Introductory Chemistry I: Structure and Bonding

(CHMA10H3)

Fall 2024
Laboratory Manual

Compiled by Prof. Nirusha Thavarajah

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 Introductory Chemistry I: Structure and Bonding
(CHMA10H3)

Fall 2024
Laboratory Manual

Student's Name:__________________________________

Teaching Assistant’s Name:_________________________

Practical Section:_________________________________

Room Number:___________________________________

Dr. Nirusha Thavarajah, Associate Professor, Teaching Stream

Lab Office: SW 155
Office Hours: Tuesdays & Wednesdays 12-1 pm
email: nirusha.thavarajah@utoronto.ca

Laboratory Coordinator: Ms. Veronica Cavallari

Office: SW 155A
email: veronica.cavallari@utoronto.ca

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CHMA10 – LABORATORY MANUAL

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 5
LABORATORY SECTION SCHEDULE ..................................................................................... 5
ABSENCE FROM THE LABORATORY ..................................................................................... 6
LATE POLICY ............................................................................................................................... 6
LABORATORY MARKING SCHEME ........................................................................................ 7
PRE-LABORATORY QUIZZES ................................................................................................... 7
POST-LABORATORY REPORTS................................................................................................ 8
MARKED MATERIAL.................................................................................................................. 8
NOTEBOOKS ................................................................................................................................ 8
PREPARING FOR THE LABORATORY EXPERIMENT ........................................................ 12
ACADEMIC INTEGRITY ........................................................................................................... 12
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND PRACTICES ............................................................. 15
EXPERIMENT #1: INTRODUCTION TO VOLUMETRIC TECHNIQUES ............................ 21
EXPERIMENT #2: DETERMINING THE ACETIC ACID CONTENT IN VINEGAR ........... 28
EXPERIMENT #3 MOLECULAR MODELING: LEWIS STRUCTURES AND THE VSEPR
MODEL ........................................................................................................................................ 33
EXPERIMENT #4: PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY ................................................................. 41
EXPERIMENT #5: DETERMINATION OF THE UNIVERSAL .............................................. 45
GAS LAW CONSTANT, R ......................................................................................................... 45

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: LABORATORY GLASSWARE AND APPARATUSES
APPENDIX 2: BASIC LAB TECHNIQUES

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Dear Students,

Welcome to CHMA10H3 Laboratory! We are excited to help you master many laboratory techniques. In
this laboratory, you will learn volumetric techniques, purification methodologies, and practical
applications of analytical techniques and understand the theory behind all the techniques you learn in the
lab since these techniques are commonly used in all chemistry laboratories in your subsequent years of
study. Also, throughout the term, you will practice other common techniques such as various filtration
methods, etc.
To perform well in this course's laboratory component, you must prepare well in advance for your
lab days. You must complete all your pre-lab work to gain permission to perform the experiment of the
day. Your demonstrator will check your lab notebooks at the beginning of the lab to ensure that you are
prepared for the lab. If you fail to do the pre-lab work (WHMIS quiz, pre-lab quizzes & pre-lab notebook
work), you will not be permitted to do the lab.
You must read all the materials included in the introductory pages of the manual to be aware of all
the lab policies, safety precautions, pre-lab preparations, lab schedules, and assessments. Please check the
lab schedule carefully to prepare for the correct experiments. In addition, you are responsible for checking
the announcements on Quercus regularly for important updates. The appendices of the lab manual present
the theory and practice of most of the basic techniques used in this course and subsequent chemistry
courses. Finally, you must sign and submit the safety forms, the academic integrity contract included in
this manual, and the results of your WHMIS quiz.
A marks record sheet is included in this manual to keep track of your grades. Please note that part
of your assessment is based on preparation and performance, including notebooks, lab techniques, proper
handling of glassware and equipment, and keeping a clean workspace. At the end of the lab, your lab
demonstrator will check your notebook and lab space to sign you out. Please contact us if you have any
questions about lab preparation and performance.

I wish you all the best! And don’t forget to have fun!

Looking forward to meeting with all of you!

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 INTRODUCTION
The CHMA10H3 laboratory program's goals are to familiarize students with safe laboratory practices and
improve their basic techniques. While some experiments may not appear directly related to lecture
content, the activities and techniques have been selected to provide appropriate introductory chemistry
training. You may be expected to read ahead in the textbook to prepare for the experiment.
The first-year chemistry laboratories are in the basement level of the Science Wing in Rooms
SW153 and SW159. The laboratory classes commence at 10 minutes past the hour. However, you are
encouraged to arrive early so that TAs can check everyone in so the lab can start on time.
The laboratory periods are three hours in length and run every other week. The lab component of
the course is compulsory, and students must obtain a passing grade in the lab section to be eligible to pass
the course. The lab component is worth 25% of your course grade. A more detailed explanation of the
evaluation scheme can be found on page 9 of this manual.

LABORATORY SECTION SCHEDULE

Week 1 lab students
Students assigned to practical sections ending in odd numbers (i.e. P0001, P0003, P0005, P0007) have their
first lab during the week of September 9th.
Week 2 lab students
Students assigned to practical sections ending in even numbers, (i.e.P0002, P0004, P0006, P0008) have their
first lab during the week of September 16th.

LABORATORY SCHEDULE (FALL 2024)

Week Of Rotation Experiment
September 9th 1
EXP 1 – Introduction to Volumetric Techniques
September 16th 2
September 23rd 1
EXP 2 – Determining the Acetic Acid Content in Vinegar
September 30th 2
October 7th 1
EXP 3 – Molecular Modeling: Lewis Structures and the VSEPR Model
October 14th 2

October 21st 1 EXP 4 – Paper Chromatography

October 28th – November 1st Reading Week
November 4th 2 EXP 4 – Paper Chromatography

November 11th 1
EXP 5- Determination of the Universal Gas Law Constant, R
November 18th 2

LAB SKILLS SEMINARS

There will be a weekly lab skills seminar by Professor Nirusha Thavarajah; please check the course Quercus for
details. The lab skills sessions will cover the pre-lab work expectations and lab procedure and techniques,
and the post-lab work requirements for each lab.

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ABSENCE FROM THE LABORATORY
Accommodations for Illness or Emergency, Religious Conflicts
For missed labs and lab submissions due to ILLNESS, EMERGENCY, or RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS
please complete the following process:
1. Complete the Missed Term Work Form (Link is posted under the lab introductory module on
course Quercus website). Ensure you select Mrs. Veronica Cavallari.
2. Declare your absence on ACORN (Profile & Settings > Absence Declaration)

Deadline: You must complete the above forms within 5 business days of the missed work to be
considered as a late submission.
If a post lab assignment is missed and no reasonable explanation or supporting documentation are
provided, there is penalty of 10% per day will be applied.
Completion of this form does not guarantee that accommodations will be made. The course instructor
reserves the right to decide what accommodations (if any) will be made. Failure to adhere to any aspect
of this policy may result in a denial of your request for accommodation.

If a student misses a lab and provides no reasonable explanation or supporting documentation, a mark of
zero will be assigned.

Students must complete at least 4 out of the 5 scheduled experiments to pass the course. If a student
misses a second experiment, even if they provide appropriate supporting documentation, they will
automatically fail the course.

If you miss a lab when you are required to hand in material for marking (i.e. Report Sheets), standard late
penalties (i.e. 10% per day up to 5 days – material submitted after 5 days will be assessed a grade of
zero) will be applied to material submitted.

LATE POLICY
1. If you are late to your lab, but the pre-lab discussion is still underway, you will be allowed to
participate, given that you have completed all the pre-lab work.
2. If you are more than 20 minutes late for your lab you WILL NOT BE ALLOWED TO PERFORM
THE EXPERIMENT AND A MARK OF ZERO WILL BE ASSIGNED FOR ALL OF THE
COMPONENTS ASSOCIATED WITH THAT LAB SESSION.
3. If you show up to the lab without completing your pre-lab work in your notebook, you WILL NOT
BE ALLOWED TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT AND A MARK OF ZERO WILL BE
ASSIGNED FOR ALL OF THE COMPONENTS ASSOCIATED WITH THAT LAB
SESSION.

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LATE PENALTIES
- Report Sheets
o -10% of the total (not your grade) per day for 5 days (weekends count as two days)
o After 5 days a grade of zero will be assigned

- Notebooks
o Your notebook will be graded regularly during lab time; your assessment will include
prelab preparation and in-lab performance. Refer to pages 10-12 for details on lab notebook
preparation and assessments.

LABORATORY MARKING SCHEME

The laboratory component is worth 25% of your final grade. The laboratory component is marked out of
100 total marks.

