Water Resources

Reviewed

Water resources
Entire range of natural waters that occur on the earth and are of potential use
to living beings

Distribution

97% Saline Ocean Water

3% Un-Saline

2.3% Polar Ice Caps

0.7% Freshwater

0.66% Groundwater

0.03% Rivers, lakes, streams

Sources of Water
Surface Water
Ppt / seepage from underground → Water on land → Streams / Lakes /
Ruvers / Ponds → Flow and join the sea

Groundwater
Definition
Water that seeps throught the cracks and crevices under the surface of
land

Ppt → Sinks into soil

Remain in soil / subsoil / bedrock

Ultimately reach Sea

Aquifer

Water Resources 1
 Underground stream saturated with water that transmits water readily

📌 4% of Global Water Resources in India

Coastline Water Resources

OD, KL, WB → Lagoons, lakes

Brakish water → Fishing, Irrigation of PADDY , COCONUT

Rain → Primary source of water

River, Lakes, Groundwater → Secondary sources

Conservation of Water
Facts
Water → natural resource → basic human need

Decline in groundwater levels

Increase in population, irrigation, industrialisation → Increase in water
demand

Central Ground Water Board CGWB Report

DL, HR, HP, UK → Fall in groundwater by 70-80%

Need
1. Overexploitation of gwater → Lowering of water table

2. Loss of veg → drought → reduction in rf, lowering of water table

3. Irrigation → 90% of total freshwater gone

4. Overpopulation → Drinking water scarcity

5. Groundwater, rivers, lakes → Polluted, Can’t use w/o treatment

Practices
Rainwater Harvesting

Water Resources 2
 Rainwater Harvesting
Process of increasing the recharge of groundwater by capturing and
storing rainwater locally in sub-surface water reservoirs

Water Harvesting
Activity of direct collection of rainwater that can be stored for direct
use or can be used to recharge groundwater

Activites for:

1. Harvesting surface and gwater

2. Prevent loss thru evap and seepage

3. All hydrological studies, engineering interventions → Efficient

utilisation of limited water endowment of an area [like watershed]

Objectives

1. Store rainwater to meet demands

2. Replenish gwater storage → Raise Water table

3. Reduce run-off [that choke drain]

4. Avoid road flooding

5. Reduce gwater pollution

6. Improve gwater quality

7. Reduce soil erosion

8. Supplement domestic water requirement in summer / drought

Importance

Optimum use of rainwater during rains

Acute shortage of water during year → Rainfall occur in short

spells of high intensity

Historical Water Harvesting methods

1. Rooftop collection → Tanks in courtyards storage… Open

community lands → Artificial wells for storage

Water Resources 3
 2. Rainwater runoff in swollen streams [MONSOON] → Store in
water bodies

3. Harvest water from flooded rivers

Different names of water receptacle / storing mechanism

1. Western Himalayas: Khatri, Kuhl

2. Gangetic Plains: Baolis, Dighis

3. Central India: Johad

4. Deccan: Bhandara, Kere

5. West.Ghats: Surangam

6. East.Ghats: Korambu

7. Ladakh: Zing
Need of Water Harvesting
Acute annual shortage of water

Not conserved water, nor rationalised its usage

Rainfall in short spells of high intensity → Rain falling on surface

→ Flow away rapidly → Little recharge of gwater

Water Harvesting Mechanism

Catchments

Paved / Unpaved surface that receives direct rainfall

Paved: Terrace, Courtyard

Unpaved: Open ground, lawn

Temporary structure: Sloping sheds

Conduits

Pipeline / Drain that carry rainwater form catchment / rooftop to

the harvesting system

Polyvinyl Chloride PVC /// Asbestos /// Galvanised Iron GI ///

Other material

Water Resources 4
 Storage facility

Storage container → RCC /// Masonry tank /// Plastic water tanks
→ In basement / Outside

Prefabricated tanks (PVC) → Installed above the ground

Tank must have overflow sys. for situation where excess water
enter tank ⇒ Connect to drainage sys

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE

Recharge facility

Alternative to storage facility

To recharge gwater aquifers

Structures: Dugwells, borewells, recharge trench, recharge pits

Facts related to storing

Why only paved surfaces used

Free from bacteriological contamination

Why overflow system

When excess water enter. Prevent bursting.

