General Biology 1 Sci5

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General Biology 1 (Sci5)
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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 (Sci5) osteocytes divide to create new bone cells, enlarging
(First Semester, First Quarter Reviewer) the femur bones.
• Development is the process by which an organism
BIOLOGY becomes a mature adult.
• Derived from the 2 Greek words “BIO” meaning - A single cell divides to form a cluster.
“life” and “LOGOS” meaning “study.” Defined as the - These cells differentiate (take a specific tasks) to
“science of life and living organisms.” form specialized tissues or organs.
• Natural science that studies life and living - As the number of cells increase, the complexity of
organisms, including their physical structure, the organism increases also.
chemical processes, molecular interactions,
physiological mechanisms, development, and 2. REPRODUCTION
evolution. • Production of new organisms is essential for the
• Since there is no unequivocal definition of life, most continuation of a species.
current definitions in biology are descriptive. • Life is • Hereditary information (DNA) is transferred to
considered a characteristic of something that offspring via sexual and asexual reproduction.
preserves, furthers, or reinforces its existence in the
given environment. TWO (2) TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
• This characteristic exhibit all or most of the living A. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
things traits. • 2 parents supply the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). •
SIX (6) MAJOR BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY Heredity information recombines from 2 organisms of
the same species
1. ZOOLOGY • Examples are most plants and animals.
• Scientific study of animals.
B. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
2. BOTANY • 1 parent supplies the DNA.
• Scientific study of plants. • Original and new organisms are genetically the
same.
3. MICROBIOLOGY
• Examples are bacteria, some plants and algae, and
• Study of microorganisms, those being unicellular,
primitive animals like worms, sponges, hydra.
multicellular, or acellular.
3. GENETICS
4. GENETICS
• Study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in GENETICS
organisms. • Branch of biology that studies heredity.
5. ANATOMY HEREDITY
• Study of the structure of organisms and their parts. • The passing on of traits from parent to offspring.
6. PHYSIOLOGY TRAITS
• Deals with the normal functions of living organisms • Characteristics that are inherited.
and their parts.
4. HOMEOSTASIS
NINE (9) CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE • How an organism keeps itself stable on the inside
even though its environment might be changing. •
1. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The body needs to keep itself the same in order to
• Development is the partner of growing.
stay healthy and survive.
• Every living thing exhibit growth.
• Body’s way of staying balance.
- Living organisms increase in size and number of
• Examples are sweating when it is too hot, shivering
cells.
when it is too cold, keeping the same blood pressure,
- Cells get bigger and divide to create more cells. -
and balance of water and nutrients.
Example, the legs of a child grow longer as
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THE ROLE OF THYROXIN IN BODY TEMPERATURE • Variety of starting materials.
REGULATION • Defined end products.
Hotter temperatures cause hypothalamus to inhibit • Produces ATP
thyroxin release (from thyroid), which decreases metabolic • Example is oxidation of glucose and fats.
rate of the body to reduce heat production
(lower body temperature).

Colder temperatures cause hypothalamus to stimulate A. ANABOLISM
thyroxin release (from thyroid) which increases • Set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules
metabolic rate of the body to generate heat (raising from smaller units, these reactions require energy,
body temperature). known also as an endergonic process.
• Builds complex molecules from simpler ones. •
5. METABOLISM
Synthetic reactions.
• Broad term that refers to all chemical reactions that
• Reductive energy requiring.
occur within body cells.
• Well defined starting material.
• Example of a metabolic reaction is the 1 that takes
• Variety of end products.
place when a person eats a spoonful of sugar.
• Uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
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• Examples are biosynthesis of proteins, lipids, and
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polysaccharide. LARGEST, LAST, OR MOST COMPLEX:

Population → community → ecosystem → biome →
B. CATABOLISM biosphere
• Set of metabolic pathways that breaks down
molecules into smaller units that are either oxidized LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
to release energy or used in other anabolic reactions. Atom → molecule or compound → organelle → cell →
• Breaks large molecules into smaller ones. • tissue → organ → organ system → organism
Degradative reactions.
• Oxidative energy yielding. 7. RESPONSE
RESPONSE AND STIMULUS

6. CELLULAR
• Relating to or consisting of living cells. A. RESPONSE
• Animals and humans use their senses (sight,
BIOLOGICAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF
hearing, taste, touch, and smell) to detect change.
LIVING THINGS
• Plants use chemicals and hormones to detect
Cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism →
changes in their environment.
population → community → ecosystem → biome →
• Any change an organism makes as a result of a
biosphere
change in the environment.
SMALLEST, FIRST, OR LEAST COMPLEX: Cell → • Examples are flinching at the sound of a noise,
tissue → organ → organ system → organism moving toward food, and running from sight of
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- Excrete carbon dioxide
SENIOR HIGH
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• Anything in an organism’s environment that causes • Process of gaseous exchange, taking air in and out
the organism to react. of the body.
• Examples are loud noise, smell of food, and • Removes the carbon dioxide produced during
predator. respiration.
MOVEMENT B. RESPIRATION
• Animals move to find food and shelter. • Takes place in every living cell.
• Can be the difference between life and death. • • Process that involves the release of energy from
Plants do not move, but they can bend toward food.
sunlight • Uses the oxygen absorbed during breathing.
• All living things also have internal movement of
substances like food, water, waste, etc. 9. EXCRETION
• Process that rids body of metabolic wastes
LIFE SPAN especially nitrogenous wastes.
• Average length of life of a kind of organism or of a
material object especially in a particular environment FOUR (4) ORGANS THAT PERFORM EXCRETION
or under specified circumstances. A. KIDNEYS
• Duration of existence of an individual. - Excrete nitrogenous wastes like ammonia, urea, uric
8. BREATHING acid, and creatinine
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BREATHING AND B. LIVER

RESPIRATION - Excrete bile pigments
D. SKIN
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INTRODUCTION TO CYTOLOGY 1. ALL LIVING ORGANISMS ARE MADE UP OF 1 OR

MORE CELLS.
CYTOLOGY - In 1838, German botanist Matthias Jacob Schleiden
• Study of the cell. established that the small compartments in his plant
• Branch of biology concerned with the structure and specimens are cells.
function of plant and animal cells. - In 1839, German zoologist Theodore Schwann after
THE CELL THEORY doing microscopic studies of animal cells, instituted
• Proposed and widely accepted view of how most that all animals are also composed of cells.
life on earth functions.
• Unifying theories in biology, and that is universally
accepted by all biologists.
• According to the theory, all organisms are made of
cells. Groups of cells create tissues, organs, and
organisms. Further, cells can only arise from other
cells. These are the main tenants of cell theory. • The 2. THE CELL IS THE BASIC UNIT OF STRUCTURE
scientists Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann AND FUNCTION FOR ALL LIVING ORGANISMS. - In
are credited with establishing the cell theory in 1839. order that an organism may be considered living, it
However, there was a lot of work done over the must have a cell. 1 proof that an organism is alive just
previous centuries which paved the way. by looking at its cell under microscope is the
movement of the organelles inside it.
THREE (3) POSTULATE OF THE CELL THEORY