Assessment Methods % Of final Marks

grade
Quiz (available online 3 days before your lab): 7.5% 6 marks (x 5)
Post-lab Reports/Quizzes: 10 % 8 marks (x 5)
Lab Notebooks 5.0% 4 marks (x 5)
Lab Safety 2.5% 2 marks (x5)
Total Marks: 25 % 100

**You must receive a passing grade in the laboratory section in order to pass the course

PRE-LABORATORY QUIZZES
Short quizzes are intended to evaluate your preparation for the experiment – including knowledge of all
relevant theory, procedures and safety precautions. The quizzes will be available online and accessed via
the CHMA10 Quercus page. Quizzes will become available to students 3 days before their scheduled lab,
and they must be completed before the start of the lab otherwise a grade of 0 will be assigned.
The quizzes will consist of 3 multiple choice questions. In some cases, there will be calculation-
based questions, so it is advisable to have a calculator and scrap paper ready before you start the quizzes.
Students will have 20 minutes to complete the quiz and can attempt it twice. Be advised that the questions
on the second attempt will likely be different.

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POST-LABORATORY REPORTS
There will not be any hard-copy submissions accepted. Post-lab reports and post-lab quizzes will be due
on Quercus before the start of the next lab period; exceptions may be applied to certain labs, for example
the last lab, for which you will be informed of any changes in the due date.

MARKED MATERIAL
All submitted material will be graded within 2 weeks after it has been submitted for grading. Please note
that material written in pencil will not be eligible for re-grading.

NOTEBOOKS
Students will be required to purchase their own lab notebook. The book must be hard cover, permanently
bound (not spiral or loose leaf) with the approximate dimensions 8.25” x 10.5” inches. They can be
purchased at the UTSC bookstore; however, students are free to purchase their books at a merchant of
their choice (so long as they meet the above requirements).
- Students can reuse notebooks from previous courses
o Just be sure that your table of contents is up to date and reflects that this notebook has been
used for multiple courses.
All writing must be made in pen. Mistakes are corrected by a single line strike though the text. Marks
will be deducted if students write in pencil or use white-out to correct mistakes.
Students are expected to keep a detailed laboratory notebook which should include the following 11
sections:
1- Table of contents (at the front of the notebook, leave a few pages blank)
2- Pages dated and numbered
o Date the page only when you write something on it. That way, it proves when you
performed the work.
• i.e. For each experiment you should normally have a few different dates
• When you completed your Pre-lab
• When you performed the experiment
• When you analyzed your results
o In industry your results are routinely audited and verified, and the dates are incredibly
important.
3- Experiment Title (at the top of each page for the experiment, every page after the first page should
state “cont. Experiment Title” to indicate continuation of the experiment)
4- Purpose – a brief statement explaining the question behind the experiment.
o What are you trying to determine?
5- Table that lists ALL chemicals to be used along with their physical properties that apply to the
current experiment (i.e. if the experiment involves taking a melting point you should include the
melting point, if an experiment involves dissolving a compound, then you should list the
compounds solubility, etc.):

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 o Always include the chemical’s flashpoint for safety purposes
• Flashpoint - The flash point of a chemical is the lowest temperature where it will
evaporate enough fluid to form a combustible concentration of gas.
o Be sure to list any hazards specific to the chemical you will be using:
• I.e. caustic, flammable, oxidizer, etc.
• List first aid treatments if exposed
o Include the WHMIS/GHS classifications for each chemical
o All this information is in the Chemical’s Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) specific for each
chemical.
• To locate a SDS sheet, simply “Google” the chemical name or formula along
“SDS”.
• Note that you will get the most accurate information from chemical supply
companies (e.g. Sigma Aldrich)
• Be aware that different forms of the chemical will have different hazards:
I.e. try looking up Potassium Permanganate solid and 0.2 M Potassium Permanganate
Solution
• The hazards associated with each are very different.
• Be aware of this when creating your SDS tables
• Make sure the SDS sheet is current i.e. less than 3 years old
6- Answers to the Pre-lab Questions
7- Experiment Outline:
o Summarized procedure written in point form
• You will refer to this section as you perform the experiment rather than trying to
read through your lab manual
8- Procedure/Observations
o You record what you did at each step along with any significant observations (e.g.
color/phase changes)
• This way you have a record of the steps you performed in case they differ from
your experiment outline, and it may help you explain unanticipated results.
• If your results are off due to a mistake, it must be accounted for in your work
performed/observation section or inadmissible as there is no paper trail.
o Be sure to record sample unknown numbers and solution concentrations in this section (e.g.
diluted acids and bases).
• If you forget to record any important information regarding unknown numbers or
concentrations, it will be provided to you but at a cost of 1 mark which will be
taken off your report sheet.
• Be careful not to use the values from another lab section as the values may be
different
9- Calculations/Analysis:

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 o All calculations must be written in your notebook first before transferring them to the
report sheets
• Remember your notebook is to reflect ALL of your work associated with the
laboratory
• An added benefit is that if you happen to lose your report sheet (it happens more
often that you might think) you can quickly fill out another blank report sheet to
avoid late penalties.
10- Discussion
o In this section you discuss/comment on your results – you should at least address the
following questions:
• Did you get the expected results? In some instances, you should be able to find
out what the actual value was
• Sources of error?
• General human errors such as handling, weighing, burette reading errors are
not eligible for use in discussions.
o If the error was significant – i.e. you performed a step wrong,
spilled something, etc. it must be accounted for in your Work
Performed/Observations section otherwise it is inadmissible.
• How does the error impact your final results? For example, would you expect the
error to cause your experimental result to be lower or higher than the true value
of what you are investigating?
• Students will be expected to critically evaluate the experiment designs/conditions
need to discuss either environmental effects, theoretical vs real life (e.g.
experimental yields vs theoretical yields), or experimental design flaws (e.g.
performing a single trial vs multiple trial, etc.)
o Explain how the error impacted your results and
o Suggest improvements to the experiment to reduce the impact of
the errors.
o Discuss your results and how they relate to the background theory for the experiment.
• Demonstrate that you understand the theoretical concepts of the experiment.

11- Conclusions – Should consist of a few short sentences where you state what you found

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 Lab Notebook Preparation:

Lab Notebook Preparation and Completion Steps

1. Pre-lab work completion (steps 1-7)1

2. In-lab work (steps 8)2

3. Post lab work (steps 9-11)3

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Graded on the day of the lab before you enter the lab without the pre-lab work completion you will not be
permitted to do the lab.
2
Graded based on the accuracy of the steps of the procedure completed, observations recorded, results
obtained and product collected (if any)
3
Post lab work graded on the notebook during the following lab period.

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PREPARING FOR THE LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
Preparing for the laboratory experiment is the key to a successful experience in the laboratory. Being
prepared means you understand all tasks and associated risks involved when performing the experiment.
This will help you work both efficiently AND safely while in the laboratory.

If you are not properly prepared for the lab you are a danger to both yourself and everyone around,
you.

The first step is reading the assigned laboratory experiment, followed by preparing your notebook. To
be considered “prepared for the experiment” students must complete steps 1-7 (refer to pages 10-11) in
their notebook.
Students who fail to do this will NOT BE ALLOWED TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT AND
A MARK OF ZERO WILL BE ASSIGNED FOR ALL OF THE COMPONENTS ASSOCIATED
WITH THAT LAB SESSION.

ACADEMIC INTEGRITY
Academic integrity is one of the cornerstones of the University of Toronto. It is critically important to
maintain our community which honors the values of honesty, trust, respect, fairness and responsibility, to
protect you, the students within this community, and the value of the degree towards which you are all
working so diligently.

According to Section B of the University of Toronto's Code of Behavior on Academic Matters:

http://www.governingcouncil.utoronto.ca/policies/behaveac.htm
It states that all students are expected to know and respect, it is an offence for students to:

- To use someone else's ideas or words in their own work without acknowledging that those
ideas/words are not their own with a citation and quotation marks, i.e. to commit plagiarism.
- To include false, misleading or concocted citations in their work.
- To obtain unauthorized assistance on any assignment.
- To provide unauthorized assistance to another student. This includes showing another student
completed work.
- To submit their own work for credit in more than one course without the permission of the
instructor.
- To falsify or alter any documentation required by the University. This includes, but is not limited
to, doctor's notes.
- To use or possess an unauthorized aid in any test or exam.

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There are other offences covered under the Code, but these are by far the most common. Please respect
these rules and the values which they protect. Offences against academic integrity will be dealt with
according to the procedures outlined in the Code of Behavior on Academic Matters.

Students are expected to read and understand the information found at the above link. Students will be
required to sign an Academic Integrity Contract and hand it in to their TA at their first lab. You will NOT
be permitted to participate in the lab until that signed contract is submitted.

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 Academic Integrity Contract4
Academic integrity is essential to the pursuit of learning and scholarship. In order to ensure that a degree
from the University of Toronto continues to represent the ultimate in academic achievement, the
University treats cases of cheating and plagiarism very seriously. The University of Toronto’s Code of
Behavior on Academic Matters can be found at:

http://www.governingcouncil.utoronto.ca/policies/behaveac.htm

The webpage outlines the behaviors that constitute academic dishonesty and the processes for addressing
academic offences. Potential offences include, but are not limited to5:
On papers and assignments:
• Using someone else’s ideas or words without the appropriate acknowledgement.
• Submitting your own work for more than one course without the permission of the instructor.
• Making up sources, facts, data or results.
• Obtaining or providing unauthorized assistance on any assignment.
On tests and exams:
• Using or possessing unauthorized aids (e.g. calculators)
• Looking at someone else’s answers during an exam or test.
• Misrepresenting your identity.
By signing this document the student also acknowledges she/he understands the following clauses:

1. Academic misconduct includes, but is not limited to: cheating, fabrication, plagiarism, or
facilitating academic dishonesty.
2. Due process shall be followed in all cases, no matter how small, where academic dishonesty is
suspected.

