271), fodder source, none dewormed cattle had the highest oocyst (26 ±
(χ2=0.167, p=0.169) and ecological zone (χ2=0.167, 8.72 OPG) and dewormed cattle had the lowest OPG
p=0.683). (5 ± 1.90 OPG) (p=0.011) (Table 3).

Risk factors associated with intensity of Nematode Coproculture

and Eimeria infection In coproculture, 215 infective strongyle nematode
There was significant difference in faecal egg count larvae were examined, the overall proportions of
(FEC) among the sex, age groups, feeding troughs, infective larvae from cultures indicated that the

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common GIN were Haemonchus sp. (33.49%), animals such as impaired growth and development
Trichostrongylus sp. (20.93%), Oesophagostomum (Falvey and Bambridge,1975: Vander Waal et al.,
sp. (17.21%), Cooperia sp. (14.88%) and Bunostomum 2014) with subclinical cases occasionally resulting in
sp. (13.49%). depressed feed intake, impaired tissue deposition,
and consequently decrease in growth rate (Thumbi et
Discussion al., 2013). Whereas it is very difficult to single out the
The overall prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes effect of helminth infections and nutritional stress on
(GIN) 44% estimated in this study was higher than body condition in the traditional pasture based
that of 37% from a previous study by Keyyu et al. livestock system of the tropics where supplemental
(2006), under small scale dairy cattle in Iringa. The feeding is either limited or non-existent (Domy et al.,
high prevalence in our study may be attributed to the 2011)
farmers obtaining grasses from pasture or valleys
grazed by traditional cattle during the dry season and The prevalence of Eimeria was lower than 30.3%
irregular deworming routine which varied from once reported by Getahun et al. (2017), 43.87% reported by
per year, once after two months and once after three Moussounuan et al. (2017) and 25.6% reported by
months regardless of the season. Smallholder dairy Pinto et al. (2021). The wide prevalence variations
farmers should be educated on the importance of may be associated with the differences in agro
using personal pasture and dry season feed reserves ecology, farm management and animal husbandry,
with regular deworming as means of controlling GIN however the lowest prevalence of Eimeria observed in
for the zero grazed dairy cattle. this study was probably influenced by the fact that
majority of sampled dairy cattle were adults (n=212)
Furthermore, the prevalence of GIN was significantly compared to yearlings (n=85) and calves (n=85). This
higher in adults compared to young age groups is due to the fact that usually, Eimeria causes
(χ2=31.187, p= 0.0001) an observation that is similar coccidiosis mainly in calves that is manifested with
to findings reported by Barhanu et al. (2011) and diarrhoea of varying severity from watery faeces to
Muktar et al. (2015), although this finding is not in one containing blood, dehydration, weight loss and
agreement to what was reported by Chanei et al. depression, loss of appetite and occasionally death of
(2012) and Ramzan et al. (2017), whose prevalence’s the affected animals (Barger, 1999; Kassai, 1999).
were higher in calves. High prevalence in adults
observed in this study may be influenced by the The study has indicated high faecal egg count (FEC) in
difference in sample size and stress including calves (172 ± 22.57) compared to adults (80 ± 11.59),
lactation, pregnancy and nutritional deficiency this finding is in consistent with previous works done
(Hansen and Perry, 1994; Radostits et al., 2007). The by Keyyu et al., (2006) and Ramzan et al., (2017). On
prevalence of GIN was observed to vary from place to the contrary, Holland et al., (2000), Keyyu et al.
place (Kanyari et al., 2010; Degefu et al., 2011; Haftu (2005), and Jime´nez et al. (2007) reported
et al., 2014; Muktar et al., 2015) due to general statistically higher faecal egg count in adult dairy
animal husbandry practices and climatic condition animals than yearling in Costa Rica, Tanzania and
(Smith, 2009). Vietnam, respectively. The high FEC in calves in this
study might be due to limited previous exposure and
Body condition score (BCS) was significantly immaturity of immune system resulting in a large
associated with the prevalence of the GIN (χ2=38.106, proportion of ingested larvae developing into adults.
p= 0.0001), this is in line with the study done by
Kagenda et al. (2018), however it is not in agreement All the nematode parasites recovered in faecal culture
with the study done by Awraris et al. (2012). It is have been reported previously in Tanzania (Keyyu et
known that, gastrointestinal helminths have been al., 2005 and 2006;) and in other tropical countries
shown to have harmful health effects on domestic (Kabaka et al., 2014; Gizawa et al, 2018), however in

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 Int. J. Agron. Agri. R.

this study revealed Haemonchus sp. as a major Barger IA. 1999. The role of epidemiological
contributor to the nematode population which is knowledge and grazing management for helminth
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(2014); Renwal et al. (2016) and Yohans et al. (2018), Parasitology 29 (1), 41–47.
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done by Keyyu et al. (2006) who reported Cooperia sp. Barhanu T. 2011. Study on the prevalence of
as a dominant GIN infection in Iringa. The dominance gastrointestinal nematodes infection of cattle in and
of Haemonchus sp in this study is due to the fact that around Gondar, North western Ethiopia. DVM thesis,
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