Unit 8

Programming concepts
Programming languages and IDE

IDLE is Python Integrated development and learning

environment
Five basic constructs in a computer program
 Variables and constants
 Variables and constants are used to store a single item
of data in a program. This can be accessed through the
identifier.
Variable – A named memory location that can store data
which can change whilst a program is running
Constant – A named memory location that can store
data which cannot change whilst a program is running
Identifier – A name given to a variable or a constant
 Variable and constants
 Not all programming languages explicitly differentiate between

constants and variables, but programmers should be clear which data

stores can be changed and which cannot be changed.

 It is considered good practice to declare the constants and variables to

be used in that program. Some languages require explicit declarations,

which specifically state what type of data the variable or constant will

hold. Other languages like python require implicit declarations, where

the data type is based on the value assigned.

 Declarations can be at the start of a program or just before the data is

used for the first time.

 Naming of Variables

 In all programming languages, variable

names should follow certain rules, such as:
 Starting with a letter
 Not containing spaces
 Can contain letters, numbers, _ or $
 Not using reserved words (like if, while, for
etc.)
 Should be meaningful
 Problem statement

 The variables 'name' and 'age' are used to

store data in a program:
 name stores the user’s name
 age stores the user’s age
 Write pseudocode statements to store
“Anna” in user’s name and 30 in user’s age
 Convert the statements to Python
 Data Types

 The characteristics of a piece of data.

 Data in a program can be of different types
 Data Types

 A data type is a classification of data into groups according to the kind of

data they represent
 Computers use different data types to represent different types of data in a
program
 The basic data types include:
 Integer: used to represent whole numbers, either positive or negative
 Examples: 10, -5, 0
 Real: used to represent numbers with a fractional part, either positive or
negative
 Examples: 3.14, -2.5, 0.0
 Char: used to represent a single character such as a letter, digit or symbol
 Examples: 'a', 'B', '5', '$'
 String: used to represent a sequence of characters
 Examples: "Hello World", "1234", "@#$%
 Boolean: used to represent true or false values
 Examples: True, False
 Practice Questions

1. Write a pseudocode and python statements for the

following
- Storing “red” in a variable
- Storing 10 in a variable
- Storing real number 22.6 in a variable
- Storing True in a variable.
2. Write a pseudocode statement to assign the word
“house” to a variable named MyWord
3. Write a pseudocode statement to declare a constant
named MultiplyValue with the value 10.
Basic Data Types
 Practice Question

 Name and describe the most appropriate

programming data type for each of the
examples of data given. Each data type must
be different [6]
1. Data: 83
2. Data: myemail@abc.co.uk
3. Data: True
 Marking Scheme

 Data type name: Integer [1]

Data type description: The number is a whole
number [1]
 Data type name: String [1]
Data type description: It is a group of characters [1]
 Data type name: Boolean [1]
Data type description: The value is True (or could be
False) [1]
 Variables and constants

 Python does not require any separate

declarations and does not differentiate
between constants and variables.
Programmers need to keep track of and
manage these differences instead
Hint
 Output Statements

 Output refers to the process of displaying or saving the results of

a program to the user.
 Format the output to make it readable and understandable by
the user
 For a program to be useful, the user needs to know what results
are being output, so each output needs to be accompanied by a
message explaining the result.
e.g print("Volume of the cylinder is ", volume)
Pseudocode example:
OUTPUT "Hello, ", name
Python example:
print("Hello, ", name)
 Input Statements

 'User Input' is data or information entered by the user during

program execution.
 For a program to be useful, the user needs to know what they are
expected to input, so each input needs to be accompanied by a
prompt stating the input required.
 Prompt is a statement required by the user to provide designated
input.
Pseudocode example:
OUTPUT "Enter your name"
INPUT name
Python example:
name = input("Enter your name: ")
Input Output Statements practice
questions

1. Convert a string in to an integer

2. Convert a number in to string
3. Output the words “Hello World”
4. Output the number 20
5. Output the word Hello, then the contents of the variable
name
6. Output the number of balloons stored in a variable
balloon
7. Tell a user to enter a word and store it in a variable
 Answers

Concatenation
1. Number= int(“123”) Means joining together. It
2. Value = string(22) joins multiple pieces of data
with a comma
3. Print (“Hello world”)
4. Print (20)
5. Print (“Hello”, name)
6. Print (“There are”, Balloon, “balloons”)
7. Print (“Enter a word”)
input word
 Programming Task

3. Select appropriate variables for the items you have identified

that you are going to store
4. Write a program to ask the user to enter each of the items in
turn. Read in each value and store in an appropriate variable
5. Output a message confirming the details that the user has
entered.
Arithmetic operators
MOD
Vs
DIV
 Task

Write a pseudocode to find

even or odd number from
the user’s input.
 Even or Odd

 If a number is evenly divisible by 2 with no remainder,

then it is even. You can calculate the remainder with
the modulo operator % like this num % 2 == 0 .
 If a number divided by 2 leaves a remainder of 1, then
the number is odd. You can check for this using
num % 2 == 1 .
 Programming Task