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- In the cork that Robert Hooke examined, the 1595
protoplasm of the cell has already dissipated,
indicating the cell’s death. ZACHARIAS JANSSEN (1580 - 1638)
- When Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed his teeth • Invented the first compound microscope with the
scrapings, he found animalcules shooting and help of his father Hans Janssen.
spinning inside the cell. • Experimented with multiple lenses placed in a tube
that made objects in front of the tube appeared
3. ALL CELLS ARISE FROM PRE-EXISTING CELLS. greatly enlarged.
- In 1858, German scientist Rudolf Virchow • Without the invention of the microscope, people
introduced the third tenet of the cell theory: Omnis would be unable to discover cells or see their
cellula e cellula which translates roughly from Latin structures.
to “all cells arise from pre-existing cells.”
First compound microscope

1655
A cell dividing through mitosis.
ROBERT HOOKE (1635 - 1703)
WHILE THE NEW STATEMENTS ON CELL THEORY
• First person to see cells under a microscope.
STATES THAT…
• British scientist who looked at a thin slice of cork
- Energy flow occurs within cells.
under the microscope and saw a honeycomb
- All cells have the same basic chemical composition. -
structure made up of small compartments he called
Hereditary information (DNA) is passed on from cell to
“cells” because he remarked that it looked strangely
cell.
similar to cellula or small rooms which monks
CELL THEORY TIMELINE inhabited.
• He actually saw was the dead cell walls of plant cells
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(cork) as it appeared under the microscope.
Microscope used by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
Drawing of the microscope set up used by Robert

Hooke in 1665 and the drawing of the honeycomb
structure that he saw under the microscope
1674
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632 - 1723) • First
person to see living cells under a microscope. • He
significantly improved the quality of microscope that
Janssen did, he improved the lenses to the point that
he could see protozoa, a single-celled or unicellular
organisms that lived in a drop of pond water. He Animalcules saw by Leeuwenhoek under the
called these organisms “animalcules,” which means microscope
“miniature animals” and now called microorganisms.

1Q - Sci5 1833

ROBERT BROWN (1773 - 1858) that all animals are made up of cells, this laid the
• Made a series of discoveries about cell organelles foundations for the cell theory.
and ultimately discovered that the cell on orchids • Blended both statements into 1 theory which said:
have a nucleus and this became a major (1) all living organisms are made up of 1 or more cells;
breakthrough in the history of biology. and (2) the cell is the basic unit of structure and
function for all living organisms.
1838-1839
MATTHIAS JAKOB SCHLEIDEN (1804 -1881) •
Studied plants and proposed the first foundational
belief about cells, that all plants are made up of cells. •
He worked with Theodor Schwann to create what is
called cell theory. The cell theory states that all living
things are made up of 1 or more cells. Animal cell under the microscope
1858
RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1821 - 1902)
Plant cell under the microscope

Cell dividing through mitosis
THEODOR SCHWANN (1810 - 1882)
• Demonstrated the same fact as Schleiden did, but he CELL
examine for animal tissues, and in 1839,Downloaded
he concluded
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• Basic structural, functional and biological unit of a
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living organisms. cells every second.

• Can exist independently while none of their
constituents can. TWO (2) TYPES OF CELLS
• So tiny that you can’t see it with your naked eye. • 1. EUKARYOTIC CELLS (EUKARYOTES) • Always
Small structures or organelles inside of cell with have nucleus and other membrane-bound
specific functions. organelles, meaning these organelles like
• Englishman Robert Hooke discovered the cell by mitochondria and lysosome are surrounded by a
examining a cork under a microscope. phospholipid bilayer.
• There are 30 billion cells in a human body. • Example are animal and plant cells.
• There are 100 trillion cells in an adult.
• There are 155 thousand cells in every square meter ANATOMY OF THE ANIMAL CELL
of the skin of the human body.
• There are 20 trillion red blood cells in a human
body. M L K
• A drop of blood can contain millions of cells. • C
50,000 of cell dies and is being replaced with new
HI
• Saw cells dividing under the theory: (3) Omnis cellula e cellula J
microscope, thus he proved that cells which translates roughly from Latin to B
come from other cells, not from living “all cells arise from pre-existing cells.”
matter. F
D G
• Introduced the third tenet of the cell
E A
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Unisite Subdivision, Del Pilar, City of San
ONE (1) PART OR ORGANELLE WHICH LIES IN THE K. Nuclear envelope
PLASMA MEMBRANE L. Nucleolus
A. Cell membrane I. Chloroplast
J. Ribosomes
NINE (9) PART OR ORGANELLES WHICH LIES IN
K. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
THE CYTOPLASM
L. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
B. Cytosol
M. Central vacuole
C. Centrioles
N. Golgi apparatus
D. Cytoskeleton
E. Mitochondria THREE (3) PART OR ORGANELLES WHICH LIES IN
F. Lysosome THE NUCLEUS
G. Ribosomes O. Nuclear envelope
H. Rough endoplasmic reticulum P. Nucleolus
I. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Q. Nucleoplasm
J. Golgi apparatus
2. PROKARYOTIC CELLS (PROKARYOTES) •
THREE (3) PART OR ORGANELLES WHICH LIES IN Have no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles •
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ANATOMY OF THE BACTERIA CELL
M. Nucleoplasm
HG
ANATOMY OF THE PLANT CELL
A
BCD FE

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B D. Plasmodesmata
E H
F GI TEN (10) PART OR ORGANELLES WHICH
D LIES IN THE CYTOPLASM
C E. Cytosol
F. Peroxisome
NINE (9) G. Cytoskeleton
PART OR H. Mitochondria
D. Cytoplasm
E. Nucleoid (circular DNA)
F. Plasma membrane
G. Cell wall
ORGANELLES OF A BACTERIA CELL H. Capsule
A. Pili I. Bacterial flagellum
B. Plasmid
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF A CELL •
C. Ribosomes
Cellular shape, size, and structure vary widely and
FOUR (4) PART OR ORGANELLES WHICH LIES IN express adaptation for the specific functions of each
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE cell in specialized tissues or organs. However, most
A. Plasma membrane cells share general structural characteristics.
B. Cell wall
C. Wall of adjacent cell THREE (3) BASIC PARTS OF A CELL

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1. CELL, CYTOPLASMIC, OR PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Regulates materials entering and exiting the cell
and also it regulates the passage of nutrients, wastes
products and secretions in and out of the cell. • Acts
like a screen or a net, allowing certain molecules and
substances to enter and leave the cell. • Skin covering
of the cell.
• Made up of 2 layers of phospholipids, proteins,
glycoproteins (glucose + protein).
• Selective permeability or semi-permeable, meaning
it only allows certain molecules to enter or exit the Phospholipid bilayer of a cell membrane consisting of
cell. nonpolar tails, which are hydrophobic, meaning
THREE (3) FACTORS TO CONSIDER FOR A water loving, while the polar head, which are
MATERIAL TO ENTER THE CELL hydrophobic, meaning resistant to water.
A. Compatibility of the molecule
B. Size of the molecule
C. Charge, either positive or negative

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• Gives support to the cell.