I have read and understood all of the information provided. I promise to make my best effort to avoid
academic integrity dishonesty. Should I decide to break my promise, I acknowledge I am aware of the
consequences.

Student Name :_______________________________ Date : _________________

Signature :_______________________________ PRA #: ________________

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Collected on the first day of the labs
5
Taken from: http://ctl.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/integrity

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LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND PRACTICES
In 2010, more than 80 people died on the job in Ontario. Think about it, that’s 80 people who left for
work one morning and never came home. Just about every one of them was preventable if employers
and employees took the necessary steps to ensure a safe working environment. In 2022, that number
was 64 which is proof of the implementation and importance of safety measures.

Safety in the laboratory is extremely important in chemistry courses. Failure to follow safe practices
can cause laboratory accidents which may result in the loss of time, damage to clothing and other
property, and most importantly personal injury. By following suitable precautions, you can anticipate
and prevent situations that would otherwise lead to accidents.

You have automatically been enrolled into the WHMIS online course accessible through the Quercus
website using your UTORid (the course should appear in your Dashboard home page screen). You
will be expected to watch the videos and take a multiple-choice quiz on the material you just learned.
You must obtain 80% on the quiz to pass the WHMIS course. Students who have not completed the
course and have not passed the quiz will not be allowed to participate in the lab.

Instructions on how to access the course will be posted on the CHMA10 Quercus site.

In addition to the online WHMIS course, you must familiarize yourself with the information in the
following sections. You must also sign the Laboratory Safety Rules and Practices Contact printed on
page 15 of this manual, stating that you have both read the safety rules and practices and agree to abide
by them. Submit the signed contract on Quercus. You will NOT be permitted to participate in the lab
until that signed contract is submitted.

Students will be assessed on whether they follow proper safety practices during the lab
o Did you follow ALL proper safety procedures?
o Did you take the lab seriously?
o Did you follow your TA’s instructions?
o Did you wear your safety equipment at all times?
• You will lose all safety marks if you are caught without your safety glasses. This
is in effect as soon as you walk in the door.
• If you are caught twice in a single lab period without your glasses on you will
not only receive a mark of zero for the entire lab, you will be required to have
a meeting with the Department Chair.
• THERE WILL BE NO EXCEPTIONS

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PERSONAL PROTECTION
1. You must wear proper eye protection and a lab coat in the laboratory as soon as you enter the lab.
a. Students must have indirect vented chemical splash goggles which are to be worn during the
experiment. These can be purchased either from our student group (EPSA) or the bookstore.
b. Students will be permitted to wear safety glasses that conform with the CSA Z94.3 Standard
regarding high impact eyewear up until the experiment begins:
i. Can be worn during the pre-lab discussion and any dry lab experiments.
c. Lab coats must be 100% Cotton.
2. You must wear gloves when working with chemicals and throughout the duration of the experiment.
When gloves have become soiled, exchange them with a fresh pair and throw the used gloves into
one of the large steel drums. Ensure that you are not touching your person or personal belongings
while wearing gloves.
3. Clothing must cover your entire leg all the way to the ankle
a. I.e. shorts, skirts and capris are not acceptable
4. Shoes should completely cover your feet (i.e. no exposed skin).
a. Sandals and other shoes that significantly expose your feet to the surroundings are not
acceptable.
5. You must confine/secure long hair, head scarves, neckties and any other loose or frilly clothing.
6. Loose jewelry must be removed.
7. Food or drink is not permitted inside the laboratory.
a. This includes chewing gum.
8. You may work in the laboratory only if the teaching assistant is present. You must work only on
authorized experiments.
9. You must not engage in acts of carelessness while in the laboratory.
10. You must work carefully with a full awareness of what you are doing in order to avoid breaking
equipment or spilling chemicals.

If you are not wearing proper attire for the lab, you will NOT BE ALLOWED TO PERFORM THE
EXPERIMENT AND A MARK OF ZERO WILL BE ASSIGNED FOR ALL OF THE
COMPONENTS ASSOCIATED WITH THAT LAB SESSION.

PROPER LABORATORY PRACTICES

1. Carefully read the label on a bottle twice before using its contents.
2. Take only the quantity of reagent needed. NEVER return an unused reagent to its container.
3. Mix reagents only when specifically directed to do so.
4. NEVER place chemicals directly on the balance pan. Weigh reagents using a weighing
bottle/vessel.
5. If instructed to observe the odor of a chemical, do so by fanning air over the container toward your
nose. Do not smell the substance directly.

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6. NEVER taste reagents. Furthermore, the ice from the ice machine may be contaminated and
should never be used for consumption based purposes.
7. Avoid handling chemicals directly with your hands. When handling hazardous chemicals, use the
nitrile gloves provided on the TA tables at the front of each room
a. If contact occurs, immediately flush the area with cool water for 15 minutes.
8. Use a bulb or a pipetting device to draw liquids into a pipette. NEVER pipette by mouth.
9. When diluting strong acids or strong bases, the acid or base should be added to the water, NOT
vice versa.
a. Remember the saying – “Do what you oughta, add acid or base to water.”
10. Stay clear of an open vessel in which a process is occurring that could produce splattering.
11. Keep reagents and equipment well back from the edge of the lab bench.
12. Do not use cracked glassware, as it may break when stress is put on it.
13. Keep your works space tidy - a cluttered bench is an accident waiting to happen.
14. Be sure to thoroughly wash your hands before leaving the lab to prevent accidental ingestion of
chemicals when handling food or drink.
15. The only time it is acceptable to remove your safety glasses/goggles is after you physically exit the
lab (i.e., in the hallway).

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

You must report all accidents and injuries to the teaching assistant as soon as possible. You
will also have to complete an Accident Report form with the lab coordinator/manager.
First Aid kits with some supplies (Band-Aids) and gloves are located in each laboratory. Wear
gloves when helping with an open wound. In the event of an injury, some basic first aid procedures
to be followed immediately include:
- Skin burns: Place the affected area immediately under cold running tap water for 15 minutes
to remove the heat or irritant
- Chemicals in Eyes: Flush your eyes with water at the eyewash for at least 15 minutes
- Hair or Clothing Fires: Use the safety shower to extinguish flames.

FIRES
1. Students are NOT responsible for extinguishing small fires – notify your TA immediately
2. If a burner started the fire, first turn off the burner.
3. If the fire is contained in a beaker, try to smother it with a watch glass or wet paper towel
placed over the beaker.
4. In the event of a large or uncontrollable fire, TAs must direct students to immediately evacuate
the room, according to the following evacuation procedures:
a. Direct students to leave the building.
b. Shut down all equipment in the laboratory, if possible, and close all doors.
c. Activate the fire alarm in the hallway.

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 d. Report the fire to the lab coordinator (SW 155A), or call the fire department with the yellow
emergency phone in the middle of the wing.

CHEMICAL WASTE
Ensure that all waste is disposed of in accordance to the TAs instructions. For example, NEVER pour
chemical waste into the sink.

ACID SPILLS
If you spill any acid, the proper procedure is to sprinkle some Sodium Bicarbonate powder onto the spill
to neutralize the acid. Once you do not see any more “bubbling” by the spill (this indicates that all of the
acids have been neutralized), wipe the counter down with wet paper towels and dispose of them into one
of the solid waste containers (steel drums).

CLEANING RESPONSIBILITIES
Students are responsible for:
1. Cleaning any equipment used in the experiment
2. Cleaning their immediate work area (i.e., wipe down the bench and fume hood in which they
worked with a damp cloth& use 70% ethanol found in fume hoods).
3. Returning ALL equipment to their proper places.
4. Additional responsibilities for cleaning designated areas of the laboratory MAY be assigned by
the Teaching Assistant or one of the Lab Technicians.
a. At the start of each lab, the TA will assign up to 5 students per group who will be
responsible for cleaning up the common areas (balances, sinks, etc.).

Students should follow the practices listed below:

1. Clean all glassware before storing it. Powdered and/or liquid detergent is provided at the large
sinks.
2. Clean any special equipment and return it to their designated areas.
3. Wash and rinse all glassware in tap water. Use distilled water for a final rinse.
4. Paper towels are available for cleaning the bench tops and wiping spills. NOTE: neutralize acid
spills with the solid sodium bicarbonate before flushing the area with water and sponging.
5. Dust pans, brooms, and brushes area available in each lab for sweeping broken glass from the
benches and floor. Place broken glass in the special containers provided and labeled “Broken
Glass Only”.
6. Remove any paper, broken glass or other debris from the sinks.
a. Be sure to wear gloves while doing this.