1. Find the whole number

after dividing 33 by 7
2.Find the remainder after
dividing 33 by 7
 Answers

1. result= DIV(33,7)
2. Result = MOD (33,7)
MOD and DIV are the library
routines
 Library routines

 A library routine is a block of code (subroutine, procedure,

function etc), often designed to handle commonly
occurring problems or tasks.
 Library routines are stored in a program library and given
names. This allows them to be called into immediate use
when needed, even from other programs. They are
designed to be used frequently.
 Using library routines make writing programs faster and
easier as part of the work has already been done (and
debugged).
Order of calculations
 Programming Task

 Write pseudocode for the following

1. Sum of two numbers
2. Subtracting 10 from 20
3. Multiplication of two numbers
4. Dividing 100 by 6
 Basic concepts

 When writing the steps required to solve a problem,

the following concepts need to be used and
understood:
» sequence
» selection
» iteration
» counting and totalling
» string handling
» use of operators
 Sequence

The ordering of the steps in an

algorithm is very important.
An incorrect order can lead to
incorrect results and/or extra steps
that are not required by the task.
Completer the
Trace Table
With test data
25,27,23,999
 Trace Table

 Identify mistakes and rewrite the pseudocode.

Completer the Trace Table With test data
25,27,23,999
Trace Table
 Selection

 Selection is a programming concept

that allows you to execute different
sets of instructions based on certain
conditions. There are two main types
of selection statements: IF statements
and CASE statements.
 Logical operators

 Conditions need logical operators

 Each condition using a logical operator result in true
or false.
Logical operators
Boolean Operators
Boolean Operators
 If Statements

 IF statements allow you to execute a set of

instructions if a condition is true. They have the
following syntax:
IF condition
THEN
instructions
ENDIF
 Programming task

Write a pseudocode that

takes a number from the
user and display whether
the number is positive or
negative
 IF ELSE Statements

 If else statements are used to execute one set of

statements if a condition is true and a different set of
statements if the condition is false. They have the
following syntax:
IF condition
THEN
Instructions
ELSE
Instructions
ENDIF
 Programming Task

Write a pseudocode that takes a

number from the user and
display whether the number is
positive or negative using IF
ELSE statements
 IF ELSE IF Statements

 If else if statements are used to test multiple conditions and

execute different statements for each condition. They have the
following syntax:
IF condition
THEN
Instructions
ELSE IF condition
THEN
Instructions
ELSE
Instructions
ENDIF
 Programming Task

Write a pseudocode that takes

a number from the user and
display whether the number is
positive or negative using IF
ELSE IF statements
 Programming Task

 Write an algorithm using pseudocode that:

 Inputs 3 numbers
 Outputs the largest of the three numbers
[3]
 Answer

 INPUT a, b, c
IF a > b AND a > c THEN PRINT a [1]
ELSE IF b > c THEN PRINT b [1]
ELSE PRINT c [1]


 Case Statements

 CASE statements allow you to execute

different sets of instructions based on the
value of a variable. They have the following
syntax:
CASE OF variable
value1: instructions
value2: instructions
...
OTHERWISE instructions
END CASE
 Problem statement

Write a pseudocode using

a SELECT CASE to output a
grade for a test.
 Answer

 INPUT score
CASE OF Score:
80:
Print (“A”)
75:
Print (“B”)
OTHERWISE PRINT (“u”)
ENDCASE
 Programming TASK

 Describe what is meant by selection, identify any two

examples of selection
 Write a peudocode which ask the user to input a
colour and output a different message if the user
enters the words “yellow”, “green”, “orange”. If
neither of these are entered, the program should
output a different message. Use a CASE statement.
 Iteration

 What is iteration?
 Iteration is the process of repeating a set of instructions
until a specific condition is met. It is an important
programming concept and is used to automate repetitive
tasks.There are three main types of iteration:
 » Count-controlled loops (for a set number of iterations)
 » Pre-condition loops – may have no iterations
 » Post-condition loops – always has at least one iteration.
 Count-controlled Loops

 A count-controlled loop is used when the number of

iterations is known beforehand
 It is also known as a definite loop
 It uses a counter variable that
is incremented or decremented after each iteration
 The loop continues until the counter reaches a specific value
 Example in Pseudocode:
count ← 1
FOR i <= 10
OUTPUT count
NEXT
 Pre-condition Loops

 A precondition loop is used when the number of iterations is not

known beforehand and is dependent on a condition being true
 It is also known as an indefinite loop
 The loop will continue to execute while the condition is true and
will stop once the condition becomes false
 Example in Pseudocode:
INPUT temperature
WHILE temperature > 37 DO
OUTPUT "Patient has a fever"
INPUT temperature
END WHILE
 Postcondition Loops

 A post-condition loop is used when the loop must

execute at least once, even if the condition is false
from the start
 The condition is checked at the end of the loop