• Protects and seals off the cell from foreign
substances and organisms.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROTOPLASM,

CYTOPLASM, AND CYTOSOL
A. PROTOPLASM
• Everything contained within the cell membrane. •
Divided into nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. -
Nucleoplasm is everything contained inside the
nuclear membrane while nucleosol is the solution in
nucleoplasm.
Cell membrane allowing certain molecules to enter or B. CYTOPLASM

exit the cell or selective permeability. • Everything contained between the cell membrane
and the nuclear membrane.
2. CYTOPLASM • Contains cytosol and organelles.
• Made up of fluid and organelles except for nucleus.
• Cytosol is the liquid portion or non-organelles. • C. CYTOSOL
Site, area, or space where most of the metabolic • Solution in the cytoplasm.
reactions takes place. • Area of cytoplasm that is not held by organelles.
• Houses and contains the enzymes and other solutes • Cytoplasm - organelles = cytosol.
of the cell.
• Semifluid, gelatinous, and nutrient matrix. • Area
or space between the cell membrane and the
nucleus.
• Container for the cell’s organelles.
• Barrier for preventing molecules from moving in
and out of a cell at random.
• Houses some of the cell’s enzymes and energy
containing machines.

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SIX (6) COMPOSITION OF CYTOSOL • Carries information about the functions of the DNA. •
A. Water The interphase nucleus contains chromatin and 1 or
B. Enzymes several nucleoli.
C. Dissolved oxygen • Most conspicuous, most prominent, and largest
D. Proteins and carbohydrates organelle.
E. Essential nutrients
FOUR (4) PART OF THE NUCLEUS
F. Lipids and wastes products
A. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE OR ENVELOPE •
3. NUCLEUS
Regulates what enters or exists the nucleus. • Skin of
• Controls the entire functions of the cell and it serves
the nucleus and has double membrane. • Consist of 2
as the information center.
concentric membranes separated by a perinuclear
• Commonly spherical to avoid although they may space and it also consist of double layer of lipids.
also be spindle-shaped, bean-shaped or kidney
shaped or monocytes, or multilobulated or B. NUCLEOLUS
neutrophilic leucocytes. • Made up of RNA and proteins.
• Membrane bound, contains DNA. • Manufactures ribosomes.
• Regulates deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and • Produces RNA, which are used to make all proteins. •
ribonucleic acid (RNA) actions. Located inside the nucleus, separates from DNA.
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C. NUCLEOPLASM OR KARYOPLASM • Organelle means “little organs.”

• Substance of a cell nucleus, especially that not • Small parts that do different jobs for the cell.
forming part of a nucleolus.
CHANNELS AND FACTORIES
• Gelatinous matrix and protein-rich.
D. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) 1. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Information on how to make proteins. • Work is to manufacture and transport system. •
• Made up of nucleotides, locked in the nucleus. Highly convoluted in structure.
• May or may not contain ribosomes.
DNA CAN BE (2) • Network of channels.
a. CHROMATIN TWO (2) TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• Unorganized DNA (normal state).
A. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM • Has
b. CHROMOSOMES ribosomes attached on the surfaces. • Synthesized
• Organized DNA (present before cell division). proteins to Golgi apparatus. • Participates in the
protein production because of the attached
ribosomes on the surfaces.
B. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM • Devoted
to production, processing, and sometimes destruction
of lipids.
PROTEIN FACTORIES
2. RIBOSOMES
• Site of protein synthesis.
• Produced in the nucleolus in the nucleus. • Made up
of ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA), and proteins.
• Most numerous organelles, among the smallest
chromatin organelle.
• Prokaryotic cells have more ribosomes than
chromosomes
eukaryotic cells.
ORGANELLES
TWO (2) MAJOR SUBUNITS OF A RIBOSOME
Svedberg unit PACKAGING CENTER
3. GOLGI APPARATUS
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Fernando 2000, Pampanga, Philippines TWO (2) TYPES OF
CELLULAR DIGESTION
SENIOR HIGH
A. PINOCYTOSIS
SCHOOL - GRADE 40 S • Liquid-based digestion.
• Membrane-bound vesicle that contain
12 Academic Track - Science, Technology, hydrolytic enzymes or acid hydrolases.
• When cells take in fluid (cell
drinking).
• Present in both plant and animal cell.
B. PHAGOCYTOSIS
1. Small subunit
• Solid-based digestion.
• When cells take in large particles (cell
Page 9 of 27 eating). TWO (2) TYPES OF
60 S
PHAGOCYTOSIS
40 S
2. Large subunit
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• Packaging center of the cell which packages the • Suicide bag of the cell.
proteins and carbohydrates produced by rough • Originated from Golgi bodies.
endoplasmic reticulum, it labels and ships proteins
out of the cell. a. ENDOCYTOSIS
• Produces the membranes that bounds lysosomes. • • Takes in food from outside of the cell.
Connects and communicate with endoplasmic
reticulum. b. EXOCYTOSIS
• Takes out or expel wastes from inside of the cell.
• Discovered by Camillo Golgi.
• Pancake-shaped layered organelle.
• Animal cell has lesser Golgi bodies than plant cell.
ENERGY SYSTEM
4. MITOCHONDRIA
• Powerhouse of the cell.
• Rod or sausage shaped organelle.
• Energy factories.
• Site for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production. •
Center for cellular respiration (oxidative
metabolism).
• Sugar is converted into energy called ATP.
CLEAN UP CREWS
5. LYSOSOMES
• Derived from the 2 Greek words: LYSO, meaning
“dissolving power,” and SOMA, meaning “body.” • Has
poisonous enzymes. Enzymes are biological molecules
(typically proteins) that significantly speed up the rate
of virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place 6. PEROXISOMES
within cells. • Derived from the 2 words: PEROXI, meaning
• Digest nutrients and cell wastes. “hydrogen peroxide (H2O2),” and SOME, meaning
“body.”
• Breaks down foreign substances and old cells. •
Recycle cell’s used parts. • These are membrane-bound spherical organelles
with finely granular materials and crystalline

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electron-dense inclusions abundant in hepatocytes and cholesterol and break down fats.
and epithelial cells of proximal convoluted tubules. •
They are the major site of oxygen utilization in the STORAGE TANK
cell and are rich in catalase and hydrogen peroxide. • 7. VACUOLE
Functions are detoxification reactions and • Store food or any variety of nutrients a cell might
breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA. need to survive.
• Vesicle that contain enzymes to oxidize organic • Storage center of the cell.
substance like fats. In other words, they use oxygen • Fluid-filled cavity. Cavity is an empty space within a
to break down molecules. solid object.
• The enzymes in these organelles produce hydrogen • Contains a white sap called cell sap in plant cell
peroxide. only.
• Hydrogen peroxide is broken down right away by • Present in eukaryotic cells but absent in prokaryotic
the enzyme catalase into oxygen and water. • cells.
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• Plant cell has bigger vacuoles than animal cell.
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THE FRAMEWORK A. MICROTUBULES