Before leaving the labs, students will have their TA “check-out” their locker – this includes the
shared/common lockers underneath the fume hoods. Students will be graded on whether everything has
been returned to its proper location and that the glassware has been adequately cleaned. Students will not

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be allowed to leave the lab until the TA is satisfied. IF A STUDENT LEAVES THE LAB BEFORE
HAVING THEIR LOCKER AND COMMON DRAWERS CHECKED, THEY WILL LOSE 10%
OFF OF THEIR LAB MARK.

Any student behaving in an unsafe manner it the laboratory is subject to immediate expulsion
from the laboratory. Unsafe behavior includes, but is NOT limited to, failure to wear proper
goggles, proper lab coat, and proper shoes. Any student expelled in this manner will receive NO
credit for that experiment and cannot make up that experiment.

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UTSC Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences Laboratory Safety
Rules and Practices Contract6

I, the undersigned, have read the following laboratory safety sections: Personal Protection; Proper
Laboratory Practices; Accidents and Injuries; Fires; Chemical Wastes; Cleaning Responsibilities. I
agree to follow these rules and practices during all laboratory sessions.

I, the undersigned, understand that the laboratory is a potentially dangerous environment. In order to help
prepare myself to work in the laboratory, I have taken the online WHMIS course and understand that if I fail
to achieve a grade of less than 80% that I will not be able to participate in the first lab until I successfully pass
the course.

A student who displays physical or verbal abuse to others (fellow students, instructors or technicians) will
be required to leave the lab immediately.
Readmission to the laboratory will require the approval of the Department Chair.

_____________________________ _________________________
(Signature of Student) Date

_________________________________________
(Print your full name)

Course: CHM ____________ Lab PRA # __________

Teaching Assistant ___________________________________

6
Collected on the first day of the lab.

20
EXPERIMENT #1: INTRODUCTION TO VOLUMETRIC TECHNIQUES

PRE-LAB READING
Read Appendix 1: Laboratory glassware & apparatuses and attempt the practice questions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this lab, students will be able to:

1. Demonstrate the ability to accurately perform a quantitative transfer of a solid substance.

2. Execute the proper technique for filling a volumetric flask to the specified volume with precision.

3. Illustrate proficiency in using a volumetric pipette to measure and transfer precise volumes of
liquids.

4. Utilize a top-loading balance effectively for measuring solid substances with accuracy.

5. Operate an analytical balance to measure substances with a high degree of precision and
readability.

6. Apply the technique of weighing-by-difference to calculate the accurate weight of a substance.

7. Demonstrate skilled use of a burette for precise delivery and measurement of liquid volumes in a
laboratory setting.

MARKING SCHEME
Assessment Methods Marks
Quiz (available online 3 days before your lab) /6
*Must complete the quiz before you attend your lab session.
Post-lab: /8
Lab Notebook: /4

Lab Safety: /2

Total Marks: /20

21
INTRODUCTION
This lab is intended to give you practice with some of the techniques involved in solution preparation. All
of these skills are utilized in fist year chemistry and beyond. In this lab we will focusing on performing
the techniques correctly. We will also be focusing on notebook skills such as recording the methods,
observations and data completely and accurately.
Although some samples are weighed directly in analytical chemistry, most often, samples are
weighed by difference. In this experiment, you will practice weighing by difference while preparing a
solution of your drink crystals of known concentration. Drink crystals will be used for this experiment in
order to make highly coloured solutions. This will allow you to see spills and contamination more easily
and help reinforce the need for careful technique.

DEMONSTRATIONS
The following techniques will be demonstrated to you at the beginning of the lab period:
• Performing a quantitative transfer of a solid
• Filling a volumetric flask
• Using a volumetric pipette
• Using a top-loading balance
• Using an analytical balance
• Weighing-by-difference
• Using a burette

SDS REQUIREMENTS
None for this lab.

22
PROCEDURE
A. Weighing-by-Difference and Quantitative Transfer (working independently)

1. Tare a clean & dry stoppered weighing bottle on a TOP-LOADING BALANCE.

a. Be sure to handle the weighing bottle with a paper collar.

2. Add approximately 2.00 g of the drink crystals to the weighing bottle. If you add too much, dispose
of the excess in the "Excess Drink Crystals” jars located next to the balances. Stopper the weighing
bottle and proceed to the analytical balance room.

3. Bring with you the following items: notebook & pen.

4. Obtain an accurate mass in grams (4 decimal places) of the stoppered weighing bottle plus the sample
on the analytical balance. Record the weight in your notebook.

5. At your workstation, remove the lid of the weigh bottle and carefully pour the solid sample into a
clean 100 ml beaker. **It is important that you do not spill any drink crystals in this step!

6. Re-stopper the bottle. Immediately reweigh the weighing bottle, plus any solid that is adhering to the
sides, on the same analytical balance used prior. Record the “empty” weight. The difference between
the two weights is the mass of the sample transferred to the 100 mL beaker. Calculate the mass of
drink crystals transferred.

**You will now complete the quantitative transfer:

7. At your bench, add approximately 50 ml of water to your beaker using a graduated cylinder.

8. Use a glass stirring rod to stir your solution until all of the drink crystals are fully dissolved.

9. Obtain a clean 100 ml volumetric flask. *It is important that you rinse all glassware before use - why
is it acceptable to use a wet volumetric flask before use? Use a ring-clamp and a retort stand to support
a liquid funnel so that its tip of the funnel rests just inside the 100 mL volumetric flask.

10. Pour the solution down the glass stirring rod and through the funnel into the flask. It is important that
you avoid losing any solution to the outside of the beaker or funnel.

23
11. Note that your beaker will still have coloured solution present. Using a minimal amount of distilled
water, rinse your beaker and then add the rinse to the volumetric flask. Repeat this step until the
coloured solution is no longer visible in the beaker (minimum 3 rinses). Rinse your glass stirring rod
and funnel into the Erlenmeyer flask, then set them aside. Ensure your rinses do not bring the solution
above the etched mark.

12. Pour water until it reaches the base of the neck. Use a disposable pipette to carefully add distilled
water, dropwise, until the meniscus is resting directly on the etched calibration mark when read at eye
level. Stopper the flask and invert it 15 to 20 times to thoroughly mix the contents. Calculate the
accurate concentration of this solution in units of mg of drink crystals per mL of solution.

B. Consistent Pipetting with a Volumetric Pipette and Top Loading Balance (working with a
partner)

When using a volumetric pipette, you should be able to deliver an accurate volume of solution with high
precision (i.e. each transfer will deliver the same volume). In this part of the lab, you will test your ability
to use a volumetric pipette to consistently deliver the same volume of solution. This will be done with a
partner so that you can critique each other’s technique.
Before using the volumetric pipette with your sample, you need to ensure it is rinsed with the solvent being
used in your experiment. In this case, the solvent is water.

1. Add ~20 ml of distilled water into a 50 mL beaker, labelled “Distilled Water”. Draw up a small
amount of distilled water into the volumetric pipette using your bulb. NOTE: you are pipetting from
a beaker of distilled water, NOT directly from the wash bottle. It is very important to NEVER pipette
directly from your wash bottle or the stock solution. Why do you think this might be?

2. The amount of water drawn should be just enough to start filling the wide, middle section of the pipette.
Rinse the inner surface of the pipette as demonstrated by your TA (turn pipette horizontally and rotate
in your fingers to fully rinse the inner surface of the pipette, without touching either end of the pipette)
and empty this rinse liquid into your labelled waste beaker. Refer to appendix B for individual steps
if you can’t remember what your TA demonstrated.

3. Repeat this process (step 2) 2 more times.

4. Now that your pipette has been rinsed, practice filling the pipette to the etched mark with distilled
water a few times. Ensure you do not get any solution in the bulb and remember to stopper the top of

24
 the pipette with the index finger of your hand holding the pipette as soon as you remove the bulb so
not to lose progress.

• Pay special attention to your technique when lowering the meniscus so that it comes to rest
directly on the etched calibration mark. If you lower the meniscus too far, draw up additional
liquid and try again.

When using a volumetric pipette, you should be able to deliver an accurate volume of solution with high
precision (i.e. each transfer will deliver the same volume). In this part of the lab, you will test your ability
to use a volumetric pipette to consistently deliver the same volume of solution. This will be done with a
partner so that you can critique each other’s technique.
5. At a top-loading balance, tare a 250 mL beaker (i.e. set the balance to read zero with the beaker on
top).

6. Working in partners, one partner will transfer a 5.00 mL aliquot of distilled water to the tared 250 mL
beaker (this water should come from the beaker prepared in step 1). Record the mass in your notebook.
• Note that the density of water is ~1 g/mL. How much does 5.00 mL of water weigh?