What is ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING

Process of water harvesting in which rainwater falling on a roof is

diverted through drain pipes to the storage container

Why mesh filter in drain-pipe

Prevent leaf and debris from entering the sys

Why first-flush device in conduit

Filter before reaching storage device

Why sand filter

Purify for drinking purposes

Water Resources 5
 Water quality improves over time

1. Impurities settle down in the tank

2. Pathogens gradually die out due to storage

3. Disinfection → Remove biological contamination

Irrigation
Definition

Process of watering of agricultural plants through artificial means from

wells, tanks, tubewells, canals

Currently, 92% agriculture, 6% drinking, 2% industries

Farmers: Rainfall still primary source of water (55%)

Success in dry farming depends on

1. Moisture conservation practices

2. Judicious use of available water

Examples from ancient India

1. Chingleput dist (TN) 8-9th Century AD

2. Grand Anicut across the Kaveri. 2nd century AD

Irrigation potential → Prerequisites for agricultural development post 1947

Need of Irrigation
Uncertainty of Rainfall
Monsoonal. Irregular and erratic

Arrival, withdrawal, continuity, rhythm, intensity

Lead to water scarcity, withering of crops. Sometimes floods

Uneven Distribution of Rainfall

JJAS: 80% Rainfall.

Water Resources 6
 WG, NE: 250 cm

NP, Deccan: 100-200cm

Kutch, Punjab, Haryana, RJ → Arid. Drought-like sometimes

Crop Requirements
1. Most crops → Not need water while maturing. Grain crops → Need more
water when ear-heads are formed

2. 3 cropping seasons.

a. Kharif: Depend on monsoons. Rainfed crops in the absence of

irrigation

b. Rabi: Soil moisture left after kharif harvest. Or where irrigation is

available

c. Zaid: Summer crops. ONLY IRRIGATED

3. HYV seeds → Chemical fertilizers needed → More moisture needed →

irrigation needed

4. Commercial crops eg sugarcane → more water → frequent water →

need irrigation

Nature of the Soil

Water requirement depend on soil nature

Clayey → Hold moisture → Less irrigation

Sandy → Less m capacity → Frequent irrigation → Drip irrigation

Level / Lowland need less irrigation than slopes / highlands

Utilise River Water Effectively

Deccan rivers → Rain-fed. Seasonal → Insignificant flow during RABI
SEASON

Wide disparity in yearly water flow

Central india, south India → 4 month monsoon. 8 month dry

Water Resources 7
 To Maximise Production
Production of irrigated crops is more thn the unirrigated crops in the same
area SCIENTIFICALLY PROVEN

Means of Irrigation
Why different means of irrgation
Availiability of surface water, gwater, relief, soils, climate

Conventional Means
Where the farmer himself or a draught animal pulls out water

Well
Facts
Cheap, simple, dependable source of irrigation

Definition
Small hole dug in the surface of the earth to obtain water from the
water table for irrigation and other purposes

Lined Well
Artificially constructed by digging into the ground

Walls are supported with bricks in a circular pattern

Unlined well

Formed by different natural phenomena

Normally not protected by lining of their walls

Requirements

1. Plenty of gwater

2. Depth of water table max 15m

Why are they confined to the alluvial plains

1. Soft soil. Easily dug.

2. Yield of crops after well irrigation is considerably high

Water Resources 8
 3. Presence of perennial rivers: Water table recharged

Positioning

Middle of the area to be irrigated. Higher level.

Presence of perennial rivers: Water table recharged

Practiced in

1. PJ, HR, RJ, GJ

2. UP, BH, MP

3. AP, KN, TN

Methods

Persian Wheel Method

PJ, HR, RJ

Partly submerged vertical wheel with buckets attached to

the rim

Turned by draught animals → Buckets filled → Emptied

into a trough → Carry water to fields

Lever Method

BH, AP (Nitish Naidu Method)

Economical and efficient method for shallow wells (3.5 -

4.5m)

Strong log, laid across a fulcrum. Bucket attached to it

with bamboo/rope. Heavy weight attached to other side

Rope is released → Stone goes down → Bucket come up

→ Emptied into field channels

Inclined Plane Method

aka Mhote

Pair of bullocks move down from slope from well wall →

Pull bucket

Water Resources 9
 Rope goes thru a pulley.

Discharge water, walk up slope, bucket gets refilled.

Advantages
1. Dug at very low cost. Suitable for farmers

2. Oxen → plough land, draw water from well. No extra cost

3. Pumps, tubewells → More water from more depth

Disadvantages
1. Depend on underground water. varying distribution

2. Difficult to dig wells in North (Mountains) Peninsula (Plateau,

rocky)

3. Dry up due to overwithdrawal of gwater, lowering of water table

4. Tubewell → Electricity, diesel. Too costly

Tubewell
Facts
Definition

Deeper well at the dept of 20-30m from which water is lifted up

with the help of power driven pumps

Conditions required

1. Availability of gwater at great depth

2. Level land, soft soil

3. Large fertile area to be irrigated

4. Regular cheap electricity

Examples

1. PJ, HR, RJ

2. UP, BH, WB

3. GJ, MP

Advantages

Water Resources 10
 1. Independent source of irrigation

2. Brings up clean water

3. Irrigate large area of agricultural land

4. Easy to bring large water in short time

5. Perennial means of irrigation. Drilled to permanent water table.

Switched off when needed
Disadvantages
1. Excessive use → Depletion of gwater

2. Water is brackish → Useless

3. Expensive. Continuous bijli needed

Canals
Facts
India has one of the world’s largest canal systems

More than 1 lakh km

Inundation Canals Perennial Canals

Taken out from perennial Rivers by

Taken out directly from rivers. No
constructing barrage / Dam →
dam or barriage
Regulate water flow