• Hollow tubules made of proteins.
8. CYTOSKELETON • Forms centrioles.
• They often form complex meshwork that maintains • Support for cell shape, help more organelles, and
cell shape and stability and responsible for cell aids in cell division.
movement. • Can be assembled and disassembled.
• Gives the cell its shape and stabilizes the lipid
membrane. B. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
• It moves, anchors its organelles, and directs traffic. • Composed of fibrous proteins
• Steel and hollow blocks of the cell - it strengthens, • Cannot be assembled & disassembled
supports, and stiffen the cell. • Like structure like collagen
C. MICROFILAMENTS
• Long, thin protein fibers or threads.
• Concentrated in bundles.
• Support for cell shape, help move organelles and
aids in cell division.
• Can be assembled & disassembled.
D. MICROTRABECULAE
• Forms the bulk of the network.
• Dense network of wisplike fibers.
• Most recent discovery.
9. CENTRIOLES
• Helps in the formation of the spindle fibers that
separate the chromosomes during cell division
(mitosis).
• Comprise of 9 groups of 3 microtubules in
longitudinal and parallel orientation.
• They form a cylinder 0.1-0.2 in diameter and 0.2-
0.3mm long.
FOUR (4) ELEMENTS OF CYTOSKELETON • Each centriole is surrounded by finely granular,
pericentriolar material.
Fernando 2000, Pampanga, Philippines CELL DIVISION
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10. PLASTIDS • Pigments for red, orange, and yellow.

• Membrane-bound organelles.
C. CHLOROPLAST
• Sites of photosynthesis.
• Chloro, meaning “green.”
• Another type of energy-producing organ.
• Contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
THREE (3) TYPES OF PLASTIDS
2. CELL WALL (PLANT CELLS ONLY)
A. LEUCOPLAST • Rigid outer covering of the plant cell.
• Leuco, meaning “white.” • Maintains the shape of the plant cell and it provides
• Stores starch, proteins, and oils. support for the cell and the plant.
• Numerous in storage organs like roots. • Made up of cellulose, which is a complex molecule. •
Animals do not have cell walls because animals have
B. CHROMOPLAST other forms of support like exoskeletons and
• Chromo, meaning “color.” Downloaded by Mintzz (carldoria201@gmail.com)
endoskeletons, and the lack of the cell wall allows for
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increased flexibility and advanced cell or tissue cells.

specialization, which plants cannot achieve. • Cell division distributes identical sets of
chromosomes to daughter cells.
3. MOBILITY MECHANISMS
• A cell’s genetic information (genome) is package as
• Responsible for the mobility of organisms. •
DNA.
Present in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
• In prokaryotes, the genome is often a single long
TWO (2) THINGS THAT HELP A CELL MOVE DNA molecule.
• In eukaryotes, the genome consists of several DNA
A. FLAGELLA molecules.
• Single or few long and filamentous. • A human cell must duplicate about 3 m of DNA and
separate the 2 copies such that each daughter cell
B. CILIA
ends up with a complete genome.
• Short and numerous.
• DNA molecules are packaged into chromosomes.
• Human gametes (sperm or eggs) have 23
chromosomes half the number in a somatic cell. •
Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of a long,
linear DNA molecule.
• Each chromosome has hundreds or thousands of
genes.
• This DNA-protein complex (chromatin) is organized
into a long thin fiber.
• Integral part of the cell cycle, the formation of a cell
• After the DNA duplication, chromatin condenses to
up to its own division.
form chromosome.
• The continuity of life from 1 cell to another is based
• Each duplicated chromosome consists of 2 sister
on the reproduction of cells via cell division. • This
chromatids which contains identical copies of the
division process occurs as part of the cell cycle (the life
chromosome’s DNA.
of a cell from its origin in the division of a parent cell
• The narrow region where the chromosomal strands
until its own division into 2).
connect is called centromere.
• Unicellular organisms like amoeba divide to
• The process of the formation of the 2 daughter
reproduce an entire organism, increasing the
nuclei is called mitosis.
population through asexual reproduction. •
Multicellular organisms divide to develop a fertilized THE KEY ROLES OF CELL DIVISION
cell, grow, or repair the damage cells. • Cell division • The ability of organisms to produce more of their
distributes the genetic material (DNA) to 2 daughter own kind best distinguishes living things from

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nonliving matter.
• The continuity of life is based on the reproduction
of cells or cell division.

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KINGDOM PROTISTA
• Protist is a single-celled or unicellular organism of
the kingdom Protista that are not plants, animals,
bacteria, or fungi, such as protozoan or simple algae.
• Mostly unicellular but some are multicellular. -
Unicellular organisms consists of a single cell. -
Multicellular organisms consist of many cells. • Can
be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
- Autotrophic are organisms that can produce their
own food from the substances available in their
surroundings using light (photosynthesis) or
chemical energy (chemosynthesis).
- Heterotrophic are organisms that cannot synthesize
their own food and rely on other organisms on both
plants and animals for nutrition
• Most Protist live in water and some live in moist soil
THREE (3) DIVISION DIFFERS AMONG or even the human body.
CELLS 1. Skin cells divide frequently. - 3 reasons why protist live in water, (1) They don't
2. Liver cells divide when needed (damage repair) have any specialized organelle, such as red blood cells,
3. Nerve cells and muscle cells do not divide at all. so to meet their oxygen demand they can live in low
concentration of oxygen; (2) It also absorbs the water
WHICH SINGLE-CELLED OR UNICELLULAR
and uses them mange their wastes; and (3) the water
ORGANISM REPRODUCE BY MITOSIS? • The
environments also makes it a nice environment for
protists or member of the kingdom protista. - They
them to reproduce.
are eukaryotic cells and have a nucleus. Mitosis is
• All protist are eukaryotic, meaning they have a
the division of nucleus.
nucleus.
• Bacteria do not divide by mitosis because they do
not have a nucleus, thus, bacteria reproduce via
binary fission.
HAPLOID AND DIPLOID CELLS

1. HAPLOID CELLS (n)
• Cell with 1 set of chromosomes.
- Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction
which separates the body into 2 new bodies. • Created by meiosis.
• In biology, symbol n is used to present 1 set of
chromosomes.
Cytoplasm • Example is gamete cells.
GAMETE CELLS
• Cells used during sexual reproduction to produce a
new individual organism or zygote.
• Examples are sperm and egg cells
Chromosome
theASSUMPTION SCHOOL - GRADE