7. The other partner will be observing technique and providing verbal queues.

8. Switch roles and repeat steps 6 & 7 so that both students receive and provide verbal feedback on
pipette technique.
For steps 9 through 15, you will be working alone (not with a partner).
9. Now that you have both learned to pipette with good technique, your precision skills should be put to
the test. Using the transfer pipette, deliver a 5.00 mL aliquot to the 250 mL beaker. Repeat 2 more
times for a total of 3 transfers each and record the mass of each individual transfer in your notebook.

10. The three weights should differ by no more than ±0.02 g. If the difference between your weights is
greater than ±0.02 g, perform additional transfers until your precision improves.

11. At your benchtop, add ~ 25 mL of the drink mix solution prepared in Part A to a clean, dry 50 mL
beaker. One of the most important rules of chemistry: NEVER pipette directly from a stock
solution to prevent contamination of the carefully prepared stock solution, always pour into a
secondary beaker to perform your transfer.

12. Rinse your pipette 3 times, as you did in step 4, but now with the drink mix solution to condition the
pipette. Ensure you are discarding your rinse volumes into your waste beaker.

25
 • This conditioning step ensures that the pipette is conditioned to transfer the solution in the
same concentration as the stock. To avoid wasting the stock solution, rinse volumes should be
as small as possible while still allowing a thorough coating of the rinse over the inside of the
pipette.

13. After rinsing with the drink mix solution, observe the pipette. Are the droplets of liquid inside the
pipette coloured?

14. To clean the pipette, perform a rinsing step with distilled water (which is the solvent in this
experiment).

15. Repeat the rinsing process 2 more times or until no coloured solution is observed in the pipette.

C. Burette Practice (working independently)

1. Rinse a 50.00 mL burette 3 times with small amounts of tap water and three times with small amounts
of distilled water.

• If we were using a titrant, we would also rinse 3 times with that reagent as a conditioning
step, for today we will just use water.

2. Lower the burette to eye-level (this might mean bringing the burette tip below the benchtop) and,
while using a funnel, fill the burette with water to just below the 0.00 mL mark.

3. Read the initial volume of your burette, as your TA demonstrated. This will be Vinitial.
• Best practice is to create a table in your notebook to organize your data.

4. With the burette raised on the retort stand, and pushed away from the edge of the bench, practice
dispensing the titrant into a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Don’t forget to swirl and rinse down the
inner sides of the flask with your wash bottle while adding titrant.

• Make sure you are using the proper technique as shown by your TA: remove the funnel &
ensure there is no air bubble in the tip of the burette before taking readings and performing
a titration.

5. After some practice, close the burette stopcock and read the meniscus to 2 decimal places and record
in your lab notebook. This is Vfinal.

26
 6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 two more times.
• Ensure you are recording your initial and final volumes to 2 decimal places for each
“titration”.

End of Lab
• When you are done all parts of your experiment, dispose of any waste in the appropriate waste
container(s).
• Wash and put away all glassware where it belongs (make sure there is no communal glassware left
in your locker).
• Wipe down your bench and fume hood space and check to make sure no glassware or chemicals
were left in any of the common spaces.

Once your TA has approved your clean-up by checking your station, you are free to go!

27
EXPERIMENT #2: DETERMINING THE ACETIC ACID CONTENT IN
VINEGAR

PRE-LAB READING
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, Tro (3rd ed.): Chapter 16, Section 16.4

LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Apply titration procedures to determine the concentration of an unknown weak acid solution
accurately.

2. Acquire proficiency in essential laboratory techniques associated with titration experiments for
comprehensive practical skills development.

3. Demonstrate precise measurement and collection techniques for standardized solutions using
laboratory equipment.

4. Apply proper cleaning and rinsing procedures to maintain the integrity of lab instruments and
ensure accurate experimental results.

5. Execute correct preparation protocols for titration experiments, including filling burettes and
handling solutions with accuracy.

6. Implement effective titration methods, including swirling techniques and endpoint recognition, to
achieve reliable and consistent results.

7. Exhibit understanding of chemical handling best practices, such as contamination prevention and
error correction strategies, to enhance laboratory skills and data accuracy.

MARKING SCHEME

Assessment Methods Marks

Quiz (available online 3 days before your lab) /6
*Must complete the quiz before you attend your lab session.
Post-lab Report /8
Lab Notebook: /4
Lab Safety: /2
Total Marks: /20

28
INTRODUCTION
Vinegar is produced by the oxidation of alcohol by aerobic bacteria. Vinegar is composed of acetic acid,
water and some other substances. The objective of this experiment is to determine the amount of acetic
acid in vinegar. The technique used to measure amount of acetic acid content in vinegar is known as the
titration technique.
A known concentration of sodium hydroxide will be used to determine the unknown amount of acetic
acid. At the equivalence point of the reaction the known amount of sodium hydroxide added consumes
acetic acid completely. The amount of acetic acid is calculated using the known concentration and volume
of the sodium hydroxide consumed. Unlike a strong acid-strong base titration, the equivalence point of
acetic acid (weak acid)-strong base titration is not at pH 7, it is a basic pH of 8.72 (Figure 2.1).

CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCH3COO(aq)

Figure 2.1. Titration curve of acetic acid with 0.100 M NaOH (https://openstax.org/details/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e)

There are many acid-base indicators from which we need to select the suitable one to detect the
equivalence point of the acetic acid-sodium hydroxide reaction. Seen in Figure 2.2, the phenolphthalein
indicator shows to have a detection range surrounding our reaction’s equivalence point, at pH 8.72.
Phenolphthalein is a weak acid that is colorless under acidic and neutral pH conditions, and it turns pink
under basic conditions. When the acid-base reaction reaches the end point, even a slight excess of NaOH

29
will be detected by the change in the color of the Phenolphthalein into a pale pink color indicating the
completion of the acid-base reaction. If the solution turns dark pink, then the interpretation is there is a
large excess of NaOH added which indicates an over-titration.

Figure 2.2. pH range for different acid-base indicators (https://openstax.org/details/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e)

PRELAB ASSIGNMENT
1. What is the purpose of the indicator in this experiment?

2. Calculate the pH for the titration of 25.00 mL of 0.100M acetic acid with 12.50 mL of 0.100 M NaOH.

KEY LAB TECHNIQUES

1. Proper handling of pipettes.

2. Titration technique

SDS REQUIREMENTS
1. Sodium hydroxide

30
2. Phenolphthalein
3. Acetic acid

SAFETY NOTES
• Exposure to NaOH can cause skin irritation, eye irritation and eye damage. Handle with care.
• Phenolphthalein may cause eye and skin irritation.
• Acetic acid is corrosive and flammable. Handle with care.
• All chemicals must be used under the fume hood.

DISPOSAL OF REAGENTS
Dispose of all chemicals and final titration solutions in properly labelled waste bottles, found in TA fume
hoods.

PROCEDURE
1. Using a clean & dry 100 mL beaker to collect 75 mL the standardized NaOH solution.

2. Rinse your burette, 3 times with tap water and 3 times with distilled water.

3. Rinse the burette with 3 small portions of this NaOH solution and then fill it with the NaOH.

4. Be sure that no air bubbles are present in the tip (refer back to your TA’s instructions). Record your

initial volume reading in the chart in your notebook to the nearest 0.02 mL.

5. Using a volumetric pipette, accurately transfer a 10.00 mL aliquot of the vinegar solution to a clean
100-mL volumetric flask and dilute to the mark with distilled water. Be sure to mix the flask well
(invert 15-20 times). Using a properly rinsed (see Experiment #1 for instructions) 25.00 ml
volumetric pipette, transfer a 25.00 ml aliquot of the diluted vinegar solution to a clean 125 ml
Erlenmeyer flask.
6. Never put a pipette directly into a stock bottle as you risk contaminating the solution for

everyone. Instead, always pour some of the stock solution into a small beaker (at minimum twice

as much as you need) and pipette from that.

7. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask and wash down the sides

of the flask with some distilled water using the wash bottle.

31
 8. As you titrate your vinegar sample with the standardized NaOH solution, constantly swirl your

Erlenmeyer flask.

9. Occasionally rinse the walls of the flask when the end point is near. Note: increasing the volume of
your solution will not affect the total number of moles of acid already in the flask.

10. Once the faint pink color remains for approximately 20 seconds before dissipating, begin adding the
NaOH dropwise and record the burette volumes (to 0.02 mL) after each addition.

11. The end point is reached when you see the slightest permanent sign of pink (it should be very light
and very pale). Read the final volume of standardized NaOH used to reach the endpoint to the nearest
0.02 mL and record it in the chart in your notebook. To more easily see the colour change, you should
be performing your titration on the white ceramic tile in your drawer.

12. A bright, deep pink color indicates that you over titrated. If you were adding the NaOH dropwise
and recording your volumes after each addition, you can go back to your previous volume
immediately prior and use it as your end point. Note that you can only do this if you were adding
the NaOH dropwise. Repeat the procedure with 2 more 25.00 mL aliquots of the SAME diluted
vinegar for a total of 3 titrations.