Example in Pseudocode:
REPEAT
INPUT guess
UNTIL guess = 42

 Totalling
 Totalling involves adding up values, often in a loop
 A total variable can be initialised to 0 and then
updated within a loop, such as:
 Counting
 Counting involves keeping track of the number of
times a particular event occurs
 A count variable can be initialised to 0 and then
updated within a loop, such as:
 Programming Task

Write an algorithm using

pseudocode that:
Inputs 20 numbers
Outputs how many of these
numbers are greater than 50
Answer
 String Handling

 Strings are a sequence of characters, such as letters,

numbers, and symbols
 They are used to represent text in a computer
program
 String handling refers to the various operations that
can be performed on strings
 String Handling
Length
 The length of a string is the number of characters it contains
 In Python, the len() function is used to find the length of a string
Substring
 A substring is a portion of a string
 In Python, the substring can be obtained using the slicing operator [:]
Upper
 The upper() method converts all characters of a string to uppercase
 In Python, the upper() method is used to convert a string to uppercase
Lower
 The lower() method converts all characters of a string to lowercase
 In Python, the lower() method is used to convert a string to lowercase
SUBSTRING
 Position of First Character

 The first character of a string can be at

position zero or one, depending on the
programming language
 In Python and Java, the first character
of a string is at position zero
 In Pseudocode, the first character of a
string is at position one
 Programming Task

 The function Length(x) finds the length of a string

x. The function substring(x,y,z) finds a substring of x
starting at position y and z characters long. The first
character in x is in position 1.
 Write pseudocode statements to:
 Store the string “Save my exams” in x
 Find the length of the string and output it
 Extract the word exams from the string and output it
Answer
 Cambridge Outline

 CAIE outline
 Nested Statements

 A construct (selection or iteration) that is inside

another construct
 Nested statements involve including one statement
within another statement. This can be done with both
selection (if/else) and iteration (for/while) statements
 In programming languages like Python, Java, and
Visual Basic, nested statements are often indicated by
indenting the inner statement(s) relative to the outer
statement(s)
 Nested Selection

 Nested selection is an IF statement inside an IF

statement
 If the first if statement is true, it will run the if
statement which is nested inside
 Otherwise, it will skip to the "else if" or "else" which
is part of that if statement
 Nested Iteration

 Nested iteration is useful when we need to perform a

task for a specific range of values
 It is important to keep track of the number of nested
statements
 It is important to keep nested statements organized
and clear. Use consistent indentation and avoid going
too many levels deep, as this can make the code
difficult to read and understand
 Programming task

Write a pseudocode that

count how many numbers
entered are greater than
10 and how many are
equal to 10
Answer
 Programming task

Write a pseudocode that

output only the vowels in
a message. Take input if
the user selects option 1
1
Count)
Answers
 Use of nested statements

 Selection and iteration statements can be nested one

inside the other. This powerful method reduces the
amount of code that needs to be written and makes it
simpler for a programmer to test their programs.
 One type of construct can be nested within another –
for example, selection can be nested within a
condition-controlled loop, or one loop can be nested
within another loop.
Programming Task (Page 319-320)

 calculate and output highest, lowest, and average

marks awarded for a class of twenty students
 calculate and output largest, highest, lowest, and
average marks awarded for each student
 calculate and output largest, highest, lowest, and
average marks for each of the six subjects studied by
the student; each subject has five tests.
 Assume that all marks input are whole numbers
between 0 and 100
Cambridge Outline
Subroutine
Subroutines
 Subroutines

It is a piece of code that has

an identifier and it can be
called from anywhere in the
main program.
Benefits of subroutines

 Subroutines make programs easier

to read.
 They reduce the duplication of
code.
 Complex problems are broken
down into smaller chunks.
 Types of subroutines

 Procedures
A procedure just executes commands, such
as printing something a certain number of
times.

 Function
A function produces information by receiving
data from the main program and returning a
value to the main program.
PROCEDURE
EXAMPLE
DEFINING AND CALLING FUNCTIONS
EXAMPLE
Differences between procedures and
functions

 A function uses parameters to

transfer data from the main
program into the function.
A function returns a value to the
main program.
 Parameters

These are the variables

sent to functions and
procedures
Task 1: write the call statement
Task 2: Convert to a procedure
Past Paper Question
Marking Scheme
 Practice Task

Write a pseudocode that

defines a procedure which takes
two values as firstnumber and
lastnumber and display all the
numbers from firstnumber to
lastnumber
Answer
TRACE THE OUTPUT OF
LOCAL AND GLOBAL
VARIABLES
Memory and Variables
Answers
Library routines
CAIE outline
Creating a maintainable program
 Once a program is written, it may need to be
maintained or updated by another
programmer at a later date.
 The programmer may have no documentation
other than a copy of the source program.
 Even a programmer looking at their own
program several years later may have
forgotten exactly how all the tasks in it were
completed!
 A maintainable program should:

» use meaningful identifiers for variables, functions

and procedures
» always use meaningful identifier names for: variables
– constants – arrays – procedures – functions
» be divided into modules for each task using: –
procedures – functions
» be fully commented using your programming
language’s commenting feature.
#Python uses hash to start a comment for every line
Example