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• Male gametes are called “sperm” and is produced in TWO (2) TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
the male gonad, the testes. A gonad is an organ that
produces gametes. 1. MITOSIS
• Female gametes are called “ova” and is produced in • Continuous process and occurs only in eukaryotic
the female gonad, the ovaries. cells in non-sex cells (somatic cells).
- Prokaryotic cells divide by a different process called
• In humans, gametes contain 23 unpaired
binary fission because they do not have a nucleus. •
chromosomes.
Has 2 divisions, which are karyokinesis and followed
- Chromosomes are threadlike structure of
by cytokinesis.
nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most
- Karyokinesis is the division of the nucleus. -
living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm.
genes.
2. DIPLOID CELLS (2n)
• Cell that has 2 sets of chromosomes. Each set came
from each parent (mom and dad).
• Created by mitosis.
• Example is somatic cells.
SOMATIC CELLS Karyokinesis Cytokinesis • Occurs in either haploid or
• Any cell of a living organism other than the diploid cells.
reproductive cells; body cells. 2. MEIOSIS
• Examples are skin, brain, and nerve cells. • Occurs only in germ or sex cells and is restricted to
• Chromosomes come in pairs. diploid cells.
• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of • Takes place solely in the testes (males) and ovaries
46 chromosomes per cell. (females) to produce haploid sex cells or gametes.
CELL CYCLE
• Regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell
division.
• Essential mechanism by which all living things
reproduce.
• Produces 2 genetically identical daughter cells.
• Lasts about 18-24 hours.
TWO (2) PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE
1. INTERPHASE
• Cell growth and copying of chromosomes in
preparation for cell division.
• Considered to be the living phase of the cell, in which
the cell obtains nutrients, grows, read its DNA, and
conducts other normal cell functions. • Majority of
eukaryotic cells spend most of their time in interphase.
Haploid cells (n) Diploid • About 90% of the cell cycle.
cells (2n)
THREE (3) SUB PHASES OF INTERPHASE
FOUR (4) PHASES OF MITOTIC CELL DIVISION
A. GAP 1 (G1) PHASE
1. PROPHASE: “1st" • The cells grow in size, carry out normal functions,
2. METAPHASE: “middle” replicate their organelles, and synthesizes mRNA and
3. ANAPHASE: “apart” proteins in preparation for subsequent steps leading
4. TELOPHASE: “far or separate” to mitosis.

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• The cell is diploid. cell still performing cell functions, but neither
• Genetic material exists as chromatin. dividing nor preparing to divide.
• Takes up about 11 hours. • Cells then remain in the G0 phase until there is a
reason for them to divide.
B. SYNTHESIS (S) PHASE • Some cells go here temporarily, maybe if there’s not
• Where the DNA replication occurs. enough resources around for example. But some, many
• Create exactly 2 identical semi-covered types of neuron cells in your brain and spinal cord may
chromosomes (identical sister chromatids held stay at G0 phase permanently. If they stay permanently,
together by a centromere). they will never get to mitotic (M) phase, so they will
• G1 or S transition is a major checkpoint in the not divide. This can be 1 reason why a major injury to
regulation of the cell cycle in this phase. the brain or spinal cord can have challenges with
• Damage to DNA is detected and fixed during S healing, as many of those cells may not be able to
phase. replicate.
• Takes about 8 hours. • Examples are nerve and heart muscle cells, become
quiescent when they reach maturity.
C. GAP 2 (G2) PHASE
• Also called pre-mitotic phase or late interphase.
• The cell gain additional growth.
• Third and final sub phase of interphase directly
preceding mitosis.
• Period of rapid cell growth and protein synthesis
during which the cell readies itself for mitosis. • The
chromosomes have been duplicated but are loosely
packed.
• The Gap 2 or M DNA damage checkpoint consists of
an arrest of the cell in G2 just before mitotic entry in
response to genotoxic stress such as UV radiation,
oxidative stress, DNA intercalating agents, etc. • DNA
damage signals cause activation of the transcription
factor p53, a tumor suppressor, preventing cancer;
“the guardian of the genome”, role in conserving
stability by preventing genome mutation classified as
a tumor suppressor gene. • Takes about 4 hours to be CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS
completed. • Control mechanisms that ensure the fidelity of cell
division.
- The cell grows during all 3 phases, but
• Verify whether the processes at each phase of the
chromosomes are duplicated only during the S phase.
cell cycle have been accurately completed before
2. MITOTIC (M) PHASE progression into the next phase.
• Where cell divide to make more cells. • Important function of many checkpoints is to assess
• Includes karyokinesis and cytokinesis. DNA damage detected by sensor mechanisms (cyclins
and cyclin-dependent kinases).
- Some cells don’t go through the phases of the cell - Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are serine or
cycle, they are actually in G0 phase threonine kinases and their catalytic activities are
modulated by interactions with cyclins and CDK
G0 PHASE
inhibitors (CKIs).
• Period in the cell cycle in which cells exist in a
• When a damage is found, the checkpoint uses a
quiescent state or period of inactivity or dormancy or
signal mechanism either to stall the cell cycle until
“resting phase.”
repairs are made or, if repairs cannot be made, to
• Viewed as either an extended G1 phase, where the
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target the cell for destruction via apoptosis (effector
mechanism).
- Apoptosis is an orderly process in which the cell's
contents are packaged into small packets of
membrane for “garbage collection” by immune cells. •
Close cooperation between this trio is necessary for
ensuring orderly progression through the cell cycle.
THREE (3) MAIN CHECKPOINTS
1. G1 CHECKPOINT (RESTRICTION)
• Making the key decision of whether the cell should
divide, delay division, or enter a resting stage. •
Located at the end of the cell cycle’s gap 1 (G1) phase,
just before entry into synthesis (S) phase. TWO (2) TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
I. MITOSIS
2. G2 CHECKPOINT
• Checking a number of factors, such as DNA damage • Cell division state.
via radiation, to ensure the cell is ready for mitosis. • • Cell growth stops at this stage.
Located at the end of gap 2 (G2) phase, triggering the • Focused on the orderly division into 2 daughter
start of the mitotic (M) phase. cells.
• The centrosomes have been duplicated and begin to
3. METAPHASE SECTION OR SPINDLE organize microtubules into an aster (star). -
CHECKPOINT Centrosomes regulates the cell division cycle, the
• Occurs at the point in metaphase where all the stages which lead up to 1 cell dividing in 2.
chromosomes should or have aligned at the mitotic
plate and be under bipolar tension.
• Ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell
division.
FOUR (4) PHASES OF MITOTIC DIVISION

1. PROPHASE
• The first stage of mitosis begins with the short
shorting and thickening of the chromosomes. • The
chromatin condenses into double-rod shaped
structures called chromosomes in which the
chromatin becomes visible.
• The chromosomes are tightly coiled.
• The nuclear membrane fragments, slowly
disintegrate and the nucleus disappears.
• Centrioles have separated and taken positions on
the opposite poles of the cell.
• Spindle fibers form and radiate towards the center
of the cell.
Unisite Subdivision, Del Pilar, City of

UNIVERSITY of San Fernando 2000, Pampanga,
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Philippines SENIOR
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Science, Technology, Engineering, and Page 16 of 27