Use excess water in floods / rainy Draw water throughout the year.
season Large area irrigation

Why Inundation canals are limited use

Beds of these canals lie at higher level than those of rivers →

Only supply of water during flooding

Why Perennial canals found in Northern Plains?

So many perennial rivers snow-fed

Examples

1. UP MP BH WB

2. OD KN TN AP

Water Resources 11
 3. MP RJ HR

4. JK

5. AS TR

Mizoram, least irrigated state → Only canal irrigation

Advantages
1. Bring water from perennial rivers. Counter rf deficiency

2. RJ → arid. Sandy patches → Agricultural land

3. PJ, HR → Granary of the country. nucleus of the green revolution

w/ the help of canal

4. TN → Winter rain, dry summers. Irrigation is needed in summer.

Canal irrigation

Disadvantages
1. Perennial unlined canals flow at ground level b/w raised high
banks → Water table reach surface → Cultivably soil waterlogged
→ Swamps

2. Water table few ft above ground → Alkaline salt surface, mix w/

soil → unproductive

3. Waterlogging → Capacity to absorb water decrease → Excess rf

→ Cover whole land with sheet of water

a. No drainage → Ruin crops, houses, stored grains, fodder

Tanks
Facts
Definition
Small bund of earth or stones built across a stream to impound
water which is then led thru narrow channels to the cultivated
lands

Examples

Water Resources 12
 1. Peninsular India MH, GJ

2. Speciality in Deccan area

3. Perfect in south

4. TN: Chingleput, Arcot

5. AP: Nellore

6. TL: Warangal

7. WB, RJ also

8. Bundelkhand in UP, BH

Why popular in Deccan

1. Rain-fed seasonal rivers. Dry but torrential during rains

2. Hard volcanic rocks → Not absorb water, hard to dig. → No

wells

3. Make dams in hollow spaces, tanks in natural depressions in

uneven terrain → Store rainwater
Advantages
1. Uneven rocky Peninsular Plateau → Seasonal rf → Irrigation
needed

2. Hard rocky terrain → Cannot construct wells, canals. Only tank

3. Store abundant rainwater for dry season. Otherwise wasted.

Disadvantages
1. Get silted up. Desilting is required

2. Monsoons fail → Dry → Not dependable

3. Non-perennial. Dry during winter / summer. Not suitable for rabi

and zaid crops

4. Large area coverage, shallow depth → Evaporation, seepage

water loss

5. Large fertile area occupied. Wastage of land

Water Resources 13
 6. Lifting of water → Strenous, costly task
Drawbacks of Conventional Means
1. Total water is not utilised properly

2. Cyclic flooding of crops due to heavy irrigation, then dry for 10-15 days..
Moisture not constant. Bad yield

3. Fields in low areas → Excess water → Prolonged waterlogging. Poor

yields

4. 10-15% land → Channels, distribution → Decrease effective area of

cultivation

5. Excessive irrigation + Poor water management → Waterlogging, build up

of salts → More saline → Unsuitable for cultivation

📌 This is why ARID and SEMI ARID regions are now uncultivable

Non-conventional Means
Where technological equipment is used to pull out water

Furrow Irrigation
Type of flood irrigation

Water poured on the field is directed to flow thru narrow channels

dug between the rows of crops, and not evenly distributed in the
whole field

Furrows → Equal dimensions → Even distributions

Viable if water easily available

Spray Irrigation
System in which a long hose is set to a water source on one side and
on the other side the water is released thru spray guns to the field

Complex machinery → Expensive

Water Resources 14
 Effective water usage → Less water req

Water is lost thru evap.

Over-watering → plant diseases that are caused by excess moisture

Drip Irrigation
Most advanced and efficient method

Normally for fruits, vegetables

System of perforated pipes placed between rows of crops / buried

along root lines. Give water directly to crops

Less evap. Water conserved

Customise irrigation acc to crop requirement

Sprinkler Irrigation
Irrigation pipes fitted with nozzle on the top. Water is sprayed
driectly on required plants

OVERHEAD IRRIGATION method

Advantages
1. No loss of water by seepage or evaporation

2. Very efficient

3. Prevent water pollution

Disadvantages
1. Expensive

2. Helpful for small area only

3. Used for crops requiring less water only

Water Resources 15