POST-LAB CALCULATIONS
• From the volume of the standardized sodium hydroxide and using the balanced equation for the
reaction, calculate the number of moles of acetic acid in the 10.00 ml aliquot of vinegar. Based on the
moles calculate the mass of the acetic acid. Using the density of the pure acetic acid is 1.049g/ml,
calculate the volume of the acetic acid. Calculate the percent acetic acid by volume.

REFERENCE
1. Tro, Fridgen and Shaw, Chemistry, A Molecular Approach, 5th edition, Chapter 16.
2. https://openstax.org/details/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e

32
EXPERIMENT #3 MOLECULAR MODELING: LEWIS STRUCTURES
AND THE VSEPR MODEL

PRE-LAB READING
Tro et. Al, 3rd Canadian Edition pages 334-392

LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Understand the foundational principles guiding chemical bond formation and molecular structures
based on the energy states of atoms in bonded and separate forms.

2. Differentiate between ionic and covalent bonding mechanisms to recognize and explain the
characteristics of different bond types.

3. Identify polar bonds within molecules, interpret the role of dipole moments in illustrating electron
distribution and polarity, and analyze molecular polarity.

4. Utilize Lewis structures, formal charge calculations, and knowledge of molecular models to accurately
depict and predict the structure and properties of molecules.

5. Engage in collaborative group activities involving molecular modeling, shared resources, and practical
experiments, leading to proficient kit management and readiness for future laboratory work.

MARKING SCHEME
Assessment Methods Marks
Quiz (available online 3 days before your lab) /6
*Must complete the quiz before you attend your lab session.
Post-lab Quiz: /8
In-lab worksheet: /4
Safety Lab: Proper handling of the molecular modelling kit /2
Total Marks: /20

Note:
• You are NOT allowed to use any electronic device such as a laptop, cellular phone or tablet to
complete this lab.
• You must bring your lab notebook to this lab as it will be collected at the end of the lab period.

33
• This is a dry lab: You MUST have your PPE with you for this lab, but you may wear your safety glasses
instead of goggles.
INTRODUCTION
Molecules are frameworks of atoms, and as you may know not all of these are stable. SF6 is a very stable
molecule whereas SF2 is not. What determines the formation of the chemical bond, and the resulting
structure is a complex topic, but the basic idea is that chemical bonds can form from the constituent atoms
if the total energy of the bonded atoms is lower than that of the separated atoms. In certain cases, the
lowest energy can be achieved by compete transfer of an electron from one atom to another, and the
bonding will then be ionic. An example of this would be Na+Cl-, usually written NaCl, which forms
because Na loses one electron readily and Cl captures one electron. For other atom combinations, the
lowest energy structure can be reached by complete electron sharing, and the bonding will be covalent,
e.g. H2, Cl2.

Bonds may be described as purely ionic (complete electron transfer) or purely covalent (exactly equal
electron sharing), but for most molecules a more realistic picture of the bonding lies between these
extremes. This involves the sharing of electrons but with the electron distribution (electron probability)
being closer to the more electronegative atom in the bond. e.g. ClF or CO. The bond is then described as
being polar. The dipole moment of a molecule is a vector quantity represented by the symbol µ. It is an
experimental measure of the polarity of the complete molecule. Since it is a vector it has both magnitude
and direction. It points in the direction of greater electron density.

Figure 3.1: Each atom contributes one electron to the shared electron pair making Cl-F electrically neutral; the
shared electrons are closer to F.

The shape or geometry of a molecule is of fundamental importance; think of the double helix of DNA. It
is important to develop some models that can be used to give us a feel for the structure. One simple

34
approach that works fairly well is to first assume that a covalent bond involves shared electron pairs. We
assign electrons to the various bonds and then count up the number of bond pairs (pairs of electrons in a
bond). Next, we need to count the number of non-bonding pairs of electrons. All of the electron pairs
(both bonding and non-nonbonding) can then be arranged in space to give the least electrostatic repulsion,
leading to an approximation of the shape of the molecule.

Lewis Structures
This method is a step-by-step way to construct molecular models of any species; covalent or ionic. They
are based on the idea that every atom is most stable when its electron configuration matches that of the
nearest noble gas. This is often called the “octet rule” because many common atoms are most stable when
they have eight electrons in their outermost or valence shell. There are several methods that can help with
the drawing of these structures. There are so many sources of information on the web or in texts so find
one that works for you. Sometimes there is more than one way to draw a Lewis structure. Generally, the
more symmetrical structure is likely to be the best choice.

Another method of deciding among different structures involves the use of formal charges on atoms,
which can be calculated using the following formula:

Formal charge = [# valence electrons – #bonds- # non-bonded electrons]

Different structures usually have a different distribution of formal charges and usually the structure with
the minimum number of formal charges will be correct. For example, let us take a look at formaldehyde.
As shown in the figure below, three are technically correct structures but only one correctly represents
formaldehyde. It is the structure with the formal charge minimized for each atom that is strongly favoured
i.e. the final structure in the diagram.

Figure 3.2: Formal charges for three different Lewis structures of formaldehyde.

35
Lewis structures that differ only by the position of electrons are differentiated by a double headed arrow
indicates that the two structures are resonance structures. If one can draw resonance structures of a
molecule or ion, then the actual molecules is a hybrid or enhanced average of the two or more structures
drawn. NO2- is shown in below as to illustrate how resonance structures are represented.

Figure 3.3: Resonance structures of NO2-.

Geometry
When drawing Lewis structures, you encounter two types of valence shell electron pairs: bonding pairs,
which are shared by atoms in bonds, and nonbonding pairs (lone pairs), as in NH3. Because there are 4
electron pairs around the N atom, the electron-pair repulsions will be minimized when the electron pairs
point to the vertices of a tetrahedron. The arrangement of these pairs is called its electron–domain
geometry and it can be denoted as AXn where A is the central atom and X are the peripheral electron pairs.
However, when using experiments to determine the structure of a molecule, you locate atoms, not electron
pairs. The molecular geometry of a molecule (or ion) is the arrangement of the atoms in space. You can
predict the molecular geometry of a molecule from its electron-domain geometry. In NH3, there are three
bonding pairs which culminate in a bond with hydrogen and there is a lone pair. This gives the formula
AX3E, where A is the central atom, X is the number of bonds and E is the number of lone pairs. In the
chart shown below (Figure 1), ammonia (:NH3), which has the generic formula of AX3E (A = Nitrogen,
X = Hydrogen and E = 1 lone pair of electrons) would have the molecular shape of a trigonal pyramid.

36
 Table 1: VSEPR (Molecular Geometry)

Table adapted from http://web.gccaz.edu/~ksmith8/VSEPR%20handout.pdf.

37
Hybridization
In the second last column of Figure 3.5 the hybridization scheme of the central atom of the molecule or
ion is described. In lecture you have learned about atomic orbitals, s, p etc. They have specific shapes.
“s” is spherical, “p” is two lobed with a node in the centre. Hybridization is a procedure where there is
mixing of 2 or more atomic orbitals to give new hybrid orbitals and in the example below the new sp
orbitals point in opposite directions 180o apart. This is as far into depth as we will go here. Just be aware
that this occurs and note how the shape is affected by this mixing.

Figure 3.4: Hybridization of an s and p orbital to make two sp hybrid orbitals.

Polarity and dipoles

A covalent bond between two different kinds of atoms is usually a polar bond. This is due to the difference
in electronegativities of each atom. The electrons are not shared equally and this creates a dipole moment,
µ. You should be able to draw the dipoles for each bond and state whether there is an overall dipole for
the molecule. This indicates that it is a polar molecule. See the example for dichloroethene below:

38
Figure 3.5: In the trans isomer the dipoles from C to Cl are in opposite directions and since they are of equal
strength

they cancel out and there is no net dipole for the molecule and it is not polar. Whereas the cis isomer is
polar (the overall dipole pointing up). (Figure adapted from
https://people.uwplatt.edu/~sundin/114/l114a53.htm)

In this experiment based on molecular models, you will draw Lewis structures for molecules and predict
their geometric structures from the VSEPR model and valence bond theory, and predict some of their
properties. You will be working in small groups and sharing the kits. At the end of the experiment please
make sure that the kit contains all the parts and have it checked by your TA.

PRELAB ASSIGNMENT
1. Read the experiment and understand its objectives and theoretical background contained within this
lab manual. There is a pre-lab quiz for this experiment that will be made available 3 days before you
perform the experiment. You should be able to answer questions regarding the following topics:
(a) What are the differences among ionic, covalent and metallic bonding?
(b) Which of the following molecules possess polar covalent bonds: H2, N2, HCl, CO2? Indicate if
they have molecular dipole moments.
(c) Define the term formal charge.
(d) Calculate formal charges for atoms in molecules and ions such as CO, CO2, CO32-.
(e) What is the difference between lone pair and bonding electrons?
(f) Be prepared to draw Lewis structures.
2. You do not need to prepare your notebook for this lab since you will be working with molecular
models and filling out your report sheet as you go.