HIGH SCHOOL - Mathematics (STEM) Strand PREPROPHASE
(PLANT CELLS)
GRADE 12 Academic Track -
• Shortest phase of mitosis. that does not occur in other eukaryotes such as
• Condensed and highly coiled chromosomes. animals or fungi because plant cells have cell walls
• Align in the equator of the cell before being making it rigid or unable to bend or be forced out of
separated. shape; not flexible.
• The mitotic spindle fibers begin to form and • The nucleus has to mitigate into the center of the
appears to push the centromere away from each cell before mitosis can begin.
other towards opposite ends (poles) of the cell. • • The formation of the preprophase band, a dense
Microtubules from 1 pole attach to 1 or 2 microtubule underneath the plasma membrane. •
kinetochores, which is a special regions of the Microtubule array found in plant cells that are about
centromere, while microtubules from the other pole to undergo cell division and enter the prophase stage
attach to the other kinetochore. of the plant cell cycle.
• First microscopically visible sign.
3. ANAPHASE
• Phragosome is a sheet of cytoplasm forming in
• The centromeres divide, result in separating and highly vacuole plant cells in preparation for mitosis.
moving of the 2 sister chromatids towards opposite • Cell plates are formed.
poles on the spindle fibers.
- Cell plate is the structure found inside the dividing
• By the end, the 2 poles have equivalent collections cells of terrestrial plants and some algae and it
of chromosomes. develops in the middle plane of the cell separating 2
• Starts when the anaphase promoting complex daughter cells during cell division.
marks an inhibitory chaperone called securin with
ubiquitin for destruction. PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL MITOSIS
- Securin is a protein which prevent a protease
(separase). PLANT CELL MITOSIS
- Destruction of securin unleashes separase which
then breaks down cohesin, a protein responsible for
holding sister chromatids together.
- Securin releases separase that breaks down cohesin
which holds sister chromatids.
4. TELOPHASE
• Final stage in both meiosis and mitosis in a
eukaryotic cell.
• 2 daughter nuclei form in each daughter cell. • As
the nuclear membranes re-form around each sets of
chromatids, the nucleoli also reappear. • ANIMAL CELL MITOSIS
Chromosomes also unwind back into the expanded
chromatin (less tightly coiled) that is present during
interphase.
• Then cytokinesis takes place.
Prophase Anaphase Metaphase Telophase
ONE (1) ADDITIONAL PHASES OF MITOSIS

• An additional phase during mitosis in plant cells

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EXAMPLE OF MITOTIC CELL DIVISION IN ONION
Interphase Prophase
CANCER
Metaphase Anaphase • Malignant growth or tumor resulting from the
division of abnormal cells.
CANCER CAN BE (2):
A. NORMAL CELL DIVISION

• Controlled by cell cycle checkpoints.
Telophase Cytokinesis
- Checkpoints are critical control points that
determine if a cell will move to the next portion of the
cell cycle.
B. CANCEROUS CELL DIVISION

• Ignores the cell cycle checkpoints.
- Caused by DNA mutations.
- Cells grow and divide out of control.
- Cancerous cells do not perform designated purpose. -
Crowd out normal cells that do perform designated
purpose.
- Divide too many times.
- Divide into more than 2 cells.
- Masses of cells = tumors, benign, and malignant.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS II. MEIOSIS

MITOSIS • Form of cell division that leads to the production of
sperm and egg cells; otherwise known as gametes. -
Remember that gametes contain half the number of
chromosomes of an adult body cell or consist of 23
unpaired chromosomes.
- Gametes (sex cells) are haploid, containing only 1
set of chromosomes while adult body cells (somatic
MEIOSIS
cells) are diploid containing 2 sets of chromosomes.
• Includes 2 rounds of division - meiosis I and II. -
During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes
(homologues) became closer associated with each
other. This is synapsis.
• Proteins between the homologous hold them in a
synaptonemal complex.

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• Meiosis in males is called spermatogenesis and
produces sperm.
• Meiosis in females is called oogenesis and produces
ova.
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
• Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal)
that
are similar in shape and size.
• Homologous pairs or tetrads carry genes
controlling the same inherited traits.
• Each locus or position of a gene is in the same
position on homologues.
• In humans, there are 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes.
- First 22 pairs are autosomes.

- Last 1 pair is sex chromosome.
MEIOSIS I
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes are separated
reducing chromosome number by half (23).
FOUR (4) PHASES OF MEIOSIS I
1. PROPHASE I
• Longest and most complex phase.
• 90% of the meiotic process is spent in this phase.
• Nuclear envelope dissolves.
• Chromosomes condense and coil tighter.
• Where synapsis occurs, homologous chromosomes
Downloaded by Mintzz come together to form a tetrad and become closely
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associated in synapsis.
SYNAPSIS DURING PROPHASE I

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• Process by which bivalents and tetrad form. - 4. TELOPHASE I
Bivalents is a pair of homologous chromosomes. - • Nuclear envelope form around each set of
Tetrad is the group of 4 homologous sister chromosomes
chromatids or 2 pair of homologous chromosomes. • Each new nucleus is now haploid.
• Sister chromatids are no longer identical because of
crossing over.
MEIOSIS II
• Resembles a mitotic division.
• Sister chromatids are separated producing 4
• haploid gametes.
FOUR (4) PHASES OF MEIOSIS II

During prophase I, crossing over occurs. - Crossing
over is the sharing of genetic material between 2 1. PROPHASE II
non-sister chromatids in a homologous pair. • Nuclear envelopes dissolve and spindle apparatus
• Crossing over is 1 of the 2 major occurrences of forms.
meiosis (the other is non-disjunction).
• During crossing over, segments of non-sister 2. METAPHASE II
chromatids break and reattach to the other • Chromosome align on metaphase plate.
chromatid.
3. ANAPHASE II
• Crossing over creates variation or diversity in the
• Sister chromatids are separated from each other.
offspring’s traits.
• Chiasmata is the site of crossover. 4. TELOPHASE II
• Nuclear envelope re-forms and cytokinesis follows.
GAMETE FORMATION IN MALE AND FEMALE
2. METAPHASE I
• Terminal chiasmata hold homologues together
following crossing over.
• Microtubules from opposite poles attach to every MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
homologous chromosomes, not each sister
chromatid. PLASMA MEMBRANE OR CELL MEMBRANE •
Regulates materials entering and exiting the cell. •
3. ANAPHASE I Has 2 major components which are phospholipids
• Microtubules of the spindle shorten. arranged in a bilayer and membrane proteins. •
• Homologous chromosomes are separated from each Different types of membrane transport depend on
other. the characteristics like size, shape, and type of the
• Sister chromatids remain attached to each other at substance being transported, the direction of
their centrosomes. transport, and solubility in lipids.
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HOMEOSTASIS OR EQUILIBRIUM B. Diffusion begins.
• Balanced internal condition of cells. C. Dye is evenly distributed.
• Maintained by plasma membrane controlling what
enters and leaves the cell.
MOVEMENT ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE
TWO (2) TYPES OF CELLULAR TRANSPORT
1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT
• The cell does not use energy.
• Molecules move from area of high concentration to
low concentration. B. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Uses transport or channel proteins to move high to
low concentration.
• Particles always move with (down) a concentration
gradient.
• Substances get through the transport protein.
• Happens to large or polar particles.
• Example is glucose or amino acids moving from
blood into a cell.
THREE (3) METHODS OF TRANSPORT
A. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
• Diffusion is the movement of a substance from high
concentration to low concentration.
• The random movement of particles of a solute from
an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
• Particles always move with (down) a concentration
gradient (the difference in concentrations across a
membrane).
• Substance get through the phospholipid bilayer. •
Happens to the small and nonpolar particles. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SIMPLE AND
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
A B C Water molecules Dye molecules