39
SAFETY
Students may wear safety glasses that conform to CSA Standard Z94.3 (high impact).

DISPOSAL OF REAGENTS
No reagents are used in this experiment, so no disposal is required.

PROCEDURE
Please use the model kits provided to complete the worksheets provided. Students will be completing the
worksheets in pairs.

Once your TA has approved your clean-up by checking your station, you are free to go!

40
EXPERIMENT #4: PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

PRE-LAB READING
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, Tro (3rd ed): Chapter 11, P450-451.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this lab students will be able to:
1. Demonstrate proficiency in executing the paper chromatography technique with accuracy and precision.
2. Utilize paper chromatography as a scientific method to effectively separate different food dyes and
interpret the outcomes of the experiments.
3. Develop a comprehensive understanding of the significance of green chemistry practices within the
context of the food industry, fostering a deeper appreciation of sustainable and environmentally friendly
approaches in food production and analysis.

MARKING SCHEME
Assessment Methods Marks
Quiz (available online 3 days before your lab)
/6
*Must complete the quiz before you attend your lab session.
In-lab report (results, detailed discussion & conclusions) /8
Lab Notebook: /4
Lab Safety: /2
Total Marks: /20

INTRODUCTION

Chromatography is a widely used technique to separate molecules in a mixture from one another while
travelling through a stationary phase with the help of a mobile phase. The two main components involved
in chromatography are the stationary phase and the mobile phase. The mixture dissolved in a fluid solvent
(gas or liquid) is termed the mobile phase, which passes through a system (a column, a capillary tube, a
plate, or a sheet) in which a substance known as the stationary phase is fixed. Due to the high efficiency
of chromatography, it is applied to different fields in biology and chemistry. To meet the research
requirements for different disciplines, various kinds of chromatography have been innovated, such as
Column chromatography, Ion-exchange chromatography, Gel-permeation (molecular sieve)
chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and so on. However, as the purpose
of this lab is to introduce students to understand the basic technique of chromatography, we choose paper
chromatography, the most classic type of chromatography, to conduct an experiment in distinguishing
different food dyes.

Paper chromatography can be used to measure the levels of amino acids and carbohydrates in bodily fluids
to screen genetic metabolic problems.1 Therefore, to separate organic food dyes, the stationary phase is
the chromatography paper made of cellulose which traps the water molecules in the crevices of fibres to
serve as a fixed foundation, and 0.1% brine will perform as a mobile phase.2 While conducting

41
chromatography, we want to avoid any inaccuracy which requires high resolution mobile phase. Among
all the mobile phases tested by Markow. P, it shows that 0.1% of brine is the most effective concentration
to separate all certified food dyes.3 The separation of food dyes depends on the solubility of chemicals in
the mobile phase and the adhesion of different substances in the mixture to the stationary phase. Due to
capillary action, the mobile phase could climb up the chromatography paper1, if a pigment has a higher
affinity to the stationary phase/lower affinity to the mobile phase, it will migrate shorter in paper and vice
versa. A quantitative way to mathematically define the travel distance by each molecule is termed as
retention factor (Rf), which is the ratio of the distances migrated from the starting line to the compound
and the solvent front2:

𝑅𝑓=𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑅𝑓=𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐

𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Currently, there are 9 kinds of food dyes approved by Health Canada.2 These are Allura red (red 40),
amaranth (red 2), erythrosine (red 3), indigotin (blue 2), sunset yellow FCF (yellow 6), tartrazine (yellow
5), fast green FCF (green 3) and brilliant blue FCF (blue 1). In this lab, you will be using Allura red,
Erythrosine, Tartrazine and Brilliant Blue FCF; Figure 5.3, shows the expected paper chromatography
results.

Figure 5.1. Chemical structure of (a)Allura red (red 40) 4 and (b)Erythrosine (red 3) 5.

Figure 5.2. Chemical structure of Tartrazine6 and Brilliant Blue FCF7.

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 Figure 5.3. The ideal final chromatogram.

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
1. What is the chemical composition of the stationary phase in this lab? And what is the mobile
phase?
2. What is the solvent front?
Which of the dyes have a strong interaction with the mobile phase?

KEY LAB TECHNIQUES

Paper chromatography.

SDS REQUIREMENT:
1. Sodium chloride,
2. Allura red,
3. Erythrosine,
4. Tartrazine, and
5. Brilliant blue FCF

SAFETY
Due to the hazardous nature of some of the chemicals being used, chemical splash goggles must be worn
at all times while the lab is in progress. Up until then, students may wear safety glasses that conform to
CSA Standard Z94.3 (high impact).

DISPOSAL OF REAGENTS
Dispose of all chemicals and solutions in properly labelled waste bottles, found in TA fume hoods.

PROCEDURE

A. Brine Solution Preparation

1. Weigh 0.05 g of sodium chloride on top-loading balance and transfer to a 100 mL beaker.
2. Add 50 mL of distilled water using a graduated cylinder and dissolve the salt crystals using a
stirring rod. This solution will be used as your 0.1% NaCl mobile phase.

B. Paper Chromatography
1. Obtain 3 pieces of chromatography paper from your TA.

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 2. Using a pencil and a ruler, draw a faint line 1 cm from the bottom edge of the chromatography
paper across the whole chromatography paper (as seen in Fig. 5.3).
3. Prepare the food dye samples in test tubes; labeled red, blue and yellow. In each test tube add 1
drop of dye and 0.5 mL of distilled water.
4. Get 3 clean sample capillaries from your TA.
5. Spot each food dye on to the chromatography paper on the pencil line. Remember the food dye
dots should be very fine and should not spread.
6. Allow time for the spots to dry and repeat step 5 twice more on top of the previous spots. You
should have spotted each colour 3x.
7. Add 10 mL of 0.1% NaCl solution into a clean 250 mL beaker.
Carefully tape the top of the chromatography paper to the center of a glass stirring rod.
8. Place the chromatography paper into the beaker vertically and allow the glass stirring rod to rest
on top of the beaker. Ensure that the solvent is touching the chromatography paper but it
must also be below the pencil mark where you spotted the dyes.
9. Without agitating the beaker, allow the mobile phase to migrate up the paper until it is about 1 cm
from the top. Remove the chromatography paper from the beaker and quickly mark the solvent
front by lightly drawing across the paper with your pencil.
10. Observe the final traces of the first chromatogram. If tailing occurred (i.e. the travelled spot is
elongated), reduce the spotting time from 3x to 2x when running the next sets.
11. Repeat steps 5 – 10 for the remaining 2 chromatography papers.

C. Data Collection and Analysis

1. Use a ruler to measure the distance between the initial spotting line and the solvent front line and
record it in your notebook.
2. Again, use a ruler to measure the distance migrated by each pigment from the spotting line to its
endpoint. Record in the lab notebook.
3. Calculate the retention factor (Rf) value for each pigment using the formula provided in the
introduction section of this experiment.

REFERENCES
1. Coskun, O. Separation Techniques: Chromatography. Northern Clinics of Istanbul 2016, 3 (2),
156–160.
2. At-Home Chemistry Experiment Paper Chromatography of Food Dyes and Ink
Objectives. https://www.saltise.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/SALTISE-Chem-Protocol-Paper-
Chromatography.pdf.
3. Markow, P. G. The Ideal Solvent for Paper Chromatography of Food Dyes. Journal of Chemical
Education 1988, 65 (10), 899.

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EXPERIMENT #5: DETERMINATION OF THE UNIVERSAL
GAS LAW CONSTANT, R

PRE-LAB READING
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, Tro (3rd ed): Relevant sections in Chapter 5

LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Understanding the concept of the ideal gas law (PV = nRT) and its application in calculating gas
properties.
2. Application of the ideal gas law to determine the value of the gas constant, R, by directly measuring
parameters such as pressure (P), volume (V), moles of gas (n), and temperature (T).
3. Exploring a chemical reaction involving magnesium metal and hydrochloric acid to generate hydrogen
gas.
4. Utilizing a gas burette (similar to a eudiometer device) to measure the change in gas volume following
the chemical reaction.
5. Applying Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures to calculate the total gas pressure in the system, considering
contributions from hydrogen gas pressure, water vapor pressure, and atmospheric pressure.
6. Recognizing the importance of accurate measurements and unit conversions in calculating gas pressures
and volumes during the experiment.
7. Overall, students will gain hands-on experience in applying gas laws, stoichiometry principles, and
experimental techniques to determine gas properties and validate theoretical concepts.

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MARKING SCHEME
Assessment Methods Marks
Pre-lab Quiz (available online 3 days before your lab) /6
*Must complete the quiz before you attend your lab session.
Post-lab Quiz: /8
Lab Notebook: /4
Lab Safety: /2
Total Marks: /20

INTRODUCTION
By this point in the course, students should be familiar with the ideal gas law: PV=nRT.
Where, P = pressure of the gas, V = volume of the gas (in litres) – (determined by your Vinitial – Vfinal readings
on your burette), n = moles of gas, and T = temperature (in K).
R = Ideal gas law Constant (in L·atm/mol·K)
In this experiment, you will use the Ideal Gas Law to determine the value of R by directly
measuring/recording the parameters, P,V, n and T. In order to accomplish your objective, you will explore
the chemical reaction of magnesium metal and hydrochloric acid, which produces hydrogen gas:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ---> MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The volume, pressure and temperature at which the hydrogen is collected will be measured. Knowing the
mass of magnesium and the reaction stoichiometry the number of moles, n, of hydrogen produced will be
calculated.
A eudiometer is a laboratory device that measures the change in volume of a gas mixture following a
physical or chemical change, as shown in Figure 5.1.