A. Dye is dropped in.

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EQUILIBRIUM • Uses transport or carrier proteins (protein pumps)
• Diffusion stops at equilibrium or when the embedded in the plasma membrane.
concentrations across a membrane are equal. • The - Carrier proteins are specific for the molecules that
movement of molecules continues at equilibrium, but they allow through and they changes shape which
the number of molecules moving across the requires energy (ATP).
membrane remains the same. • Examples of molecules
that can diffuse through the bilayer are carbon
dioxide, oxygen, and water but very, very slow.
THE RATE OF TRANSPORT IS DEPENDENT ON
A. If the material is solid, liquid, or gas.
B. The size of the molecule.
C. Temperature. TWO (2) TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
C. OSMOSIS A. PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• Movement of water thru a cell membrane • • Uses energy from ATP hydrolysis.
The diffusion of water through a selectively
B. SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
permeable membrane.
• Uses the energy from an ion concentration gradient
• Water molecules move from a higher concentration
or an electrical gradient.
of water to a lower concentration of water. • Water
will move to where there is a greater amount of solute DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY AND
because there is less water there. SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PASSIVE AND ACTIVE

TRANSPORT
PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT
2.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• The cell requires energy in the form of ATP. •
Capable of moving solute particles against the
concentration gradient, from an area of low
concentration to high concentration.

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PHAGOCYTOSIS
• Process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane
to engulf a large particle, giving rise to an internal
compartment called the phagosome.
TWO (2) TYPES OF PHAGOCYTOSIS
1. ENDOCYTOSIS
• Process of taking material into the cell by means of
infoldings or pockets of the cell membrane and
usually putting them into a vacuole.
TWO (2) TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
A. PHAGOCYTOSIS 2. EXOCYTOSIS
• Solid-based digestion. • Process in which the membrane of the vacuole
• Nonspecific molecules. surrounding the material fuses with the cell
• When cells take in large particles (cell eating). membrane, forcing the contents out of the cell.
B. PINOCYTOSIS
• Liquid-based digestion.
• Nonspecific molecules.
• When cells take in fluid (cell drinking).
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENDOCYTOSIS AND

EXOCYTOSIS
DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS, AND CONCENTRATION

GRADIENT
1. DIFFUSION
• Movement of a substance from a high concentration
to a low concentration.
2. OSMOSIS
• The movement of water from a high concentration
to a low concentration.
3. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
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• The difference in concentration between a region of than inside the cell.

high concentration and a region of lower • Have more water outside the cell so water moves
concentration. special type of homogeneous mixture into the cell.
composed of 2 or more substances. • Causes an increase in pressure inside the cell called
turgor pressure in plants and osmotic pressure in
SOLUTION
animals.
• Special type of homogeneous mixture composed of • Increase in pressure in animal cells causes them to
2 or more substances.
swell or even burst.
THREE (3) TYPES OF SOLUTION • Cytolysis gives plant cells shape and support
(turgid).
1. HYPOTONIC SOLUTION • Water enters cell.
• The concentration of solute is lower outside the cell

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• Cell swells and bursts (cytolysis).
• Give plant cells shape and support.
2. ISOTONIC SOLUTION
• The concentration of solute inside and outside of
the cell is the same.
• Water in = water out.
• No net movement of water.
• Molecules in equilibrium.
• Normal state for animal cells.
• Cell in homeostasis. HYPO, ISO, AND HYPER IN A RED BLOOD CELL
3. HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
• The concentration of solute is higher outside the
cell than inside the cell.
• Have more water inside the cell so water moves out
of the cell.
• Causes a drop-in turgor or osmotic pressure called
THE EFFECTS OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE IN A PLANT
plasmolysis.
CELL
• Plasmolysis causes animal cells to shrivel up, cell
shrinks (plasmolysis) due to water loss and plants to
wilt.
• Cell shrinks (plasmolysis) due to water loss.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
• The pressure that would have to be applied to a
pure solvent to prevent it from passing into a given • The cell stiffens but generally shrinks and retains
solution by osmosis, often used to express the shape.
concentration of the solution. • Cell body pulls away from cell wall.
THE EFFECTS OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE

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OSMOSIS IN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

TONICITY
• Number of solutes in solution in relation to cell.
Created by: Jopar Jose C.
Ramos | STEM 12 - Our Lady of Fatima Professor: Dra. Menchu C. Luzano

1Q - Sci5 CHROMOSOMES

• Threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein

found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying
genetic information in the form of genes. • Come in
matching pairs, 1 pair from each parent. Humans,
for example, have a total of 46
chromosomes or 23 pairs, 23 from the mother and
another 23 from the father. With 2 sets of
chromosomes, children inherit copies of each gene, 1
from each parent.
- First 22 pairs are autosomes
- Last 1 pair is sex chromosome.
• The analysis involves comparing chromosomes for

their length, the placement of centrosomes and the
location and sizes of G-bands.
- Centrosomes is area where the 2 chromatids are
joined.
- G-banding is a technique used in cytogenetics to
produce a visible karyotype by staining condensed
chromosomes.

KARYOTYPE, KARYOGRAM, AND IDIOGRAM
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1. KARYOTYPE humans have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs, so if the

• The representation of the entire set of metaphase number is higher or lower then an abnormality exists.
chromosomes in the cell.
B. HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS FOR THE FIRST 22 PAIRS
• Particular to an individual or to related groups like
OF CHROMOSOMES ARE CALLED AUTOSOMES •
species.
Once centromeres are aligned, top and bottom arms
• The number and structure of the chromosomes in
are of equal length and if not, then an abnormality
the nucleus of a cell.
exists.
• Identical in all the diploid cells of an organism. •
Karyotyping helps geneticists to diagnose and treat C. SEX CHROMOSOMES (23RD PAIR)
genetic disorders. They use a normal human • If female, then 2 homologous X chromosomes (XX)
karyotype and compare it to the karyotype of a will be present and if male, an X chromosome and a Y
patient to determine if there are abnormalities and chromosome (XY) will be present, so if there are
below are some of the characteristics used for additional or fewer sex chromosomes then an
comparison. abnormality exists.
THREE (3) CHARACTERISTICS USED FOR NORMAL MALE AND FEMALE KARYOTYPE
COMPARISON
MALE KARYOTYPE FEMALE KARYOTYOE
A. TOTAL NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES • Normal

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submetacentric (2); which can be easily distinguished

between each other by size and centromere position.
GROUP B (4-5)
• Large submetacentric chromosomes which can be
difficult to distinguished from each other.
2. KARYOGRAM GROUP C (6-12, X)