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 Figure 5.1: A eudiometer collecting gas from a reaction.
(Image source: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Scheme_of_eudiometr.png)
The gas formed from the reaction is trapped and displaces a known amount of liquid. For this experiment
you will be using a gas measuring tube, also called a gas burette, which will function in a similar manner
to a eudiometer tube.

Figure 5.2: A gas burette set-up (a) before inverting and (b) after inverting and while collecting gas.
(Image source: https://images.app.goo.gl/XyJn9SRF1HZAQXs29)

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In setting up the experiment, the gas burette will be inverted into a beaker of water at the beginning of the
reaction (see Figure 5.2). Since the gas will be collected over an aqueous solution, the gas pressure in the
tube at the end of the reaction is the combined sum of the hydrogen gas pressure and the vapour pressure
of water. Hence Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures can be applied:
P total = PA +PB +PC + … + PN (5.1)

For this reaction:

P total = Patm = PH2+ PH2O + Pair (5.2)

Patm : This is determined using a barometer that will be in the lab. The barometric pressure for
the day of the lab will be provided by the Lab Coordinator or TA.
PH2O : This value will be determined from the graph of Water Vapour Pressure vs Temperature
values (see table 1) that is to be completed as part of your pre-lab assignment.
Pair : Ideally, the amount of air in the burette should be minimized when the gas collection is
started. Since it will be much smaller than the other values, it can be considered
negligible.
Students can look up the true value of the Gas Constant, R, and should comment, in the discussion section
of the lab notebook, if assuming the Pair value is a proper assumption or not.
PH2: This value will be determined via the equation:
PH2 = Patm - PH2O – Plevel difference (5.3)
Where,
Plevel difference = = (the height difference (mm) of water in your burette and the water level in your beaker)13.5Plevel diffe
rence = = (the height difference mm of water in your burette and the water level in your beaker)13.5

Since the pressure of the gases in the burette (hydrogen and water vapour) will not be equal to atmospheric
pressure, the difference in levels must be measured with a ruler as accurately as possible. Note that the
graduations on the burette are in millilitres and not millimeters thus you must use the ruler. This difference
in height from the top of the aqueous solution in the beaker to the top of the liquid in the burette must be
converted to mm Hg. This can be accomplished by dividing the measured value (in mm) by 13.5 (the ratio
of densities of Hg in aqueous solution). This difference is then subtracted from the atmospheric
pressure. Be sure to watch the units when doing these calculations!

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Table 1: The Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures
T, °C P, mmHg T, ° C P, mmHg T, ° C P, mmHg T, ° C P, mmHg
13.0 11.2 19.0 16.5 25.0 23.8 31.0 33.7
14.0 12.0 20.0 17.5 26.0 25.2 32.0 35.7
15.0 12.8 21.0 18.7 27.0 26.7 33.0 37.7
16.0 13.6 22.0 19.8 28.0 28.3 34.0 39.9
17.0 14.5 23.0 21.1 29.0 30.0 35.0 42.2
18.0 15.5 24.0 22.4 30.0 31.8 36.0 44.6

PRE-LAB ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using the values from Table 1, using Excel create a scatter plot for the Pressure vs
Temperature values from Table 1. Be sure to include this in your notebook (print it out and glue
or staple it in).
Remember – the independent variable is always plotted on the x-axis while the dependent variable
is plotted on the y-axis.
Be sure to include a line of best fit (select exponential), the equation of the line, and the R 2
value. You will need to use the equation to determine PH2O
2. Determine how many grams of Mg must react with HCl in order to produce 40 mL of
hydrogen gas at 22°C and 1.02 bar.
3. What special precautions should be taken when an experiment you are performing
generates hydrogen gas?

SAFETY
Due to the hazardous nature of some of the chemicals used, chemical splash goggles must be worn while
the lab is in progress. Up until then, students may wear safety glasses that conform to CSA Standard
Z94.3 (high impact). The experiment should be performed inside the fume hood.

49
SDS REQUIREMENTS
1. Hydrochloric acid
2. Magnesium ribbon
3. Hydrogen

DISPOSAL OF REAGENTS
None of the solutions are to be poured down the drain. Any waste generated should be placed in the
appropriate labeled container in the fume hood.

EXPERIMENTAL
**This lab will be done in partners.

A. Preparing the Gas Burette & Practicing Inverting

1. Rinse the gas burette 3 times with tap water, followed by 3 times with distilled water. Fill the
burette to the brim with distilled water.
2. Stopper the open end of the gas burette with the rubber stopper & copper wire that you collected
from your TA.
3. Half a 600 mL beaker (approximately 300 mL) with distilled water.
4. Cover the stopper hole with your finger and invert the burette. Submerge the stoppered end into
the 600 mL beaker (as your TA demonstrated) and secure it on your butterfly clamp.
5. Make sure you are not removing your finger until the stoppered end is submerged. When you invert
your burette make sure there is as little space as possible between the bottom of the beaker and
the rubber stopper.
6. Ensure that there is little to no air bubble when the burette is inverted.
7. Familiarize yourself with reading the burette volume (this is key to making sure your results are
correct during the experiment). Record your burette reading to 2 decimal places.
• Similar to our liquid burette, when the gas burette is set-up correctly, the numbers
will increase as you read downwards.

50
B. Determining the Gas Constant ‘R’
8. Weigh a piece of Mg ribbon that you collected from your TA, using an analytical balance. Record
the mass to 4 decimal places.
9. Take the copper wire coil and carefully open it by gently bending the coil lengthwise. Gently create
a fold in your Mg strip (as your TA demonstrated) and place it in the copper coil, then enclose the
Mg strip into the copper coil to create a cage around it.
• Make sure that you do not fold the Mg strip with too much force so not to break it.
10. Add 18 mL of the 2 M HCl to the burette, using proper filling technique. Carefully add distilled
water until the gas burette is completely filled.
• THIS WILL BE THE ONLY TIME YOU WILL BE ASKED TO DO SO
SINCE IT VIOLATES THE GENERAL RULE THAT YOU NEVER ADD
WATER TO ACID – unfortunately the experiment will not work if you add the water
first.
11. Insert your copper wire stopper with the Mg, into the burette. Repeat Step 4 to quickly and
carefully invert the burette into the beaker with water. Make sure it is just up off the bottom of the
beaker to allow the liquid inside to escape.
• When fully inserted, the magnesium should be located about 4-6 cm inside the
burette.
12. Once the inverted burette has been clamped in place, your initial volume reading (Vinitial) is 0.00
mL. DO NOT MOVE YOUR BURETTE ONCE IN PLACE.
• The acid will slowly diffuse down the burette towards Mg and react with it - this
will be indicated by the bubbling of hydrogen gas.
13. Using a thermometer from your TA, measure the temperature of the water in the 600 mL beaker,
once the reaction begins.
14. Once bubbling stops, use your finger or a pencil to gently tap the end of the burette (without
moving it) to release any trapped bubbles in the copper coil.
15. After the reaction has ceased, (i.e. the bubbling has ceased and all of the Mg should have been
consumed) you can record the final burette reading, Vfinal, into your notebook. This will be the
volume of H2 (g) produced.
• If the reaction has ceased and there is Mg present on the Cu wire, the trial
failed. What went wrong?

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 16. Measure and record the height difference (in mm) of water in the burette and the water level in the
beaker. You can then solve for Plevel difference.
17. Repeat the experiment for a total of 2 times.
Once you have completed both trials you may dispose of all solutions into the labelled waste containers
provided. DO NOT put anything down the sink. Return your thermometer to the bucket at the TA
station.
Make sure that all of your glassware is clean and that you have completed your glassware check and
that your TA inspects your workspace before you leave the lab. Ensure your space is clean and tidy.

POST-LAB NOTEBOOK ASSIGNMENT (IN-CLASS):

1. Carry out the following calculations for each trial separately:
a. Calculate PH2 using Equation 5.3.
b. Convert the measured temperature into Kelvin. (Hint: t(K) = t(°C) + 273.15).
c. Solve for the number of moles of hydrogen gas that was produced. (Hint: which
reactant is the limiting reagent?)
d. Calculate your experimental gas constant, R, in units L·atm/mol·K.
2. Find the average of your experimental gas constant and determine the percentage error
based off of the accepted value of 0.08206 L·atm/mol·K.
3. Discuss your result findings and write a conclusion based off of your expectations for this
experiment.

Once your TA has approved your clean-up by checking your station, you are free to go!

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