• Graphic representation of a karyotype. • Middle size, submetacentric chromosomes. • X
chromosome looks like longer chromosomes in this
• Graphic representation of chromosomal set where
group.
chromosomes are arranged by their size.
• Difficult to distinguish without using banding
3. IDIOGRAM technique.
• Diagram representing the characteristics features of
the chromosome set, based on physical GROUP D (13-15)
characteristics visible in the karyogram. • Middle size, acrocentric chromosomes with
satellites.
GROUP E (16-18)
• Relatively short metacentric chromosome (16) or
submetacentric chromosomes (17 and 18).
123 GROUP F (19-20)

• Short, metacentric chromosomes.
HUMAN CHROMOSOMES CLASSIFICATION
Human chromosomes, based on conclusions from GROUP G (21-22, Y)
Denver’s conference are classified into SEVEN (7) • Short, acrocentric chromosomes with satellites. • Y
GROUPS marked with letters (A-G) chromosomes is similar to those chromosomes, but
does not have satellites.
GROUP A (1-3)
• Large metacentric chromosomes (1 and 3) or by Mintzz
Downloaded
NONDISJUNCTION
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• Occurs when either homologous chromosomes fail distributed normally).

to separate during anaphase I of meiosis, or sister • If either of these gametes unites with another
chromatids fail to separate during anaphase II. • during fertilization, the result is aneuploidy or
Usually occurs in 1 of 2 fashions, the first is called abnormal chromosome number.
Monosomy, the second is called Trisomy. - If an
organism has Trisomy 18, it has 3 chromosomes in
the 18th set.
- If an organism has Trisomy 21, it has 3
chromosomes in the 21th set.
- If an organism has Monosomy 23, it has only 1
chromosome in the 23rd set.
• Results with the production of zygote with abnormal
chromosome numbers. Remember that an abnormal MONOSOMIC CELL
chromosome number or abnormal amount of DNA is • Has 1 missing chromosome (2n-1),
damaging to the offspring. • Example: monosomy 23
• The result is that 1 gamete has 2 copies of 1
TRISOMIC CELL
chromosome and the other has no copy of that
• Has 1 extra chromosome (2n+1).
chromosome. (The other chromosomes are
• Example is trisomy 21.

1Q - Sci5

POLYPLOIDY
• Refers to the condition of having 3 homologous
chromosomes rather than 2.
MEIOSIS ERROR - FERTILIZATION

• Should the gamete with the chromosome pair be
fertilized when the offspring will not be normal. • In
humans, this often occurs with the 21st pair of
homologous chromosome, producing a child with
down’s syndrome. Karyotype of a human having trisomy 21
FOUR (4) COMMON NON-DISJUNCTION DISORDER 2. TURNER SYNDROME OR MONOSOMY 23
(X) • Caused by an abnormality on 1 of the sex
1. DOWN’S SYNDROME OR TRISOMY 21 • Most
chromosomes, thus, individuals have only 1 X
common causes of mental retardation is due to an
chromosome.
extra chromosome 21.
• Characteristics of individuals include: general
• This results in a number of characteristic features,
female physical characteristics like short stature
such as short stature, broad hands, stubby fingers
(usually under 5 ft), short, webbed neck, broad,
and toes, a wide rounded face, a large protruding
shield-like chest, mentally retarded however some
tongue that makes speech difficult and mental
may excel, secondary sex characteristics do not
disabilities.
develop and usually sterile.
• Individuals with this syndrome have a high
• Occurs in 2 out of 2000 people.
incidence of respiratory infections, heart defects and
leukemia.
• The average risk of having a child with trisomy 21 is
1/750 live births. Mothers in their early twenties have
a risk of 1/1,500 and women over 35 have a risk factor
of 1/70, which jumps to 1/25 for women 45 or older.

lOMoARcPSD|22677971
osteoporosis.
• Occurring in 1 to 2 per 1,000 live male births.
Karyotype of a human having monosomy 23

Karyotype of a human having trisomy 23
3. KLEINFELTER’S SYNDROME OR TRISOMY 4. EDWARD’S SYNDROME OR TRISOMY
23 (XXY) 18 • Has an extra chromosome 18.
• Has an extra X chromosome at chromosome 23. • • Produces severe mental disabilities and a highly
Characteristics of individuals includes: general male characteristic pattern of malformations such as
physical characteristics like testes are small which do elongated skull, a very narrow pelvis, rocker bottom
not normally produce sperm, mostly mentally feet, malformed heart, and a grasping of the 2 central
retarded, arms are longer than average, breasts are fingers by the thumb and little finger.
developed, voice is high-pitched, talkative, have • In addition, the ears are often low set and the
delicate skin, low IQ, and usually will develop

1Q - Sci5

mouth and teeth are small. Nearly all
babies born with this condition die in
early infancy.
• The frequency of this syndrome is
1/5,000 live births.
Karyotype of a human having

trisomy 18
KARYOTYPE; CYTOGENETICS;
CYTOGENETIC ANALYSIS;
CHROMOSOME STUDIES;
CHROMOSOME KARYOTYPE.
WHY GET TESTED?

• To detect chromosome abnormalities, in
order to help diagnose genetic diseases,
some birth defects and certain hematologic
and lymphoid disorders. Downloaded by Mintzz (carldoria201@gmail.com)
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WHAT IS BEING TESTED?

• Chromosome analysis or karyotyping is a test
that evaluates the number and structure of a
person’s chromosomes in order to detect
abnormalities. • These genes are responsible
for a person’s inherited physical
characteristics and they have a profound
impact on growth, development, and function.
AMNIOCENTESIS
• The sampling of amniotic fluid using a
hollow needle inserted into the uterus,
to screen for developmental
abnormalities in a fetus.
• Procedure a pregnant woman can have in
order to detect some genetic disorders such
as non disjunction.
• Way to analyze the amniocentesis is to
make a karyotype.

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General Biology 1 (Sci5)

Nursing (De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde)

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(lower body temperature).

polysaccharide. LARGEST, LAST, OR MOST COMPLEX:

RESPONSE AND STIMULUS

Unisite Subdivision, Del Pilar, City of San C. LUNGS

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BREATHING AND B. LIVER

INTRODUCTION TO CYTOLOGY 1. ALL LIVING ORGANISMS ARE MADE UP OF 1 OR

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First compound microscope

(cork) as it appeared under the microscope.

Microscope used by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

Drawing of the microscope set up used by Robert

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Plant cell under the microscope

living organisms. cells every second.

Fernando 2000, Pampanga, Philippines

ANATOMY OF THE BACTERIA CELL

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• Gives support to the cell.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROTOPLASM,

Cell membrane allowing certain molecules to enter or B. CYTOPLASM

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C. NUCLEOPLASM OR KARYOPLASM • Organelle means “little organs.”

a. CHROMATIN TWO (2) TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Svedberg unit PACKAGING CENTER

UNIVERSITY of +60 S 100 S

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THE FRAMEWORK A. MICROTUBULES

10. PLASTIDS • Pigments for red, orange, and yellow.

increased flexibility and advanced cell or tissue cells.

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HAPLOID AND DIPLOID CELLS

theASSUMPTION SCHOOL - GRADE

UNIVERSITY of SENIOR HIGH

TWO (2) PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE

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